I. What are Shape Memory Alloys?

Shape memory alloys (SMA's) are metals, which exhibit two very unique properties,
pseudo-elasticity, and the shape memory effect. Arne Olander first observed these
unusual properties in 1938 (Oksuta and Wayman 1998), but not until the 1960's were
any serious research advances made in the field of shape memory alloys. The most
effective and widely used alloys include NiTi (Nickel - Titanium), CuZnAl, and
CuAlNi.

II. Applications of Shape Memory Alloys

The unusual properties mentioned above are being applied to a wide variety of
applications in a number of different fields. The buttons below are links to pages
about some of the most promising applications of SMAs. Each page contains
information about the application as well as videos and interactive applets which
allow you to become more familiar with the behavior of SMAs.

[ Aeronautical Applications ] [ Surgical Tools ] [ Muscle Wires ]

III. How Shape Memory Alloys Work

Figure 1: The Martensite and The two unique properties described above are
Austenite phases made possible through a solid state phase change,
that is a molecular rearrangement, which occurs
in the shape memory alloy. Typically when one
thinks of a phase change a solid to liquid or
liquid to gas change is the first idea that comes to
mind. A solid state phase change is similar in that
a molecular rearrangement is occurring, but the
molecules remain closely packed so that the
Texas A&M SMART Lab - substance remains a solid. In most shape memory
http://smart.tamu.edu/ alloys, a temperature change of only about 10°C
is necessary to initiate this phase change. The
two phases, which occur in shape memory alloys,
are Martensite, and Austenite.

Martensite, is the relatively soft and easily

deformed phase of shape memory alloys, which
exists at lower temperatures. The molecular
structure in this phase is twinned which is the
configuration shown in the middle of Figure 2.
Upon deformation this phase takes on the second
form shown in Figure 2, on the right. Austenite,
the stronger phase of shape memory alloys,
occurs at higher temperatures. The shape of the
 Austenite structure is cubic, the structure shown
on the left side of Figure 2. The un-deformed
Martensite phase is the same size and shape as
the cubic Austenite phase on a macroscopic
scale, so that no change in size or shape is visible
in shape memory alloys until the Martensite is
deformed.
Figure 2: Microscopic and Macroscopic Views of the Two Phases of Shape Memory Alloys

Oulu University - http://herkules.oulu.fi/isbn9514252217/html/x317.html

The temperatures at which each of these phases begin and finish forming are
represented by the following variables: Ms, Mf, As, Af. The amount of loading placed
on a piece of shape memory alloy increases the values of these four variables as
shown in Figure 3. The initial values of these four variables are also dramatically
affected by the composition of the wire (i.e. what amounts of each element are
present).
Figure 3: The Dependency of Phase Change Temperature on Loading
 Texas A&M SMART Lab - http://smart.tamu.edu/

Shape Memory Effect

Figure 4: Microscopic Diagram of the Shape Memory Effect

Oulu University - http://herkules.oulu.fi/isbn9514252217/html/x317.html

The shape memory effect is observed when the temperature of a piece of shape
memory alloy is cooled to below the temperature Mf. At this stage the alloy is
completely composed of Martensite which can be easily deformed. After distorting
the SMA the original shape can be recovered simply by heating the wire above the
temperature Af. The heat transferred to the wire is the power driving the molecular
rearrangement of the alloy, similar to heat melting ice into water, but the alloy
remains solid. The deformed Martensite is now transformed to the cubic Austenite
phase, which is configured in the original shape of the wire.

The Shape memory effect is currently being implemented in:

 Coffepots
 The space shuttle
 Thermostats
 Vascular Stents
 Hydraulic Fittings (for Airplanes)

Pseudo-elasticity

Figure 5: Load Diagram of the pseudo-elastic effect Occurring

Pseudo-elasticity occurs in shape memory alloys when the alloy is completely

composed of Austenite (temperature is greater than Af). Unlike the shape memory
effect, pseudo-elasticity occurs without a change in temperature. The load on the
shape memory alloy is increased until the Austenite becomes transformed into
Martensite simply due to the loading; this process is shown in Figure 5. The loading is
absorbed by the softer Martensite, but as soon as the loading is decreased the
Martensite begins to transform back to Austenite since the temperature of the wire is
still above Af, and the wire springs back to its original shape.

Some examples of applications in which pseudo-elasticity is used are:

 Eyeglass Frames
 Bra Underwires
 Medical Tools
 Cellular Phone Antennae
 Orthodontic Arches

IV. Advantages and Disadvantages of Shape Memory Alloys

Some of the main advantages of shape memory alloys include:

  Bio-compatibility
 Diverse Fields of Application
 Good Mechanical Properties (strong, corrosion resistant)

There are still some difficulties with shape memory alloys that must be overcome
before they can live up to their full potential. These alloys are still relatively
expensive to manufacture and machine compared to other materials such as steel and
aluminum. Most SMA's have poor fatigue properties; this means that while under the
same loading conditions (i.e. twisting, bending, compressing) a steel component may
survive for more than one hundred times more cycles than an SMA element.

by Richard Lin

Shape memory alloys (SMAs) are metals that "remember" their original shapes.
SMAs are useful for such things as actuators which are materials that "change shape,
stiffness, position, natural frequency, and other mechanical characteristics in response
to temperature or electromagnetic fields" (Rogers, 155). The potential uses for SMAs
especially as actuators have broadened the spectrum of many scientific fields. The
study of the history and development of SMAs can provide an insight into a material
involved in cutting-edge technology. The diverse applications for these metals have
made them increasingly important and visible to the world.

History
Nickel-titanium alloys have been found to be the most useful of all SMAs. Other
shape memory alloys include copper-aluminum-nickel, copper-zinc-aluminum, and
iron- manganese-silicon alloys.(Borden, 67) The generic name for the family of
nickel-titanium alloys is Nitinol. In 1961, Nitinol, which stands for Nickel Titanium
Naval Ordnance Laboratory, was discovered to possess the unique property of having
shape memory. William J. Buehler, a researcher at the Naval Ordnance Laboratory in
White Oak, Maryland, was the one to discover this shape memory alloy. The actual
discovery of the shape memory property of Nitinol came about by accident. At a
laboratory management meeting, a strip of Nitinol was presented that was bent out of
shape many times. One of the people present, Dr. David S. Muzzey, heated it with his
pipe lighter, and surprisingly, the strip stretched back to its original form. (Kauffman
and Mayo, 4)

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Crystal Structures
Exactly what made these metals "remember" their original shapes was in question
after the discovery of the shape-memory effect. Dr. Frederick E. Wang, an expert in
crystal physics, pinpointed the structural changes at the atomic level which
contributed to the unique properties these metals have. (Kauffman and Mayo, 4)
He found that Nitinol had phase changes while still a solid. These phase changes,
known as martensite and austenite, "involve the rearrangement of the position of
particles within the crystal structure of the solid" (Kauffman and Mayo, 4). Under the
transition temperature, Nitinol is in the martensite phase. The transition temperature
varies for different compositions from about -50 ° C to 166 ° C (Jackson, Wagner, and
Wasilewski, 1). In the martensite phase, Nitinol can be bent into various shapes. To
fix the "parent shape" (as it is called), the metal must be held in position and heated to
about 500 ° C. The high temperature "causes the atoms to arrange themselves into the
most compact and regular pattern possible" resulting in a rigid cubic arrangement
known as the austenite phase (Kauffman and Mayo, 5-6). Above the transition
temperature, Nitinol reverts from the martensite to the austenite phase which changes
it back into its parent shape. This cycle can be repeated millions of times (Jackson,
Wagner, and Wasilewski, 1).

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Manufacture
There are various ways to manufacture Nitinol. Current techniques of producing
nickel-titanium alloys include vacuum melting techniques such as electron-beam
melting, vacuum arc melting or vacuum induction melting. "The cast ingot is press-
forged and/or rotary forged prior to rod and wire rolling. Hot working to this point is
done at temperatures between 700 ° C and 900 ° C" (Stoeckel and Yu, 3).
There is also a process of cold working of Ni-Ti alloys. The procedure is similar to
titanium wire fabrication. Carbide and diamond dies are used in the process to
produce wires ranging from 0.075mm to 1.25mm in diameter. (Stoeckel and Yu, 4)
Cold working of Nitinol causes "marked changes in the mechanical and physical
properties of the alloy" (Jackson, Wagner, and Wasilewski, 21). These processes of
the production of Nitinol are described in greater detail in Jackson, Wagner, and
Wasilewski's report (15-22).

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Properties
The properties of Nitinol are particular to the exact composition of the metal and the
way it was processed. The physical properties of Nitinol include a melting point
around 1240 ° C to 1310 ° C, and a density of around 6.5 g/cm³ (Jackson, Wagner,
and Wasilewski, 23). Variousother physical properties tested at different temperatures
with various compositions of elements include electrical resitivity, thermoelectric
power, Hall coefficient, velocity of sound, damping, heat capacity, magnetic
susceptibility, and thermal conductivity (Jackson, Wagner, and Wasilewski, 23-55).
Mechanical properties tested include hardness, impact toughness, fatigue strength, and
machinability (Jackson, Wagner, and Wasilewski, 57-73).
The large force generated upon returning to its original shape is a very useful
property. Other useful properties of Nitinol are its "excellent damping characteristics
at temperatures below the transition temperature range, its corrosion resistance, its
nonmagnetic nature, its low density and its high fatigue strength" (Jackson, Wagner,
and Wasilewski, 77). Nitinol is also to an extent impact- and heat-resistant (Kauffman
and Mayo, 4). These properties translate into many uses for Nitinol.

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Applications
Nitinol is being used in a variety of applications. They have been used for military,
medical, safety, and robotics applications. The military has been using Nitinol
couplers in F-14 fighter planes since the late 1960s. These couplers join hydraulic
lines tightly and easily. (Kauffman and Mayo, 6)
Many of the current applications of Nitinol have been in the field of medicine.
Tweezers to remove foreign objects through small incisions were invented by NASA.
Anchors with Nitinol hooks to attach tendons to bone were used for Orel Hershiser's
shoulder surgery. Orthodontic wires made out of Nitinol reduces the need to retighten
and adjust the wire. These wires also accelerate tooth motion as they revert to their
original shapes. Nitinol eyeglass frames can be bent totally out of shape and return to
their parent shape upon warming. (Kauffman and Mayo, 6) Nitinol needle wire
localizers "used to locate and mark breast tumors so that subsequent surgery can be
more exact and less invasive" utilize the metal's shape memory property. Another
successful medical application is Nitinol's use as a guide for catheters through blood
vessels (Stoeckel and Yu, 9-10).
There are examples of SMAs used in safety devices which will save lives in the
future. Anti-scalding devices and fire-sprinklers utilizing SMAs are already on the
market. The anti-scalding valves can be used in water faucets and shower heads. After
a certain temperature, the device automatically shuts off the water flow. The main
advantage of Nitinol-based fire sprinklers is the decrease in response time. (Kauffman
and Mayo, 7)
Nitinol is being used in robotics actuators and micromanipulators to simulate human
muscle motion. The main advantage of Nitinol is the smooth, controlled force it exerts
upon activation. (Rogers, 156)
Other miscellaneous applications of shape memory alloys include use in household
appliances, in clothing, and in structures. A deep fryer utilizes the thermal sensitivity
by lowering the basket into the oil at the correct temperature. (Falcioni, 114)
According to Stoeckel and Yu, "one of the most unique and successful applications is
the Ni-Ti underwire brassiere" (11). These bras, which were engineered to be both
comfortable and durable, are already extremely successful in Japan (Stoeckel and Yu,
11). Nitinol actuators as engine mounts and suspensions can also control vibration.
These actuators can helpful prevent the destruction of such structures as buildings and
bridges. (Rogers, 156)
Other applications:
 European Space Agency
 SMA INC.

Here are some of the pictures available from this section:

Future Applications
There are many possible applications for SMAs. Future applications are envisioned to
include engines in cars and airplanes and electrical generators utilizing the mechanical
energy resulting from the shape transformations. Nitinol with its shape memory
property is also envisioned for use as car frames. (Kauffman and Mayo, 7) Other
possible automotive applications using SMA springs include engine cooling,
carburetor and engine lubrication controls, and the control of a radiator blind ("to
reduce the flow of air through the radiator at start-up when the engine is cold and
hence to reduce fuel usage and exhaust emissions") (Turner, 299).
SMAs are "ideally suited for use as fasteners, seals, connectors, and clamps" in a
variety of applications (Borden, 67). Tighter connections and easier and more
efficient installations result from the use of shape memory alloys (Borden, 72).

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Conclusion
The many uses and applications of shape memory alloys ensure a bright future for
these metals. Research is currently carried out at many robotics departments and
materials science departments. With the innovative ideas for applications of SMAs
and the number of products on the market using SMAs continually growing, advances
in the field of shape memory alloys for use in many different fields of study seem
very promising.
shape memory alloy

A shape memory alloy (SMA) (also known as memory metal or smart wire) is a
metal that remembers its geometry. After it is deformed, it regains its original
geometry by itself during heating (one-way effect) or, at higher ambient temperatures,
simply during unloading (pseudo-elasticity). These extraordinary properties are due to
a temperature-dependent martensitic phase transformation from a low-symmetry to a
highly symmetric crystallographic structure. Those crystal structures are known as
martensite and austenite.

The two main types of SMA are the copper-zinc-aluminium alloys, and the generally
more expensive nickel-titanium (NiTi) alloys. On the other hand, NiTi alloys possess
superior mechanical properties when compared to copper-based SMAs. The
temperatures at which the SMA changes its crystallographic structure are
characteristic of the alloy, and can be tuned by varying the elemental ratios. Typically,
Ms denotes the temperature where the structure starts to change from austenite to
martensite upon cooling; Mf is the temperature where the transition is finished.
Accordingly, As and Af are the temperatures where the reverse transformation from
martensite to austenite start and finish, repectively. It is important to note that
repeated use of the shape memory effect may lead to a shift of the characteristic
transformation temperatures (this effect is known as functional fatigue, as it is
closely related with a change of microstructural and functional properties of the
material).

The nickel-titanium alloys were first developed in 1965 by the Naval Ordnance
Laboratory and commercialised under the trade name Nitinol (an acronym for NIckel
TItanium Naval Ordnance Laboratories).

The range of applications for SMAs has been increasing in recent years, with one
major area of expansion being medicine, for example the development of dental
braces that exert a constant pressure on the teeth. However, these materials are not
currently appropriate for applications such as robotics or artificial muscles, due to
energy inefficiency, slow response times, and large hysteresis.

Metal alloys are not the only thermally responsive materials, as shape memory
polymers have also been developed, becoming commercially available in the late
1990's.

There is another type of SMA called ferromagnetic shape memory alloys (FSMA),
that change shape under strong magnetic fields.