Medical Physics

NIS 2020
Mr. M. Gopaul

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 25.6 production and Use of X-rays

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 Learning objectives
a) explain the principles of the production of X-rays by electron
bombardment of a metal target
b) describe the main features of a modern X-ray tube, including
control of the intensity and hardness of the X-ray beam
c) understand the use of X-rays in imaging internal body
structures, including a simple analysis of the causes of sharpness
and contrast in X-ray imaging
d) recall and solve problems by using the equation I = I0e–μx for
the attenuation of X-rays in matter

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X-rays
What are X-rays?
Part of electromagnetic spectrum. Therefore transverse waves of high
photon energy, short wavelength (x10-10) and high frequency. Travel at
speed of light. They cannot be reflected, refracted and therefore cannot
be focused. X-rays are ionising radiation that can pass through matter.
The History of X-rays

X-rays were first discovered in 1895 when, during experiments

with electric currents passed through a vacuum tube, Wilhelm
Conrad Roentgen noticed that a nearby fluorescent screen glowed
when the current was being passed. When the current was
switched off the screen stopped glowing.
He attributed this effect to previously unknown rays which he
called X-rays (despite colleagues suggesting the name ‘Roentgen
Rays’).
Roentgen later went on to receive the Nobel prize for his
discovery.
 X-ray: Then and now

Roentgen’s first image – 1895 Modern day image

Do you notice an important difference between these pictures?

How are X-rays produced?
X-rays are produced in an x-ray tube when high speed electrons
decelerate quickly.
• A low voltage supply heats the
filament.
• When filament is hot enough
electrons are emitted – thermionic
emission.
• Electrons are accelerated through a
high pd (50 – 100 KV) towards a
metal target (Anode).
• Anode (usually made of tungsten) is
made very positive with respect to
the filament, attracting the
negatively charged electrons and
causing them to accelerate.
• Electrons collide with anode,
decelerate rapidly losing KE and X-
rays are produced.
Question 1
What happens if the PD (accelerating voltage) across the x-ray
tube is increased?

Increases energy at which the electrons hit the target makes

more energy available for x-ray production. Increases intensity,
reduces peak wavelength and quality.

Question 2

What happens if the filament current is increased?

Increases the number of electrons hitting the target and

therefore increases the intensity of beam.
 Two types of X-rays
 Continuous X-rays
 Characteristic X-rays

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 Continuous X-rays

Cut-off wavelength

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 Continuous distributions of Wavelengths
 X-ray photons are produced when fast moving
electrons are stopped suddenly when hitting a
target metal. These electrons have a range of
acceleration inside the target metal due to their
different distances from the target nucleus and
hence give rise to a range of distributions of
wavelengths of X-ray photons.

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 Cut-off wavelength
Question: Why there is a sharp cut-off short wavelength?
Answer: Electron gives all its energy to one photon when
stopped.

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 Characteristics X-rays

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 Graph for X-rays

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 Series of peaks
Question: Explain why there is a series of peaks superimposed
on the continuous distribution of wavelengths?

Answer: Some collisions cause an electron (at lower energy

level) of the target metal to be ejected out of their orbit. This
leads to another orbital electron (at higher energy level) to
de-excite and replace the ejected electron.

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 Graph of Intensity v/s Wavelength
The cut-off wavelength is the minimum wavelength of
the X-ray emitted. But doesn't minimum wavelength
correspond to maximum energy? Why is intensity zero at
minimum wavelength? Shouldn't it be maximum when
wavelength is minimum since λ=hc/E ?
Yes, the shortest wavelength
corresponds to the photon with
greatest energy, but the X-ray
machine generates far more
photons at longer wavelengths.
Thus the peak intensity occurs where the product of photon
energy and number of photons is maximized.
X-ray Facts
• X-rays produced in an x-ray tube are spread out over a range of directions and
energies

•Highly inefficient - only 1% of kinetic energy is converted into X-rays

•99% of the electrons energy goes into producing heat, therefore the target is made
from a heavy metal with a high melting point. The anode is made to rapidly rotate to
allow it to briefly cool down and avoid ‘hot-spots’

•X-ray tube produces a range of x-ray energies (and hence wavelengths). This spread is
known as the quality.

• Electrons that lose a little energy create less energetic x-rays with longer
wavelengths – soft x-rays.

•Electrons that lose most/all of their energy create most energetic x-rays with short
wavelengths – hard x-rays.

•Radiographers tend to use 2 ranges of x-rays, those with energies or around 100KeV
for diagnosis and energies of 1MeV for therapy.
How an X-ray image is formed

X-rays
attenuated
X-rays
(some
X-ray tube absorbed)
Photographic paper –
when exposed to X-
rays it turns black
after developing
 X-Ray Attenuation
 Attenuation is the gradual decrease in intensity of x-ray beam as it
passes through matter (energy is loss in doing work against particle of a
medium).
 Intensity of a beam of radiation indicates the rate at which energy is
transferred across unit cross-sectional area. (power per unit cross
sectional area).
 mx
 In matter of thickness x cm, , I is I  I o e
Where
 I is the transmitted intensity (usually in Wcm-2),
 m is linear attenuation coefficient ( cm-1)
 Io is the incident intensity (Wcm-2), .
 So, the equation shows that the intensity of X-ray goes down as it passes
through matter.

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 Question: The linear attenuation coefficient of bone and of the
soft tissues are 2.9 cm-1 and 0.95 cm-1 respectively. A parallel
beam of X-Rays in incident, separately, on a bone of thickness
3.0 cm and on soft tissue of thickness 5.0 cm. Calculate the
ratio :
𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑠𝑜𝑓𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑒

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 Answer
Bone Tissue
m / cm-1 2.9 0.95
x/cm 3.0 5.0

I = Io emx

𝐼 −(2.9 𝑋 0.95)
𝑜𝑒
Ratio = 𝐼𝑜 𝑒 −(3.0 𝑋 5.0)

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 Hardness
 The hardness of the x-rays is a measure of their
penetrating effect.
 The higher the frequency of x-rays, the greater is
their penetration.
Question: ‘How hardness is controlled?’
Answer: By adjusting the accelerating voltage

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 X-ray imaging

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 X-ray photographic plate
 It is a white plate usually placed below the table
where the patient lies. It darkens upon exposure
to x-rays. Human flesh and tissue are sort of
‘transparent’ to these rays and allow most of
them to pass through and darken the plates.
Human bones are dense and absorb the x-rays,
resulting in grey( white) areas in the plates.

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 Quality of X-ray images
The image quality of x-ray images is described by several
factors, two of them are : Contrast and Sharpness

Low Medium High

Contrast Contrast Contrast

Image contrast refers to the fractional difference in optical density of

brightness between two regions of an image

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 Sharpness
 Sharpness is
defined by the
boundaries
between zones
of different
tones or colors.
 It determines
the amount of
detail an
imaging system
Sharp image Blurred image
can reproduce.

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 Contrast Sharpness

Definition Contrast is defined as Sharpness is the

the separation between property of an image
the darkest and that describes the
brightest areas of the clarity of edges.
image.
Factors affecting it •Tissue thickness •Target size
•X-Ray energy in kV •Patient movement
•Scattered x--rays
How can it be improved •Longer exposure time • Use a narrower X-
•Use harder X-rays Ray beam

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Collimating an x-ray beam

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The diagram shows how the X-ray beam can be directed
Anti scatter= Grid made
from lead slit (opaque toX-
ray) alternate with aluminium
(transparent to X-rays)

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 Hazards of X-ray
Excessive use can be dangerous
 Since x-rays have a very short wavelength, they pack a lot
more energy than radiation with longer wavelengths.
Although x-rays pass through the body, they also can cause
harm by altering atoms or molecules they happen to hit.
 If a person is exposed to high intensity x-rays often or over a
long period of time, there is the potential of the person
developing cancer in the exposed area.

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 Medical x-rays safe
 Medical and dental x-rays are very low intensity, so the hazard is minimal. Still,
x-ray technicians go behind a lead shield when giving x-rays because of the
frequency of exposure. A person can receive many medical or dental x-rays in a
year with very little risk of getting cancer from it. In fact, exposure to natural
radiation—such as cosmic rays from space—pose a greater risk.
 Moreover a (aluminium) filter/metal foil is placed in the X-ray beam before it
strikes the patient.

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