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Including Usage, Comprehension, Precis
and Letter-Writing
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(An Indispensable Book for Undergraduate Students)

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By

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Dr. B.B. Jain

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M.A., Ph.D.
(Retd.) Professor and Head
Department of English Studies and Research,
Agra College, Agra.
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Revised & Enlarged Edition

UPKAR PRAKASHAN, AGRA–2

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© Author

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Publishers
UPKAR PRAKASHAN syE
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(An ISO 9001 : 2000 Company)

2/11A, Swadeshi Bima Nagar, AGRA–282 002

Phone : 4053333, 2530966, 2531101
Fax : (0562) 4053330, 4031570
E-mail : care@upkar.in
Website : www.upkar.in nee
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Branch Offices
4845, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, 1-8-1/B, R.R. Complex (Near Sundaraiah Park,

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New Delhi–110 002 Adjacent to Manasa Enclave Gate), Bagh Lingampally,
Phone : 011–23251844/66 Hyderabad–500 044 (A.P.), Phone : 040–66753330

any mistake has crept in, the publishers shall not be responsible for the same.
● This book or any part thereof may not be reproduced in any form by
Photographic, Mechanical, or any other method, for any use, without written
e
● The publishers have taken all possible precautions in publishing this book, yet if

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permission from the Publishers.
● Only the courts at Agra shall have the jurisdiction for any legal dispute.

ISBN : 978-81-7482-190-4
Price : 230·00
(Rs. Two Hundred Thirty Only)
Code No. 1534

Printed at : UPKAR PRAKASHAN (Printing Unit) Bye-pass, AGRA

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Preface

Adding a new book on English Grammar and Usage to the existing flood of books
on the subject sounds rather audacious. But strangely enough, it is this flood of books,
some of which are spurious and others too technical and abstruse to be followed by the

wwlearner, that has prompted the present author to write a new book on Applied
Grammar, Usage and Comprehension which could well serve as a practical handbook
and guide to the learning of English Language both by the primary as well as

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advanced learners.

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English is indeed a difficult language to learn, and the rules of Formal and Applied
Grammar and Usage which govern it are equally difficult for the learner to understand

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and apply correctly. This is more so because there are many exceptions to most of the
rules. The learner would therefore need not only an explication of the rules but also a
large number of illustrative examples and exercises for practice. This point has been

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kept in mind all through the course of writing of this book. The book has, therefore,
turned out to be not only a complete Textbook of Grammar, but also a comprehensive
Desk-book for practice.
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The book is designed to be all-comprehensive in its range and scope. It has 45
Chapters which, as the contents would show, cover practically all aspects of Applied

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Grammar, Usage, Word-Formation, Comprehension, and Composition. It represents a
synthesis of the traditional and structural methods to teach the learner how to read,

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write, and speak English correctly, idiomatically and fluently. While dealing with the
grammatical and structural problems under various chapters, special attention has been

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paid to the intricate and ticklish problems which even the advanced students have to
face. These problems relate particularly to the correct use of Syntax, Articles,
Prepositions, Auxiliaries, Non-Finite Verbs, Position of Adverbs, Tense and Time
sense, and Phrasal expressions. Due attention has also been paid to the special
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requirements of the candidates appearing at various competitive examinations at the
State and Central levels.
It is confidently hoped that the book would serve as a complete and practical
textbook and manual of English Grammar, Usage and Comprehension to the
candidates preparing for the various University and competitive examinations
throughout the country.

—B.B. Jain

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Contents
Chapters Pages
1. Some Basic Concepts 3–4
Letters, Syllables, Phrases and Sentences ……………………………………………… 3
Kinds of Sentences ……………………………………………………………………… 3
Parts of Speech ………………………………………………………..………………… 4
2. Syntax 5–19
Agreement of the Verb with the Subject ………………………………………………… 5
Some Exceptions ………………………………………………………………………… 7
Collective Noun and the Verb …………………………………………..……………… 10

ww Some Typical Nouns and the Verb ………………………………………………………

Relative Pronoun and the Verb ………………………………………….………………
Numeral Expressions and the Verb ………………………………………………………
10
11
13

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3.
Quantitative Expressions and the Verb …………………………………..………………

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Verb 'to be' and the Complement…………………………………………………………
Nouns, Pronouns and Possessive Adjectives……………………………..………………
Articles
13
15
17
20–30

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Kinds of Articles …………………………………………………………………………
Forms of Indefinite Article : 'a' or 'an'……………………………………………………
Uses of Indefinite Article…………………………………………………………………
Uses of Definite Article ………………………………………………………………….
20
20
21
23

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Omission of Articles……………………………………………………………………… 26
Position of Articles ……………………………………………………………………… 28

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4. Nouns 31–41
Formation of Genders …………………………………………………………………… 31
Conversion of Numbers ………………………………………………………………… 32
Formation of Possessive Case …………………………………………………………… 33

5.
Correct Use of Nouns : Rules ……………………………………………………………
Pronouns rin 35
42–54
Forms of Pronouns ………………………………………………………………………

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Correct Use of Pronouns : Personal Pronouns …………..………………………………
Pronoun 'It'/'This'…………………………………………………………………………
42
42
46
Relative Pronouns ………………………………………………………………………
Compound Relative Pronouns……………………………………………………………
Omission of Relative Pronouns ………………………….………………………………
Reflexive Pronouns ………………………………………………………………………
e 47
49
50
51 t
Interrogative Pronouns …………………………………..……………………………… 52
6. Adjectives 55–72
Kinds of Adjectives ……………………………………………………………………… 55
Position of Adjectives …………………………………………………………………… 57
Degrees of Adjectives …………………………………………………………………… 58
Correct Use of Adjectives : Positive Degree Adjectives………………………………… 60
Comparative Degree Adjectives ………………………………………………………… 61
Superlative Degree Adjectives ………………………..………………………………… 65
Some Other Typical Adjectives ……………………….………………………………… 67
7. Adverbs 73–85
Kinds of Adverbs………………………………………………………………………… 73
Degrees of Adverbs ……………………………………………………………………… 73

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( vi )

Position of Adverbs……………………………………………………………………… 74
Some Typical Adverbs…………………………………………...……………………… 77
Some Common Rules …………………………………………………………………… 83
8. Prepositions 86–112
Forms of Preposition …………………………………………….……………………… 86
Functional Types of Prepositions ………………………………..……………………… 86
Use of Prepositions : Their Place ………………………………..……………………… 87
Omission of Preposition ………………………………………………………………… 88
Wrong Use of Prepositions ……………………………………………………………… 89
Some Typical Prepositions ……………………………………………………………… 89
Preposition Gerund ……………………………………………………………………… 91
The Same Words followed by Different Prepositions…………………………………… 93
Different Forms of Words followed by Different Prepositions ….……………………… 94

ww List of Appropriate Prepositions

(a) Nouns followed by Prepositions ………………………….………………………
(b) Adjectives and Participles followed by Prepositions ……..……………………… 101
96

w (c) Verbs followed by Prepositions …………………………..……………………… 105

9. Conjunctions

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Correlative Conjunctions ………………………………………...……………………… 113
Uses of Conjunctions …………………………………………….……………………… 114
113–122

10. Verbs
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Functional Conjunctions ………………………………………………………………… 119

Kinds of Verbs…………………………………………………………………………… 123

123–144

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Auxiliary/Modal Verbs : Their Functions ……………………….……………………… 125
Verbs 'To be' : Am, Is, Are, Was, Were ………………………………………………… 125
Have/Has/Had …………………………………………………………………………… 127

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May/Might …………………………………………………………….………………… 132
Can/Could …………………………………………………………….………………… 133
Shall/Should, Will/Would ……………………………………………..………………… 135
Must/Ought…………………………………………………………….………………… 138
Need/Needn't ………………………………………………………….………………… 138
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Dare/Daren't……………………………………………………………………………… 139
Used to…………………………………………………………………………………… 140
Two Auxiliaries and Principal Verb ………………………………….………………… 141

Question–Tags/Tail Questions …………………………………….......………………… 143

11. Non-Finite Verbs
Kinds of Non-Finite Verbs…………………………………………….………………… 145
The Infinitive…………………………………………………………..………………… 145
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Position of Subject, Verb, Object and Complement …………………..………………… 141

145–153
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(a) Infinitive with or without ‘to’ …………………………………………………… 145
(b) Noun—Infinitives …………………………………………….………………… 146
(c) Gerundial Infinitives ………………………………………….………………… 147
(d) Other Uses of Infinitives………………………………………………………… 147
The Gerund ……………………………………………………………………………… 148
(a) Functions of Gerund ………………………………………….………………… 149
(b) Uses of Gerund ……………………………………………….………………… 149
The Participle ………………………………………………………….………………… 150
(a) Kinds of Participles……………………………………………………………… 150
(b) Uses of Participles…………………………………………….………………… 150
(c) Rules of Use of Participles ……………………………………………………… 151

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( vii )

12. Time and Tense 154–170

Distinction between Time and Tense …………………………………………………… 154
Three Forms of Verbs : A List ………………………………………..………………… 154
Structures of Sentences : ………………………………………………………………… 156
Structures in the Present Tense……………………………………………………… 156
Structures in the Past Tense ……………………………………...………………… 159
Structures in the Future Tense……………………………………………………… 162
Uses of Tenses ………………………………………………………..………………… 164
Tenses and Time ………………………………………………………………………… 169
Structures of ‘It is time’, ‘If were’ and ‘Wish’ Sentences ……………………………… 170
13. Active and Passive Voice 171–176
Interchange between Subject and Object ……………………………..………………… 171
Changes in the Verb …………………………………………………..………………… 172

ww Imperative Sentences…………………………………………………..………………… 174

Negative Sentences …………………………………………………...………………… 174
Interrogative Sentences ……………………………………………….………………… 174

w Some Other Sentence Structures ………………………………………………………… 175

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14. Direct and Indirect Narration
Some General Terms ………………………………………………….………………… 177
Rules for Connectives …………………………………………………………………… 177
177–191

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Rules for Change in Tenses……………………………………………………………… 178
Rules for Change in Persons …………………………………………..………………… 181
Miscellaneous Changes ……………………………………………….………………… 182

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Conversion of Interrogative Sentences ……………………………….………………… 183
Conversion of Imperative Sentences ………………………………….………………… 184
Conversion of Exclamatory Sentences ………………………………..………………… 186

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Question-Tags …………………………………………………………………………… 186
Sentences Beginning with 'Let' ……………………………………….………………… 187
Some General Observations……………………………………………………………… 187
15. Analysis
Some General Observations……………………………………………………………… 192 rin
192–200

Analysis of Complex Sentences ………………………………………………………… 193

Subordinate Noun Clause…………………………………………………………… 193 g.n
Subordinate Adjective Clause ……………………………………………………… 194
Subordinate Adverb Clause ………………………………………………………… 195
Analysis of Compound Sentences …………………………………….………………… 198
16. Synthesis 201–210
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Combining into a Simple Sentence ……………………………………………………… 201
Combining into a Complex Sentence …………………………………………………… 205
Combining into a Compound Sentence ……………………………….………………… 207
17. Transformation 211–225
Interchange between 'too' and 'so' ……………………………………..………………… 211
Conditional Sentences …………………………………………………………………… 212
Concession or Contrast ………………………………………………………………… 212
Degrees of Adjectives …………………………………………………………………… 213
Active and Passive Voice………………………………………………………………… 213
Affirmative and Negative Sentences ………………………………….………………… 214
Exclamatory and Assertive Sentences…………………………………………………… 215

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( viii )

Changes in Parts of Speech ……………………………………………………………… 215

Interchange between Simple and Compound Sentences………………………………… 217
Interchange between Simple and Complex Sentences ………………..………………… 218
Interchange between Compound and Complex Sentences ……………………………… 221
Interchange between Principal and Subordinate Clauses ……………..………………… 222
18. Formation of Words 226–230
Suffixes………………………………………………………………...………………… 226
Words Converted into Different Parts of Speech ……………………..………………… 227
Prefixes ………………………………………………………………..………………… 229
Antonyms Formed by Negative Prefixes………………………………………………… 229
19. Antonyms 231–235
20. Synonyms 236–241
21. Homonyms 242–249

ww22.
23.
24.
Paronyms
Same Word Used as Different Parts of Speech
One-Word Substitution
250–255
256–260
261–266

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25.
26.
Idioms
Idiomatic Phrases

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Noun Phrases …………………………………………………………………………… 280
Adjective Phrases………………………………………………………………………… 280
Adverb Phrases ………………………………………………………..………………… 281
267–279
280–285

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Prepositional Phrases ………………………………………………….………………… 282
Verbal Phrases…………………………………………………………………………… 283
Phrases in Pairs ………………………………………………………………………….. 285
27.
28. Proverbs
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Distinction between Similar Expressions 286–287
288–291

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29. Expansion : Paragraph-Writing 292–297
30. Spellings 298–299
31. Punctuation and Capitals 300–305
32. Figures of Speech 306–309
33.
34.
Foreign Words and Phrases
The Courtesy Words ‘Please’ and ‘Thank You’ rin 310–312
313–314
35.
36.
37.
Greetings and Salutations
Dates and Time
Comprehension g.n 315–316
317–319
320–329
38.
39.
40.
41.
Precis-Writing
Paraphrasing
Report-Writing
Messages
e 330–336
337–342
343–344
345–349 t
42. Notices 350–354
43. Diary-Writing 355–356
44. Telegram 357–359
45. Letter-Writing 360–384
Format of Personal Letters…………………………………………………………...……… 360
Format of Official Letters …………………………………………………………………… 363
Format of Business Letters ………………………………………………………….……… 365
Models of Personal Letters ………………………………………………………….……… 367
Models of Matrimonial Letters ……………………………………………………………… 373
Models of Business Letters and Applications ……………………………………….……… 378

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1 Some Basic Concepts

Letters and Syllables “A group of words which makes sense but not
complete sense, is called a phrase.”

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Letters—There are 26 Letters in English. —(Wren and Martin)
They can be classified into two groups :
As—of great courage, at the door, sands of
(i) Vowels time, etc.

w (ii) Consonants

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Vowels—The Letters that can be pronounced
without the help of any other Letter are called
Vowels. They are five—a, e, i, o, u.
Clause—“A group of words which forms part
of a sentence, and contains a subject and a
predicate, is called a clause.”
He said that he was not well.
—(Nesfield)

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Consonants—The remaining 21 Letters are
called consonants. They cannot be pronounced
without the help of a Vowel.
Do you know the man who came here
yesterday ?

Kinds of Sentences
Note—W and Y are the two Letters that can
be used both as Vowels and Consonants.
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Words—Any sound produced by the mouth, 1. Assertive or Declarative Sentence— A
which has a meaning, is called a word. A word is sentence that makes a statement or assertion is
formed by one or more Letters. called an Assertive or Declarative sentence.

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Syllables—The part of a word pronounced in As—India is a great country.
one instance is called a syllable. A word can have He is a noble man..
one or more syllables.

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2. Interrogative Sentence—A sentence that
As : asks a question is called an Interrogative sen-
tence.
(i) Words of one syllable : you, me, go, run,
sit, etc.
(ii) Words of two syllables : Fa-ther, Wa-ter,
mon-key, beau-ty, etc.
(iii) Words of more than two syllables :
As—What is your name ?
Is he a dependable man ?
e
3. Imperative Sentence—A sentence that
expresses a command, a request or an entreaty t
Beau-ti-ful, de-mo-cra-cy; po-ssi-bi-li-ty, is called an Imperative sentence.
etc. As—Be quiet.
Sentence—“A combination of words that Go away from here.
makes complete sense is called a sentence.” Forgive us.
—(J. C. Nesfield) 4. Exclamatory Sentence—A sentence that
“A group of words which makes complete expresses a sudden feeling of pleasure, sorrow,
sense is called a sentence.” anger or surprise is called an Exclamatory
sentence.
—(Wren and Martin)
As—Alas ! I am ruined.
Phrase—“A combination of words that
makes sense, but not complete sense, is called a What a terrible shock it was !
phrase”. —(Nesfield) How shameful !

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4 | L.W.C.E.

5. Adverb—“An Adverb is a word used to

Parts of Speech add something to the meaning of a verb, an
Different words used in a sentence have adjective, or another adverb.”
different functions. According to these functions, —(Wren and Martin)
words can be classified into 8 categories. No word
has any fixed category. Its category depends upon As—
its function in a sentence. He worked hard.
These eight categories are called Parts of He came suddenly.
Speech—
She is very slow.
1. Noun—“A noun is a word used as the
name of a person, place, or thing.” She finished her work very quickly.
—(Wren and Martin) 6. Preposition—“A Preposition is a word
used with a noun or a pronoun to show how the

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As—Ram, table, sweetness, iron, sheep, etc.
person or thing denoted by the noun or pronoun
2. Pronoun—“A pronoun is a word used
stands in relation to something else.”
instead of a noun.” —(Wren and Martin)
—(Wren and Martin)

w As—he, she, you, I, we, it, they, etc.

3. Adjective—“An Adjective is a word used

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to add something to the meaning of a noun (or a
pronoun). —(Wren and Martin)
As—on the road, in the house, by courtesy,
with him, etc.
7. Conjunction—“A conjunction is a word

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An adjective qualifies a noun or a pronoun. which is used to join words, phrases, clauses, and
As—a good boy, a fast train, much labour, sentences to one another. —(Wren and Martin)
five coins. As—Ram and Shyam, through thick and

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4. Verb—“A verb is a word used to say thin, He ran fast but missed the train.
something about some person, place, or thing.” 8. Interjection—“An Interjection is a word
—(Wren and Martin) which expresses some sudden feeling.”
As—She went to school.
Kanpur is an industrial town. nee As—Alas ! Hurrah, Oh !
—(Wren and Martin)

He is dumb. Bravo, etc.

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2 Syntax
Syntax means sentence–structure. There are Formula—
certain rules of sentence–structure, which we must Subject Verb
know and apply carefully. There are indeed some

wwexceptions to these rules, but these exceptions are

also governed by some rules. These rules must be
applied keeping in mind their external forms as Note—
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural

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well as their spirit.

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Concord or Agreement
In the rules of syntax the most important ones
(i) It should be remembered that a verb has
a Singular or a Plural Number in the Present
Tense only. In the Past Tense the Singular and the
Plural forms of the verb are the same. In the

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are those of concord or Agreement. Every sen-
tence has a subject, a verb and a predicate. There
must be an agreement between these three parts of
original form a verb is supposed to be in the Plural
Number and Present Tense. When ‘s’ or ‘es’ is
added to the verb, it becomes a verb in the Present
a sentence. There must be an agreement between
the Person, Number, Gender and Tense used in
the different parts of the sentence. ngi Tense and Singular Number. As—
Plural Verb in the Singular Verb in the

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Present Tense Present Tense
“By concord is meant formal agreement in Sit Sits
person, number, gender or tense between two or
Run Runs
more parts of a sentence.”
Agreement of the Verb with the Subject
Eat
Go
rin Eats
Goes
Subject—Verb Agreement
Rule 1—The Verb must agree with its Sub-
ject in Number and Person. The Number and
Fly
Play
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Plays

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Smile Smiles
Person of the verb must be in agreement with the
Number and Person of its Subject. A Singular
subject must have a Singular Verb, and a Plural
Subject must have a Plural Verb.
Formula—
It should be remembered here that when ‘s’ or
‘es’ is added to a verb, it becomes Singular, but
when ‘s’ or ‘es’ is added to a Noun, it becomes
Plural.
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Subject Verb Singular Noun Plural Noun
I go Book Books
We go Dog Dogs
You go House Houses
He goes Bench Benches
They go Branch Branches
Ram goes Formula—
A bird flies Verb + s/es = Singular
Birds fly Noun + s/es = Plural

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6 | L.W.C.E.

(ii) Special attention needs to be paid to verbs Note— It should be remembered that in English I
‘to be’. Am, is, are, was, were are called verbs ‘to and you are used as if they are in Plural
be’. Their forms change according to their Person Number. Therefore, with I and you the
in the Singular Number only, but in the Plural verb is always used in Plural Number.
Number they remain the same with all Persons. However, I takes am in the Present tense
As— and was in the Past tense.
(c) If the subject is in Third Person, Singular
Singular Plural
or Plural Number, the verb will be accordingly in
First Person I am/was We are/were Third Person, Singular or Plural Number. As—
Second Person You are/were You are/were
1. He is poor.
Third Person He is/was They are/were
It is/was 2. They are poor.
(iii) The following are the Singular and 3. He reads a book.

wwPlural forms of Verbs ‘to be’ and h a s and

have—
4. They read books.
5. He has a new house.

w Singular Plural 6. They have a new house.

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is are
am are
(A) Correct the following Sentences :
was were

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1. Birds flies.
are are
has have 2. Dogs is barking.
have have 3. The child weep.
(iv) will, shall, would, should always take
have after them; they never take has, whether the ngi 4. Darkness prevail.
5. Flowers is blooming.

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subject is Singular or Plural. As—
6. The sun rise in the east.
1. I shall have a new ball.
2 We shall have new balls. 7. The father and son works in the field.
3. He will have a new ball.
4. They will have new balls.
rin
8. All the students is present today.
9. He love his friend.

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Thus, according to Rule 1 above— 10. You and I goes to school.
(a) If the subject is in First Person, Singular
11. I reads a novel.
Number or Plural Number, the verb will be
accordingly in the First Person, Singular Number
or Plural Number. As—
1. I am late.
2. We are late
12. You has a new pen.

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Hints— 1. fly; 2. are; 3. weeps; 4. prevails;
5. are; 6. rises; 7. work; 8. are; 9. loves;
10. go; 11. read; 12. have. t
3. I love children (B) Fill in the blanks in the following sentences
4. We love children. with the correct verb from those given in
brackets :
(b) If the subject is in Second Person, Singu-
lar Number or Plural Number, the verb will be 1. His teeth ............. dirty. (are, is)
accordingly in the Second Person, Singular Num- 2. Where .............. all these men going ?
ber or Plural Number. As— (are, is)
1. You are a scholar. 3. Whose books .......... these ? (is, are)
(‘you’ Singular Number) 4. All his sheep ........... grazing in the field.
2. You are all afraid. (‘you’ Plural Number) (are, is)
3. You go there. (Singular Number) 5. Do you know who this gentleman ......... ?
4. You go there. (Plural Number) (is, are)

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SYNTAX | 7

6.My parents .......... here yesterday. (3) Verbs of Wish/Blessing

(was, were) The third exception is that in sentences
7. My work .......... been finished. expressing deep and sharp wish, blessing or hope,
(has, have) Plural Verb is used with Singular Subjects. In
8. All my friends ........... gone. (has, have) these sentences the verb is used in the Subjunctive
Hints— 1. are; 2. are; 3. are; 4. are; 5. is; 6. were; Mood. This use is now confined to a few
7. has; 8. have. sentences only. As—
1. Long live the King.
Exceptions 2. God save the King.
To 3. Lord bless you.
Rule 1. Above 4. Long live our friendship.
It has been said in Rule 1. above that a

wwSingular Subject takes a Singular Verb and a

Plural Subject takes a Plural Verb. There are,
however, the following three exceptions to this
Exercise
Fill in the blanks with the correct verb
from those given in brackets :

w
general rule :
(1) Dare not and Need not

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These are the two typical Verbs which in
Negative Sentences (where dare and need are
1. She .......... not come before me. (dare,
dares)
2. He ......... not to do it. (need, needs)

syE
followed by not) are used in the Plural form even 3. He ........... to challenge me. (dare, dares)
with Singular Subjects. 4. She ............. to go very early. (need,
“The third person singular is need,’ and not needs)

ngi
‘needs’ just as ‘dare’ is used for ‘dares’ provided 5. Ram ........ not tell a lie. (dare, dares)
it is followed by a negative.” —(Nesfield) 6. I wish my father ........... alive. (was,
As— were)
1. He dare not oppose me.
2. They dare not oppose me. nee 7. ........... he in England to see the coro-
nation ! (was, were)
8. If I ........ you, I would never accept it.
3. He need not go.
4. They need not go.
(was, were)
rin
Hints— 1. dare; 2.need; 3. dares; 4. needs; 5.
Note—If dare and need are used in the affirma-
tive sense (i.e. without ‘not’) they take
Plural form with the Plural Subject and g.n
dare; 6. were; 7. were; 8. were.
Rule 2—If two or more Singular Subjects are

Singular form with the Singular Subject.

As—
1. He dares.
3. He needs.
2. They dare.
4. They need.
Plural Number. As—
e
joined with and, they take verb in the

1. Ram and Mohan come here every day.

2. The father and son work together. t
3. Lightning and thunder come together.
(2) Verbs of Supposition/ Subjunctive Mood 4. Shyam, Mohan and Ashok have come.
The second exception to Rule 1 above is that Rule 3— If two Singular Nouns point to only
Plural Verb is used with Singular Subjects in one person or thing, they take verb in
sentences expressing mere imagination or impos- the Singular Number. As—
sible hope, wish or condition. As— 1. The great poet and scholar is dead.
1. If I were a bird. 2. My friend and benefactor has come.
2. Were I a king. 3. The great warrior and patriot is being
3. How I wish she were here. honoured.
4. If I were you, I would do it. 4. The chief Engineer and Manager of the
5. He behaved as if he were our master. factory has agreed.

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8 | L.W.C.E.

Note— It should be kept in mind that when two 1. Each boy and girl has to go.
Nouns point to only one person or thing, 2. Every man, woman and child was glad.
the article is used only once with the first 3. Each day and each hour is important.
noun. If the article is used before both the
4. Every boat and every sailor was lost in
Nouns separately, they would mean to
the storm.
point to two persons or things, and in that
case Plural Verb would be used. As— Rule 6—If two or more Singular Subjects are
joined by or, nor, either… or, or neither
The Chief Engineer and the Manager of the
… nor, they take a Singular Verb. As—
factory have agreed.
1. Either Ram or Shyam is coming today.
Exercise
2. Neither he nor I was there.
Correct the following sentences :
3. Neither food nor water was available
1. Hari and Ram is close friends.

ww
there.
2. A man and his wife is standing at the
door. 4. No boy or girl was present on the field.
3. Your house and mine has been damaged. Rule 7—If two or more Subjects are joined by or,

w 4. The father and son was here yesterday.

.Ea
5. Mohan and his friend was travelling
together.
6. A car and a scooter has collided.
nor, either … or, or neither … nor, and
if they are of different Numbers, the
Plural Subject is placed near the verb
and the verb is used in the Plural Num-

syE
7. I and my friend was injured. ber. As—
8. The great orator and scholar have been 1. Neither the teacher nor his students were
honoured. present there.
9. The noted actor and musician are giving a
demonstration.
10. My guide and guardian are here today. ngi 2. Either Ram or his friends have broken
the glass.

nee
3. Ram or his brothers a r e expected to
11. The Chairman and Director are going to come.
preside over the meeting.
4. Mohan nor his friends were invited.
12. The Governor and Chancellor of the
University have passed this ordinance.
Hints—1. are; 2. are; 3. have; 4. were; 5. were; rin
Rule 8—If two or more Subjects are joined by or,
nor, either … or, or neither … nor, and
6. have; 7. were; 8. has; 9. is; 10. is; 11. is;
12 has.
g.n
if they are of different Persons, the verb
is used according to the subject nearest
to it. As—
Rule 4—If two Subjects taken together mean one
thing only, they take the verb in the
Singular Number. As—
1. Bread and butter makes a good break-
fast.
e
1. You or Ram is responsible for it.
2. Either you or I am correct.
3. Neither he nor you are to blame.
4. Either she or you have to do it.
t
(Taken together) Rule 9—If two or more Subjects are joined by
2. The horse and carriage stands at the and, and if they are of different Num-
door. bers and different Persons, the verb is
3. Slow and steady wins the race. always used in the Plural Number.
4. Early to bed and early to rise Also, if the subjects have any First
Makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise. Person, the verb will be in First Person
Rule 5—If two or more Subjects have each or Plural, but if there is no First Person,
every before them, they take the verb in but there is a Second Person, the verb is
the Singular Number. Remember that used in the Second Person Plural Num-
each and every are used before Singular ber. As—
Nouns only. As— 1. He and I are going.

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SYNTAX | 9

2. My father and I have known him for Exercise

many years.
3. You and he are well known here. Fill in the blanks in the following sentences
4. You and I have done our best. with appropriate verbs from those given in
brackets against each sentence :
Exercise
1. Neither of these men ........... come here
Correct the following sentences : before. (has, have)
1. Pen and ink are my first requirement. 2. Either Ram or Mohan ....... a fool.
2. The crown and glory of life have depar- (is, are)
ted.
3. Neither tree nor bush ......... there.
3. Rice and fish make my favourite dish.
(was, were)
4. Milk and honey are a rich tonic.

ww 5. Truth and honesty are the best policy for

success in business.
6. The sum and substance of the matter are
4. No man or woman .......... found there.
(was, were)
5. Neither of these sisters ........ qualified for

w that his policy is bad.

.Ea
7. The joy and happiness of life come from
honest labour.
8. Bread and water are the basic need.
the post.
6. Neither the leader nor his followers
............ arrested.
(is, are)

(was, were)
7. Either he or his friends .............. answer-

syE
9. The long and short of the matter are this.
10. Mercy and kindness are the teaching of
able for it.
8. Neither the principal nor his teachers
.......... ever attended the meeting.
(is, are)

ngi
all religions.
(have, has)
Hints—1. is; 2. has; 3. makes; 4. is; 5. is; 6. is;
7. comes; 8. is; 9. is; 10. is. 9. Neither the commander nor his soldiers

Exercise
In each of the following sentences supply a
nee ............... hurt in the action. (was, were)
10. Either she or her sisters ............ respon-
sible for it. (are, is)
verb in agreement with its subject :
1. Each boy and girl ............. ready to go. rin
11. Either I or he ........... to blame. (is, are)
12. Neither he nor you ............ expected
2. Every table and chair .......... broken.
3. Every man, woman and child......... to
there.

g.n (are, is)

13. Either I or he ............... to bear the brunt.
work in the field.
4. Each hour and each minute ......... impor-
tant in life.
5. Every horse and camel ........... sold away
game. e
15. He or I .......... to suffer.
(has, have)
14. Either he or you ............... spoilt the
(has, have)
(has, have) t
in the fair. 16. Ram and I ............. class-mates.
6. Every cup and saucer ............ the name of (are, am)
the company printed on it. 17. I and you ............ participating in the
7. Each boy and girl ............ given a prize. debate. (are, am)
8. Each page and line ........ badly printed. 18. He and you ............. well known here.
9. Each man and woman .......... ashamed of (is, are)
the incident. 19. She and you ............ to be present there.
10. Each car and scooter ........ been removed. (has, have)
Hints—1. is; 2. is; 3. has; 4. is; 5. has been; 20. He and I .......... lived in the same house.
6. has; 7. was; 8. is; 9. was; 10. has. (has, have)

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Hints—1. has; 2. is; 3. was; 4. was; 5. is; 6. were; Some Typical Nouns and the Verb
7. are; 8. have; 9. were; 10. are; 11. is; 12.
are; 13. has; 14. have; 15. have; 16. are; Rule 11—Some Nouns appear to be Plural in
17. are; 18. are; 19. have; 20. have. form, but actually singular in meaning .
These nouns take the verb in the singu-
Collective Noun and the Verb lar number.
Rule 10—With collective Nouns verbs can be The important Nouns of this type are
used either in the Singular or the Plural News, Wages, Physics, Politics, Mathematics,
Number according to sense. If a Economics, Innings (both Singular and Plural),
Collective Noun represents a whole Gallows.
group or a body (institution), it takes a
As—
Singular Verb. But if the Collective
Noun represents a part or parts or 1. Politics is not an easy game.

ww division of a body, it takes a Plural

Verb.
2. Mathematics is a difficult subject.
3. The wages of sin is death.
4. The news is correct.

w
The important Collective Nouns are these :
5. Their first innings was disappointing.
Government, Parliament, Assembly, Coun-

.Ea
cil, committee, army, crew, staff, jury, fleet,
crowd, majority, mob.
Rule 12—Some Nouns appear to be Singular in
form, but they are actually Plural in
meaning and sense. These nouns take a
As—

syE
1. The committee has agreed on this issue.
(The verb is Singular because there is no
Plural Verb. The more important of
them are—Dozen, score, million,
hundred, thousand, people, cattle. As—
division in the committee.)
2. The committee are divided on this issue. ngi 1. A dozen were injured.
2. A million were affected by the drought.
3. A score were saved.
(Here the verb is Plural because the
committee is divided.)
3. The crew is well trained. nee 4. The cattle are grazing.
5. The people are satisfied.
(Here the verb is Singular because the
“crew” represents one undivided group.)
rin
Rule 13—If a Subject has such words or phrases
as with, together with, along with, in
addition to, as well as connected with
4. The crew were taken prisoners.
(Here the verb is Plural because the
members of the crew have to be taken g.n
it, these connected words or phrases do
not affect the verb in any way (because

e
they are parenthetical words or phrases)
prisoners separately.)

t
and the verb is used according to the
In the same way— real Subject. As—
5. The Parliament has elected its Speaker. 1. The commander, with all his soldiers,
6. The military were deployed over the was killed.
troubled area. 2. The chief cashier, together with all his
7. The fleet has touched the shore. men, has been dismissed.
8. The Government have decided to intro- 3. He, as well as his friends, has failed.
duce the Bill. 4. Ram, like Mohan and Sohan, is fond of
pictures.
9. The Assembly is in session
Note—
10. The mob has dispersed.
11. The mob have started throwing stones. Such other words and phrases are—like,
12. The jury has come to a unanimous ver- and not, in addition to, no less than, rather
dict. than, more than, unlike, besides, including,
excluding.
13. The jury are divided in opinion.

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SYNTAX | 11

Exercise Rule 15—If a Plural Noun denotes a definite

quantity or number, or amount, or
Fill in the blanks in the following sentences distance, or if it denotes the name of a
with appropriate verbs from those given in country or title of a book, it takes a
brackets against each sentence : Singular Verb with it. As—
1. The commission …… divided in their 1. The United States of America is the
opinion on this issue. (are, is) most powerful country.
2. The committee ……… arrived at a unani- 2. Gulliver’s Travels is a novel of adven-
mous decision. (has, have) ture.
3. The ship sank and the crew …… seen 3. Sixty miles is not a long distance for a
making efforts for life. (was, were) motorist.
4. Ten lakh rupees is a huge sum.
4. The Government ……… been

ww deliberating over this issue for the last

two years. (have, has)
5. Four quintals is a heavy load for a camel.
Exercise

w
5. The public ……… cast its vote in favour
Correct the following sentences :
of those who are honest and dependable.

.Ea (has, have)

6. The Staff Council ….. unanimously passed
1. We, who is your loyal followers, should
be trusted.
2. I, who is your servant, must obey you.

syE
this resolution. (has, have)
3. The books, which is sold here, are all old
7. The Governing Body ……… not yet
ones.
arrived at any agreeable decision.
4. This is one of the books which is most
(have, has)
8. The jury … awarded death punishment on
him in one voice. (has, have) ngi popular.
5. He is one of those servants who is
9. The mob ……… always fickle-minded.
(is, are) nee absolutely honest.
6. The cars that runs fastest are low-roofed.
7. He is one of the greatest leaders that has
10. The Parliament …… elected its Speaker
without voting. (has, have) ever lived.
rin
8. The books that was found here were

g.n
Hints—1. are; 2. has; 3. were; 4. have; 5. has; 6.
mine.
has; 7. have; 8. has; 9. is; 10. has.
9. Where are your friends who comes here
Relative Pronoun and Verb

e
every day ?
Rule 14—If the Subject of a verb is a Relative
Pronoun (who, whom, whose, which,
that), the verb is used according to the
Number and Person of the Antecedent
(i.e. Noun or Pronoun used before it).
10. I don’t remember the lesson that were
taught yesterday.
11. Lamb’s Tales are a very interesting book.
12. Even ten thousand rupees are a big sum
t
for me.
As—
13. The United States of America are the
1. I, who am your friend, should help you. most advanced country today.
2. You, who are my friend, should help me. 14. Twenty miles are a long distance for a
3. He, who is your friend, should help you. pedestrian.
4. The pen, which is in your hand, is mine. 15. Five hundred rupees are a big sum for a
5. The book, that is on the table, is very poor man.
interesting. Hints—1. are; 2. am; 3. are; 4. are; 5. are; 6. run;
6. He is one of those boys who work very 7. have; 8. were; 9. come; 10. was; 11. is;
hard. 12 is; 13. is; 14. is; 15. is.

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12 | L.W.C.E.

Rule 16—There are certain things which are made 17. That he is your brother now stand confir-
of two major parts. Such things are med.
supposed to be in Plural Number and a
18. Late rising make him late every day.
Plural Verb is used with them. (Such
common things are—Trousers, Scis- Hints—1. are; 2. are; 3. do; 4. have; 5. is; 6. is; 7.
sors, spectacles, shears, tongs, etc.) have; 8. is; 9. is; 10. has; 11. is; 12.
As— shows; 13. is; 14. is; 15 is; 16. is; 17.
1. Your trousers are dirty. stands; 18. makes.
2. Your scissors are blunt. Rule 18—There are certain Adjectives which,
3. The tongs are missing. when joined with the Article the,
4. Where are your spectacles ? become Plural Nouns. They take the
Note—These things can also be referred to as A verb in the Plural Number. (The more

ww pair of ……. In that case only a Singular

Verb will be used. As—
1. A pair of trousers is ready for you.
common of these adjectives are—Poor,
rich, humble, blind, honest, dumb, etc.)
As—

w 2. A pair of scissors is on the table.

.Ea
Rule 17—If the Subject of a sentence is some
infinitive/ gerund / phrase / clause, only
a Singular Verb will be used. As—
1. The poor are honest.
(“The poor” means “poor men”
2. The rich are not used to physical labour.
(“The rich” means “rich men”.)

syE
1. Walking is a good exercise.
2. To work hard is his lot.
3. How to reach there is the problem.
3. The dumb do not speak.
4. The virtuous are respected.

4. That he is honest is known to all

Exercise ngi Rule 19—If in a certain sentence the Subject
carries its Apposition with it, the verb
will be used according to the actual
Correct the following sentences :
1. Your trousers is ready. nee Subject, not according to its Apposition.
As—

rin
1. I , the Manager o f t h e M i l l, am not
2. Where is the scissors ?
happy with your work.
3. Your scissors does not cut well.

g.n
2. You, my servant, are not loyal to me.
4. My spectacles has been broken.
3. He, your teacher, was here yesterday.
5. Here are a pair of trousers for you.
4. We, your students, are playing a match
6. This pair of scissors are very sharp.
7. His tongs has been lost.
8. Telling lies are a bad habit.
9. Sun-bathing are good in cold countries.
today.
e
Note—Apposition is the word or phrase used to
explain or identify the Subject. In the t
above sentence ‘the Manager of the Mill’
10. Cheating your friends have become your is the Apposition of the subject I. Simi-
habit. larly, my servant, your teacher, your
11. To fish in deep waters are his hobby. students are Appositions.
12. To insult the poor show lack of culture. Rule 20—When Adjectives of Quantity (much,
13. What to do in this case are my problem. more, little, less) are used as subjects,
14. How to help this poor woman are our first they take a Singular Verb. As—
consideration. 1. Much has already been done.
15. That he will be suspended are the 2. Little has been done so far.
foregone conclusion. 3. Much more is still needed.
16. That he will win are certain. 4. Much less was expected.

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SYNTAX | 13

Exercise In the same way the following are some more

phrases showing Indefinite Number / Definite
Correct the following sentences : Number in which the same rule applies—
1. The meek is blessed.
(many of, a handful of, the rest of, half
2. The rich lacks in human sympathy.
of, a quarter of, some of, most of, majority
3. The noble is respected in society. of, minority of, part of, percent of, none of,
4. The poor deserves our sympathy. all of, a few of, etc.)
5. The blind needs to get social recognition.
6. We, your admirers, wants to hear you. Quantitative Expressions and the
Verbs
7. He, your employer, are highly pleased
with you. Rule 22—Indefinite Quantity/Definite Quan-
8. You, my cousin, is my only supporter. tity.

ww 9. I, your guardian, is not pleased with your

behaviour.
10. Mohan, your ward, have been absenting
Some expressions suggest Indefinite / Defi-
nite quantity. Quantity whether definite or inde-
finite is always taken to be in Singular Number. The
verb used with it is always in the Singular Num-

w himself for the last four days.

.Ea
11. Much remain to be done.
12. Little progress have been made since July
this year.
ber. As—
1. Much of milk has turned sour.
2. Plenty of tea has gone waste.
3. A lot of butter has been purchased.

syE
13. Less than this were not acceptable.
14. More were expected from a friend like
you.
4. A good deal of food was found to be
tasteless.

ngi
In the same way some other expressions
15. More need to be done. showing Indefinite / Definite Quantity are—a
Hints— 1. are; 2. lack; 3. are; 4. deserve; 5. need; lot of, lots of, heap of, plenty of, half of, a
6. want; 7. is; 8. are; 9. am; 10. has; 11.
remains; 12. has been; 13. was; 14. was;
15. needs. neequarter of, some of, much of, most of, part of,
all of, rest of, a great deal of.

Note—Some expressions given above under

Numeral Expressions and the Verbs
Rule 21—Indefinite Number/Definite Number
rin
Rules 21 and 22 can express both Number
and Quantity. If the noun used after of in
+ of A number of/The number of
(a) A number of is Indefinite number.
(b) The number of is Definite number. g.n
these expressions is countable, i t would
show Number; if it is uncountable, it
would show Quantity. A Plural Verb is
Therefore A number of + Noun always takes
the verb in the Plural Number because Indefinite
Number is believed to be Plural. The number of
e
used with countable nouns, and a Singular
Verb with uncountable nouns.
Exercise
Choose the correct alternative verb in the
t
+ Noun takes Singular Verb because Definite following sentences :
Number is believed to be in the Singular Number.
1. A number of agitators has / have been
As— arrested.
(a) 1. A number of boys have come. 2. Some of the books is/are useless.
2. A number of books have been purchased.
3. A handful of strikers was/were agitating.
3. A number of children are playing.
4. Many of them is/are known to me.
4. A number of students are absent.
5. Half of my old friends has/have retired.
(b) 1. The number of students is going down. 6. The number of seats is/are fixed.
2. The number of graduates is increasing. 7. The number of my followers is/are in-
3. The number of employees is fixed. creasing.
4. The number of guests varies. 8. The number of books is/are not known.

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14 | L.W.C.E.

9. The number of visitors has/have consi- There are some expressions in which Plural
derably increased. Nouns are used after Singular Collective Nouns
10. The number of members in the Parlia- joined with of, as a group of boys, a team of
ment does/do not increase every time. players, a band of singers. In these expressions
11. Much of time has/have been wasted. the Subjects are group, team, band, and not boys,
players, singers (they being Objects of the
12. A lot of energy has/have gone waste. Preposition of.) Moreover, they are joined into
13. A great deal of patience was/were shown one unit by a Singular Collective Noun. All these
by him. will take Singular Verb. As—
14. A lot of labour is/are needed to complete 1. A team of players is staying here.
this task.
2. A garland of flowers is ready.
15. A great amount of suffering was/were
involved in it. 3. A batch of students is studying here.

ww 16. Some of the milk has/have been set

apart.
17. Some of the people has/have already
4. A bunch of grapes has fallen from the
creeper.

Some other singular collective nouns are

w gone back.

.Ea
18. Plenty of time has/have been spent.
19. Plenty of men has/have already turned
up.
these—
a chain of, a garland of, a class of, a bunch
of, a series of, a herd of, a flock of, a band of,
a set of, a bouquet of, a galaxy of, a fleet of, a

syE
20. None of my friends has/have arrived.
Hints—1. have; 2. are; 3. were; 4. are; 5. have; 6.
pair of, a gang of, etc.

Exercise

ngi
is; 7. is; 8. is; 9. has; 10. does; 11. has; 12.
has; 13. was; 14. is; 15. was; 16. has; 17. Correct the following sentences :
have; 18. has; 19. have; 20. both are 1. Many a chance were given to him.
correct—has in the singular sense and
have in the plural.
Rule 23—Many a/an + Singular Noun, More nee 2. Many a beggar sleep here.
3. Many a player were injured.
4. Many a game are lost for want of coordi-
than one
Look at expressions like these—Many a boy,
nation.

rin
5. Many a life are saved by timely help.
Many an opportunity, More than one chance.
They are all correct expressions. They are Singu-
lar in form, b u t Plural in meaning. Therefore g.n
6. More chances than one was given to him.
7. More beggars than one sleeps here.

e
8. More games than one is lost for want of
according to their form, they take a Singular

t
coordination.
Verbs. As—
9. A team of actors are going to give a
1. Many a boy is absent today. demonstration.
2. Many a ship is lost in the ocean. 10. A chain of pearls have been broken.
3. Many an opportunity is missed by 11. A flock of birds nest here every year.
negligence.
12. A band of robbers were detected by the
4. More than one chance was given to him. police.
Note—The above noted expressions can be chan- 13. A pair of shoes are urgently needed.
ged and formed thus also—More boys
than one, More opportunities than one, 14. A galaxy of stars are visible in the sky.
More chances than one. The Subject in 15. A series of questions were put to me.
all these expressions is Plural, therefore, Hints—1. was; 2. sleeps; 3. was; 4. is; 5. is; 6.
they require a Plural Verb. were; 7. sleep; 8. are; 9. is;
Rule 24—Singular Collective Noun + of + Plu- 10. has; 11. nests; 12. was; 13. is; 14. is;
ral Noun 15. was.

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SYNTAX | 15

Rule 25—Hyphenated Expressions/Singular Rule 27—As follows

Noun repeated after a Preposition As follows is always used in the Singular
There are some expressions in which the Number. Therefore we can never say ‘As follow’.
same Singular Noun is repeated after a certain As—
Preposition. As—wave after wave, ship after 1. The conditions are as follows.
ship, brick upon brick, row upon row. With all 2. The details of the case are as follows.
such expressions Singular Verb is used.
3. The account of expenditure is as follows.
1. Ship after ship arrives here. 4. The main points are as follows.
2. Wave after wave follows. Rule 28—Not only ......... but.
3. Brick upon brick is laid. If two subjects are connected by ‘Not only
4. Shot after shot was heard. …… but’, the verb should agree in Person and
Rule 26—Verb ‘to be’ + Complement Number with the second subject. As—

ww The verbs ‘to be’ are—am, is, are, was, were.

These verbs always take a complement after them.
This complement cannot be the subject of the verb
1. Not only the teacher but all his students
were injured.
2. Not only I but all my brothers are

w
‘to be’. The subject comes before the verb ‘to be’

.Ea
and the complement comes after it. In all such
sentences the verb should be used according to the
subject, and not according to the complement of
worried about him.
3. Not only his sons but he himself is a
great artist.
4. Not only they but you are also to blame.
the verb ‘to be’. As—

syE
1. It is I. (Not—It am I.)
2. It is they. (Not—It are they.)
Rule 29—Nothing but + Noun Singular/Plural
Some sentences begin with ‘Nothing but’,
and after this phrase a Singular or a Plural noun
3. It i s my students who won the match.
(Not—It are my students)
ngi comes. In such sentences a Singular Verb is
always used whether the noun following it is
singular or Plural. The reason is that its subject is

nee
4. My great hope is my sons. Nothing which is always Singular. As—
5. Here the greatest danger is the snakes. 1. Nothing but blue waters was seen.
Exercise 2. Nothing but smoke was there.
Choose the correct alternative verb in the
following sentences : rin
3. Nothing but ceaseless toil was his lot.
4. Nothing but hills is seen there.
1. Question after question was/were asked
to me. Rule 30—There is/There are
g.n
Verb ‘to be’ and the Complement

e
2. Problem after problem was/were brought In sentences beginning with There, the verb

t
before me. is or are is used according to the Number of the
Noun coming after the verb. As—
3. Box into box w a s / w e r e placed and
1. There is a book on the table.
locked.
2. There are some books on the table.
4. Attempt after attempt was/were made.
3. There are many chairs.
5. Storey upon storey is/are being built. 4. There is a chair in the room.
6. It is/are they who will help. In the sentences given above, in sentences at
7. My great disappointment is/are my No. 1 and 4 the Nouns book and chair are singu-
repeated failures. lar, therefore the verb is singular (is); in sentences
8. It is/are we who have to take the at No. 2 and 3 the Nouns books and chairs are
responsibility. Plural, therefore the verb is also Plural (are).
9. It is/are they who have deceived me. Exercise
10. It is/are I who shall have to go. Correct the following sentences :
Hints—1. was; 2. was; 3. was; 4. was; 5. is; 6. is; 1. My comments are as follow.
7. is; 8. is; 9. is; 10. is. 2. His observations were as follow.

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16 | L.W.C.E.

3.My story is as follow. 12. Each of these brothers have started a

4.The details of the accident are as follow. good business.
5.His concluding remarks were as follow. 13. The cattle is theirs.
6.Not only I but all my sons am ready to go. 14. Not only silver but also gold are widely
7.Not only the strikers but also their leader popular in our country.
were arrested. 15. Every bush and tree were blossoming.
8. Not only my watch but all my belongings 16. This is one of the best novels that has
has been stolen. appeared this year.
9. Not only Mahatma Gandhi but all his 17. Every one of the boys were on the
followers in the march was arrested. playground.
10. Not only my sister but I also is innocent. 18. The number of men employed were very
11. Nothing but green fields were seen over small.

ww the whole area.

12. Nothing but darkness prevail there.
13. Nothing but heads of men were seen over
19. The sum and substance of the matter are
that he is wrong.
20. Nothing but funny stories delight him.

w the field.

there.
.Ea
14. Nothing but peak over peak appear over

15. Nothing but memories of the past last in

21. Those who lives in glass houses should
not throw stones.
22. A variety of charming scenes appear
before the eye.
the end.
syE
16. There are a lion in the cage.
17. There is parrots of all colours in the cage.
23. Good news have come today.
24. Neither of the sisters were liked.

ngi
25. Five thousand rupees a month are a good
18. There are no fact to hide. income.
19. There is no facts to hide. 26. Either of these books are worth reading.
20. There are my son with his friends.
Hints—1. follows; 2. follows; 3. follows; 4.
follows; 5. follows; 6. are; 7. was; 8. nee27. Neither you nor Ram seem to be
interested in the matter.
28. One of my cousins have settled in
have; 9. were; 10. am 11. was; 12.
prevails; 13. was; 14. appears, 15. lasts;
America.
rin
29. The quality of the mangoes were not

g.n
16. is; 17. are; 18. is; 19. are; 20. is. good.
Miscellaneous : Test Exercise I 30. Justice, as well as mercy, allow it.

e
Hints—1. was; 2. is; 3. is; 4. has; 5. has; 6. is; 7.
Correct the following sentences :

t
is; 8. are; 9. is; 10. are; 11. is; 12. has; 13.
1. Our only guide were the teachers. are; 14. is; 15. was; 16. have; 17. was; 18.
2. Fifty years are a long period. was; 19. is; 20. delights; 21. live; 22.
3. His friend and benefactor are dead. appears, 23. has; 24. was; 25. is; 26. is;
4. Many a man have read this book. 27. seems; 28. has; 29. was; 30. allows.
5. He, as well as his friends, have come. Test Exercise II
6. What is wanted are not buildings but
good students. Supply a verb in agreement with its
7. Arabian Nights are a book for children. subject :
8. Our followers is but a handful. 1. Two and two .......... four.
9. The great poet and dramatist are dead. 2. There ........... many proposals before us.
10. You, who is my friend, should support 3. There ........... no provision for it.
me. 4. Neither his father nor his mother .........
11. The father, with his two sons, are stand- any knowledge of it.
ing outside. 5. The Board ......... chosen its chairman.

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SYNTAX | 17

6. The public ......... requested not to cross Rule 1—First Person Pronoun
the Railway track. (a) First Person Pronoun Singular Number I
7. The popular leader with his followers takes me, my, mine, myself.
......... been arrested. (b) First Person Plural W e, takes our, us,
8. Not one of you ......... capable of doing ours, ourselves. As—
this. 1. I shall do it myself.
9. No news ........... good news. 2. I shall have my chance.
10. One or the other of those boys ......... 3. We shall do it ourselves.
stolen my watch. 4. We shall have our chance.
11. Neither of the guests ......... known to me. Rule 2—Second Person Pronoun
12. Two-thirds of the city ............. in ruins. Second Person Pronoun you remains the same
both in Singular and Plural Numbers. It takes

ww 13. Neither pleasure nor profit ........... my

weakness.
14. Milton was one of the greatest poets that
your, yours, yourself, yourselves. As—
1. You can do it yourself.

w
......... ever lived. 2. You should do your work.
15. The cost of all these articles .......... risen. Rule 3—Third Person Pronoun : Masculine/

.Ea
Test Exercise III
Feminine, Singular/ Plural Number.
(i) Third Person, Singular Number, Masculine

syE
Explain why the following sentences are Gender takes he, him, his, himself.
correct or incorrect : (ii) Third Person, Singular Number, Feminine
1. Much of time has been wasted. Gender takes she, her, hers, herself.
2. Every one of them were present.
3. Mohan, with all his friends, have missed
the train. ngi (iii) Nouns of Neuter Gender and most of the
animals in the Singular Number take It, Its,
Itself.
4. Three parts of the work still remains to be
completed.
nee
(iv) Third Person Plural Number, both in Mas-
culine and Feminine genders, all neuter
nouns and all animals in Plural Number take

rin
5. Three-fourths of the books has been eaten
by white-ants. They, them, their, theirs, themselves. As—
6. Either he or I has to go. 1. He will do his work himself.
7. One of the most serious accidents has
occurred. g.n
2. She will do her work herself.
3. Those boys will do their work them-

e
selves.
8. Many a passenger have missed the train.
9. The Parliament have been debating on the
Bill since the morning.
10. She and I was playing in the garden.
11. Mystery within mystery was revealed
4. Those girls will do their work them-
selves.
5. This book is mine. I lent it to you some
time back.
t
6. Those books are mine. I lent them to you
before me. some time back.
12. A chain of accidents have occurred. 7. Every student has completed his work.
Rule 4—Common Gender
Concord of Nouns, Pronouns and Some Nouns are of Common Gender, i.e.,
Possessive Adjectives they can be used both in the Masculine and
We have explained above the rules of agree- Feminine Genders. With such nouns Masculine
ment of Subject and Verb. In addition to these, Pronoun is mostly used. These Nouns of Com-
there are also some rules of agreement between mon Gender are :
Noun, Pronoun and Possessive Adjectives. We Person, student, pupil, candidate, member,
give below these rules. scholar, reader, etc. As—

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18 | L.W.C.E.

1. A candidate should know his strong and On the basis of the rules explained above the
weak points. following two Tables can be made for the correct
2. A student should do his home work use of Pronouns—
regularly. Table I : Third Person Pronoun
3. Readers are advised to keep their
belongings outside. Noun Corresponding
But if in a definite context the suggestion is Pronoun
clearly for a girl or a woman, Feminine Pronoun man, boy, everyone, he, him, his, himself
can be used. As— everybody, every
1. A student of the Women’s College person
should be regular in her work. woman, girl, every she, her, hers, herself
2. Every member of our club should pay woman, every girl

ww her fee in time. a thing, an animal it, its, itself

Rule 5—Baby, child, one one, one’s, oneself
The words Baby and child connote no sense men, women, people, they, them, their,

w
of Gender. Therefore, for them we generally use
It. As—

.Ea
1. The small child was crying for its mother.
2. The baby fell down from its cradle.
animals, things theirs,
themselves.
Table II : All Forms of Personal Pronouns

syE
Rule 6—Animals Personal
Pronoun
Neuter Gender (It) is generally used for
animals. As— Nomi- Accus- Posses Posses- Reflexive
native ative -sive sive Pronoun
1. The cow is not in its shed.
2. The dog has hurt its leg.
ngi Adjec- Pro-
tive noun

nee
Note—For pet domestic animals He / his or She / I me my mine myself
her are used.
you you your yours yourself
Rule 7—Possessives : His, Her, Its he him his his himself
The Gender of a Possessive Pronoun / Adjec-
tive is determined by the gender of the noun that
she
it
her
it
her
its itsrin
hers herself'
itself

g.n
comes before it, and not by the one that comes
after it. As— one one one’s one’s oneself
1. A son must obey his mother. (not her we us our ours ourselves
mother)
2. A girl can learn many things from her
father. (not his father)
3. The purse has been returned to its owner.
you
they
you
them
your
their
yours
theirs

Exercise
e yourselves
themselves

t
(not his owner) Fill in the blanks in the following sentences
Note—The difference between a Possessive with correct pronouns or possessive adjectives :
Pronoun and a Possessive Adjective is 1. You must write .......... essays more care-
that— fully.
(a) Possessive Adjective takes a Noun after 2. The dog is very faithful to .......... master.
it— 3. The children have gone on a picnic with
My book, your house, his pen, their ......... parents.
college. 4. Sheela has misplaced ........... books some-
(b) Possessive Pronoun has no Noun after it. where.
This book is mine. This house is yours. 5. Could you please lend.........your dictio-
This pen is his. This college is theirs. nary for a day ?

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SYNTAX | 19

6. She speaks so softly that we cannot hear 5. The pet dog is playing with.......... master.
............ . 6. The street dog has hidden ............. behind
7. We offered to help.........in their difficulty. the wall.
8. They will go there ............ .
7. She received a beautiful present from
9. My sister and ............. friends have come. .......... husband.
10. She cannot go against the wishes of .........
father. 8. One should honour .............. word.
11. The baby is in .......... mother’s arms. 9. Visitors are requested to put............
12. The train is running on .......... track. signatures in the register.
Hints— 1. your; 2. its; 3. their; 4. her; 5. me; 6. 10. This pen is ........... . Where is ......... ?
her; 7. them; 8. themselves. 9. her. 10. 11. They should not have spent that money,
her; 11. its; 12. its. as it was not ........ .

ww Test Exercise
Insert suitable pronouns or possessive
adjectives in the blank spaces in the following
12. We should be very careful in spending
......... money.
13. Do you remember........and.........address ?

w
sentences :

.Ea
1. The baby was crying because .......... was
hungry.
2. Neeru is two years older than ........
14. ........... house is bigger than .......... .
15. The principal asked the students to meet
......... in ....... office.
brother.
syE
3. These children are waiting for .........
father to return.
16. A reader has left............book on the table.
Hints—1. it; 2. her; 3. their; 4. their; 5. his; 6.
itself; 7. her; 8. one’s; 9. their; 10. mine,
4. He and his two sons have gone to visit
.......... grandfather.
ngi yours; 11. theirs; 12. our; 13. her, her; 14.
her, his; 15. him, his; 16. his.

nee
rin
g.n
e t

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3 Articles
Kinds of Articles (i) Article A is used before Nouns of which
the spellings begin with a consonant. As—
There are two kinds of Articles—

ww (i) Indefinite Article—A or An

(ii) Definite Article—The
Indefinite Article (A/An) shows indefinite-
A boy, a table, a house, a book.
(ii) Article A is also used before words which
begin with a vowel but are pronounced as with a

w
ness and Definite Article (The) shows definite-
ness.

.Ea
Articles (A, An, The) are used before Nouns
under some rules. When a Singular Countable
consonant. As—
A European, a unique chance, a one-rupee
note, a usual sight, a universal truth.
Such other words are—University, utensil,

syE
Noun is used for the first time, Article A or An is
used before it. But when a Countable Noun,
whether Singular or Plural, is used for a definite
uniform, union, unity, unit, united, unitarian, use-
ful, one.
Note—You will see that all these words begin
thing, or refers to a thing or person that has
already been referred to earlier, Article The is
used before it. Thus when a Singular Countable ngi with the sound of y or w (which are con-
sonants) and not with the sound of any
vowel.
Noun is used for the first time, Article a or an is
used before it, but when the same noun is repeated
in the same sentence or in the subsequent sen- nee (iii) Article An is used before those words
which begin with a vowel (a, e, i, o, u). As—
tences, Article The is used before it because then
it becomes a definite thing already referred to
rin
An enemy, an ox, an inkpot, an ass.
(iv) Article An is also used before those words

g.n
earlier. As— which begin with silent / mute h. As—
1. I have a book. The book is very informa- an hour, an honourable man, an honest per-
tive. son.
2. I have a book, though the book is not
very informative.
3. There was a house. The house was very
large.
e
Such other words are—heir, heiress, heir-
loom, honest, honesty, honorarium, honorary,
honour, honourable, hour, hourly. t
4. There was a house and the house was Note—Earlier humble, humility, hotel, hostel,
very large. hospital were also supposed to begin with
Singular Indefinite Noun A or An silent h, and article a n was used before
them. But now these words are pronounced
Singular/Plural Definite Noun The with the consonant sound of h , and
Forms of Indefinite Article therefore article a is used before them.
Indefinite Article has two forms—A and An. (v) Some Abbreviations are there which are
Which one of these two forms will be used before pronounced with a Vowel sound and therefore
a certain Noun depends upon the spellings, sound article an is used before them. As—
or pronunciation of the Noun under reference. The an M. A.; an M. P.; an M. L. A.; an F. I. R;
following are its rules— an S. D. O.; an H. M. T.; an R. T. O. etc.

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ARTICLES | 21

Note—If the above noted Abbreviations are used 1. A cow has horns. (i.e., All cows have
in their full form, they take article a. As— horns.)
A Member of Parliament (an M. P.) 2. An eagle flies very high. (i.e., All eagles
A Master of Arts (an M. A.) fly very high.)
Exercise 3. A dog is a faithful animal.
4. A rose smells very sweet.
Fill in the blanks with a/an in the following
sentences : Rule 3—Article A or An is used before a Noun
Complement. As—
1. He is .............. University Professor.
1. He is a lawyer.
2. The workers have formed .......... union.
2. He became a great sportsman.
3. Here is ............. egg.
3. She is an expert in this field.
4. He is ............. M. A. in English.

ww
4. You are a good companion.
5. I want to purchase .......... H. M. T. watch.
Rule 4—a/an + Adjective/Adverb + Noun
6. He gave the beggar ............. one-rupee
If an Adjective /Adverb comes before a Noun,
note.

w
Article A or A n is used before the Adjective /
7. This is ................ usual sight. Adverb, and its form is determined by the nearest

.Ea
8. This is ........... useful medicine.
9. We shall stay in .......... hotel.
10. There is .......... hospital in our colony.
word. As—
1. She is a beautiful girl.

syE
2. He is an honest man.
11. He reached there ......... hour late. 3. He is a very honest man.
12. I have to make .......... humble proposal. 4. This is an old rare book.
13. This is .......... honorary job.
14. My brother is ......... M. P.
15. He is strong like .......... ox. ngi Rule 5—a/an + more than one Noun
(a) When more than one Noun or Adjective
points to one Person or Thing only,
16. ......... boy is waiting for you.
17. He wrote ......... article for the paper. nee Article A or An is used before the first
word only, and its form is also deter-
mined by the same first word.
18. There is .......... inkpot on the table.
Hints—(1) a; (2) a; (3) an; (4) an; (5) an; (6) a; (7) rin
(b) But if they point to different Persons or
Things, Article A or A n is used before
a; (8) a; (9) a; (10) a; (11) an; (12) a; (13)
an; (14) an; (15) an; (16) A; (17) an; (18)
an. g.n
each word, and its form is determined by
each word separately. As—
1. He gave me a red and blue pencil. (Only
(i) Use of Indefinite Article—‘A’/ ‘An’
The following are the rules of correct use of
Indefinite Article A or An :—
Rule 1—Singular Countable Noun
one pencil)

(Two pencils)
e
2. He gave me a red and a blue pencil.

3. Here is an ugly and foolish man. (One

t
person)
When a Singular Countable Noun is used
for the first time, Article A or An is used before it. 4. Here is an ugly and a foolish man. (Two
As— persons)
1. I have a book. Exercise
2. He is a boy. Correct the following sentences :
3. There is an eagle. 1. She has beautiful toy.
4. Delhi is a city. 2. I take egg every morning with breakfast.
Rule 2—When a Singular Countable Noun re- 3. I saw large a lion in the zoo.
presents a whole class, Article A, or An 4. Elephant has a long trunk.
is used before it. As— 5. Hungry lion would attack.

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22 | L.W.C.E.

6. Duck swims on water. Rule 9—Numerical expressions

7. Eagle is a bird of prey. Article A or An is used before some Nume-
8. My father is doctor. rical Expressions also. The more common of
9. His brother is a M. P. such expressions are—
10. He has become great a man. a couple, a dozen, a score, a hundred, a
thousand, a million, a lot of, a great many of, etc.
11. He is an very industrious student. As—
12. Shakespeare is renowned dramatist. 1. A couple of people were there.
13. This is a ancient monument. 2. He gave me a thousand rupees.
14. He lives in old ancestral a house. 3. A great many visitors had turned up.
15. My teacher is a poet and a novelist. 4. A score of houses had been damaged.
16. A poet and novelist write differently. Rule 10—Expressions of price, speed, ratio, etc.

ww 17.
18.
He is honest and a dependable man.
There can be no friendship between a
clever and selfish man.
Article A or An is also used with expressions
of price, speed, ratio, etc. As—
1. The train is running at ninety kilometers

w
Hints—(1) a beautiful; (2) an egg; (3) a large lion;
(4) An elephant; (5) A hungry lion; (6) A

.Ea
duck; (7) An eagle; (8) a doctor; (9) an
M. P.; (10) a great man; (11) a very; (12) a
renowned; (13) an ancient; (14) an old
an hour.
2. Bananas are available at ten rupees a
dozen.
3. Sugar sells at ten rupees a kilogram.

syE
ancestral house; (15) a poet and novelist;
(16) a novelist; (17) an honest and depen-
dable; (18) a selfish man.
4. Colour and water are mixed at a ratio of
one to five.
5. Take this medicine three times a day.
Rule 6—Such + a/an
When such is used with a Countable Noun, ngi Rule 11—a/an + Mr. /Mrs./Miss + Surname
If we know only the surname of a person, and

nee
Article A or An is used after such. As— know nothing more, we use Article A or An
1. I have never seen such a beautiful before the surname. As—
picture. (not a such beautiful) 1. A Mr. Sharma came in the morning.
2. Such a thing has never happened before.
3. It was such a fine show.
rin
2. I met a Mrs. Peters in the train.
3. A Miss Renick is a regular visitor here.

g.n
4. He gave us such a pleasant surprise.
4. A Ms. Puri is waiting for you.
Rule 7—So + Adjective + a/an + Noun
Rule 12—A few/a little
When so comes before an Adjective, Article
A or An is used between the Noun and Adjective.
As—
1. I have never seen so beautiful a picture.
(not a so beautiful picture)
a little for small quantity. As—
1. Here is a little milk.
2. Here are a few pencils.
e
We should use a few for a small number, and

t
2. It was so fine a show. 3. He is a little tired.
3. He gave us so pleasant a surprise. 4. There is a little time left.
4. I have never read so interesting a novel. Rule 13—a/an with some phrases
Rule 8—Exclamations Article A or An is also used before some
Article A or A n is used before a Singular typical expressions. The more common of them
Countable Noun in Exclamatory sentences also. are—
As— to make a noise, to take a fancy to, to
1. What a hot day ! have a headache/a pain, to take a liking to, to
2. What a cruel act ! have a cold, to have a mind, to have an eye to,
3. What a pretty child ! to make a fire, to be in a hurry, to be in a
temper, to have a taste for.
4. What a good chance !

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ARTICLES | 23

Exercise Exercise : Revision

Correct the following sentences : Tell whether the use of article a/an in the
1. I have never gone to a such place. following sentences is right or wrong. If wrong,
correct it.
2. A such accident never occurred before.
1. He is a very honourable man.
3. It gave us such rude shock.
2. He is a N. C. C. officer.
4. I have never seen such attractive a
picture. 3. He is a extremely liberal man.
5. He has given me a so beautiful prize. 4. A cobra is poisonous.
6. We never believed he could do so a cruel 5. He is a blind and a lame man.
deed. 6. I saw a blind and a lame man.
7. It was so exciting match. 7. She is such a cultured girl.

ww 8. What noble deed was done !

9. A what shame was it !
8. She is a such cultured a girl.
9. She is such cultured girl.

w 10. How a vast desert was there !

.Ea
11. He gave them lot of books.
12. We saw score of houses in the new
colony.
10. It was so a wonderful sight.
11. It was a so wonderful sight.
12. It was so wonderful a sight.
13. What a beautiful catch !

month.
syE
13. He earns an about thousand rupees per

14. Rajdhani Express runs at a speed of 200

14. What beautiful a catch !
15. He will get a couple of chances more.
kilometers hour.
15. I go on my tours twice week. ngi 16. He will get a couples of chances more.
17. I can drive at an 80 kilometers hour.
18. Few a men are still there.
16. Wheat sells at four rupees kilogram.
17. There is a call from Miss Sharma.
18. Mr. Wahi is waiting for you.
nee 19. I have a liking for a old model.
20. Please make an fire.
19. I saw him little while ago.
20. There are only few books left. rin
21. I found him in bad a temper.
22. I am in no a hurry.

21. We found him little upset.

22. He has caught severe cold.
(II) Article—‘The’
g.n
Article The is used under the following Rules
23. He is rather in hurry.
24. Please don’t make noise.
25. I have mind to purchase this scooter.
and conditions—
e
Rule 1—Definite Person or Thing
As has been explained above at the beginning
of this Chapter, Article The is used before a
t
Hints—(1) such a place; (2) such an accident; (3) definitely specified person or thing. In other
such a; (4) such an attractive; (5) so words, the is used before a person or a thing
beautiful a; (6) so cruel a; (7) so exciting a; which has already been referred to earlier, or
(8) a noble deed; (9) What a; (10) How which has been specified in some other way. As—
vast a; (11) a lot of; (12) a score of; (13) 1. This is the house in which my friend
about a thousand; (14) an hour; (15) a lives.
week; (16) a kilogram; (17) a Miss (Here a house cannot be used because
Sharma; (18) A Mr. Wahi; (19) a little the house has been specified as the one
while; (20) a few books; (21) a little; (22) where my friend lives.)
a severe; (23) a hurry; (24) a noise; (25) a 2. The place where I was born is far away
mind. from here.

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24 | L.W.C.E.

3. This is the book I purchased yesterday. Exercise

4. He is the gentleman whom I introduced Correct the following sentences :
to you last year. 1. An advice you gave me has brought me
Rule 2—Before all those Common Nouns which great success.
are only one or believed to be only one, 2. I have never seen a house where I spent
but which are not Proper Nouns. As— my childhood.
1. The earth is round. 3. Sun rises in the east.
2. The sky is blue. 4. There are dark clouds in sky.
3. The sun has risen. 5. The man cannot do without work.
6. The woman is confined to the kitchen.
4. The moon shines.
7. Himalayas are spread all along the north
Rule 3—Before all those Singular Nouns which

ww
of India.
represent their whole class. As—
8. Man has climbed to the top of the Mount
1. The cow is a gentle animal. Everest.

w 2. The rose is a sweet smelling flower.

3. The apple is good for children.

.Ea
4. The horse lives on grass.
Note—But Article the is not used before Man,
9. I read Indian Express.
10. Dickens’s the David Copperfield is a
great novel.
Hints—(1) The advice; (2) the house; (3) the sun;

syE
Woman, or Mankind even if they may
represent the whole class. As—
Man is a social animal. (Not The man)
(4) the sky; (5) ‘The’ not to be used; (6)
‘The’ not to be used; (7) The Himalayas;
(8) no ‘the’ before Mount Everest; (9) the
Indian Express; (10) ‘the’ not to be used.
Woman is man’s partner. (Not The
woman) ngi Rule 6—Before musical instruments. As—
The flute, the guitar, the orchestra.
Rule 4—Before the names of mountains, rivers,
oceans, lakes, bays, islands article The is
used. As— nee
Rule 7—Before Superlative Adjective/Adverb.
As—

rin
The highest mountain, the longest river,
1. The Ganges is a holy river. the best boy, the most important point,
2. The Himalayas are the highest moun- the most honourable man.
tains.
3. The Red Sea is a small sea. g.n
Rule 8—Before that Proper Noun which carries
its qualifying adjective before it. As—
4. The British Isles are in Europe.
Note—But article The is not used before a single
specified Peak or Hill. As—
Mount Everest (The will not be used.)
e
The great Caesar, the immortal Shakes-
peare, the gentle-hearted Lamb, the brave
Rana Pratap, the late Mrs. Indira Gandhi.
Rule 9—Before the Common Noun which ex- t
presses the sense of Abstract Noun. As—
Mount Abu 1. The patriot in him did not let him yield.
Rule 5—Article The is used before the titles of 2. The warrior in him kept his morale
books, magazines or News-papers. As— high.
The Ramayan, The Iliad, The Vedas, 3. The father in him came to his support at
The Gulliver’s Travels. last.
Note—But if the author’s name is mentioned with Rule 10—Before the Adjective which is used as
the title of a book, article the is not used. Collective Noun. As—
As— 1. We should help the poor.
Homer’s Iliad, Tulsi’s Ramcharitmanas; 2. The meek are blessed.
Shakespeare’s Tempest. 3. The noble are always respected.

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ARTICLES | 25

Rule 11— With Double Comparative Adverb. Exercise

As— Correct the following sentences :
1. The more he gets, the more he desires. 1. She can very well play on guitar.
(Remember that the Article the is used 2. Now I come to most important point.
before each Adverb separately.)
3. He has scored highest marks.
2. The more, the merrier.
4. The last speaker was great Gandhi.
3. The harder he works, the better returns
he will get. 5. Late Mrs. Indira Gandhi lived here.
Rule 12—Article the is also used before those 6. He was last to come.
Proper Nouns which stand for some 7. Mother in her could not bear it.
Nation or People. As— 8. Warrior in him stood undaunted.
1. The English are very hard working.

ww 2. The French are very fashionable.

3. The German are heroic people.
9. This is the school for blind.
10. Blessed are poor.
11. The faster you go, earlier you reach.

w
Note—If Article the is not used before such
countries or nations, they would mean the

.Ea
Language of those countries or nations.
Thus English means English Language,
and The English means English People.
12. Faster you go, the earlier you reach.
13. Faster you go, earlier you reach.
14. He knows the French.

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15. English are traditionalists.
Rule 13—Article the is also used before a noun to 16. He is scientist of the day.
give it the force of the Superlative. 17. The marriage takes place on 12th of
As—
1. He is the scholar of the day.
2. He is the historian on this period. ngi December.
18. Richard Second was murdered in his own
country.
Rule 14—Before Ordinal Number the. As—
The first, the Fifth, the fourth, the 4th, nee 19. You will find this topic in the V chapter.
20. You will find this topic in fifth chapter.

rin
the 8th, the 3rd, the 2nd, the 15th of
April/the fifteenth of April, George the 21. He has joined Navy.
Fifth, Henry the 8th. 22. He has opted to join legal profession.
Note—But if these Ordinal Numbers are written
in Roman figures Article the is not used. I, g.n
23. Akbar, great Moghul, was a liberal
monarch.
II, III, IV, V, IX, etc. are in Roman figures.
As—
V Chapter, Canto XII, George V, Henry
VIII.
great man.
e
24. Nehru, Prime Minister of India, was a

25. Caesar, Roman hero, was killed by his

own friends.
t
Rule 15—Before Professions. As—
Hints—(1) the guitar; (2) the most; (3) the
1. He has joined the Bar.
highest; (4) the great; (5) the late; (6) the
2. He has gone to the navy. last; (7) The mother; (8) The warrior; (9)
3. I am interested in the teaching profes- the blind; (10) the poor; (11) the earlier;
sion. (12) The faster; (13) The faster, the earlier;
4. He is a member of the Bench. (14) ‘the’ not to be used; (15) The English;
Rule 16—Before Common Nouns used as appo- (16) the scientist; (17) the 12th; (18) the
sitions to Proper Nouns. As— Second; (19) ‘the’ not to be used; (20) the
Delhi, the capital of India; Nehru, the fifth; (21) the Navy; (22) the legal; (23) the
great patriot; Rana Pratap, the great great; (24) the Prime Minister; (25) the
warrior. Roman hero.

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26 | L.W.C.E.

(III) Omission of Articles Rule 5—No Article is used before Collective

No Articles are used in the following cases— Nouns. As—
1. Society will not permit it.
Rule 1—Before Plural Noun
2. Parliament is in session.
Normally no Articles are used before 3. Jury has given its verdict.
Plural Nouns. As—
4. Army is on the move.
1. Birds fly.
Rule 6—Normally no Article is used before the
2. Cows give milk. names of countries or States. But Article
3. I love books. The is used before the names of the
Note—But if the Plural Noun points to some following Countries / States—
specific or special thing, Article The is The U. S. A., The U. S. S. R., The Sudan,
used. As— The Netherlands, The Punjab, The Congo.

ww 1. The birds of Africa are large in size.

2. The cows of Haryana give much milk.
Rule 2—Before a Proper Noun, As—
Rule 7—No Article is used before the names of
Languages. As—
1. I know English.

w 1. Ram is coming.

.Ea
2. Mohan loves his sister.
Rule 3—Before an Abstract Noun, As—
2. He knows French.
Rule 8—No Article is used before the names of
Diseases, Festivals, and Seasons. As—
1. Cholera has broken out.
1. Love is blind.

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2. Wisdom comes with age.
3. This is real beauty.
2. He is coming on Christmas.
3. These are winter sports.
4. Let us visit Shimla in spring.
Rule 4—Before a Material Noun, As—
1. Gold is costly. ngi 5. I don’t travel in summer.
Rule 9—No Article is used before the names of
Games, Sports and Meals/Breakfast. As—
2. Silver is white.
3. Cotton grows in our country.
nee 1. I am late for dinner.
2. I take breakfast quite early.

rin
4. Water is life. 3. I shall return for supper.
(Gold, silver, iron, glass, wood, stone, 4. He plays cricket.
paper, wine, coffee, tea, etc. are called 5. They are fond of football.
Material Noun)
Note—All the Nouns mentioned under Rules No. g.n
Rule 10—No Article is used before Relations
such as father, mother, brother, sister,
2, 3 and 4 above are called Uncountable
Nouns. Normally, as has been explained
above, no Article is used before them. But
if these nouns are used as Countable
Nouns, Article the is used before them. If
e
aunt, uncle, etc. cook and nurse are
also to be included in this list. As—
1. Father is coming today.
2. Mother is not well today.
t
these nouns are followed by some 3. Cook is in the kitchen.
Prepositional Phrase (with in or of), they 4. Nurse is very kind.
become Countable Nouns. In such cases Rule 11—School, college, church, chapel, court,
Article The is used before them. As— work, hospital, market, bed, table, sea,
1. Kalidas is the Shakespeare of India. prison also take no Article before them
2. The beauty of Kashmir is remarkable. when they are used for their specific
3. The gold of Kollar fields is not of high purpose or function. For example,
quality. schools / Colleges for education, church
4. The milk in the cup has turned sour. for prayer, and market for purchase or
5. The wisdom of Solomon was known far sale. When used in this sense, they take
and wide. no Article. As—

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ARTICLES | 27

1. I am going to college. (for study) 3. Horses of Kabul are very famous.

2. I am going to church. (for prayer or 4. The mercy is a Divine virtue.
worship) 5. He was afflicted with the blindness.
But when they mean only building or 6. Have the pity on him.
place for visit or sight–seeing or any 7. The beauty is a gift of God.
other purpose, they take appropriate 8. Beauty of the rising sun is so exciting.
Article. As— 9. The water is very scarce here.
1. The college is at the next crossing. 10.Tea of the Malabar Hills is of good
2. The church is magnificent. quality.
3. The market is closed. 11. The Parliament has passed this bill.
Rule 12—Distributive Adjective + Noun require 12. U. S. S. R. has been split up into several
no Article. As— countries.

ww 1. Each boy got a prize. (not, a/the each

boy)
13. Punjab is a very fertile state.
14. He has been afflicted by the cholera.
15. We go to some hill station in the summer.

w
2. I love every student. (not, a/the every
student) 16. He takes the dinner after 10 p. m.

.Ea
Rule 13—Possessive Adjective + Noun also re-
quire no Article. As—
17. I have received a letter from the father.
18. I have to go to the college today.

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1. This is my house. (not, the/a my house) 19. College building is very impressive.
2. He is your friend. (not, a/the your friend.) 20. The each boy participated in the games.
3. These are our cows. (not, the our cows) 21. Each the boy participated in the games.
Rule 14—Proper Noun + Apostrophe’s + Noun
take no Article. As—
1. This is Ram’s house. (not, a Ram’s ngi 22. I know the every student by name.
23. We are all going to the church.
24. We are all going to church to see the
house)
2. That was Mohan’s mistake. (not, a/the nee carvings on its walls.
25. That is a Nehru’s statue.

rin
Mohan’s mistake) 26. This is lion’s cave.
Note—But if a Common Noun has Apostrophe s 27. This is farmer’s plough.

g.n
(’s), it takes an appropriate Article. As— 28. There is a no book on the table.
1. This is a n old man’s house. (not, old 29. He has a not any new suit.
man’s house) 30. I did not find a any friend there.
2. That is a beggar’s cottage. (not, beggar’s
cottage)
Rule 15—No/Not any + Noun need no Article.
As—
e
Hints—(1) ‘the’ not to be used; (2) The children
(3) The horses; (4) ‘the’ not to be used;
(5) ‘the’ not to be used; (6) No ‘the’; (7)
No ‘the‘; (8) the beauty; (9) No ‘the’; (10)
t
The tea; (11) No ‘the’; (12) the U. S. S.
1. There is no boy in the class. (not, a no R.; (13) the Punjab; (14) No ‘the’; (15)
boy) No ‘the’; (16) No ‘the’; (17) No ‘the’;
2. She has not any chance. (not, a not any (18) No ‘the’; (19) The college; (20) No
chance) ‘The’; (21) No ‘the’; (22) No ‘the’; (23)
3. There is not any egg. (not, not an any No ‘the’; (24) the church; (25) No ‘a’;
egg) (26) a lion’s; (27) a farmer’s; (28) No ‘a’;
(29) No ‘a’; (30) No ‘a’.
Exercise
Rule 16—The Noun (complement) used after
Correct the following sentences : Elect / appoint / make / crown requires
1. I love the children. no Article. Such nouns refer to men of
2. Children of this school are very smart. unique position. As—

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28 | L.W.C.E.

1. He was appointed principal. Exercise

2. They made him chairman. Correct the following sentences :
3. They are going to crown him king.
1. He has been appointed the Vice-Chan-
4. He was elected Speaker of the Assembly. cellor.
Rule 17—The noun used after kind of / sort of 2. He has been elected the Speaker of the
also takes no Article. As— Parliament.
1. What kind of chair do you want to buy ? 3. They made him the Chief Guest.
2. I cannot deal with this sort of man. 4. What kind of a house do you want to
Note—But if kind of / sort of refers to some buy?
special quality or talent, it would take an 5. What sort of a man is he ?
appropriate Article. As— 6. They are the brother and sister.
1. What kind of a musician is he ?

ww 2. What sort of a problem would you

discuss ?
7. They went round from the house to
house.
8. They knocked from the door to door.

w
Rule 18— Nouns coming in pairs also take no
Article. As— 9. I travelled by the road.

.Ea
They are wife and husband.
Other such pairs are—
10. This house is for the sale.
11. I have no work in the hand.

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12. Your demand is under the consideration.
Father and mother; brother and sister; father
and son; from door to door; from house to 13. He is in the trouble.
house; face to face; hand to hand; from man to 14. He was at the fault.
man; from village to village, etc.
Rule 19—Some popular Phrases, Idiomatic ngi15. He is in America at the present.
Hints—(1, 2, 3)—No ‘the’; (4, 5)—No ‘a’; (6 to

nee
expressions, places and things also take 15)—No ‘the’.
no Article before the Noun in them. (IV) Position of Articles
They are—
It is equally necessary to know the place /
1. to go to school, college, court, church,
market, bed, home, hospital, prison.
rin
position in a sentence where the Article (a, an or
the) should be used. The following are the Rules
2. by road, by train, by air, by sea, by
ship/steamer, by train, by bus, by car.
3. at home, at church, at school, at college,
for it—
Rule 1—Before a Noun
g.n
e
Normally Article (a, an or the) is used
at office, at dawn, at night, at noon, all

t
before a Noun. As—
day, all night, at fault, at present, at all, at A book, an enemy, the horse
will.
Rule 2—Adjective + Noun
4. for sale, for fear, for favour, for leave, for
mercy. If an Adjective comes before a noun, the
Article is used before the Adjective.
5. in bed, in debt, in fact, in trouble, in
As—
hand, at hand, in favour of, in front of, in
opposition to, in earnest. A good book, a beautiful girl, the black
6. under consideration, under trial, under horse.
ground, under pressure. Rule 3—Adverb + Adjective + Noun
7. on demand, on trial, on sale, on foot, on If there is Adjective before a Noun, and
earth, on behalf of. also an Adverb before the Adjective, the
8. to catch fire, to send word, to give ear, to Article is used before the Adverb. As—
set sail, to lose heart, to set foot, to take A very good book, an extremely beau-
offence. tiful girl, the most intelligent boy.

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ARTICLES | 29

Rule 4—Many/such/what Hints—(1) a sharp; (2) a good example; (3) the

If there is use of many, such, what in a great; (4) a highly exciting; (5) a very
sentence, the Article is used after them. interesting; (6) Many a man; (7) such a
As— magnificent; (8) What a great; (9) as
cultured a man; (10) as successful a
Many a man, such a beautiful, such a debate; (11) so great a fair; (12) too clear
house, what a man, what a place. an evidence.
Rule 5—As/how
Exercise : Revision 1
If in a sentence as / how are used before
an Adjective, the Article is used after the Fill in the blanks in the following sentences
Adjective. As— with appropriate articles :
As gentle a girl as she; as brave a man as 1. Iron is .............. useful metal.
he; how good a boy; how excellent an 2. He always speaks ............ truth.

ww opportunity.
Rule 6—So/too
If in a sentence so / too are used before
3. ............. sky is overcast.
4. I first saw the Himalayas .......... year ago.

w
5. ........... Ganga is .......... sacred river.
an Adjective, Article is used after the 6. She is ............ untidy girl.

.Ea
Adjective. As—
So serious an attempt.
So brave a man.
7. I bought ......... pen, .......... inkpot and
......... pencil.

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Too clear an answer.
Too far a place.
8. Let us discuss ............ problem seriously.
9. What .......... piece of work is man !
10. He scored ........... highest marks.
Note—Under this Rule, sometimes, Article is
used before so/too, though this use is not
popular. ngi 11. John, .......... Manager of the factory, has
gone on .......... tour.

Exercise
Correct the following sentences— nee 12. He reads .......... Bible twice ............ day.
13. He was driving the car at 80 Km. ..........
hour.
1. This is sharp a pen.
2. He has placed good an example.
rin
14. March is ............ third month of the year.
15. Which is ........... nearest station from
3. You have lost great the chance offered to
you last year.
here?
g.n
16. It is ............ sheer delight to talk to him.
4. We saw highly an exciting sport at the
stadium.
5. The Mayor of Casterbridge is very
interesting a novel.
e
Hints—(1) a; (2) the; (3) The; (4) a; (5) The; a;
(6) an; (7) a, an, a; (8) the; (9) a; (10) the;
(11) the; a; (12) the, a; (13) an; (14) the;
(15) the; (16) a. t
6. A many man was standing on the stage. Exercise : Revision 2
7. I had never seen a such magnificent
Correct the following sentences :
building.
1. This is an university college.
8. A what great chance was given to you.
2. He is ablest boy of the class.
9. We never saw an as cultured man as he.
3. The man is mortal.
10. There had never been as a successful
4. He lives in an hostel.
debate as that.
5. The water is not available here.
11. There had never been so a great fair ever
held here before. 6. Bible is the holy book of the Christians.
7. I am learning the English these days.
12. You cannot give a too clear evidence on
this issue. 8. He will always help poor.

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30 | L.W.C.E.

9. Harder you work, better success you will 14. What is .......... best solution of the pro-
get. blem ?
10. I have lost a pen I purchased yesterday. 15. ......... sky is quite clear today.
11. Don’t make noise. 16. ......... Punjab is ........ prosperous state.
12. Here is the English and the Hindi version 17. Mahatma Gandhi was hailed as........
of the Gita. father of ......... country.
13. Sweet are the uses of the adversity. 18. Read ........ sixth chapter carefully.
14. He is the proprietor and the manager of 19. I have ......... liking for this kind of dress.
the firm. 20. He is in ......... hurry to go.
15. I am the father and the guardian of this
girl. Exercise : Revision 4

ww 16. The audience attentively listened to the Insert appropriate articles where neces-
scholarly and the interesting speech of sary :
the president. 1. Set your watch again; it is hour late.

w 17. The honesty is the best policy.

18. What cold day is this !

.Ea
19. I have never seen a so exciting game.
20. It was a such shocking news.
2. Moon will shine all night today.
3. He is honourable man.
4. It is very old book.
5. He went to sea to collect pebbles from

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Exercise : Revision 3
Fill in the blanks with suitable articles ‘a’,
shore.
6. How beautiful scene is this !
7. He started late in afternoon.
‘an’, or ‘the’ in the following sentences :
1. French is ............ difficult language.
ngi 8. Buy for me best book on Grammar.
9. Would you go for walk with me.

nee
2. ............ Indian is ......... good host.
10. That was proudest moment of my life.
3. You are .......... honourable person.
11. Rose is my favourite flower.
4. .......... French are more fashionable than
........... Germans.
5. Bombay is .......... very expensive city.
rin
12. They never fail who fall in noble cause.
13. I had pleasure of his company for last
6. I bought ........ pen, ......... inkpot, and
.......... penstand from this shop.
four days.
14. Time is best healer.
15. He has caught cold. g.n
7. I first saw ......... Taj ........ year ago.
8. Your watch is ........... hour late.
9. It is ............ honour to be his follower.
10. Draw ......... map of India.
e
16. He has headache since morning.
17. They made fire to keep off wild animals.
18. I go for walk every morning. t
11. The guide knows ......... way to the caves. 19. He spends ten rupees day.
12. Let us consider ........... whole matter 20. This is H. M. T. watch.
from .......... beginning. 21. He is M. P.
13. ......... Bible is .......... holy book. 22. Proud go down in end.

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4 Nouns
The correct use of Noun is not a difficult task. Hunter Huntress Tiger Tigress
We have already explained some of the rules of Instructor Instructress Traitor Traitress
Noun in the Second Chapter on Syntax. The main

wwdifficulty in the use of Noun arises in the correct

use of Gender, Number and Possessive case.
Therefore, before taking up the Rules of Noun, it
Negro
Abbot
Duke
Negress
Abbess
Duchess
Waitor
Master
Murderer
Waitress
Mistress
Murdress

w
is essential to understand the rules regarding the

.Ea
formation of Gender, Number and Possessive
case. The following are their Rules—

Formation of Gender
Emperor
Marquis
Empress
Marchioness
Sorcerer

(c) By adding -ine, -trix, -a—

Sorceress

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The following are the three Rules of forma-
tion of Feminine Gender from the Masculine
Masculine
Hero
Administra-
Feminine
Heroine
Administra-
Masculine
Czar
Sultan
Feminine
Czarina
Sultana
Gender—
1. By adding-ess,- ine,- trix, -a to the word in
the Masculine Gender. The addition of-ess is most ngi
tor
Executor
Testator
trix
Executrix
Testatrix
Signor
Fox
Signora
Vixen
popular. As—
(a) nee2. By adding an entirely new word before or
after the Masculine word. As—

rin
Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine
Author Authoress Mayor Mayoress Bull-calf Cow-calf Grandfather Grandmo
-ther
Baron
Count
Giant
Baroness
Countess
Giantess
Patron
Peer
Poet
Patroness
Peeress
Poetess
Cock-
sparrow
Hen-
sparrow
g.n
Great-uncle Great-
aunt
Heir
Host
Jew
Lion
Heiress
Hostess
Jewess
Lioness
Priest
Prophet
Shepherd
Steward
Priestess
Prophetess
Shepherdess
Stewardess
He-goat
He-bear
Jack-ass
Man-servant
She-goat
She-bear
Jenny-ass
Maid-
e
Landlord
Milkman
Peacock
Washerman
Landlady
Milkmaid
Peahen
Washer- t
servant woman
Manager Manageress Viscount Viscountess
3. The Feminines of the following Masculines
(b) By removing the last Vowel in the Mas- are quite different from their originals. As—
culine word before adding–ess in the following
words— Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine
Bachelor Maid/spinster Hart Roe
Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine
Boy Girl Horse Mare
Actor Actress Preceptor Preceptress Brother Sister Husband Wife
Benefactor Benefactress Prince Princess Buck Doe King Queen
Conductor Conductress Songster Songstress Bull/ox Cow Lord Lady
Enchanter Enchantress Temptor Temptress Bullock Heifer Man Woman
Founder Foundress Seamaster Seamistress Cock Hen Monk/Friar Nun

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32 | L.W.C.E.

Colt Filly Nephew Niece 4. But in words ending in -oo, -io, -eo or -yo
Dog Bitch Papa Mamma only -s is added. As—
Drake Duck Sir Madam Singular Plural Singular Plural
Drone Bee Ram Ewe
Bamboo Bamboos Portfolio Portfolios
Earl Countess Stay Hind
Cuckoo Cuckoos Embryo Embryos
Father Mother Son Daughter
Curio Curios Ratio Ratios
Gander Goose Uncle Aunt
Gentleman Lady Wizard Witch Cameo Cameos Stereo Stereos

5. When a word ends in -y, and before -y

Conversion of Number there is a consonant, -y is replaced by -ies. As—
The following are the Rules of formation of
Plural Number— Singular Plural Singular Plural

ww (1) In most cases by adding -s to the Singular Baby Babies City Cities
Number. As— Army Armies Pony Ponies
Singular Plural Singular Plural Lady Ladies Duty Duties

w
Boy
Girl
Pen
Table
Boys
Girls
Pens
Tables .Ea
Question
Problem
Book
House
Questions
Problems
Books
Houses
Story Stories Fly Flies

But if there is a Vowel before -y, (as -ay, -ey,

-oy) only -s is added. As—

syE
2. By adding -es to the Singular Number in
words ending in -s, -sh, -ch, or -x. As—
Singular Plural Singular Plural
Singular
Day
Play
Plural
Days
Plays
Singular
Boy
Toy
Plural
Boys
Toys

Class
Kiss
Classes
Kisses
Match
Watch
Matches
Watches ngi
Key Keys Monkey Monkeys

6. In words ending in -f or -fe in the Singular

Lass
Dish
Brush
Lasses
Dishes
Brushes
Branch
Tax
Box
Branches
Taxes
Boxes nee
Number, -f or -fe are replaced by -ves. As—
Singular Plural Singular Plural

3. In words ending in -o generally -es is

added. As—
Knife
Life
Knives
Lives
rinLeaf
Myself
Leaves
Ourselves
Singular
Buffalo
Plural
Buffaloes
Singular
Mango
Plural
Mangoes
Wife
Calf
Wives
Calves
g.n
Sheaf
Shelf
Sheaves
Shelves

e
Potato Potatoes Cargo Cargoes Elf Elves Thief Thieves
Negro
Hero
Echo
Zero
Negroes
Heroes
Echoes
Zeroes
Volcano
Motto
Mosquito
Volcanoes
Mottoes
Mosquitoes
Half
Loaf
Halves
Loaves

Exceptions—
Wolf Wolves

t
Exceptions : Singular Plural Singular Plural
Singular Plural Belief Beliefs Proof Proofs
Canto Cantos Chief Chiefs Roof Roofs
Piano Pianos Cliff Cliffs Safe Safes
Dynamo Dynamos
Dwarf Dwarfs Scarf Scarfs
Solo Solos
Grief Griefs Strife Strifes
Memento Mementos
Photo Photos Gulf Gulfs Turf Turfs
Ratio Ratios Hoof Hoofs Wharf Wharfs
Quarto Quartos Brief Briefs Serf Serfs

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NOUNS | 33

7. In the following eight Nouns changes are 12. Sometimes Surnames can be used in the
made in the Vowels used withen them. They are— Plural Number, as—
Singular Plural Singular Plural Miss Smith—the Miss Smiths or the Misses
Man Men Mouse Mice Smith.
Woman Women Louse Lice Mr. Ray—the Rays.
Foot Feet Goose Geese 13. We give below the Plurals of some popular
Tooth Teeth Dormouse Dormices foreign words (Greek, Latin, etc.)

8. In the following four Nouns -en or -ne are Singular Plural Singular Plural
added. They are— Agendum Agenda Medium Media
Alumnus Alumni Memorandum Memoranda
Singular Plural Singular Plural
Appendix Appendices Radius Radii

ww Child

Ox
Children

Oxen
Cow

Brother
Kine
(but also cows)
Brethren
Axis
Datum
Dictum
Axes
Data
Dicta
Analysis
Basis
Crisis
Analyses
Bases
Crises

w .Ea
(but also brothers)

9. Some Nouns remain the same both in the

Singular and Plural forms. As—
Erratum
Formula
Errata
Formulae
(also
formulas)
Criterion
Oasis
Phenomenon
Criteria
Oases
Phenomena

syE
Public, police, innings, gross, yoke, brace, Fungus Fungi Thesis Theses
sheep, deer, fish, swine, hair, dozen, score, hun- Genius Genii Cherub Cherubim
dred, thousand, pound, kilogram, series, species, Index Indices Seraph Seraphim
means.
10. The Plurals of Compound Nouns are
formed by adding -s to the Principal word in the ngi
Note—In English Agenda is used as a Singular
Number only.

nee
compound form. As—
Formation of Possessive
Singular Plural Singular Plural (or Genitive) Case
Commander- Commanders- Maid- Maid-
-in-chief
Son-in-law
-in-chief
Sons-in-law
servant
Passer-
servants
Passers-
tive) Case—
rin
Rules of Formation of Possessive (or Geni-

g.n
(1) By adding Apostrophe ’s
by by
(a) By adding ’s to the Singular Nouns stand-
Daughter-in- Daughters-in- Looker- Lookers-
ing for Persons. As—

e
law law on on
Ram’s book, the teacher’s desk, the doctor’s
Brother-in-
law
Father-in-
law
Brothers-in-
law
Fathers-in-
law
Man-of-
war
Step-son
Men-of-
war
Step-
sons
clinic, the lawyer’s office.
(b) Apostrophe ’s is also used with bigger ani-
mals and those very familiar. As—
Elephant’s trunk, horse’s colour, lion’s share,
t
11. For forming the Plurals of Letters /
tiger’s den, bull’s horns, dog’s tail.
Alphabet, Figures, Abbreviations and Symbols,
Apostrophe -’ s is added. As— Note—Apostrophe ’s is not used with small ani-
mals and insects.
a’s, b’s, r’s, 5’s, 3’s,
(c) Apostrophe ’s is also used with personi-
5 M. A.’s, 3 M. L.A.’s, 2 B. A.’s; Dot your i’s fied objects. As—
and cut your t’s.
Nature’s laws, Fortune’s favour, Death’s
Your b’s are not clear. His R’s are peculiar. sting.
Your 5’s look like 3’s (d) Apostrophe ’s is also used with Neuter
Note—The Plural of p (page) is pp and of l (line) Gender Nouns showing time, place, distance,
is ll. weight or value.

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34 | L.W.C.E.

One day’s leave, at week’s end, at a stone’s 4. If the Noun is in Plural Number but
throw, by month’s end, at a pound’s cost, a without s at its end, full Apostrophe (’s) is used.
minute’s rest, at a yard’s distance. As—
(e) With some special phrases. As— Men’s club; Children’s books.
at arm’s length, at fingers’tips, for heaven’s 5. If a Noun or a title is made of several
sake, for goodness’ sake words, Apostrophe ’s is used only with the last
(f) Double Apostrophe ’s should not be used. word. As—
As— The Rana of Mewar’s palace,
This is Ram’s father’s house. The Government of India’s orders.
The above sentence has double Apostrophe 6. If two or more Nouns are inseparably
–’s which is wrong. It should be written thus— joined together, Apostrophe ’s is used only with
the last word. As—
This is the house of Ram’s father.

ww Here one Possessive has been formed by Legouis and Cazamian’s History of English
using -’s and the other by the use of connective of. Literature.
This is the correct way. Rowe and Webb’s Book of Grammar.
7. If two or more Nouns have their own

w The father of Ram’s friend has come. (Not

Ram’s friend’s father...)

.Ea
(g) Some words are there which are left out
after Apostrophe ’s, because their sense is implied
separate
time. As—
possessives, Apostrophe ’s is used each

Marlowe’s and Shakespeare’s Plays,

Ram’s and Mohan’s houses.

syE
in the sentence itself. As—church, cathedral,
school, shop, house, etc. 8. Possessive case by ‘of’
1. I bought this book from Mac Millan’s. (a) Possessives of inanimate things are made
(shop is understood) by using of, not by Apostrophe ’s. As—
2. I am a student of St. John’s. (School or
College is understood) ngi Leg of the table (not, table’s leg)
Lock of the door (not, door’s lock)
3. I have my dinner today at my friend’s.
(house is understood)
Exercise nee Pages of the book (not, book’s pages)
Nib of the pen (not, pen’s nib)
(b) For small animals and insects also of is

following sentences :
rin
1. Correct the Possessive Case in the used (not ’s) for their possessives. As—
wings of a butterfly, sting of a scorpion,

g.n
1. Ram’s friend’s father is a Professor. legs of a stag, etc.
2. Mohan’s father’s contacts are very wide. (c) If a Possessive Noun is qualified by a
3. He got share of lion in the distribution of phrase or a clause, Possessive is made by the use
the property.
4. I am on a day leave.
5. Let us have a few minutes rest.
6. I have the points at the tips of my fingers.
of of. As—
e
These are the toys of the children who are
sleeping.
The milk of the cow which is black.
t
2. If there are several hissing sounds (sound 9. Double Genitives—Sometimes Double
of s or sh) at the end of a word, only the mark of Genitives are also used. In such cases Apostrophe
Apostrophe (’) is used without s after it. As— ’s is used with the noun coming after o f, or
For conscience’ sake; for justice’ sake; Moses’ Possessive Pronoun (mine, yours, theirs, hers) is
laws. used without any further possessive mark or word.
Note— Keats’s poetry or Keats’ poetry, or As—
Collins’s poetry or Collins’ poetry are 1. This is a book of mine.
both correct. 2. Ram is a friend of Mohan’s.
3. If a Plural Noun has s at the end, only the
3. Tempest is a play of Shakespeare’s.
mark of Apostrophe’ is used without s after it.
As— Note—With such structures it is important to note
Girls’ hostel; boys’ school, horses’tails. that they give the suggestion of one of the

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NOUNS | 35

many. Thus, the sentence : This is a book postage, knowledge, breakage, jewellery,
of mine means this is one of my many information, furniture, money, wastage. As—
books. Therefore, this structure should not 1. Kashmir is famous for its colourful
be used where the reference is to one scenery. (not sceneries)
thing or one person only. As such, the 2. It is an anthology of poetry. (not poet-
following sentence is wrong— ries)
He is a father of mine. 3. He has imported all his machinery from
She is a mother of mine. Germany. (not machineries)
These sentences would mean that ‘he is one 4. I have no information from him. (not
of my many fathers’ or ‘she is one of my many informations)
mothers.’ This would be just absurd. These Note—If it is necessary to indicate the Singular
sentences should be written thus— or the Plural number of these nouns, the

ww He is my father. method is this : (a) for Singular Number,

we say a piece of, an item of, an article
She is my mother.
of, and (b) for Plural Number we use
Rules of Nouns pieces of, items of, articles of, kinds of,

w The following are the Rules of Nouns—

.Ea
Rule 1—Nouns always Plural
The under noted Nouns are always used in the
Plural Number. They always take Plural
etc. These phrases are placed before these
Nouns, but the Noun is retained in the
Singular number. As—
(a) (i) I have a piece of information for

syE
verbs. They cannot be used as Singular Nouns
by removing s. They are—
you.
(ii) This item of your furniture is really
beautiful.
Alms, thanks, riches, caves, species, scis-
sors, trousers, pants, clippers, tongs, bellows,
gallows, fangs, measels, eyeglasses, goggles, ngi (iii) I don’t like this article of jewellery.
(b) (i) All kinds of furniture are available
here.
amends, annals, archives, ashes, arrears,
athletics, auspices, belongings, breeches,
bowels, braces, binoculars, billiards, customs, nee (ii) I want only a few articles of statio-
nery.

rin
(iii) All pieces of information given by
congratulations, dregs, earnings, entrails, him are wrong.
embers, fetters, fireworks, lodgings, lees,
Rule 3—Nouns Plural in Form but Singular in

g.n
mumps, odds, outskirts, particulars, proceeds,
proceedings, regards, remains, savings, sham- Use
bles, shears, spectacles, surroundings, tidings, There are some Nouns which are Plural in
troops, tactics, vegetables, valuables, wages,
works, innings.
These Nouns are always used as Plural Nouns
with Plural verbs. As—
e
form but Singular in usage. They always take
a Singular verb. They are—News, Innings,
Physics, Politics, Mathematics, Mechanics,
Ethics, Economics, etc. As—
1. Mathematics is a difficult subject.
t
1. He gave him alms. 2. Ethics makes the basis of good life.
(‘He gave him an alm’ is wrong) 3. Politics has lost its moral character.
2. His trousers are dirty. 4. Economics is an optional subject.
(‘His trouser is dirty’ is wrong) 5. The news is good.
3. He lives on the outskirts of the town. Exercise
4. What are your monthly earnings ? Correct the following sentences :
Rule 2—Nouns always Singular 1. We should not be miserly in giving alm
Some Nouns are always used in the Singular to the beggars.
Number. They are—Poetry, scenery, machi- 2. I send herewith my hearty thank for your
nery, stationery, crockery, luggage, baggage, timely help.

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36 | L.W.C.E.

3. I have sent my trouser to the laundry. 1. The cattle are grazing in the field.
4. He has built a house on the outskirt of the 2. The peasantry are very happy.
city. 3. Our cavalry are very strong.
5. The cottage was thrown into shamble by Note—(1) Since these Nouns are used only in
the earthquake. Plural Number (though singular in form),
6. He immersed the remain of his father into they should not be made Plural by adding
the Ganges. -s or -es. For example, the following sen-
7. He has lost all his valuable. tences are wrong—
8. Please accept my congratulation for your The gentries have come.
success. Our poultries are healthy.
9. He sucked the liquor to the last dreg. (2) The following Nouns remain the same in
10. The prisoner was kept in fetter. both Singular and Plural numbers and they can be

ww 11. I have no liking for pastoral poetries.

12. I have to purchase all kinds of statione-
ries for the school.
used both as Singular and Plural in the same form.
They should not be made Plural by adding -s or
-es. They are—Swine, vermin, mankind, police,

w 13. She is very fond of sparkling jewelleries.

.Ea
14. I don’t travel with heavy luggages.
15. I receive all necessary informations from
him.
public, etc. As—
1. The police has been informed.
or
The police have taken action.

syE
16. Please show me all items of crockeries.
17. The letter is short of postages.
18. Can you not reduce your wastages ?
2. The swine are dirty animals.
or
You are a dirty swine.
19. No news are good news.
20. The mechanics of this instrument are
very complicated. ngi (3) ‘People’ in the sense of group of persons
is always used in the Plural number. But when the
word ‘People’ is used in the sense of a Nation, it
21. Their performance in the first inning was
very poor. nee
can be used both as Singular (a people) and Plural
as—‘The Peoples of India and China are on
friendly terms.’

rin
22. He is very weak in Physic. Rule 5—Noun with Numeral Adjective
23. Politics are the game of fortune hunters. Some Nouns coming after Definite Numeral

g.n
24. What are the latest newses ? Adjectives are always used in the Singular
25. He is a man of low ethic. Number. They are—Pair, dozen, score, gross,
Hints—(1) alms; (2) thanks; (3) trousers; (4) stone, hundred, thousand, million, billion, etc.
outskirts; (5) shambles; (6) remains; (7)
valuables; (8) congratulations; (9) dregs;
(10) fetters; (11) poetry; (12) stationery;
(13) jewellery; (14) luggage; (15) infor-
As—

e
Two pair of shoes (not two pairs of shoes);
four dozen pencils; three score and ten; five
thousand rupees, ten million people, etc. t
mation; (16) crockery; (17) postage; (18) But if the Numeral Adjective is Indefinite, all
wastage; (19) is; (20) is; (21) innings; (22) the Nouns given above will be used in the
Physics; (23) is; (24) is, news; (25) ethics. Plural Number. As—
Rule 4—Nouns Singular in Form but Plural in Dozens of people; thousands of workers;
Use millions of pounds; scores of houses; many
pairs of shoes; in millions, etc.
There are some Nouns which are Singular in
form but Plural in meaning. They always take Rule 6—Numeral Adjective + Hyphen + Noun
a Plural verb. They are—Cattle, gentry, If a compound word is formed by joining a
clergy, cavalry, infantry, nobility, poultry, Definite Numeral Adjective and a Noun (by a
peasantry, children, admiralty, yeomantry, etc. hyphen), the Noun so used will always be in
Family is used both in the Singular and Plural the Singular Number. As—
numbers according to sense. As— 1. Here is a five-rupee note.

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NOUNS | 37

Here you will see that a Definite Numeral Rule 7—Noun + Preposition + the same Noun
Adjective (five) is joined with a Noun (rupee) repeated
by a hyphen, and the Noun (rupee) is in If the same Noun is repeated before and after
Singular Number. It will be wrong to say a Preposition, the Noun is used in the Singular
five-rupees note. Number each time. In such cases the verb is
Similarly the following sentences are cor- also used in the Singular Number. As—
rect—
Ship after ship arrived at the port. Here
1. Please lend me a ten-rupee note. ships after ships will be wrong. Similarly the
2. He gave me a hundred-rupee note. following sentences are correct—
3. This is included in our five-year plan.
1. Mistake after mistake was committed.
4. He fell down from a ten-foot high wall.
2. Chance after chance was lost.
5. A three-man enquiry committee has

ww been set up. 3. He begged from door to door.

6. There was a twenty-foot deep ditch. 4. Wave upon wave rose in the sea.
7. A five-judge bench will hear this case. 5. We can read meaning within meaning

w Exercise

.Ea
Choose the correct alternative from those
given within the brackets in the following
sentences :
in this poem.
Rule 8—Article + several Adjectives + Noun
If two or more than two Adjectives are
connected with and and the Article has been

syE
1. The Indian (peasantry/peasantries) are
still backward.
2. Our cavalry (is/are) highly trained.
used only before the first Adjective, the Noun
used after them will be in the Plural Number.
But if the Article is used before each

3. The (gentry / gentries) have already

arrived. ngi Adjective, the Noun will be in the Singular
Number. As—
1. Shakespeare was very popular in the six-
4. There is a large herd of (swine/swines).
5. All the (people/peoples) were happy.
6. I have several (pair/pairs) of shoes.
nee teenth and seventeenth centuries.
2. Shakespeare was very popular in the six-
teenth and the seventeenth century.
7. There are three (thousand / thousands)
workers in this factory. rin
3. Very heavy wigs were worn in the Eliza-
bethan and Jacobean Ages.
8. (Thousand / thousands) of workers are
working in this factory.
g.n
4. Very heavy wigs were worn in the Eliza-
bethan and the Jacobean Age.

e
9. I have four (pair/pairs) of shoes.
Exercise
10. He is now three (scores/score) and ten.
11. (Scores / score) of houses have been
gutted in fire.
12. He is rolling in (million/millions).
Correct the following sentences :
1. He made attempt after attempts but
failed.
t
13. A (five-man/five-men) commission has 2. There is no difference from men to men.
been set up.
3. He knocked from doors to doors for help.
14. He jumped into a (forty-foot/forty-feet )
deep well. 4. There are circles within circles in this
painting.
15. This is our eighth (five-year/five-years)
plan. 5. I can read meanings within meaning in
Hints—(1) peasantry; (2) are; (3) gentry; (4) what you say.
swine; (5) people. (6) pairs; (7) thousand; 6. There is no absentee in the Fifth and the
(8) thousands; (9) pair; (10) score; (11) Sixth classes.
scores; (12) millions; (13) five-man; (14) 7. There is no post-office in the first and
forty-foot; (15) five-year. second lane.

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38 | L.W.C.E.

8. Many great scientists were born in the 2. The amount will grow two and a half
eighteenth and nineteenth century. times.
9. There is no mistake in the fourth and the In such cases One time and a half or two
fifth pages. times and a half are wrong.
10. No berth is available in the first and last Rule 10—Adjectives used as Plural Nouns
coach. Some Adjectives preceded by the are used as
Hints—(1) attempt after attempt; (2) man to man; Plural Nouns. As—The poor; the rich; the
(3) door to door; (4) circle within circle; sick; the down-trodden; the meak, etc.
(5) meaning within meaning; (6) class; (7) As—
lanes; (8) centuries; (9) page; (10) coaches. 1. We should help the poor.
Rule 9—Numeral Adjective + Noun + Fraction 2. The rich should not be proud.
If a Numeral Adjective and a fraction (a half, 3. The meak are blessed.

ww a quarter, three quarters, etc.) are to be

used with a Noun, the structure of the sen-
tence will be as follows—
4. The sick should be carefully looked
after.
It is wrong to try to make these Adjectives

w 1. The train is late by one hour and a half.

.Ea
2. The train is late by two hours and a half.
The following structure will be wrong—
1. The train is late by one and a half hour.
Plural by adding -s or -es to them. They are
already Plural in their sense. As—the poors,
the riches, the meaks, or the sicks. All these
are wrong expressions.

hours.
syE
2. The train is late by two and a half

Under this Rule the correct structure is this—

Rule 11—Nouns/Pronouns of Common Gender
(Dual Gender)
(a) The following Nouns are of Common
Noun is used after the Numeral Adjective, and
the Number of the Noun is Singular or Plural
according to the Numeral Adjective (i. e. the ngi Gender, i.e., they can be used both as Mas-
culine or Feminine Genders. Thus, they are of
Dual Gender. They are—
Noun is Singular with a / an / one, and Plural
with two, three, etc.) And after the Noun the
Fractions (and a half, and a quarter, and
nee Child, baby, friend, student, teacher,
lecturer, professor, pupil, artist, author, reader,
three quarters, etc.) should be used. The
following are some more examples—
rin
servant, worker, poet, speaker, writer, typist,
engineer, lawyer, advocate, client, clerk,
conductor, musician, politician, minister,
1. I have one rupee and a half.
2. I have read five chapters and a half.
g.n
leader, dealer, secretary, enemy, parent,
relation, cousin, orphan, neighbour, person,
3. I have been waiting for five hours and a
quarter.
4. The distance is four kilometres and
three quarters.
5. Its weight is a kilo and a half.
e
president, monarch, statesman, publicman,
chairman, sportsman, spokesman, spokes-
person, chairperson.
As— t
1. She is my friend.
Expressions such as One and a half rupee; 2. He is my friend.
five and a half chapters; five and a quarter
3. My teacher is Miss Bose.
hours; four and three quarters kilometres;
one and a half kilo are wrong. 4. My teacher is Mr. Bose.
Note—If a Numeral Adjective and a fraction are 5. He is our Finance Minister.
joined by and and they are used in the 6. She is our Finance Minister.
sense of multiplication, the Noun is placed Note—(1) Some Grammarians hold that Nouns of
after them, and the Noun is always used in Common Gender which have–man joined
the Plural Number. As— with them should not be used with Femi-
1. The amount will grow one and a half nine Gender Nouns. Such a use would
times. appear odd. As—

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NOUNS | 39

She is a sportsman / chairman / spokesman/ 13. He is my man-servant.

publicman/statesman. 14. She is a lady doctor.
In such cases –person has come to be used in 15. She is a renowned poetess.
place of –man. As—
16. Go to the Ladies common-room.
chairperson, spokesperson, sportsperson, 17. This is Ladies Training College.
publicperson, statesperson, mediaperson, etc.
18. No one should neglect its duty.
(2) Sometimes Poetess and Authoress are
also used for Feminine Gender. 19. Neither of them has done her work.
20. She is a fearless spokeswoman.
(3) A typical difficulty arises when a Pronoun
is to be used with a Common Gender Noun in 21. Mrs. Gandhi was the chairwoman.
the Singular Number. For example, which of 22. Elizabeth was a great monarchess.
the following pronouns (his or her) is correct. 23. She is my cousin sister.

ww 1. Every teacher should do his duty.

or
24. My mother is my guardianess.
Hints—(1) ten rupees and a half; (2) one hour and

w Every teacher should do her duty.

In all such cases Third Person, Masculine

.Ea
Gender (his) should be used.
1. Every teacher should do his duty.
a quarter; (3) two hours and a quarter; (4)
twenty kilometres and a half... one hour
and a half; (5) two and a half times; (6)
one and a half times; (7) one and a half
times; (8) the poor; (9) were; (10) the

syE
2. No student should waste his time.
Some scholars hold that both genders con-
nected with or (his or her) should be used.
rich; (11) his; (12) teacher, not lady
teacher; (13) servant; (14) doctor, not
lady doctor; (15) poet; (16) Women’s;
Every teacher should do his or her duty.
But this can be desirable in legal language ngi (17) Women’s Training College; (18) his;
(19) his; (20) spokesman or spokes-
person; (21) chairman or chairperson;
only. In the normal routine case only Third
Person Masculine (He, His, Him) should be
used. nee (22) monarch; (23) cousin, not cousin
sister, (24) guardian.
Rule 12—Nouns with one meaning in Singular
Exercise
Correct the following sentences : rin
and another in Plural.
Some Nouns have one meaning in the Singu-
1. Apples sell at ten and a half rupees a kilo.
2. He reached late by one and a quarter g.n
lar Number and another and quite different
meaning in the Plural Number. They are—
hours.
3. I have two and a quarter hours at my
disposal.
4. He covered twenty and a half kilometers
Singular
(Normal Meaning)
Abuse (misuse)
e Plural
(Typical Meaning)
Abuses (Bad habits and
customs)
t
in one and a half hours. Advice (counsel, Advices (items of
5. At this rate of interest your money will opinion) information)
grow two times and a half. Air Airs (arrogant show)
6. My income has risen one and a half time. Alphabet Alphabets (languages)
7. My income has risen one time and a half. Compass (limit) Compasses (a geometrical
instrument)
8. The poors deserve all our sympathy. Colour Colours (flag)
9. The wounded was admitted in hospital. Custom Customs (levies on goods
10. The riches are not always merciless. imported)
11. Every teacher should know her students. Effect (as noun) Effects (household luggage)
12. She is a good lady teacher. Force Forces (armies)

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40 | L.W.C.E.

Good Goods (luggage) Miscellaneous Revision Exercises

Iron Irons (chains, fetters) Revision Exercise 1
Manner Manners (behaviour) Choose the correct forms of the nouns
Number Numbers (feet or rhythm in from those given in brackets in the following
poetry) sentences :
Pain Pains (efforts) 1. He gave me two ten (-rupee/-rupees)
Premise (supposition, Premises (site, situation) notes.
2. Most men live to the age of three (score/
Introduction)
scores) and ten.
Physic (medicine) Physics (a branch of 3. I like the (scenery/sceneries) of this
science) place.
Quarter (fourth part) Quarters (small houses) 4. My car costs me fifty (thousand/ thou-

ww Return
Sand
Returns (accounting)
Sands (desert)
sands) rupees.
5. Our score in the first (inning/innings)
was very encouraging.

w
Water Waters (oceans)
6. Pray and give (thank/thanks) to God that
Wood Woods (jungle) you have been saved.
Letter
.Ea Letters (Literature,
scholarship)
7. There was a herd of (deer/deers) in the
wood.
Ground

syE
Grounds (reasons)

Exercise
8. Their (offspring/offsprings) are all sickly.
9. Whose (cattle/cattles) are these ?
10. The child is suffering from (measel/

ngi
Choose the correct alternative from those measels).
given within brackets in each sentence : 11. Five (hundred/hundreds) years have
passed since then.
1. I love to walk in the fresh morning (air/
airs).
2. I shall spare no (pain/pains) to give entire nee
12. (Tiding/Tidings) came very late.
13. The (Jury/Juries) found him guilty.
14. (Dozen/Dozens) of men were injured.

rin
satisfaction to you.
15. I bought two (dozen/dozens) pencils.
3. Please submit your income-tax (return/
16. He gave (alm/alms) to every beggar.

g.n
returns) immediately.
Hints—(1) rupee; (2) score; (3) scenery; (4)
4. This stool is made of (iron/irons). thousand; (5) innings; (6) thanks; (7) deer;

e
5. I shall shift all my household (effect/ (8) offspring; (9) cattle; (10) measels; (11)

t
effects) from here. hundred; (12) tidings; (13) Jury; (14)
6. I have booked my (good/goods) by dozens; (15) dozen; (16) alms.
passenger train. Revision Exercise 2
7. He struck the ball with great (force / Choose the correct forms of the verbs from
forces). those given within brackets, keeping in view the
8. You have to pay your (custom/customs) sense of the nouns which should be in agree-
duty. ment with the verbs :
1. Where (is/are) the scissors ?
9. He has gone to the (wood/woods) in
search of his lost cattle. 2. The police (has/have) made no arrests.
3. Economics (is/are) taught by Dr. Jain.
10. He has built a small temple in the (pre- 4. The clergy (is/are) opposed to closing the
mises/premise) of his new house. church today.
Hints—(1) air; (2) pains; (3) returns; (4) iron; (5) 5. A huge crowd (has/have) assembled.
effects; (6) goods; (7) force; (8) customs; 6. No news (has/have) come from my bro-
(9) woods; (10) premises. ther.

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NOUNS | 41

7. Sheep blindly (follow/follows) the leader. 22. My father’s friend’s son is coming today.
8. The jury (has/have) not come to a unani- 23. He is a father of mine.
mous verdict. 24. A kite’s wings are large.
9. Measels (is/are) a bad disease. 25. I have sent him my congratulation for his
10. No cattle (is/are) allowed to graze here. success.
11. My family (is/are) early risers. 26. The mechanics of this instrument are not
12. Three dozen pencils (has/have) been difficult to understand.
distributed. 27. There was a fifty-feet deep valley.
13. The government (is/are) determined to 28. Trucks after trucks crossed the prohibited
implement the plan. line.
14. The majority of workers (has/have) come 29. There is no light in the fifth and sixth
on duty. house.

ww 15. The rich (is/are) not always happy.

Hints—(1) are; (2) have; (3) is; (4) are; (5) has;
(6) has; (7) follow; (8) have; (9) are; (10)
30. The police has already taken search of
the fourth and the fifth rooms.
31. His score was one and a half centuries.

w are; (11) are; (12) have; (13) are; (14)

.Ea
have; (15) are.
Revision Exercise 3
32. Houses after houses were looted by the
dacoits.
33. I can run for two mile and a half.
34. His profits have grown one and a half

syE
Correct the following sentences :
1. I have bought a new spectacle.
2. Have you installed new machineries ?
time.
35. Mrs. Jacob is my lady-teacher.
36. This student has spoilt her paper.
3. Please pay my regard to your father.
4. These paultry is mine.
ngi 37. Indian force is strong enough to face the
challenge.
38. Gandhi has left his foot-marks on the

nee
5. You can select from these three pairs of
shoes. sand of time.
6. So many pair of shoes are here before 39. Both his daughter-in-laws are beautiful.
40. There are 5 M. A. among the applicants.

rin
you.
7. I have all these points at the ends of my Hints—(1) pair of spectacles; (2) machinery; (3)
fingers.

g.n
regards; (4) are; (5) pair; (6) pairs; (7) at
8. He gets a monthly allowance of two my finger-ends; (8) thousand; (9) hair has
thousands rupees. turned; (10) advice; (11) furniture; (12) is;
9. His hairs have turned grey.
10. You must follow my advices.
11. I have not yet brought my furnitures.
12. The news are not authentic.
e
(13) King George the Fifth’s; (14) is;
(15) earnings are; (16) my uncle, the
engineer’s, (17) the colour of my pen; (18)
Women’s College; (19) Women’s Hostel;
t
13. He attended King George’s the Fifth (20) three-man; (21) information is; (22)
coronation ceremony.
the son of my father’s friend; (23) my
14. The wages of sin are death.
father; (24) the wings of a kite; (25) con-
15. His weekly earning is very poor.
gratulations; (26) is; (27) fifty-foot deep;
16. This is my uncle’s, the engineer, office.
17. My pen’s colour is black. (28) truck after truck; (29) houses; (30)
18. This is a Ladies’College. room; (31) one century and a half; (32)
19. No man can enter the Women’s Hostel. house after house; (33) two miles and a
20. A three-men enquiry committee will look half; (34) one and a half times; (35) tea-
into the matter. cher; (36) his; (37) forces are; (38) sands;
21. No more informations are available. (39) daughters-in-law; (40) 5 M. A.’s.

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5 Pronouns
Forms of Pronouns (iv) Forms of Relative and Interrogative Pro-
nouns
Personal Pronouns Relative Pronouns and Interrogative Pronouns

ww
There are three Persons of Personal Pro- have the same forms—
nouns—
Singular and Singular and
(i) First Person Plural Plural

w
(ii) Second Person Case
Masculine and
(iii) Third Person Feminine Neuter

.Ea
All these three Persons have different forms
in different cases (Nominative, Objective and
Possessive). Every student must know these diffe-
Nominative
Objective
Who
Whom
Which
Which

syE
rent forms very clearly, because without this
knowledge they cannot be used correctly. The
different forms are these—
(Accusative)
Genitive
(Possessive)
Whose Whose, of which

(i) Forms of First Person (Both Masculine and

Feminine)
ngi
Note—Relative Pronoun ‘That’ has the same form
in Singular and Plural Numbers and also
in the Nominative and Accusative cases. It

nee
Case Singular Plural
has no Genitive case.
Nominative I We
Objective (Accusative) Me Us (v) Forms of Reflexive and Emphatic Pro-

rin
Possessive (Genitive) My, Mine Our, Ours nouns
(ii) Forms of Second Person (Both Masculine Pronoun Reflexive and Emphatic Form

g} .n
and Feminine) I Myself
Case Singular Plural You Yourself (in Singular)
Nominative You, thou You, ye

e
Yourselves (in Plural)
Objective (Accusative) You, thee You
Possessive (Genitive) Your, yours
Thy, thine
Your, yours

Note—Thou, thee, thy, thine and ye are no longer

in popular use.
He
She
It
We
Himself
Herself
Itself
Ourselves
t
(iii) Forms of Third Person (in different Gen- They Themselves
ders) Rules of Pronoun
Singular Plural
Case The following are the Rules of correct use of
Mas- Femi- Neuter All Pronouns—
culine nine genders
Nominative He She It They Personal Pronoun
Objective Him He r It Them Rule 1—Number, Person and Gender
(Accusative) The first and basic rule of the use of Pronoun
Possessive His Her, Its Their, is that it must have the same Number, Per-
(Genitive) Hers Theirs son, and Gender as the Number, Person and

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PRONOUNS | 43

Gender of the Noun for which it has been Rule 5—Pronouns of Different Persons
used. As— If Pronouns of different Persons are to be
1. He has done his work. used with the same Verb, they must be used
2. She has done her work. in the following order—
3. You have done your work. A. In Singular Number, Y ou (Second
Person) should come first, H e (Third
4. I have done my work. Person) should come next, and I (First
5. We have done our work. Person) should come last. This order is
6. They have done their work. indicative of refined culture and good
behaviour. In brief—
Rule 2—Nominative Pronoun
You + He + I, i.e., 2 + 3 + 1
Nominative Pronouns are used as the Subject
of a Verb. B. In Plural Number—

ww (He, She, I, You, We, They are in the Nomi-

native Form). As—
1. He is a good boy.
We + You + They, i.e., 1 + 2 + 3
C. But if the sentence has a bad sense, or is
expressive of some error or fault, the

w 2. She is going there.

4. You can go. .Ea

3. They are coming.
order should be thus—
I/We + You + He/They, i.e., 1 + 2 + 3
As—
(A) You and he and I are good friends.

syE
Rule 3—Complement of the Verb ‘to be’
If a Verb ‘to be’ has a Pronoun for its com-
plement, the Pronoun must be used in the
We and you and they can live together.
You and he were class-mates.
Ram and I lived in the same house.
Nominative form. As—
1. It is I (not me) who came yesterday.
ngi You and I can travel together.
(B) We and you and they can work together.
2. It is he (not him) who will help you.
3. If I were she (not her), I wouldn’t do it.
nee We and they were in the same class.
(C) I and you and he have to accept our
fault.

rin
4. It is they (not them) who saved us. You and he will be punished.
Note—It should be remembered that in Excla-
matory and Predicative use, Personal Exercise
Pronoun can be used in the Objective
form. As— g.n
(A) Correct the following sentences :
1. Ram has lost their books.
It is me ! It wasn’t him !
Rule 4—Objective Form
If a Personal Pronoun is the Object of a Verb
or a Preposition, it must be used in the
2. She loves his husband.
e
3. He has sent her sister to school.
4. They have passed his examination.
5. Us are students of this school.
t
Objective form. (Me, Us, Him, Them, Her, 6. Your can do your work.
You are in the Objective Form). As—
7. It is me who have to go.
1. I know him (not he) well. 8. It is him who is to blame.
2. She comes to me (not I) for help. 9. Please ask he to bring his book.
3. Our teacher has asked us (not we) to 10. It is for he to take the responsibility.
remain in the class. 11. I have told they to reach in time.
4. I have told them (not they) to go away 12. He depends upon they to help him.
from here. 13. If I were him, I wouldn’t accept the terms.
5. He depends upon me (not I) 14. He did not accept she proposals.
6. I go to them (not they) for guidance. 15. Them are dependable people.

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44 | L.W.C.E.

Hints—(1) his; (2) her; (3) his; (4) their; (5) We; Exercise
(6) You; (7) I; (8) he; (9) him; (10) him; Correct the following sentences—
(11) them; (12) them; (13) he; (14) her;
(15) they. 1. The jury delivered their verdict unani-
(B) Arrange the personal pronouns in the mously.
following sentences in their proper order : 2. The committee is one in their opinion in
1. I, you and he have been selected for this matter.
scholarship. 3. The Government is not divided in their
2. You, I and he will go together to the fair. view in this matter.
3. You, they and we should remain united. 4. The jury gave a majority decision after its
4. All those boys, all of you and all of us last meeting.
can make a good team. 5. The crew tried to save itself by their life-
5. He, you and I have been found guilty. boats.

ww 6. I, he and you must tender an apology for

the mistake.
Hints—(1) You, he and I; (2) You, he and I; (3)
6. Ram and Shyam lost his way in the
wood.
7. All the students and their teacher neglec-

w We, you and they; (4) All of us, all of you

and all those boys; (5) I, you and he; (6) I,
you and he.
.Ea
Rule 6—Pronoun for a Collective Noun
With a Collective Noun the Pronoun used is
ted his work.
8. Each boy and each man received their
share in time.
9. Each of Ram, Mohan and Shyam has

syE
Singular or Plural according to the sense. In
the Singular Number we use It/Its and in Plural
They /Them. As—
done their duty.
10. Each of the girls will sing a song of their
choice.


1. The fleet has sailed away on
its voyage. ngi 11. Mohan and Sohan has each decided to go
to their village.

nee
Singular 2. The jury has given its verdict. 12. Every one of them has to sit in their own
 3. The crew is ready. It is board- seat.
 ing the ship within minutes. Hints—(1) its; (2) its; (3) its; (4) their; (5) them-



4. The jury are divided in their
opinion.
rin
selves; (6) their; (7) their; (8) his; (9) his;
(10) her; (11) his; (12) his.

g.n
Plural 5. The Government are ready to Rule 9—Each, Either, Neither
 revise their proposals. They always take Singular Verb and Singu-
lar Possessive. As—

e
Rule 7—Pronoun for more than two Nouns
When two or more Nouns are joined by and,
the Pronoun used for them is always Plural.
As—
1. Ram and Mohan are friends. They go to
their school together.
1. Each of them is sure to get his chance.
2. Either of them is free to bring his book.
3. Neither of the workers has brought his
tools.
t
2. Hari and his friends have completed Rule 10—Either and Neither
their work. Either and Neither are used for Two things
Rule 8—Pronoun for Each or Every + Noun only, not for more than two. As—
When two or more Nouns are joined by and, 1. You can choose either of these two (not
and before each Noun there comes each or more than two) pens.
every, the Pronoun used is always Singular. 2. Neither of the two brothers was selected.
As—
1. Each worker and each mason has come Rule 11—Anyone and None
on his work. When more than two things are referred to,
2. Each clerk and each typist has left his we use anyone in place of either and none in
seat. place of neither. As—

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PRONOUNS | 45

1. Anyone of these four boys can go with 9. These two friends will surely help one
me. another.
2. None of these ten applicants is quali- 10. All these ten workers can consult each
fied. other.
Rule 12—Each other/One another 11. Both of the three brothers has taken his
They are called Reciprocal Pronouns. Each share.
other is used for two things or persons, and 12. All of the two cows are black.
one another for more than two. As— Hints—(1) has, his; (2) was, his; (3) has, his; (4)
1. The two brothers help each other. is, her; (5) two, is; (6) two; (7) either; (8)
Neither, his; (9) each other; (10) one
2. All the five brothers help one another. another; (11) two, have, their; (12) four or
3. The two wheels rub against each other. All of the cows.

wwNote—In the modern usage there is believed to be

little difference between Each other and
One another. Now, sometimes, Each
other is used for more than two, and One
Rule 14—Pronoun for ‘or’, ‘either ...... or’ /
‘neither ...... nor’ + Noun
When two or more than two Nouns are joined

w another for only two. As—

.Ea
1. These three sisters really love each
other.
2. Let us all help each other.
with or, either … or, neither … nor, the
Pronoun used for them is always Singular.
1. Ram or Hari has lost his book.
2. Either the lawyer or his clerk will be in

syE
his office.
Rule 13—Both and All 3. Neither Mohan nor Sohan has done his
Both is used for two, and All for more than work.

ngi
two. As— Rule 15—Pronoun for or/nor + Singular and
1. Both the pens are good. (i.e., only two Plural Nouns
pens) When a Singular Noun and a Plural Noun are
2. Both the men (i.e., two men) are idle.
3. All the pens (i.e., more than two) are nee joined by or / nor, the Pronoun used for them
is always Plural. As—
1. Either the Principal or the teachers had

rin
good.
neglected their duty.
4. All the men (more than two) are idle. 2. Neither the father nor his sons had kept
Exercise
Correct the following sentences :
their promise.

g.n
Rule 16—Pronouns for different Persons
1. Each of the workers have to bring their
own tools.
2. Every one of them were given their uni-
form.
e
When more than one Pronoun are of different
Persons, and only one Pronoun is later to be
used for them, there should be First Plural
for First + Third, again First Plural for First
+ Second, and Second Person for Second +
t
3. Either of the brothers have a right to Third. As—
check their father’s account.
1. You and I have done our duty.
4. Neither of the sisters are like their mother.
2. You and Hari have done your duty.
5. Either of these five books are good
enough to serve your purpose. Exercise
6. Neither of these four horses can win the Correct the following sentences :
prize. 1. Either Ram or Mohan has left their bag.
7. Anyone of these two applicants can be 2. Neither Sita nor Geeta has attended their
appointed. class.
8. None of these two students can pass their 3. Either the supervisor or his workers have
qualifying test. left his store-room unlocked.

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46 | L.W.C.E.

4. Neither the soldiers nor their captain Exercise

have left his post. Correct the following sentences :
5. You and I have done my best. 1. He is as willing to go as me.
6. You and he have tried his utmost. 2. You are more intelligent than him.
7. We and you can play your role so well. 3. They love their country more than him.
8. You and Rakesh can take his chance once 4. I can serve you better than him.
again.
5. He gave you larger share than I.
9. Hari and I have done whatever I could.
6. I shall get as many chances as her.
10. I and my friend have spared no efforts on 7. They have as many cows as us.
his part.
8. I have as good a house as their.
Hints—(1) his; (2) her; (3) their; (4) their; (5) our;
9. Our chances are as bright as you.

ww (6) your; (7) our; (8) your; (9) we; (10)

our.
Rule 17—Pronoun after than/as
10. We hope to be more successful than
them.
Hints—(1) I; (2) he; (3) he; (4) he; (5) me; (6)

w A peculiar difficulty arises in the correct use

.Ea
of Pronoun after than or as. The problem is
to decide whether the Pronoun to be used
after than or as should be in the Nominative
she; (7) we; (8) they; (9) yours; (10) they.
Pronoun ‘It’/‘This’
Rule 18—Pronoun ‘It’

syE
Pronoun It is used in the following
form or Objective/Accusative form. In this
cases—
connection it should be remembered that the
(a) For Inanimate things. As—
Pronoun used after than or as is the short
This is your house. It is a big house.
form of a whole clause. Thus, the full form of
‘I am taller than he’ will be ‘I am taller
than he is’. Therefore, in order to decide ngi (b) For small animals, birds and insects.
As—
whether the Nominative or the Objective form
of the Pronoun should come after than or as,
we should mentally speak the whole clause
nee 1. There is a parrot. It is green.
2. I have a dog. It is very active.
(c) For very little children—
beginning with than or as, and as soon as we
do so, the correct form of the Pronoun will rin
The child has wetted its napkin.
(d) For such statements as have already been
come in our mind. As—
1. I am stronger than he (is)
referred to earlier—

g.n
1. He is giving a false statement; as he
knows it.
2. I am as strong as he (is).
3. He loves you more than I (love you).
4. I love you more than he (loves you).
5. He gave you more marks than (he gave)
it. e
2. He deserved his demotion; as he knew

(e) For the imaginary subject of the verb

‘to be’, while its real subject comes later.
t
me. As—
6. I shall give you as many books as (I shall 1. It is certain that he will come.
give) him. 2. It is easy to find its solution.
Note—In sentences containing the Verbs of 3. It is doubtful whether he will succeed.
Incomplete Predication (suggesting the
idea of being, becoming or seeming), (f) For laying emphasis on some Noun or
Pronouns of Objective form can also be Pronoun which comes after it. As—
used in place of Nominative form after 1. It was you who first made the offer.
than or as. As— 2. It was I who first pointed out the
He is taller than me. mistake.
This form is also acceptable as correct. 3. It was this place where we met first.

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PRONOUNS | 47

4. It must be a foolish man who has 10. There is this college where I studied.
been cheated twice by the same man. 11. That is only a wise man who can give
5. It is this kind of behaviour that you such an advice.
annoys everybody. 12. This rains and thunders every evening.
(g) For an imaginary o r uncertain Nomi- 13. This is a very hot day.
native of an impersonal verb. As—
14. This is 7 O’clock.
It rains. It thunders.
15. It is All India Radio giving you the news.
It snows. It blows.
16. It is my house.
(h) For referring to weather or time. As—
17. It is my offer to you.
1. It is a fine weather.
18. It is to certify that he is in my class.
2. It is 9 O’Clock.
Hints—(1) its; (2) it; (3) its; (4) its; (5) it; (6) It;

ww 3. It is winter.
4. It is half past two.
Rule 19—Pronoun ‘This’ or ‘It’
(7) It; (8) It; (9) It; (10) It; (11) It; (12) It;
(13) It; (14) It; (15) This; (16) This; (17)
This; (18) This.

w A difficulty often arises with regard to the use

.Ea
of This or It in a sentence. It has been made
amply clear above that I t is only an
imaginary Nominative, while This is a real
Relative Pronouns
The more popular Relative Pronouns are—
Who, Whom, Whose, Which, That, What.

syE
Nominative, or gives some definite reference
or information about the real Nominative.
This is used to give the name, introduction
use—
The following are the Rules of their correct

Rule 20—Who
or any other information about some one. It
is used only for weather, season, time or
some impersonal subject. This refers to a ngi Who is used in the Nominative case only for
Persons, both in the Singular and Plural
Numbers. Who is not used for inanimate
person, thing, any specific information or
quality, or nearness / closeness. As—
1. This is my brother. nee things. For animals also who is not generally
used. Who is also used for People and Those.
As—
2. This is a cow.
3. This is All India Radio. rin
1. I know the man who came here yesterday.
2. He is the thief who was caught red-
4. This is my point of view.
5. This is 351557. (Telephone Number)
handed.
g.n
3. All the people who came here were

Exercise
Correct the following sentences :
1. Take the cow to her shed.
happy.

e
4. I know all those who were invited.
Rule 21—Whom
Whom is used only for Persons in the
t
2. My pen is a new one, yet this is not Objective / Accusative case both in Singular
smooth. and Plural Numbers. As—
3. The dog has hurt his leg. 1. The man w h o m I met yesterday has
4. The child is crying in his cradle. come.
5. He has broken his promise, as he knows 2. The boy w h o m I gave the books has
this. secured first division.
6. This is not difficult to know the real facts. Rule 22—Which
7. This is improbable that he should tell a Which is used for animals and inanimate
lie. things. As—
8. This is easy to win him over. 1. The pen which I purchased yesterday has
9. This was he who first broke the news. been lost.

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48 | L.W.C.E.

2. The cow which stands there is very (B) In the following cases the use of that is
gentle. preferred to that of who or which. As—
3. The house which has a high gate is mine. (i) After the Superlative Degree—
Note—In Prepositional Cases the Preposition is 1. Gandhi was the greatest man that
always used before which. As— modern India produced.
1. The post for which I applied is tempo- 2. He is the best speaker that I have ever
rary. heard.
2. I don’t remember the date on which he
(ii) After these words—all, same, any, none,
was born.
nothing, only, anything, anybody, no-
3. This is the book about which I told you. body, little, somebody, no one—
4. This is the last chance o n which I
1. This is all the statement that he gave.
depend.

ww 5. The book of which the cover is torn is

not mine.
Rule 23—Whose
2. He is the same boy that came yesterday.
3. It is only the fools that talk that way.

w
4. It is not for nothing that I have been
Whose is used in Possessive Case both for labouring so hard.

.Ea
Persons and Animals. As—
1. The boy whose father is the Principal is
my friend.
5. There was not any that could be heard.
6. There was none that was not moved to

sweet. syE
2. The girl whose eyes are blue is very

3. Mohan whose brother came yesterday

tears.
(iii) After Interrogative Pronoun who/what—
1. What is it that troubles you so much ?
has gone home.
Note—Sometimes whose is used for inanimate ngi 2. What is there that I cannot do ?
3. Who am I that you should care for ?
things also. As—
The sun whose rays give us light also give
us life. nee (iv) After two Antecedents, one of which
stands for a Person and the other for an
animal or a thing. As—
Rule 24—That
(A) That is used both for animate and inani-
rin
1. The rider and his horse that tried to
cross the river were drowned.
mate things both in Singular and Plural
Numbers.
That has no Possessive / Genitive Case g.n
2. The driver and his bus that crossed the
lane struck against a tree.
and therefore no Preposition can be used
before it. If it is very necessary to use a
Preposition, it can be placed at the end of
the sentence. In such a case the sentence
Rule 25—What
e
Relative Pronoun What is used for things
only. It is used without an Antecedent, and it
means that which. As—
t
can be completed without ‘That’ also.
1. What cannot be cured must be endured.
As—
1. I know the house that he lives in. 2. What I told you is correct.
or 3. I know what you want to say.
I know the house λ he lives in. It would be wrong to use an Antecedent
2. I catch the point that you are hinting at. before what. As—
or The story what I read was good.
I catch the point λ you are hinting at. This sentence is wrong because Antece-
3. I have not yet read the book that you dent ‘story’ has been used before ‘what’.
suggested to me. Its correct form would be—
4. I have lost the pen that you gave me. The story that I read was good.

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PRONOUNS | 49

Rule 26—‘But’ as a Relative Pronoun 20. What is your opinion about the work
Sometimes But is used as a Relative Pro- which I am doing ?
noun, in which case it means who not/which 21. That is the house which in I live.
not. As— 22. You are my only friend I can depend.
1. There is none but admires you. 23. I know the book you are looking.
(but admires = who does not admire) 24. This is the only attempt in that I have
2. There is no problem but can be solved. failed.
(but can be solved = which cannot be 25. This is the same question which was
solved) asked last year.
3. There is none but loves his country. 26. There was not any who could be trusted.
(but loves = who does not love) 27. Who are you who can scold me like this ?

ww Exercise
Correct the following sentences :
28. I know which you want from me.
29. That what is true is always true.
30. There is none but who trusts me.

w 1. The boy whom was lazy has failed.

.Ea
2. The flowers who grow in our garden are
very beautiful.
3. Those whose live in glass houses should
Hints—(1) who; (2) which; (3) who; (4) who; (5)
your in place of my; (6) who; (7) which;
(8) who; (9) who; (10) which in place of
of which; (11) that; (12) that; (13) that;

syE
not throw stones.
4. The men which have assembled in the
lawn are our partymen.
(14) that; (15) that; (16) that; (17) that;
(18) that came; (19) that; (20) that; (21) in
which in place of which in; (22) depend
5. I who am my benefactor must help you in
time.
ngi upon; (23) looking for; (24) that I have
failed in in place of in that I have failed;

nee
6. You are the person which are responsible (25) that; (26) that; (27) that can scold ....;
for this deed. (28) what; (29) what in place of that
7. The hen who laid a golden egg was killed what; (30) but in place of but who.
by the greedy man.
8. The people which do not love their coun-
rin
Compound Relative Pronouns

g.n
try are not respected. Rule 27—Compound Relative Pronouns are—
9. Only those boys should be promoted Whoever, whoso, whosoever, whom-
whom are intelligent. soever, whichever, whatever, what-
10. The cycle of which I purchased is very
heavy.
11. I always buy the book which is the best in
the market.
soever.
e
All these Compound Pronouns are used with-
out Antecedents, because the Antecedents are
contained within them. They are supposed to
t
12. Our sweetest songs are those which tell of be complete in themselves. As—
saddest thought. 1. You can do whatever (i.e., anything
13. All which he said was correct. which) you like.
14. Nothing which is not true can impress me. 2. You can take whichever (i.e., anything
15. Only the ink which is blue is allowed. which) you like.
16. None who are poor can afford it. 3. Whoever/whosoever/whoso ( i . e., any
17. What was the answer which he gave ? person w h o) comes here is most wel-
18. Who was the man who came to see me ? come.
19. What is the utility of the book which has 4. I shall employ whomsoever (i.e., any
been damaged by white-ants ? person whom) you recommend.

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50 | L.W.C.E.

Agreement of the Relative Pronoun (i) The Relative Pronoun ‘that’ can be
with its Antecedent omitted in the Objective Case. The
sentence is correct in both cases, with or
Rule 28—As we know, a Relative Pronoun agrees
without ‘that’. As—
with its Antecedent in Number a n d
Person. Therefore, it is supposed to 1. The picture that I saw yesterday was
have the same Number and Person as good.
its Antecedent. The verb is also used or
according to the same Number and The picture λ I saw yesterday was good.
Person. As— 2. The man that you interviewed yesterday
1. A boy who is good is loved by all. has come again.
2. Boys who are good are loved by all. or
3. You who are my friend must help me. The man λ you interviewed yesterday has

ww 4. Those who are loyal are also honest.

5. We who are colleagues must help each
other.
come again.
(ii) The Relative Pronoun can be omitted in
Prepositional Cases also. The sentence

w 6. Those who act like this can never be

successful.

.Ea
7. The flowers which grow in spring are
very beautiful.
is correct in both forms. As—
1. That is the house that I lived in.
or
That is the house λ I lived in.

syE
8. I who am your brother must warn you.
Exercise
2. That is the man that I talked to.
or
That is the man λ I talked to.
Correct the following sentences :
1. You can go wherever place you like. ngi Note—In the above sentences λ shows the place
from where a Relative Pronoun has been

nee
omitted.
2. Whosoever man wishes to come can
come. Some other Pronouns and their uses
3. You can choose whichever thing you Rule 30—Such/As
prefer.
4. I shall go with whomsoever person you rin
As is always used after such, the same or as.
As—
suggest.
5. I who is your pupil must obey you.
g.n
1. His behaviour was such as was well
expected.
6. You who is my pupil must obey me.
7. He who are your pupil must obey you.
8. The books which is old are useless.
9. Those who believes in God are trust-
easily solved.
e
2. His problem was such as could not be

3. My difficulty is the same as yours.

4. This is as good as that. t
worthy. Rule 31—Who and Which as connectives
10. We who has lost our chance have to Sometimes who and which can be used as
suffer. connectives only. As—
Hints—(1) place not required; (2) man not 1. I met my friend, w h o gave me this
required; (3) thing not required; (4) advice.
person not required; (5) who am; (6) who (i.e., I met my friend and he gave me this
are; (7) who is; (8) which are; (9) who advice.)
believe; (10) who have. 2. I have bought a dictionary, which helps
Omission of Relative Pronoun me a lot.
Rule 29—The Relative Pronoun is omitted in the (i.e., I have bought a dictionary and it
following cases— helps me a lot).

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PRONOUNS | 51

Rule 32—Which in restricted sense Rule 34—Who in the Objective Form

In the Restricted sense / choice which can be Strictly from grammatical point of view who
used both for Persons and Things. is used in the Nominative form, and whom in
1. Which of them is your father. the objective form. But nowadays, specially
in conversational language, who is being used
(Here choice is limited within ‘them’) in the objective form in place of whom. Or,
2. Which between these books is better, otherwise, who or whom are both omitted
this one or that. from their objective place. As—
(Here again choice is limited within ‘this 1. Who did you talk to ?
one or that.’) 2. Who did you help ?
Rule 33—The same ........ that/as 3. My brother, who you wanted to talk to, is
If in a certain sentence the same comes here.

ww before a Noun, the same Noun is suggested by

as or that in the following clause. But if in the
following clause, the verb is understood (i.e.
not expressed), only as will be used, not that.
or
My brother λ you wanted to talk to is
here.

w As—

.Ea
1. This is the same book as/that I bought
last year.
4. Here is my friend who you wanted to
meet.
or
Here is my friend λ you wanted to meet.

syE
2. He is the same man a s/that came this
morning. Note —In all these sentences who has been used in
3. This is the same watch as yours. place of whom. In such sentences who or
whom are both correct.
Exercise
Correct the following sentences : ngi Rule 35—Independent Possessives
Mine, ours, yours, theirs, his are called
1. The treatment given to me was such
which could not be expected.
2. This is as easy a problem which there
nee Independent Possessives.
No Noun is used after them. The sense of
Noun comes from the context.
could be.
3. He is passing through the same situation rin
1. This book is mine/yours.
2. These cows are ours/theirs.
which I am passing through.
4. His expectation is the same which is g.n
3. This house is his.
Rule 36—One, One’s, Oneself
mine.
5. I met my teacher, and who directed me to
meet the principal.
6. Who of them is your elder brother?
e
One is an Indefinite Pronoun. It is used in its
own form in all the three cases. In Nominative
and Objective cases it is used as o n e, in
Possessive case it is one’s, and in Reflexive
t
7. Who is your father, this gentleman or that form it is oneself. It is wrong to use Personal
? Pronoun with it. As—
8. What book do you want, the old one or 1. One should mind one’s (not his) own
the new ? business.
9. Is it not the same car what we saw 2. One should avail oneself (not himself) of
yesterday ? every opportunity.
10. The same problem which we faced last 3. One cannot succeed unless one (not he)
time has come up again. works hard.
Hints—(1) as; (2) as; (3) as/that; (4) as in place of Rule 37—Reflexive Pronoun
which is; (5) drop and; (6) which; (7) Reflexive Pronouns are formed by the
which; (8) which; (9) as/that; (10) that /as. addition of –self or –selves. They are—

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52 | L.W.C.E.

Himself, herself, yourself, yourselves, Hints—(1) drop house; (2) drop book; (3) My;
themselves, myself, ourselves, itself. (4) Your; (5) their; (6) one’s; (7) one’s; (8)
(i) They cannot be used independently. The One in place of he; (9) myself; (10) I
related Noun or Pronoun must be used myself; (11) He himself is ....; (12) They
with them. As— themselves; (13) avail himself; (14)
revenge myself; (15) absented himself.
1. I can do it myself.
or Interrogative Pronoun
I myself can do it. Rule 38—Interrogative Pronouns are these—Who,
It is wrong to use it thus—Myself can do it. w h o m , whose, which, w h a t . The
2. He himself came to the office following are the Rules of their use—
3. You can see it yourself. (i) What is used for inanimate things. As—
4. We discovered the facts ourselves. What is that ? What was there ?

ww 5. They themselves were there on the

scene.
6. No machine can move by itself.
What happened ? What had appeared
there ?

w (ii) There are some Transitive verbs which

.Ea
take some Reflexive Pronoun for their
object if there is no other object to
complete them. These verbs are—avail,
(ii) What is used for Persons also when the
question is about their Position or
Profession. As—
1. What is your father ?

syE
absent, revenge, enjoy. As—
1. I availed myself of this opportunity.
2. I revenged myself upon him.
i.e., What is the post or profession of
your father ?
2. What is he ?

3. He absented himself from the class.

4. You must have enjoyed yourself during ngi 3. What are you ?
(iii) Who, whose, whom are used for Per-
sons. Who is used in the Nominative
the vacation.
Exercise nee case, whom in the Objective case, and
whose in Possessive case. As—

rin
Correct the following sentences : 1. Who are you ?
1. This house is mine house. 2. Who comes there ?
2. That book is yours book.
3. Mine office is there.
3. Whose book is this ?

g.n
4. Whom do you want to meet ?
Since whom is a little inconvenient to
4. Yours father came yesterday.
5. All theirs cows have returned from the
wood.
6. One cannot bear his insult like this.
e
use, who has come to be used in place of
whom in the objective case. As—
1. Who have you invited ?
2. Who do you want to meet ?
t
7. One should take care of his own interests.
8. One will never repent if he is honest. 3. Who are you speaking to ?
9. I meself can do it. 4. Who did you find there ?
10. Myself never knew the facts. (iv) Which is used for Persons and things in
11. Himself is strong enough to defend him- restricted choice. As—
self. 1. Which is your father ?
12. Themselves were absent. 2. Which pen is yours ?
13. He could not avail of the great opportu- 3. Which book do you like most ?
nity. (v) Sometimes it becomes essential to use
14. I must revenge upon my opponent. some Preposition with which or what. In
15. He has again absented from duty. such a situation the Preposition is placed

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PRONOUNS | 53

at the end of the sentence, not at the 10. It is not (we/us) who are to blame.
beginning. As— 11. He is older than (me/I).
1. What is this table made of ? 12. Let you and (she/her) be friends again.
2. Which house do you live in ? 13. You are as good as (him/he).
3. What place are you going to ? 14. There is enough room for you and (me/I).
4. Which book are you looking for ? 15. Nobody but (he/him) was present.
Exercise 16. I know that it was (she/her).
Correct the following sentences : 17. You and (me/I) can do this work together.
1. Whom is your father ? 18. Each of the students gave (his/their) own
2. Whose are you ? version of the incident.
3. Whom comes there ? 19. I am not one of those who cannot keep

ww 4. Whom house is that ?

5. Whose have you invited to tea ?
6. Of what is this toy made ?
(my/their) word.
20. Every day and every night has (its/their)
own importance.

w 7. For whom are you waiting ?

.Ea
8. In which street do you have your house ?
9. What car is yours ?
Hints—(1) I, him; (2) ours; (3) theirs; (4) his; (5)
they; (6) me; (7) him; (8) yours; (9) your;
hers; (10) we; (11) I; (12) she; (13) he;
(14) me; (15) he; (16) she; (17) I; (18) his;

Hints—(1) What;
(2) Who;
syE
10. At what are you aiming ? (19) their; (20) its.
Revision Exercise : 2
(3) Who;
(4) Whose; ngi Fill in the blanks with appropriate interro-
gative pronoun :
1. ........... are you doing ?
(5) Who, Whom;
(6) Preposition of to be placed at the end nee 2. ........... is yours, the pen or pencil ?
3. ........... of them is your sister ?

rin
.... made of;
4. This is my book; .......... is that ?
(7) Who/Whom ...... waiting for ?
5. ......... did you send to hospital ?
(8) Which street ........ your house in ?
(9) Which; (10) What are ...... aiming at ?
g.n
6. .......... is the chain made of ?
7. ........... is this letter from ?
Revision Exercise : 1
Choose the appropriate form of the Pro-
noun from those given in brackets :
1. (I/me) shall go with (himself/him).
e
8. .............. is she writing to ?
9. ........... is he talking about ?
10. ........... do you prefer, milk or tea ?
11. ........... is this coat, mine or yours ?
t
2. (Our/ours) is a long and sad tale. 12. .......... is better, this one or that ?
3. My house is larger than (their/theirs). Hints—(1) What; (2) What; (3) Which; (4)
4. I met a brother of (him/his) in the market. whose; (5) Who/Whom; (6) What; (7)
Where; (8) Who; (9) What; (10) What;
5. It is (they/them) who have done it. (11) Whose; (12) Which.
6. This is a secret between you and (I/me).
7. They praised his brother and (he/him). Revision Exercise : 3
8. He has no pencil; can you lend him Correct the following sentences :
(your/yours) ? 1. Man is the only animal who can talk.
9. Are these (your/you) books ? No, they are 2. Neither of the three brothers have done
(her/hers). their work.

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54 | L.W.C.E.

3. They that are healthy have no need of a 16. They enjoyed during the holidays.
doctor. 17. Myself saw the robber.
4. Let you and I do this work. 18. There are my books. I am giving the same
5. One should always remain loyal to his to you.
country. 19. You are stronger than him.
6. The candidate, who is a graduate, he is 20. He and myself are great friends.
eligible for the post. 21. This is the best which we can do.
7. He is one of those people who can sacri- 22. It was me that gave you the information.
fice his all for the nation. 23. The boy whom you spoke to in the market
8. My sister and myself are happy to accept is my cousin.
your invitation. 24. They can do it themself.
9. He is as clever as her.

ww
25. These pencils are for you and I.
10. He is a friend of our. Hints—(1) that; (2) None; (3) Those who; (4) me;
11. I have nothing which would suit you. (5) one’s; (6) drop he; (7) their; (8) I; (9)

w 12.
13.
14.
I and my friend will go together.

.Ea
Show me the man whom did it.
Who is your father, this gentleman or that ?
she; (10) ours; (11) that; (12) My friend
and I; (13) who; (14) Which; (15) each
other; (16) themselves; (17) I myself; (18)
them in place of the same; (19) he; (20) I;
(21) that; (22) I; (23) who; (24) them-
15.
syE
The two friends like one another. selves; (25) me.

ngi
nee
rin
g.n
e t

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6 Adjectives
Kinds of Adjectives definite Numbers (as one / two / three. etc. or I,
II, III etc.) are called Definite Numeral Adjec-
There are Ten kinds of Adjectives— tives, and those which refer to Indefinite Number

ww 1. Proper Adjectives—The Adjectives for-

med from Proper Nouns are called Proper Adjec-
tives. As—
(as many, several, few, etc.) are called Indefinite
Numeral Adjectives. As—
1. He has four books.

w Indian coast, French wine, American cul-

ture, English language, Shakespearean plays.

.Ea
2. Descriptive or Qualitative Adjectives—
The Adjectives which describe the merits or
2. He has one house.
3. He has many books.
4. He has several houses.

syE
demerits, shape and size, colour and form, good 5. Five workers are there.
qualities or bad ones, of a person or a thing are 6. There are no workers.
called Qualitative Adjectives. As— 7. All workers have gone.
A great man, a beautiful girl, a brave boy, a
small toy, a white cow, cold water.
3. Quantitative Adjectives—The Adjectives ngi Note—The examples given above under
Rules No. 3 and 4 above will show that some
Adjectives are both Adjective of Quantity and
which express the quantity (not number) of a
thing are called Quantitative Adjectives.
nee
Adjective of Number. They are—all, some,
enough, no, none, more, any, plenty of, etc.
They are common to both. They become
These Adjectives are always applied to un-
countable Nouns in the Singular Number. The
Nouns which they qualify can never be in the rin
Adjective of Quantity or Adjective of Number
(Numeral Adjective) according to their use. If
Plural Number.
These Adjectives are—Much, little, n o , g.n
they show quantity, they become Quantitative,
and if they show Number, they become Numeral
Adjectives. As—
none, some, any, enough, sufficient, all, whole,
half, less, a good deal of, a lot of, plenty of, a
kilo/pound/ton/quintal, a litre/metre. As—
1. This is all the milk in the cup.
1.
Quantitative
He has drunk all
the milk
1. e Numeral
He has read all the
books. t
2. He has drunk some 2. He has read some
2. There is enough sugar for the evening tea. milk. books.
3. There is no bread in the cupboard. 3. He has no milk. 3. He has no books.
4. There is one litre milk in the jug. 4. He hasn’t drunk 4. He hasn’t read any
4. Numeral or Numerical Adjectives— any milk. book.
These Adjectives show Number. They are— 5. He has a lot/plenty 5. He has a lot/plenty
One/two/three, etc.; first/second/third, etc.; a, of milk. of books.
an, many, few, some, several, a few, all, any, a
number of, a lot of, a heap of, plenty of. 6. He has enough 6. He has enough
milk. books.
These Adjectives are always applied to
Countable things in both Singular and Plural 7. He has spoilt most 7. He has read most of
Numbers. Amongst these, those which refer to of the milk. the books.

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56 | L.W.C.E.

5. Demonstrative Adjectives—The Adjec- Your, thy, his, her, its, their. In Attributive
tives which point to some Person or thing are form they are used before the Nouns they qualify.
called Demonstrative Adjectives. They are of As—My book/ books, Your book/ books, Our
two types—Definite Demonstratives and Inde- house/ houses, its wings.
finite Demonstratives. The more common Defi- But the Possessive Adjectives can be
nite Demonstratives are these— Possessive Pronouns also. In that case they are
This, that (with Singular Noun) used Predicatively, i.e. after the Nouns they
These, those (with Plural Noun) qualify. As—
Any, Such, Some (with both Numbers This is my book. (Possessive Adjective)
according to sense) This book is mine (Possessive Pronoun)
Indefinite Demonstratives are these—Any, In the same way mine, ours, yours, theirs,
some, such, other, any other, a certain, etc. hers are also Possessive Pronouns (not Posses-

ww Here it should be remembered that a Singular

Demonstrative should go with a Singular Noun,
and a Plural Demonstrative with a Plural Noun.
sive Adjectives).
9. Emphasizing Adjectives—These Adjec-
tives are used to lay emphasis on the Noun. They

w
Therefore, we cannot write this boys or these
boy.

.Ea
The Demonstratives which are common in
both Singular and Plural Numbers are these—
are—own, very. As—
1. I saw it with my own eyes.
2. This happened before my very eyes.
3. His own book was lost.
a certain book,
the other book,
such a boy,
syE certain books
the other books
such boys
4. He came this very day.
10. Exclamatory Adjectives—What can be
used as Exclamatory Adjective also. As—
any man,
the same boy,
any men
the same boys ngi What joke that was !
What nonsense this is !
6. Distributive Adjectives—Distributive
Adjectives are those that point to Persons or
Things Singly or Collectively. They are—each, nee What a beautiful house you have !
Exercise
every, either, neither. As—
1. Each boy will show his work.
rin
Correct the following sentences :
1. There is none bread on the counter.
2. Every man had gone in time.
3. You can take either road, this or that. g.n
2. We shall need 5 litres milk for the party.
3. Whole students are present on the field.
4. A good deal of passengers are waiting for
4. Neither road is safe at this hour.
5. You have to take this medicine every
four hours (i.e., every period of four
hours).
the train.
e
5. All the fourth books are in our course.
6. All fourth student will come forward.
7. I have no liking for this kinds of games.
t
6. Every four teams will give a demons-
tration turn by turn (i.e., in groups of four 8. None of these two alternatives is accept-
teams). able to me.
7. Interrogative Adjectives—Interrogative 9. All the sides of the coin are rusty.
Adjectives are those that ask Questions. As— 10. He can read with none of his eyes.
What, which, whose, etc. As— 11. He has injured all his hands.
1. Which book do you want ? 12. Each and every books has been damaged.
2. What book was that ? 13. Each of this book is difficult for me.
3. Whose book was that ? 14. We are all yours students.
8. Possessive Adjectives—Possessive Adjec- 15. This is mine house. Which is your ?
tives show relationships. They are—My, Our, 16. He likes very this type of pen.

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ADJECTIVES | 57

17. He fought in very my presence. 2. Tell me something interesting.

18. My son own can do it easily. 3. I have nothing new to say.
19. Which a beautiful girl this is ! 4. Is there anything new ?
20. Which a fun was that ! (c) If several Adjectives qualify the same
Hints—(1) no; (2) 5 litre; (3) All; (4) ‘number of’ Noun, it is better to use them after the
in place of ‘good deal of’; (5) four; (6) Noun, though their use before the Noun is
Every; (7) this kind or these kinds; (8) also not wrong. As—
Neither; (9) Both; (10) neither; (11) both; A man, strong, young and brave.
(12) book; (13) these books; (14) your; I love all things—good and useful,
(15) my; yours; (16) this very type; (17) colourful and beautiful.
my very presence; (18) own son; (19)
(d) When an Adjective is used for a title, it is
What; (20) What.
used after the Noun. As—Akbar the

ww Position of Adjectives
(a) There are two ways of using Adjectives—
Great; Alexander the Great, Louis the
Pious.
(e) In some phrases the Adjective is used

w (1) Attributive use

.Ea
(2) Predicative use
In Attributive use Adjectives are placed
before the Nouns they qualify. As— He is a good
after the Noun. As—
the body politic, heir apparent, the sum
total, chairman elect, a God incarnate,
Governor-General, from time immemo-

syE
boy. In Predicative use Adjectives are placed
after the Nouns they qualify. As—The boy is
good.
rial.
(f) Ordinal and Cardinal Numbers—If
Numerical Adjectives of both kinds
The following are the Rules of Attributive
and Predicative use of Adjectives—
1. Proper and Qualitative Adjectives— ngi (Cardinal —one / two / three, etc. and
Ordinal —I / II / II, etc.) are to be used
before a Noun, the Ordinal numbers
These Adjectives can be used in both Attributive
and Predicative ways. As—
1. This is an Indian dish. (Attributive)
nee should be used first and Cardinal numbers
later. I, II, III are read is First, Second,
Third, etc. As—
2. This dish is Indian. (Predicative)
3. This is a good book (Attributive) rin
1. I have read the first two chapters (not
two first chapters) of this book.
4. This book is good. (Predicative)
2. But the following Adjectives are used only g.n
2. The first five poems of this book are in
our course. (Not five first)

e
(g) If both Numeral and Possessive Adjec-
Predicatively (not attributively)—

t
tives are to be applied to a Noun, the
asleep, alive, ill, awake, afraid, ashamed, Numeral Adjective should be used before
alike, alone. As— the Possessive Adjective. As—
1. The baby is asleep. 1. All my brothers are well settled.
(cannot say—He is an asleep baby) (Not My all brothers)
2. The child is awake. 2. Half my friends have already gone.
(Not awake child) (Not My half friends)
3. He is afraid of you. (h) The, this, that are used after the Numeral
4. I am alone. Adjective. As—
5. Their appearances are alike. 1. All the books (Not the all books)
(b) Adjective is used after Indefinite Pronoun 2. Both the books, (Not the both books)
(something, nothing, anything, some- 3. All this is wrong. (Not this all)
body, anybody, nobody, no one). As— (i) For emphasis the Adjective is used after
1. He is somebody important. the Noun. As—

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58 | L.W.C.E.

Things eternal are more precious than 10. This custom has been coming down from
things temporal. immemorial time.
(j) If several Adjectives qualify the same 11. The eldest prince is the apparent heir to
Noun, they should be arranged in such a the throne.
way that the Adjectives suggesting the 12. He is among the three first position
basic qualities of the Noun concerned holders.
should come nearest to it serially. As— 13. The five last candidates could not be
1. A dirty, ugly old man. (Not old, dirty interviewed today.
ugly man) 14. Our all friends are very sincere.
2. A weak, hungry, green parrot. 15. His all books have been stolen.
(k) Determiners/Determinatives—They are 16. The both friends have come.
the Adjectives that point to the Number 17. The all books are equally good.

ww or Quantity of a Noun, or limit the

range of a thing by making a definite
suggestion towards it (as—this, that,
18. A young, well-dressed and smart man is
waiting for you.
19. I bought tickets five for Bombay.

w these, those, my, your, etc.) These deter-

miners are always placed before the
Noun. As—
.Ea
1. There are five horses (Not horses five)
20. I always choose best the everything.
Hints—(1) a very beautiful; (2) two sets of
colourful; (3) felt ashamed; (4) live alone;
(5) family awake; (6) nothing interesting;

syE
2. Here is a cup.
3. This is my cup.
4. I like this/that cup.
(7) anything new; (8) Akbar the Great; (9)
God incarnate (drop ‘an’); (10) time
immemorial; (11) heir apparent; (12) first
5. I don’t like these/those boys.
(l) If an Article (a, an, or the) and an ngi three; (13) last five; (14) All our; (15) All
his; (16) Both the; (17) All the; (18) well-
dressed and smart young man; (19) five
Adjective are both to be used for a Noun,
the Adjective is placed after the Article.
As— nee tickets; (20) everything the best.
Degrees of Adjectives
1. He is a good boy. (Not good a boy)
2. This is the best book. (Not best the 1. Positive Degree
rin
There are three Degrees of Adjectives—

book)
Exercise
2. Comparative Degree
3. Superlative Degree
g.n
e
In the Positive Degree some special quality of
Correct the following sentences :

t
a thing is pointed out, not the Degree of the
1. This is very beautiful a scene. special quality. As—
2. I bought colourful two sets of curtains. Ram is a brave boy.
3. He ashamed felt at his discourteous In the Comparative Degree the second lower
behaviour. or higher degree of the quality is suggested, and
in it there is a sense of comparison of the same
4. I alone live in such a big house.
quality in two things. As—
5. I found the whole awake family at mid- Ram is braver than Shyam.
night.
In the Superlative Degree the third and
6. We found interesting nothing there. highest Degree of the quality is suggested, and in
7. Have you new anything to tell me about it there is the sense of the highest Degree of the
this case ? same quality amongst at least three or more
8. The Great Akbar was the Emperor of things. As—
India. 1. Ram is the bravest of these five boys.
9. Lord Krishna was an incarnate God. 2. Ram is the bravest of all.

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ADJECTIVES | 59

Note—(1) Absolute Superlative—Sometimes Pure Purer Purest

Superlatives formed by most are used in White Whiter Whitest
such a way that they do not carry the sense Sane Saner Sanest
of the highest Degree of comparison; they
only lay emphasis on the quality con- 3. In Adjectives ending with y in the Positive
cerned. They are called Absolute Superla- Degree and also having a Consonant before y, the
tives. As— Comparative and Superlative Degrees are for-
med by first converting y into i, and then adding
1. That was a most unfortunate event. -er for the Comparative and -est for the Super-
2. It was a most moving speech. lative Degree. As—
Formation of Comparative and Positive Comparative Superlative
Superlative Degree Adjectives Easy Easier Easiest
Signs of Recognition Heavy Heavier Heaviest

ww There are some signs of recognition of Com-

parative or Superlative Degrees. They are—
1. Comparative Degree—
Happy
Merry
Wealthy
Happier
Merrier
Wealthier
Happiest
Merriest
Wealthiest

w
Healthy Healthier Healthiest
(a) Comparative Degree Adjectives have Pretty Prettier Prettiest

.Ea
generally - r, - er, - or at the end.
(b) Superlative Degree—
Superlative Degree Adjectives have gen-
4. If an Adjective ends with y in the Positive
Degree, but has a Vowel (not a consonant) before

syE
y , the y is not converted into i, and the
erally - st or - est at the end. comparative and Superlative Degrees are formed
(c) More is the sign of Comparative Degree by adding - er and - est respectively. As—
and Most of the Superlative Degree.

ngi
Positive Comparative Superlative
The following are the ways of making Com-
parative or Superlative Degrees from the Posi- Gay Gayer Gayest
tive Degree— Grey Greyer Greyest
1. Comparative Degree is formed by adding -
er and Superlative by adding -est to the Positive
Degree of Adjectives of one syllable and some of
nee 5. In Adjectives ending with double conso-
nants, or with one consonant preceded by two
Vowels, the Comparative and Superlative Degrees
more than one syllable also. As—
Positive Comparative Superlative rin
are formed by adding - er or - est respectively
without doubling the last consonant. As—
Tall
Sweet
Taller
Sweeter
Tallest
Sweetest
Positive
Deep
Comparative
Deeper
g.n Superlative
Deepest
Young
Smart
Great
Small
Younger
Smarter
Greater
Smaller
Youngest
Smartest
Greatest
Smallest
Great
Thick
Small
Dull
Greater
Thicker
Smaller
Duller
eGreatest
Thickest
Smallest
Dullest
6. When an Adjective of one syllable has one
t
2. In Adjectives ending with e in the Positive consonant at the end, and this last consonant is
Degree, Comparative Degree is formed by adding preceded by one short vowel, the last consonant
-r and Superlative by adding -st to the Positive is doubled before adding - er or - est for making
Degree. As— Comparative or Superlative Degrees. As—
Positive Comparative Superlative
Positive Comparative Superlative
Brave Braver Bravest Hot Hotter Hottest
Fine Finer Finest Big Bigger Biggest
Large Larger Largest Thin Thinner Thinnest
Able Abler Ablest Sad Sadder Saddest
Noble Nobler Noblest Fat Fatter Fattest
Wise Wiser Wisest Red Redder Reddest

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60 | L.W.C.E.

7. Some Adjectives have more than two Correct Use of Adjectives

syllables in their Positive Degree (including a few
of only two syllables also). The Comparative or (A) Positive Degree
Superlative Degrees of such Adjectives are made Rule 1—Comparison of Equality
by using more or most before them. As— When e q u a l i t y or similarity is shown
Positive Comparative Superlative through comparison between two Persons,
Beautiful More beautiful Most beautiful Things or Qualities, we use the pattern—
Courageous More Most courageous as + Adjective + as
courageous As—
Learned More learned Most learned
1. She is as beautiful as her sister.
Splendid More splendid Most splendid
Difficult More difficult Most difficult 2. Ram is as tall as Shyam.

ww Industrious More Most industrious Rule 2—Comparison of Inequality

industrious When inequality or dissimilarity through
Proper More proper Most proper comparison is shown between two Persons,

w
Honourable More Most honourable Things or Qualities, we follow the following
honourable two patterns—
Honest

.Ea
More honest Most honest
8. Irregular Formation—The Comparative
not as + Adjective + as
or

syE
or Superlative Degrees of some Adjectives are not so + Adjective + as
irregular. They are not governed by any rules, and These comparisons are called Negative com-
their Comparative or Superlative Degrees are not parisons. As—
formed from their Positive Degrees. As—

ngi
1. She is not as beautiful as her sister.
Positive Comparative Superlative or
Good Better Best She is not so beautiful as her sister.
Bad
Little
Much
Worse
Less/Lesser
More
Worst
Least
Most nee
2. Ram is not as tall as Shyam.
or

rin
Ram is not so tall as Shyam.
Many More Most
Note—If we wish to lay more emphasis on inequ-
Late Later/Latter Latest/last
ality, we can use quite before so. As—
Old
Far
Fore
Older/Elder
Farther
Former
Oldest/eldest
Farthest (for distance)
Foremost
sister. g.n
1. She is not quite so beautiful as her

In
Up
Out
Inner
Upper
Outer
Inmost/innermost
Uppermost/upmost
Outermost
Rule 3—Concealed Comparison e
2. Ram is not quite so tall as Shyam.

In some sentences comparison is not explicit

but concealed in its sense. In such sentences
t
Exercise we use—
Give the Comparative a n d Superlative not all that + Adjectives. As—
Degrees of the following Adjectives :
1. He is not all that intelligent.
(a) Easy, merry, healthy, wealthy, pretty.
(i.e. He is not as intelligent as he was
(b) Small, great, high, low, gay, fine, grey, slow, believed to be.)
fast, lazy, bright.
2. Its price is not all that high.
(c) Sad, thin, red, fat, big.
3. The swimming pool is not all that deep.
(d) Gracious, wonderful, respectable, remark-
able, intelligent, loyal, prudent, impressive, Rule 4—Comparison of Actions (Verbs)
industrious, sorry. In Positive Degree two actions can be com-
(e) Good, bad, little, much, many. pared in the following ways—

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ADJECTIVES | 61

(i) By using Gerund. as— Hints—(1) as tall as; (2) as useful as; (3) so
1. Writing is as easy as reading. merciful; or as merciful; (4) as my
brother; (5) quite so; (6) quite so tall; (7)
2. Walking is as difficult as running.
not all that; (8) not all that; (9) driving;
(ii) By using Infinitive. as— (10) as dancing; (11) to drive; (12) pay;
1. It is not as easy to write as read. (13) sooner; (14) as soon die; (15) vacate,
2. It is as difficult to walk as run. go.
In this construction it should be remembered (B) Comparative Degree
that the first Infinitive is used with to, and the
second without to. Rule 5—Comparison between two
(iii) By using had better/had rather/had Comparative Degree Adjective is used for
sooner, as comparison between two Persons, Things or
Qualities, not for more than two. As—

ww
1. I had rather go than wait.
2. You had rather read than write. 1. Ram is nobler than Mohan.
3. You had better work than sit idle. 2. Which is the better between these two
pens ? (not better among these five

w 4. We had better sit there than stand

here.

.Ea
5. They had sooner die than surren-
der.
pens.)
Rule 6—Use of than
The connective ‘than’ is used to show com-
parison for all Adjectives except those
der.
syE
6. They would sooner die than surren-

7. They would as soon die as surren-

Adjectives shown below under Rule 7. As—
1. Ram is taller than Shyam.

ngi
der. 2. This house is better than that.
In this construction Infinitive is used twice, 3. Sita is more beautiful than Geeta.
and each time without to. This is the correct Rule 7—Use of to—
pattern.
Exercise
Correct the following sentences :
nee For all Adjectives of Latin origin, comparison
is shown by ‘to’ (not by ‘than’). T h e more

rin
common Adjectives o f L a t i n origin are—
1. Sita is as taller as her sister. Superior, inferior, junior, senior, prior,
2. This book is useful as the other one. anterior, posterior. It may be remembered
3. Ram is not more merciful as Shyam.
4. I was not so tired than my brother. g.n
that generally these Adjectives end with - or.
By this sign they can be recognised. It may be
remembered that ‘to’ is used after Prefer /
5. He is not very so industrious as your
servant.
6. You are not highly so tall as your friend.
7. He is not that all trustworthy.
origin. As—
e
Preferable also, though they are not of Latin

1. He is junior/senior to me. (not than me)

2. This is superior/inferior to that. (not
t
8. His achievement was not all so great. than that)
9. To drive is as difficult as swimming. 3. His turn comes prior to mine. (not than
10. Public speaking requires as much cour- mine)
age as to dance. 4. Milk is preferable to tea. (not than)
11. It is as difficult to ride as driving.
Rule 8—Originally Comparative Degree
12. They had better paid the penalty.
The above noted Adjectives of Latin origin
13. We would soon pay the money than (Superior, inferior, junior, senior, prior,
suffer this insult. anterior, posterior) are already of Compara-
14. I would as soon as die as beg like you. tive Degree. Therefore no attempt should be
15. You had better vacated the house than made to make their comparative degree by
gone for litigation. adding more / less or any other comparative

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62 | L.W.C.E.

word. Therefore, it is wrong to use such My horse is better than Ram’s. (i.e., Ram’s
expressions as ‘more superior’ or ‘less supe- horse)
rior’, ‘more preferable’ or ‘less preferable’ Similarly—
and so on. Also, as has been explained above,
‘to’ is used with them, not ‘than’. As— 1. The climate of Punjab is better than that
of Bihar. (Not than Bihar)
1. He is junior to me. (Not more junior
than) 2. The markets of Delhi are larger than
those of (or than the markets of) Agra.
2. She is senior to her. (Not more senior (Not than Agra)
than)
3. Milk is preferable to tea. (Not better Exercise
preferable) Correct the following sentences :
Rule 9—Double Comparatives 1. This T.V. set is less inferior to your set.

ww Double comparatives should not be used.

Therefore, the following expressions are
wrong—more cleverer; more better; more
stronger; less braver; greater higher, etc.
2. His performance was superior than mine.
3. This cloth is much more superior to the
other one.

w The correct expressions would be—

.Ea
1. He is cleverer (not more cleverer) than
you.
2. An elephant is stronger (not more
4. His turn comes priorer to yours.
5. Ram is more cleverer than Mohan.
6. You can do still more better work.
7. No man could have done it in less shorter

syE
stronger) than a horse.
Rule 10—When two qualities
of the same person or thing are to be com-
time.
8. Ram is more industrious than more
intelligent.
pared, the Comparative Degree formed by -
ngi
er should not be used. In their place compara-
9. He is stronger than cleverer.
10. His writing is better than you.

nee
tive degree should be made by adding more 11. The scenery of Kashmir is more beautiful
or less to the Adjective concerned. As— than Bihar.
1. He is more brave than strong. (Not 12. The cows of Haryana are better than

rin
braver than stronger) Panjab.
2. Mohan is more good than wise (Not 13. Calcutta is larger than that of Bombay.
better than wise)

g.n
14. His house is bigger than her.
3. He is more industrious than intelligent. 15. My school is nearer than their.
(Not more industrious than more inte- Hints—(1) drop ‘less’; (2) t o mine; (3) drop
lligent)
Rule 11—Correct Comparisons
When two persons, things or qualities are to
be compared, care should be taken to see that
e
‘more’; ( 4 ) prior; (5) drop‘more’; (6)
drop ‘more’; (7) drop ‘less’; (8) drop
‘more’ before ‘intelligent’; (9) ‘ m o r e
strong than clever’; (10) yours; (11) that t
comparison is made between correct persons of Bihar; (12) those of Panjab; (13) drop
or things. No wrong comparison should be ‘that of’; (14) hers; (15) theirs.
made. As— Rule 12—Proper Comparisons
My horse is better than Ram. There may be another error in correct com-
This sentence is wrong because in this parison which should be avoided. When a
sentence the comparison is wrong. The person or thing is to be compared with
sentence as it is would mean as if comparison another person or thing of the same class or
is made between ‘my horse’ and ‘Ram’. The category, and if the comparison is to be
correct comparison would be between ‘my shown by a comparative Adjective followed
horse’ and ‘Rams’s horse’ (not Ram by ‘than’, the person or thing coming after
himself). Therefore, the correct form of the ‘than’ should have ‘any other’ / ‘all others’
above sentence would be— or ‘else’ before it, otherwise the comparison

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ADJECTIVES | 63

would be wrong and the sentence will have no 4. I love you more than any boy in the class.
meaning. For example, look at the following 5. He is dearer to me than anyone in the
sentence— family.
Ram is more intelligent than any other 6. He was in time while everyone was late.
student in the class. 7. I cannot accept you, though I can accept
This sentence is correct. But if we delete the anybody.
word other from the sentence and write it as 8. I cannot believe in your promises, though
follows— I can believe in anybody else.
Ram is more intelligent than any student in Hints—(1) any other; (2) any other; (3) any other;
the class. (4) any other; (5) anyone else; (6) ever-
The sentence becomes wrong on account of yone else; (7) anybody else; (8) else’s.
wrong comparison. This sentence would mean Rule 13—Comparison of Number/Quantity

ww as if Ram is not a student (may be a peon) and

he is being compared with the students of the
class. But when we say any other student, the
Another error is often committed in the com-
parisons of Number and Quantity. It should
be remembered that fewer is used for Num-

w
meaning becomes clear that Ram is himself a ber, and less for Quantity. Fewer is always
student and he is being compared with other followed by Countable Plural Noun and less

.Ea
students of the class.
Similarly the following sentences are correct—
1. This book is better than any other book
by uncountable Singular Noun. But more
can be used both for Number and Quantity.

syE
As—
in the stock. 1. I have fewer pens than pencils.
2. An elephant is stronger than all other 2. She gave me fewer books than maga-
animals in the wood.

ngi
zines.
3. I respect you more than any one else in 3. He eats less butter than sugar.
the college. 4. She bought less gold than silver.
If we write these sentences as follows
(after removing any other/all other/anyone
else), they will all be wrong. nee 5. There are more cows than goats.
6. There is more sugar than salt.

rin
Never use fewer in place of less, or less
1. This book is better than any book in the
in place of fewer. For example, the following
stock.
sentences are wrong—
2. An elephant is stronger than all animals
in the wood.
3. I respect you more than anyone in the g.n
1. She bought fewer gold than silver.
2. I have less pens than pencils.
college.
Note—It may further be remembered in this
context that other is used with a Noun and
else with a Pronoun. As—any other tea-
e
Rule 14—Comparatively + Positive Degree
If an Adjective (or an Adverb) has Compa-
ratively before it, the Adjective (or Adverb)
should be used in the Positive Degree, not in t
cher, any other pen, any other doctor; the Comparative Degree. As—
anyother else, anyone else, everybody 1. This is comparatively easy (not easier).
else, etc. 2. He is now comparatively well (not
Exercise better).
Correct the following sentences : 3. This is comparatively difficult (not
more difficult).
1. Dara Singh was stronger than any man in
his youth. Exercise
2. He works harder than any student in his Correct the following sentences :
class. 1. There are less rooms in his house than in
3. He is more learned than any teacher in the mine.
college. 2. He has read less books than I .

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64 | L.W.C.E.

3. Only a few milk would be sufficient. In the above noted sentences if as is used
4. Take this medicine with a few tea. only once with the Positive Degree
Adjective, they would be wrong. For
5. Very less guests have come yet. example, the following sentences are
6. I will have a little fewer sugar in my tea. wrong—
7. He is now comparatively better off. 1. He runs as fast, if not faster than you.
8. Today he came comparatively earlier. 2. She is as good, if not better than her
9. Your problem is comparatively easier. mother.
10. He is comparatively a better man. 3. This hall is as large, if not larger than
Hints—(1) fewer; (2) fewer; (3) little; (4) little; that.
(5) few; (6) less; (7) well off; (8) early; (9) Rule 17—Emphatic Comparatives
easy; (10) good. Emphatic Comparatives can be used in the

wwRule 15—Parallel/ Gradual Increase or Decr-

ease
(a) Some sentences are so constructed that its
following three ways—
(a) By using much / far / by far / still before
the Comparative Degree (but not by using

w Comparative Degree Adjective is split up

.Ea
and used in the two Parts of the sentence as a
balance. In such sentences, Comparative
Degree should be used in both the parts, not
very). As—
1. This house is much larger than that.
2. This is far better than that.

syE
comparative in one part and Positive or
Superlative in the other. As—
1. The higher a man rises, the humbler he
3. This is by far more important than the
other.
4. This book is still better.
grows.
We should not say—
The higher a man rises, the humble or ngi or,
This book is better still.

nee
(b) By using rather.
humblest he grows.) As—
2. The nobler a man is, the more respect 1. This book is rather cheaper.

rin
he gets.
2. This hall is rather better.
(b) In some sentences the same Comparative
Adjective is repeated one after the other. (c) By using all the.
The form of such sentences is as follows—
1. He is getting weaker and weaker.
As—
g.n
1. This is all the better.
2. He is working harder and harder.
3. The price-index is rising higher and
higher.
Rule 16—Positive Degree+Comparative Degree
2. That was all the worse.
e
3. That was all the more disappointing.
Exercise t
Correct the following sentences :
There are also some sentences in which both
the Comparative and Positive Degree Adjec- 1. The harder a man labours, the best returns
tives are used. In such sentences, the Positive he gets.
Degree Adjective should be used with as 2. The more contented a man is, the happy
……as (not with one as only) and Com- he feels.
parative Degree Adjective with than. As— 3. The more you amass, the greediest you
1. He runs as fast as, if not faster than you. grow.
2. She is as good as, if not better than her 4. The most you conceal, the more you
mother. expose yourself.
3. This hall is as large as, if not larger 5. The valley goes deep and deeper from
than that. here.

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ADJECTIVES | 65

6. The mountain peaks rise high and high Rule 20—Superlative + of/ in
from this terrain. Preposition of or in is used to show compari-
7. He is sinking deeper and deepest into son amongst three or more persons or
debts. things. As—
8. He is as intelligent, if not more intelligent 1. He is the richest of all men here.
than his father.
2. This is the cheapest of all books.
9. His position is as bad as, if not worst than
3. This is the best building in the town.
yours.
10. He is very better now. 4. He is the most intelligent boy in the
class.
11. This is all the good for me.
Remember that of is used with most of
12. This cloth is very inferior. the Superlative Adjectives, but with the
Hints—(1) better; (2) happier; (3) greedier; (4) Superlatives showing place we use i n

ww more you conceal; (5) deeper and deeper;

(6) higher and higher; (7) deeper and
deeper; (8) as intelligent as; (9) worse;
instead of of. As—in the town or in the
class in the above noted sentences.

w
Rule 21—Superlative + one of/among
(10) much better; (11) better; (12) much
inferior. When one of or a m o n g is used with a

.Ea
(C) Superlative Degree
Rule 18—The + Superlative
Superlative, the noun coming after it must be
of Plural Number. As—

syE
1. Ram is one of the best boys in the class.
Article The must be used before a Superlative 2. This is one of the cheapest books
Degree Adjective. As— available in the market.
1. He is the best student of the class.
2. This is the highest peak.
3. He is the most powerful man. ngi 3. He is the best among these boys.
4. This is the cheapest among these books.

nee
Rule 22—Superlative and other
The following sentences are wrong because We don’t use other with a Superlative Degree
Article a (not the) or no article has been used
Adjective. (It may be remembered that with a
before the Superlative Adjective. As—
He is a best student.
or rin
Comparative Degree Adjective other is used
when the comparison is within the same class

He is best student.
Note—But if some Possessive Adjective (my,
Adjective.) As—
g.n
or category, but it is not so with a Superlative

1. He is the strongest of all boys. (Not of all

our, your, his, her, their) or Possessive
Case (Noun + ’ s) has come before the
Superlative, we don’t use the Article the.
As—
other boys)
e
2. This is the best of all buildings. (Not of
all other buildings)
Rule 23—One of………if not/Superlative
t
1. He is my best friend.
2. He is our dearest child. In some sentences Superlative is used twice
3. He is Ram’s best friend. once with one of the and again with if not
Rule 19—Three or more Nouns the. In such sentences Plural Noun comes
Superlative Adjective is used for comparison after one of the + Superlative, and Singular
amongst at least three or more things or Noun after if not the + Superlative. As—
persons. As— This is one of the best books, if not the best
1. She i s the best of the three sisters. (Not book on Indian philosophy.
best of the two sisters) The following are some more sentences—
2. This is the cheapest of all . 1. He is one of the greatest historians, if not
(Not cheapest of both) the greatest (historian) alive today.

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66 | L.W.C.E.

2. This is one of the highest peaks, if not 1. He is the most brightest student.
the highest (peak) of these mountains. (Only brightest student should be
3. This is one of the largest halls, if not the there.)
largest (hall) in the town. 2. He is the most richest man.
Note—In such sentences the Singular Noun 3. This is the most worst job.
coming after if not the + Superlative is
Rule 25—Emphatic Superlative
often concealed.
In order to give additional emphasis to a
Exercise Superlative Adjective, we can use by far the /
Correct the following sentences : much the / the very / out and out the. As—
1. He is noblest man I have ever met. 1. Bangalore is by far the most beautiful
2. This is longest chapter in my book. city.

ww 3. This is my the most favourite dish.

4. This is Mohan’s the highest ambition.
5. She is the tallest of the two sisters.
2. This is much the best school.
3. This is the very best school.
4. This is out and out the best school.

w 6. The best of the two will be given the

prize.

.Ea
7. The best of both will be given a chance.
Rule 26—Adjectives of the same degree
If the same Noun is qualified by two or more
than two Adjectives , all these Adjectives
must be of the same Degree. As—
the town.
syE
8. This is the most fashionable market of

9. He is the most scholarly of all other

1. She is the best and most talented girl.
(We can’t say best and talented or good
and most talented)

ngi
teachers.
2. This is the deepest and longest valley.
10. He is the ablest of any other candidates.
3. I have the best and cheapest book.
11. He is one of the greatest scientists if not
the great of this century.
12. Ram is one of the most mischievous nee
Rule 27—Non-gradable Adjectives
The undernoted Adjectives are already of the
Superlative Degree. They cannot be used as

rin
boys, if not the more mischievous in the
class. Comparative Degree Adjectives, nor can the
emphasising expressions such as very /
13. You can choose the best of either of these
pens.
14. I will live in the bigger of all these g.n
extremely / highly / much can be used with
them. These Adjectives are—
Unique, perfect, matchless, excellent, ideal,
houses.
15. He reached the earliest of both.
Hints—(1) the noblest; (2) the longest; (3) drop
‘the’; (4) drop ‘the’; (5) of the three (or
e
absolute, universal, impossible, entire,
whole, full, complete, round, extreme,
eternal, chief. Now see their use—
1. He is an ideal leader.
t
more); (6) Three or more/all; (7) of all; (8) (We can’t say more ideal or most ideal)
in the town; (9) drop ‘other’; (10) ‘all’ in 2. This is a unique chance. (not, more uni-
place of ‘any other’ (11) the greatest; (12) que or most unique)
‘most mischievous’ in place of ‘m o r e 3. This plan is perfect.
mischievous. (13) ‘all’ in place of ‘eit-
4. I have full sympathy with him.
her’; (14) the biggest; (15) ‘all’ in place of
‘both’. Note—However, these days full and perfect are
being used in Comparative and Super-
Rule 24—Double Superlative lative Degrees also. Now we can use full,
Double Superlatives should not be used. The fuller, and fullest, or perfect, more per-
following sentences are w r o n g because fect or most perfect. This use is coming
double superlatives have been used in them. into vogue. As—

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ADJECTIVES | 67

1. I have the fullest sympathy with you. 3. The humble are blessed.
2. This is the more perfect/ most perfect 4. The wicked always come to grief.
plan. (b) As a Singular Noun representing some
3. Please give me a fuller account of the abstract quality.
incident. As—
Rule 28—Like best/like most 1. Keats was a poet of the beautiful.
Both these uses are correct. 2. The future is bright.
1. Which of these books do you like most ? (c) Adjectives actually becoming Nouns.
2. Which of these books do you like best ? (i) Proper Nouns—Canadians, Africans,
Some Other Typical Adjectives Asians, Italians.
(ii) Denoting Persons—Juniors, seniors,
Rule 29—Kind and sort

ww Kind and sort are of Singular Number. There-

fore, this or that should be used with them,
not these or those.
elders, nobles, inferiors, superiors,
criminals, savages, betters.
(iii) In Plural Number only—sweets,

w 1. I don’t like this/that kind of men.

.Ea
or
I don’t like men of this/that kind.
valuables, eatables.
(d) In some phrases
for good, at best, black and white,
through thick and thin, for better/for

or
syE
2. I don’t like this/that sort of men.

I don’t like men of this/that sort.

worse/worst, before long, in short,
from bad to worse, the long and short.
1. He has left India for good.
Note—These / those sort or these / those kind
are wrong expressions, though some
authors have started using them. ngi 2. At best, we shall get marginal profit.
3. The agreement was made in black

Rule 30—Adjective/Adverb
Sometimes Adjectives are used with verbs nee and white.
4. We shall remain friends through
thick and thin.
also, but in that case the Adjectives qualify
the subject of the verb. If, however, they
qualify the action (verb), they should be used rin
5. We shall not part company for better
or for worse.
Adverbially. As—
1. The flowers smell sweet (not sweetly) g.n
6. Nothing better can come.
7. Nothing worse can happen.
2. He looked angry (not angrily)
3. The ship appeared suddenly (not sudden)
4. He looked coldly at us. (not cold)
Rule 31—Adjective used as Nouns
e
8. I am prepared for the worst.
9. I shall start a new business before
long.
10. In short, I have lost the chance. t
Sometimes Adjectives are used as Nouns in 11. His condition is getting from bad to
the following cases— worse.
(a) Represent a class of people 12. The long and short of the whole
matter is that the match had to be
Sometimes a particular class of people in
cancelled.
the Plural Number can be represented by
an Adjective preceded by the definite Exercise
Article The. As—
(a) Correct the following sentences :
1. The rich should not be proud. (i.e.
rich people) 1. He is the most richest man in the town.
2. The poor should not be derided. (i.e. 2. He is the least slowest worker.
poor people) 3. He has committed the most worst crime.

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68 | L.W.C.E.

4. He is the noblest man by far in our 1. Ram came later than Hari.
family. 2. This event is of a later date.
5. This is the much best book on the subject. 3. Ram and Shyam are brothers but the
6. She is the out and out most fashionable latter is more cultured than the former.
lady. Former and Latter
7. This is the best and easy of all exercises.
When there is reference to only two persons
8. She is the sweetest and noble girl. or things, we use former for the first and latter
9. We live in the richest and fertile valley. for the second. But when the reference is for three
10. He is the most ideal teacher. or more persons or things, we use first for the
11. You will never get a very unique chance first and last for the last. As—
like this. 1. Ram and Shyam are brothers but the
12. That was a most excellent opportunity. former is very rich and the latter very

ww 13.

14.
He found it most impossible to swim
across the flooded river.
He has left the work more incomplete.
poor.
2. In a list of fifty candidates Ram’s name is
at the first place and Mohan’s at the last.

w 15.

16.
It is difficult to deal with this kinds of
customers.

.Ea
These kind of books are not available
here.
First and Foremost
First is first merely in serial order without
any suggestion of more or less in importance,
17.
18.
19. syE
These sort of men are dangerous.
She appears very sweetly in her red frock.
I found her smilingly at the door.
while foremost means most important without
any reference to serial order. As—
1. He was the first man to reach here.
20. She looked coldly and indifferently.

Hints—(1) drop ‘most’; (2) drop ‘least’; (3) drop ngi 2. Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru was the foremost
statesman of his time.

nee
Last and Latest
‘most’; (4) by far the noblest man; (5) Last is the antonym of first, while latest is
much the best book; (6) out and out the the antonym of earliest. Therefore, last has the
most fashionable; (7) easiest; (8) noblest;
(9) most fertile; (10) drop ‘most’; (11)
drop ‘very’; (12) ‘an’ in place of ‘a most’;
sense of Time. As—
rin
sense of place in serial order, while latest has the

g.n
(13) drop ‘most’; (14) drop ‘more’; (15) 1. The last person in the queue is my friend.
these; (16) kinds; (17) sorts; (18) sweet; 2. What is the latest news about his condi-
(19) smiling; (20) cold and indifferent. tion ?
(b) Use the following Adjectives or Adjectival
phrases as Nouns—
Rich, poor, beautiful, junior, senior, elder,
sweet, valuable, good, better, best, long and short,
Nearest and Next
e
Nearest means nearest in distance, while next
means after this / that in serial order. As— t
1. Which is the nearest railway station
bad, worse, worst, black and white, thick and thin, from here ?
short, from bad to worse.
2. My seat was next from the door.
We give below some typical Adjectives in the Farther and Further
use of which there is always some doubt and a
Farther means away in distance, while
mistake is often committed. See their correct use
further means ‘in addition to’. But further is
carefully—
also used sometimes for distance. As—
Later and Latter
1. Lucknow is farther from Agra than
Later is the Comparative Degree of late, Kanpur.
while latter is antonym of former. Later gives
the sense of time, while latter expresses place or 2. There is nothing further to say.
position. As— 3. Further he said that he was ill.

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ADJECTIVES | 69

Fewer, Less and Lesser (b) Fill in the blanks in the following sentences
Fewer is used for number, less for quantity, with ‘former’ or ‘latter’ or ‘first’, or ‘fore-
and lesser for less in importance. As— most’, or ‘last’ :
1. Fewer visitors came to see the Taj this 1. Ram and Shyam are both good students
year. but the………is more cultured than the….
2. Fewer candidates have applied for the 2. Johnson is our ………manager.
post this time. 3. Ramu is so weak that he stands………in
3. There is less milk in the jar. the list.
4. He has now less time. 4. Homer was the……great Greek poet..
5. Many lesser speakers also spoke from the 5. Wordsworth was the……romantic poet.
platform. Hints—(1) former, latter; (2) former; (3) last;
6. I have not read the lesser poets of the (4) first; (5) foremost.

ww Elizabethan Age.
Note—If in a certain sentence there is a Definite
Numeral Adjective, followed by a Plural
(c) Fill in the blanks in the following sentences
with ‘last’ or ‘latest’, ‘next’ or ‘nearest’,
‘farther’ or ‘further’, ‘fewer’ or ‘less’ :

w Noun, we use less in place of fewer. As—

.Ea
1. I have ten rupees less at the moment.
2. There are two members less in the team.
Elder and Eldest : Older and Oldest
1. The man who came ……could not get a
seat.
2. The……and concluding chapter is the
most important one.

syE
Elder and Eldest are used for members of the
same family. Elder means senior in age and
eldest means senior-most in age. Older and oldest
3. The……news from the war front is very
disappointing.
4. This is the……issue of the magazine.
are used for other people or things, in the same
sense of age. As—
ngi 5. Bahadur Shah was the……King of the
Mugal dynasty.
6. Bombay Central is the……station from
1. He is my elder brother.
2. My eldest brother is like my father.
3. I am older than my friend.
nee our locality.
7. Roorki is ……from here than Delhi.

4. He is the oldest man in the village.

5. This is the oldest Church.
metres away.
rin
8. The……hospital from here is five kilo-

9. Turn to the left from the……crossing.

Note— It may be remembered that older is
followed by than, while elder is followed g.n
10. I shall give you a good book……time.
11. He could not speak any…….
by to. As—
I am elder to my sister, while she is older
than her friend.
Exercise
12. He could not go any …….
13. Ram’s house is……to mine.
14. No……argument is needed.
e
15. Please come without any …… delay.
t
(a) Fill in the blanks in the following sentences 16. Don’t go any……into the wood.
with ‘later’ or ‘latter’ : 17. He has……friends than you.
1. ……on he said that he could not help me. 18. This market is ……crowded.
2. The majority accepted the ……proposal. 19. His chances are……than mine.
3. The ………half of the century produced 20. There is……risk in this business.
no great poet.
Hints—(1) last; (2) last; (3) latest; (4) latest; (5)
4. I can come at some ……date. last; (6) nearest; (7) farther; (8) nearest;
5. At a ……date, he was also promoted as (9) next; (10) next; (11) further; (12)
the chief engineer. farther; (13) next; (14) further; (15) fur-
Hints—(1) Later; (2) latter; (3) latter; (4) later; ther; (16) farther; (17) fewer; (18) less;
(5) later. (19) fewer; (20) less.

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(d) Fill in the blanks in the following sentences (c) The little means not much but all that is
with ‘elder’ or ‘eldest’, ‘older’ or ‘oldest’ : there.
1. My friend is …………than me. 1. He has wasted the little money he had.
2. My ………… brother is coming today. (i.e. not much, but all that he had.)
3. Our ………… were highly respectable. 2. Make the best use of the little time you
4. I have no ………… sister. have.
5. This is the ………… edition of this book. Few, a few, the few
6. This is our ……… house. (a) ‘Few’ means ‘almost nil’. It has a negative
7. My ……… sister has two sons. sense.
8. This is the ………… temple in the town. 1. He has few chances of success.
Hints—(1) older; (2) elder or eldest; (3) elders; (i.e. almost no chances of success.)
(4) elder; (5) oldest; (6) oldest; (7) elder

ww or eldest; (8) oldest.

Some and Any
2. He has few enemies.
(b) A few means ‘small in number’.
1. I can give you a few books.

w Some is used in Affirmative and Interro-

gative sentences for request or invitation.

.Ea
Any is used in Negative and Interrogative
sentences. As—
2. I have only a few friends.
(c) ‘The few’ means ‘small in number’, but all
that are there.
1. I have lost the few books I had.

syE
1. I have some letters for you.
(Since it is an affirmative sentence, we
cannot say ‘any letters for you’)
(i.e. very few in number, but all those
that I had.)
2. Carefully read the few books you have.
2. I do not have any letters for you.
(Since it is a negative sentence, we
cannot say ‘some letters for you’.) ngi Exercise
(a) Fill in the blanks in the following sentences
3. I want to read some more books.
4. I don’t want to read any more books. nee with some or any; little, a little, or the little :
1. I don’t have ……… money in my pocket.

rin
5. Do you have some friends with you ? 2. Can you lend me ……… money ?
6. Do you not have any friend with you ? 3. He could not lend me …… money.

g.n
7. Will you please have some tea ? 4. I have not invited ……… of my friends.
8. No, I will not have any. 5. Do you want to invite ……… of your
or friends ?
Yes, I will have some.
Little, a little, the little
(a) Little means almost nil / nothing. It has a
negative sense. As—
7. No, I don’t have ……… time.e
6. Do you have ……… time to help me ?

8. There is ……… hope of his recovery. t

9. There is ……… milk left in the pot.
1. There is little hope of his success. 10. ……… milk he had has turned sour.
(i.e. There is almost no hope of his 11. A poor man has ……… money to waste.
success.)
12. There is ……… work left to complete.
2. I have little time to waste.
13. ……… work left yesterday has been
(b) A little means small in quantity. completed.
1. There is a little money left. 14. There is ……… time now left.
(i.e. small amount) Hints—(1) any; (2) some; (3) any; (4) any; (5)
2. I have only a little sugar left. some; (6) some; (7) any; (8) little; (9) a
3. We had only a little time to complete the little; (10) The little; (11) little; (12) a
work. little; (13) The little; (14) little.

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ADJECTIVES | 71

(b) Fill in the blanks in the following sentences 1. Owing to his illness, he could not appear
with few, a few, or the few : at the examination.
1. There are ………… friends who remain 2. Owing to heavy rain, the programme
faithful in hard times. was badly disturbed.
2. He has only …… …… friends. Many a
3. ……… friends he has are really faithful It is used like a Singular Numeral Adjective,
to him. though it is Plural in sense. It takes a Singular
4. A good man has …… …… enemies. N o u n and a Singular Verb after it. It means
5. ………… passengers were injured in the many (one by one). As—
accident. 1. Many a young man has laid down his
6. …… …… passengers injured in the life for the country.
accident have been given first-aid. 2. Many a great occasion has come in my

ww 7. ……… books would serve my purpose.

8. …… …… books I had have all gone out
of course.
life.
Verbal and Oral
Verbal means of or in words. It is opposite

w
Hints—(1) few; (2) a few; (3) The few; (4) few;

.Ea
(5) A few; (6) The few; (7) A few; (8) The
few.
Each and Every
of ‘written’. As—
1. There is no verbal difference between the
two documents.

syE
2. There is a striking verbal similarity
Each is used for two or more than two. between the two poems.
Every is used for at least three or more. ‘Oral’ means by ‘mouth’, not in writing.
Every should not be used for two. As—
1. Each of you must reach in time.
2. Each of the two brothers is highly ngi 1. There will be an oral test.
2. He has failed in the oral examination.
Note—Nowadays ‘Verbal’ is also used in the

nee
cultured. (not ‘every one of the two’)
3. Every one of them was ready to go. sense of ‘Oral’ (by mouth).
4. I know every street of Calcutta. 1. We have received a verbal message.
Either and Neither
Either means ‘one of the two’; Neither
‘Common’ and ‘Mutual’

rin
‘Common’ means belonging to two or more
means ‘neither this nor that of the two.’ Neither
is antonym of either. Neither / Either are not
used for more than two. As—
persons or things.

g.n
1. There is nothing common between them.
2. This is our common property.
1. You can take either side.
2. Either of the two brothers can come.
3. You should take neither side.
4. Neither of the two brothers is likely to
other’.
e
‘Mutual’ means ‘between two’, ‘for each

1. There was mutual exchange of views

between them.
t
2. There was little mutual understanding
come.
between them.
‘Due to’ and ‘owing to’
‘Due to’ means ‘caused by’. It is related with
Exercise
the action of a verb. As— (a) Fill in the blanks in the following sentences
1. His demotion was due to his negligence with appropriate adjectives :
of duty. 1. ……… one of the villagers had to vacate
2. He has risen so high due to his hard his house.
labour. 2. ……… of Ram, Shyam and Mohan was
‘Owing to’ is only a Prepositional phrase. It fined for coming late.
only governs a Noun or a Nominal. It is generally 3. …… of the two friends is answerable for
placed at the beginning of the sentence. it.

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72 | L.W.C.E.

4. ………… of them is a hard worker. 10. He rose very high in his latter days.
5. ………… of the two candidates can be 11. The later half of this book is better.
selected. 12. This is the best and late discovery.
6. ………… of the two candidates is fit for 13. My friend is elder to me.
appointment.
14. He is the most ideal student.
7. You may join ………… party.
15. My watch is more costly than you.
8. He found ………… party acceptable.
16. The population of Kanpur is more than
9. The roof collapsed ………… heavy load. Agra.
10. ………… heavy load the roof collapsed. 17. She is the gentlest and beautiful girl.
11. ………… patriot has laid down his life. 18. He has wasted the few money he had.
12. ………… good student has failed this 19. The flowers smell so sweetly.

ww year.
13. He did not come for his ………… test.
14. I cannot accept your ………… assurance.
20.
21.
These kind of persons should be avoided.
Is he wiser than any man ?

w15. We live in a ………… house.

.Ea
16. This is a ………… Community Hall.
17. This will serve our ………… interests.
22.

23.
24.
He is the wisest of all other men present
here.
He made the most unkindest remark.
He has done a most unique work.

ween friends.
syE
18. Let there be ………… give and take bet-

19. We can share a ………… room.

25.
26.
I have no farther demand.
The three first chapters of this book are in
our course.
20. We have no ………… friend.
Hints—(1) Every; (2) Each; (3) Each; (4) Every
ngi 27.
28.
Ram is our mutual friend.
He has the little hope of recovering his

nee
one; (5) Either; (6) Neither; (7) either; (8) money.
neither; (9) due to; (10) Owing to; (11)
29. He hasn’t done nothing.
Many a; (12) Many a; (13) oral; (14)
verbal; (15) common; (16) common; (17) 30. This sorts of houses do not meet our
mutual; (18) mutual; (19) common; (20)
common. 31.
requirements.
rin
A dog is more faithful than any animal.
Revision Exercise
Correct the following sentences :
32.
sister.
g.n
She is as beautiful if not more than her

1. Very little students are present in the class

today.
2. There is few milk in the pot.
3. He is junior than I.
33.

34. e
This is one of the good, if not the best
house available on rent here.
Who is the richest between the two
brothers ? t
35. He hasn’t some room to spare for my
4. This scheme is more preferable than the studies.
old one. 36. I have any books you need for your
5. This is the most saddest news. studies.
6. Of these four persons he is more 37. He has brought some sweet from the
intelligent. market.
7. Between these two books this is the best. 38. We must all respect our elder.
8. Read the chapter farther. 39. Tell the whole story in briefly.
9. Do you have any farther scheme ? 40. I have lost all money I had.

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7 Adverbs
Kinds of Adverbs 6. Adverb of Reason or Cause (showing
‘reason’/‘cause’)—The following are the more
There are 9 kinds of Adverbs— common Adverbs of Reason or cause—

ww 1. Adverb of Time (showing ‘time’)—The

following are the more common Adverbs of
Time—
Owing to, due to, consequently, hence,
therefore.

w Now, then, before, after, since, ago, soon,

.Ea
late, early, presently, instantly, immediately,
already, afterwards, never, when, whenever,
today, tomorrow, yesterday, ever.
7. Adverb of Affirmation or Negation
(showing ‘yes’ or ‘no’)—The following are the
more common Adverbs of Affirmation or Nega-
tion—

syE
2. Adverb of Place (showing ‘place’/
‘Where’)—The following are the more common
Adverbs of Place—
yes, no, not, certainly, certainly not, yea,
may, by all means.

Here, there, where, hence, thence, hither,

thither, in, out, within, without, above, ngi 8. Interrogative Adverb (for asking ques-
tions)—The following are the more common
Interrogative Adverbs—
below, inside, outside, far, near, everywhere,
away, forward, backward.
nee
Why, when, what, where, how, how many,
how long, how far, whence, whither, what,

rin
3. Adverb of Number (showing ‘how often’/ wherefore.
‘frequency’)—The following are the more
common Adverbs of Number— 9. Relative Adverb (showing ‘relationship’)
How often, once, twice, thrice, often,
seldom, frequently, rarely, again, always, g.n
—These Adverbs show ‘relationship’. In form
they are like Interrogative Adverbs. Like Relative
Adjcetives, they must have an Antecedent, and
firstly, secondly, thirdly, sometimes.
4. Adverb of Quantity/Degree (showing
‘how much’) — The following are the more
common Adverbs of Quantity or Degree—
e
the Adverb must refer to this Antecedent. If there
is no Antecedent before it, it would become
Interrogative Adverb, and not Relative Adverb.
The more common Relative Adverbs are these— t
What, when, where, why, how,whence,
Too, almost, fully, very, enough, so,
whither, whatever, wherever.
altogether, no better, pretty well, any, quite,
rather, partly, wholly, as..as.
Degrees of Comparison in
5. Adverb of Manner (showing ‘how’ or ‘in Adverbs
what manner’)—The following are the more
common Adverbs of Manner— Some Adverbs, specially Adverbs of Man-
ner, Degree and Time have three Degrees of
Cheerfully, unwillingly, clearly, soundly, comparison like Adjectives. The three Degrees
strongly, bravely, hard, thus, so, cowardly, are—
slowly, quickly, actively, fast, nobly, Positive Degree, Comparative Degree and
proudly, lovingly. Superlative Degree.

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74 | L.W.C.E.

Their Degrees are formed in the following Position of Adverbs

three ways. Rule 1—Position of Adverbs—
1. The Adverbs of one syllable in their Positive It is very important to know the correct place
Degree become Comparative or Super- or position at which an Adverb should be
lative by adding -er or -est respectively. As— used in a Sentence. If the Adverb is not
Positive Comparative Superlative placed at the correct position in a sentence,
the meaning of the sentence would change, or
Late Later Latest it may even become absurd or meaningless.
Long Longer Longest For example, see the position of only in the
Short Shorter Shortest following sentence. You will see that the
meaning of the sentence changes with the
Loud Louder Loudest
change of position of the Adverb only in it.
Near Nearer Nearest

ww Soon
Hard
Sooner
Harder
Soonest
Hardest
(i) Only he can read.
(i.e. no other person except he)
(ii) He can only read.

w
2. The Adverbs which end with ly, become
Comparative or Superlative by using more

.Ea
or most before them. As—
Positive Comparative Superlative
(i.e. he can only read, but can neither
write nor speak.)
(iii) He can read only.
(i.e. He can do nothing except reading)
Swiftly
Skilfully syE
more swiftly
more skilfully
most swiftly
most skilfully
The following are the Rules of correct
position of an Adverb in a Sentence—

ngi
Wisely more wisely most wisely (a) Adverb of Manner—It is generally used
Intelligently more most after the Verb, but if the verb has its object also,
intelligently intelligently the Adverb is used after the Object. As—
Regularly more
regularly
most regularly
nee
1. He speaks softly.
(Not, He softly speaks)
2. He drives cautiously.

rin
Diligently more most diligently
diligently (Not, He cautiously drives)
Slowly more slowly most slowly

g.n
3. He reads his book carefully.
Powerfully more most (Not, He reads carefully his book)
powerfully powerfully 4. I visit him regularly.
Note—But with early we use earlier or earliest.
3. But some Adverbs are there the Compara-
tive or Superlative Degrees of which are
formed under no rules. They are called irre-
5. She loves him heartily. e
(Not, I regularly visit him)

(Not, She heartily loves him) t

gular Adverbs. As— (b) Adverbs or Adverb phrases of Time and
Place. They are also used after the Verb. As—
Positive Comparative Superlative 1. He will return soon.
Much more most (Not, He soon will return)
Little less least 2. He goes there.
Bad worse worst (Not, He there goes)
Well better best 3. I go home next week.
Far farther farthest (Not, I next week go home)
Forth further furthest 4. There were flowers everywhere.
Late later last (Not, There were everywhere flowers)

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ADVERBS | 75

(c) If after the verb or its object two or more 4. “Do you travel by plane ?”
than two Adverbs are to be used, they should be “Yes, I sometimes do.” (short form
placed in this order—adverb of manner, adverb answer)
of place, adverb of time. As—
(g) The Adverb is placed before the Auxi-
1. He spoke impressively at the function liaries have to / used to. As—
yesterday.
1. I often have to go by bus.
2. She wept bitterly at the playground last
evening. 2. He always used to be kind to me.
3. He comes regularly at the stadium 3. He never has to go alone.
every morning. (h) The Adverb is placed before the Adjec-
4. You should reach home by this evening. tive or another adverb which it modifies. As—
(d) Adverbs of frequency (e.g. always, 1. His lecture was very interesting.

wwnever, often, rarely, usually, generally, almost,

already, hardly, nearly, just, quite) They are
used between the Subject and Verb if the verb is
2. He is very highly qualified.
3. Do you drive so fast ?

w
of one word only (as, goes, runs, play, etc.), but 4. He is wonderfully intelligent.
if the verb has more than one word (as, is going, (i) Adverb enough is always placed after the

.Ea
has been working), the Adverb is placed after
the first word of the verb. As—
word it modifies. As—
1. He was good enough to help me.

syE
1. I just saw him at the gate. 2. This house is large enough for our
2. He has already finished his work. purpose.
3. He has rarely been coming to me. 3. He is brave enough to face the situation.
4. He has frequently been absenting himself
from the class.
5. We usually go there. ngi (j) Adverb only is placed just before the word
it modifies. As—

nee
1. He worked only for two hours yesterday.
(e) All the Adverbs listed above (under d) are 2. I attempted only twice to climb to the
placed after the Auxiliary Verbs (i.e. is, are, am, top.
was, were), but before other verbs. As—
1. I am always ready.
2. He is often late. rin
Note—But in spoken English only can be used
before the Verb. As—
3. We were never happy there.
4. He seldom comes here. g.n
1. He only worked for two hours yesterday.
2. I only attempted twice to climb to the
top.
5. He generally travels by bus.
6. I frequently meet him in the market.
(f) If some stress is to be laid on a verb, or if
a reply is to be given in a short form, all the
e
(k) Negative Adverb ‘not’ is always placed
between the Auxiliary Verb and the Principal
Verb. As—
1. He did not reach in time.
t
Adverbs (listed above under d) should be placed
before the Auxiliary Verbs or single verb be. 2. I shall not meet him.
As— 3. He has not spoken a word.
1. “He has again forgotten to bring his
books.” Exercise I
“Yes, he always does forget to bring his Correct the position o f the Adverb i n the
books.” following sentences :
2. “Are you free this evening ?” 1. He only died a month ago.
“Yes, I usually am free in the evenings.” 2. He soon will finish his work.
3. “When does he go to Bombay ?” 3. He is enough rich to set up a new factory.
“He already has gone to Bombay.” 4. I almost have finished my course.

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76 | L.W.C.E.

5. The rain began to fall suddenly. the auditorium tomorrow morning; (7)
6. I have met often that man. just saw; (8) standing at the gate a little
while ago; (9) usually go; (10) rarely
7. He explained clearly his point of view. angry; (11) me in the park this evening;
8. I go seldom after sunset. (12) often invites me; (13) has just
9. He merely came to return my book. landed; (14) regularly go; (15) shall
frequently be meeting.
10. He bore his losses patiently.
Rule 2— If an Adverb modifies (a) the whole
11. Ram is a lazy boy rather.
sentence or (b) if it is meant to give very
12. I never am late for school. great stress, it is placed at the very
13. He does carefully all his work. beginning of the sentence. As—
14. The mother heartily loves her daughter. 1. Unfortunately a very serious accident
15. He has spoken not a word. occurred.

wwHints—(1) only a month; (2) will soon; (3) rich

enough; (4) have almost finished; (5)
2. Luckily no one was killed.
3. Out came the lion from the den and
stood before us.

w
suddenly began to fall; (6) have often
met; (7) clearly explained; (8) seldom go; Rule 3—Double Negative

.Ea
(9) came merely to return; (10) patiently
bore; (11) rather a lazy; (12) never late;
(13) all his work carefully; (14) daughter
Double Negatives should not be used in a
sentence. Double Negatives give either Affir-
mative meaning or no meaning at all. Their

syE
heartily; (15) has not spoken.
Exercise II
use is, therefore, wrong.
1. I cannot walk no further now.

ngi
Insert the given Adverbs (or Adverb (There should be ‘any further’ is place
Phrases) in their right position in the following of ‘no further’.)
sentences : 2. Nothing never happened.
1. This is not bright (enough).
2. You should behave like this (never). nee (There should be ‘ever’ in place of
‘never’.)
3. I don’t want nothing.

rin
3. Will he be found (there, still) ?
4. He goes to the market (seldom). (There should be ‘anything’ in place of
‘nothing’.)

g.n
5. I am late for the office (never).
4. He was not honest neither.
6. He is lecturing (tomorrow morning, at the
(There should be ‘either’ in place of
auditorium).

e
‘neither’)
7. I saw him going out (just).
8. He was standing (at the gate, a little
while ago).
9. I go to school on foot (usually).
5. I forbid you not to go there.
(‘not’ should be removed from here
because ‘forbid’ is already negative.)
Exercise III
t
10. He is angry with me (rarely).
11. Please meet me (this evening, in the Correct the following sentences :
park). 1. A great tragedy luckily has been averted.
12. He invites me to tea (often). 2. All the passengers were unfortunately
13. The plane has landed (just). killed.
14. We go to Church (regularly). 3. We cannot bear it no longer.
15. I shall be meeting you (frequently). 4. We could not find him nowhere.
Hints—(1) bright enough; (2) should never 5. I don’t see no sense in it.
behave; (3) found still there; (4) seldom 6. Scarcely no one would believe in your
goes; (5) am never late; (6) lecturing at story.

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ADVERBS | 77

7. I don’t have no one to go with me. 1. He is too poor to buy a car.

8. You are forbidden not to touch my books. 2. He is too rich to buy a car.
9. He cannot neither deny or accept it. The first of these sentences is correct because
10. He is no longer in no need of it. it means that—
Hints—(1) Luckily to come at the beginning of “He is so poor that he cannot buy a car.” But
the sentence; (2) Unfortu-nately to come the second sentence is wrong because it would
at the beginning; (3) any longer in place mean “He is so rich that he cannot buy a car.” The
of no longer; (4) anywhere in place of correct form of the second sentence would be, “He
nowhere; (5) any in place of no; (6) is rich enough to buy a car.” The following
anyone in place of no one; (7) anyone in sentences are correct—
place of no one; (8) drop not; (9) either 1. He is too weak to run.
in place of neither; (10) any need in
2. The river is too deep for me to cross.

ww
place of no need.
3. The enemy is too strong to be overcome
Use of Some Typical Adverbs easily.
1. Too 4. The problem is too difficult for me to

w ‘Too’ means more than enough. Therefore

.Ea
too should not be used in place of very or much,
otherwise it would give absurd meaning. For
example, if we say. “I am too happy to hear of
solve.
3. Very and Much
‘Very’ is used with Present Participle, and

syE
your success”, it would mean that “I am happy to
the extent I should not have been.” Certainly this
cannot be the intention of the speaker. The correct
‘much’ with Past Parti-ciple or Verb. As—
1. It was very surprising.
2. The game was very exciting.
form of this sentence would be, “I am very happy
to hear of your success.” It should be remembered
that ‘too’ has a negative sense or the sense of ngi 3. He was much surprised.
4. I was much shocked to hear the news.
undesirability. Too should be used keeping in
mind this sense of its meaning and implication.
For example, the following sentences are wrong— nee 5. He was much confused.
6. He talks much.

rin
7. He drinks much.
1. You are too kind to me. Note—But with some Past Participles the use of
2. She is too beautiful. very is correct. As—
3. He is too intelligent.
4. You are too faithful to me. g.n
1. I was very pleased to hear the news.
2. He was very tired at the end of the
Against these the following sentences are
correct—
1. The day is too hot.
2. The price is too high for me.
journey.
4. Very and Much e
There is one more difference in the use of t
very and much. Very is used before the Positive
3. The house is too small for my family.
Degree of an Adjective or an Adverb, and much
4. You are still too weak. before the Comparative Degree of an Adjective
5. The weather is too cold. or an Adverb. As—
6. It is too much for me to bear. 1. Ram’s house is much bigger than
2. Too + Infinitive Mohan’s.
In some sentences an Infinitive is used after 2. Mohan is much more trustworthy than
too. In such sentences also the sense of too is Sohan.
negative. In these sentences the use of too would 3. Hari is much better placed than Rajesh.
be correct if it is meant to be negative, but its use
would be wrong if it is meant to be affirmative. 4. Ram is very intelligent.
For example, see the following sentences— 5. Mahesh is very poor.

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78 | L.W.C.E.

Note—Under the above rule very much can also 7. I was very surprised to see him in this
be used (in place of much) in the Com- condition.
parative Degree, but not in the Positive 8. The scene of accident was much
Degree. shocking.
5. Very and Much 9. She was much pleased to see her son’s
Very and Much can both be used in the result card.
Superlative Degree also but the rule is that Very 10. He felt much tired after the day’s hard
is used after the Article the, and much before the. labour.
As— 11. This book is very better than the other
1. He is much the best boy of the class. one.
2. Rakesh is much the richest man of the 12. He appears to be much ambitious.
town. 13. His achievement is really much credit-

ww 3. Cow is the very gentlest animal.

4. This is the very best book available here.
able.
14. This is the much biggest house available
here.

w
6. Much and Very Much
Very much can be used with the Verb in

.Ea
Affirmative sentences only, but in the Negative
sentences only much can be used. As—
15. This is very the best I could do for you.
16. We have given you the much largest
share of the profit.

syE
1. I love him very much.
2. I don’t love him much.
(Wrong to say—“I don’t love him very
17. You have now very the first chance of
purchasing this house.
18. I could not appreciate his efforts very
much”)
7. Very much, Too much, Much too
and only too
ngi much.
19. This could not give me very much satis-

nee
faction.
All these four phrases have different mean- 20. This medicine has given me too much
ings. ‘Very much’ means ‘completely’, ‘too relief.
much’ and ‘much too’ mean ‘more than neces-
sary or desirable’, only too means ‘much’. As—
rin
Hints—(1) ‘much’ in place of ‘too much’; (2)
very faithful; (3) ‘gracious enough’ in

g.n
1. I am very much obliged to you. place of ‘too gracious’; (4) ‘kind enough’
in place of ‘too kind’; (5) ‘very gene-
2. His performance is very much disap-
rous’; (6) ‘much shocked’; (7) ‘much
pointing.
3. It gives me too much pain.
4. It is much too painful.
5. I am only too glad to be here.
e
surprised’; (8) ‘very shocking’; (9) ‘very
pleased’; (10) ‘very tired’; (11) ‘much
better’; (12) ‘very ambitious’; (13) ‘very
creditable’; (14) ‘much the biggest’; (15)
‘the very best’; (16) ‘much the largest’;
t
Exercise IV (17) ‘the very first’; (18) ‘much’ in place
of ‘very much’; (19) ‘much’ in place of
Correct the use of Adverbs in the follow-
‘very much’; (20) ‘much’ in place of ‘too
ing sentences :
much.’
1. She loves her only son too much.
2. My old servant is too faithful to me. 8. Too and Even
3. He is too gracious to help me. The difference between too and even is that
too is used only for empha-sis, while even is used
4. He is too kind to forgive me. in the sense of ‘against or contrary to hope or
5. My father is too generous to his servants. expectation.’ For example, a brother is normally
6. She was very shocked to see the scene of expected to help a brother, but if a brother does
accident. not help, we shall say—

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ADVERBS | 79

‘Even my brother did not help me.’ 7. There is still …… hope of his survival.
Similarly— (little, a little)
1. He helped me and my friend too. 8. There is …… hope of his survival. (little,
a little)
2. He is intelligent and industrious too.
9. There is …… I can do to help you. (little,
3. Even my father did not support me. a little)
4. I could not even recognize him. 10. I came to Kanpur five years ago but I
9. Little and A Little have not been to my home-town …… .
(since, ever since)
Little and a little as Adverbs have the same 11. I came to Kanpur five years ago but I
meaning as Adjectives. Little is negative in sense have been to my home-town only once
meaning ‘almost nothing’ while a little means …… . (since, ever since)
‘not much’. As—

ww 1. I little expected that he would pass.

(i.e. There was almost no hope.)
12. I had injured my knee four years ago but
I have been feeling pain in it …… (since,
ever since)

w
2. I was a little disappointed. Hints—(1) too; (2) even; (3) too; (4) Even; (5) a
(i.e. The disappointment was not much.) little; (6) little; (7) a little; (8) little; (9)

.Ea
10. Since and Ever Since
They are both Abverbs of time. Since means
little; (10) ever since; (11) since; (12) ever
since.
11. Else …… but

syE
from a certain point of time in the Past, while
ever since means from a certain point of time to
the Present. They are used with the Present
Else is followed by but, not than.
1. None else but the Prime Minister will
Perfect Tense, but in the Indirect Narration they
are used with Past Perfect Tense. As—
1. I met him five years ago and have ngi inaugurate the Seminar.
2. I met none else but your father.

nee
3. It is nothing else but arrogance.
remembered him ever since. 12. Seldom or never/Seldom if ever
2. We were together in school days but we The correct expressions are seldom or never

rin
have met only twice since. (not ever) and seldom if ever (not never).
3. He assured me that he had never done so 1. He seldom or never misbehaves with
since.
4. We lived in Kashmir several years ago
but we have remembered those happy
anybody.

g.n
2. He seldom if ever drinks.
days ever since.
Exercise
Fill in the blanks with correct alternatives
from those given in the brackets:
13. Before and Ago

e
Both these are Adverbs of Time. Before is
used with Simple Past Tense or Present Perfect
Tense, while Ago is used with Simple Past Tense
only (not with Present Perfect Tense). As—
t
1. I bought a pen and an inkpot …… (too, 1. I never before met such a rude man.
even)
2. I have seen Jaipur before also.
2. He lost …… his security. (too, even)
3. I met him a month ago.
3. My brother came and with him his friend
…… . (too, even) 4. His father died a month ago.
4. …… the best doctors failed to diagnose Note—Ago suggests Past Tense, therefore it
his disease. (Too, Even) should not be used with any form of the
Present Tense. Therefore the following
5. He is …… displeased with me. (little, a
sentences are wrong—
little)
6. I …… doubted his sincerity. (little, a 1. I have arrived here only a little ago.
little) 2. I have completed my work an hour ago.

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80 | L.W.C.E.

14. Yet and Still 9. He has started a new business some time
Yet means ‘till now’ and still means ‘even ago.
now’. Generally yet is used at the e n d of a 10. He has left office only a minute ago.
sentence, and still after an auxiliary or before 11. I have not seen him for a long time but he
single verbs. is yet my friend.
1. He is still in service. 12. He has not still gone on duty.
2. You are still a student. 13. I have yet given your share to you.
3. I still love you. 14. The child has yet gone to sleep.
4. He still needs my help. 15. He has not already reserved his berth.
5. He has not come yet. 16. She has not already shifted to her new
6. He is sleeping yet. house.

ww15. Yet and Already

Already is used in Affirmative sentences
and it means before this point of time. Yet is
Hints—(1) ‘but’ in place of ‘except’; (2) ‘but’ in
place of ‘than’; (3) ‘but’ in place of
‘except’; (4) seldom or never; (5) if ever;

w
used in Negative or Interrogative sentences, and

.Ea
it means even now or not till now. As—
1. I have already finished my work.
2. He has left for office already.
(6) ‘before’ in place of ‘ago’; (7) ‘before’
in place of ‘ago’; (8) ‘before’ in place of
‘ago’. (9) ‘before’ in place of ‘ago’; (10)
‘before’ in place of ‘ago’; (11) ‘still’ in
place of ‘yet’; (12) ‘yet’ in place of ‘still’;

syE
3. I have not yet finished my work.
4. He has not yet left for office.
(13) ‘already’ in place of ‘ y e t ’; (14)
‘already’ in place of ‘yet’; (15) ‘yet’ in
place of ‘already’; (16) ‘yet’ in place of
5. Are you not yet ready ?
16. Yet/Already/So far/uptil now
ngi ‘already’.
17. Just
All these are generally used with Present
Perfect Tense. As—
1. He has not yet come. nee (a) Just means right now / not long before.
Normally it is used with Present Perfect Tense.
As—
2. I have already met him.
3. He has not met me so far. rin
1. He has just arrived.
2. I have just finished my story.
4. He has not met me uptil now.
Exercise g.n
(b) Just can be used with simple past tense
also, and there it means only / barely. As—

Correct the use of adverbs in the following

sentences :
1. None else except I will come to your help
in the end.
e
1. He just caught the train.
2. He just managed to escape.
(c) Just has one more meaning suggesting
the sense of at this very moment / exactly. As—
t
2. None else than my father appeared at the 1. The clock has just struck two.
scene. 2. He has just gone out.
3. It is nothing else except your pride that 3. This is just what I wanted.
spoilt the game. 18. Fairly/Rather
4. He seldom or ever is true to his word.
Both these are Adverbs of Quantity. The
5. He seldom if never comes to the alehouse. difference between them is that fairly has the
6. I have met him two years ago. sense of liking / appreciation, while rather has
7. I have been to Bombay several times ago the sense of disliking / disapproval. Therefore,
also. care should be taken not to use expressions in
8. I played tennis ago. which there may be mingling of liking and

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ADVERBS | 81

disliking. For example, the following expressions 1. Not a tree or bush was there.
are wrong— 2. There was not a man in the hall.
(a) Fairly dull, fairly ugly, fairly bad, fairly (c) We should use no (not not) before good
slow, fairly cunning or different. As—
(b) rather intelligent, rather beautiful, rather 1. This is no good abusing him.
good, rather quick, rather honest, rather 2. This is no different from that.
gentle
In the expressions given above fairly should (d) We should use none before too + Adjec-
be used in place of rather, and rather in place of tive / Adverb or the + Comparative Adjective/
fairly. Adverb used in a sentence. As—
1. The weather is fairly pleasant. (Not 1. His behaviour towards us was none too
rather pleasant) good.

ww 2. The day is rather hot. (Not fairly hot)

3. The house is fairly comfortable.
4. The house is rather uncomfortable.
2. He is none the better in spite of my help.
Exercise

w
19. No/Not

.Ea
(a) ‘No’ is used like an Adjective before a
Noun—
Insert correct alternatives from those given
in the brackets :
1. The train has ……started.
2. The bell has……been rung.
(just, lately)

syE
1. I have no pen. (immediately, just)
2. There is no boy in the class. 3. It is …… a good day. (fairly, rather)
(b) Not is used after an auxiliary— 4. His condition is …… worse today.
1. He does not read.
2. He is not there.
ngi (fairly, rather)
5. She can speak English …… well.

nee
(c) After the under-noted verbs Not is used in (fairly, rather)
place of a Noun Clause. By this use the sentence 6. He is a …… intelligent boy.
becomes short also. (fairly, rather)
Hope, believe, think, expect, suppose, be
afraid
rin
7. It was …… foolish on his part to say so.
(fairly, rather)
1. Can you go there ? I am afraid not.
2. Will he pass ? I expect not.
3. Is he fair ? I suppose not. g.n
8. She is …… a silly kind of girl.
(fairly, rather)

e
9. This bread is …… dry. (fairly, rather)

t
(d) Not is also used before an Infinitive or a 10. There is …… sound coming from the
gerund. room. (no, not)
1. I request you not to disturb me. 11. This book is …… better than the other
2. You are wrong in not inviting him. one. (no, not)
20. No/Not/None 12. Can you think of……better plan ?
(no, not)
(a) N o is also used before a Positive or
Comparative Degree Adjective or a Compara- 13. …… a star was to be seen in the sky.
tive Degree Adverb. (no, not)
1. This is no good pen. 14. The show was …… very impressive.
2. There is no better pen. (no, not)
3. You can travel no faster by any means. 15. …… a word was spoken by anybody.
(no, not)
(b) We should use not in place of no if the
Article a or an has been used before the Noun or 16. This is …… too good for you.
Adjective. As— (no, none, nothing)

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82 | L.W.C.E.

17. His health is …… too good for his age. 23. Most/Mostly
(no, none, nothing) Most as Adverb means ‘maximum’/ ‘grea-
18. There is …… a cleverer girl than Rita. test’. As—
(not, none, nothing) 1. The man whom I like most is John.
19. There is …… the slightest truth in this 2. The man who talks most is often hollow.
story. (no, none, not) Mostly means ‘largely’. As—
20. There is …… like that in this shop.
1. The audience consisted mostly of
(no, none, nothing) students.
Hints—(1) just; (2) just; (3) fairly; (4) rather; (5) 2. The students were mostly inattentive.
fairly; (6) fairly; (7) rather; (8) rather; (9)
rather; (10) no; (11) no; (12) no; (13) Not; 3. His stock consists mostly of outdated
(14) not; (15) Not; (16) none; (17) none; things.

ww (18) not; (19) not; (20) nothing.

21. Hard/Hardly
Exercise
Fill in the blanks with the correct alter-
natives given in the brackets—

w
As—
Normally Hard is an Adjective, but it can
also be used as an Adverb. As an Adverb it

.Ea
means hard labour. It is used after the Verb.
1. She has eaten …… anything today.
(hard, hardly)
2. He tried very …… but did not succeed.

syE
1. He worked hard (not hardly) for the (hard, hardly)
examination.
3. They have been working …… all day.
2. He tried hard (not hardly) to win the
(hard, hardly)

ngi
prize.
4. He had …… alighted from the bus when
Hardly is an Adverb of Degree. It means he was caught by the police.
‘very little’ / scarcely. It is used before a Single
verb or after the First auxiliary in a Compound
Verb. As—
nee (hard, hardly)
5. We …… ever meet now. (hard, hardly)
6. His marriage takes place…… in October.

rin
1. I have seen him only once and therefore I
hardly know what type of man he is. (late, lately)
7. Have you received any letter from your

g.n
2. He was so changed that I could hardly
recognize him. son …… ? (late, lately)
3. It is a new medicine; it has hardly been 8. I have not been to my village …… .
tried yet.
Note—For emphasis ‘Hardly’ can be used at the
beginning of a sentence also. As—
e (late, lately)
9. I study till …… in the night. (late, lately)
10. The train is running an hour …… . t
Hardly had the train stopped when he (late, lately)
jumped out. 11. The books in his library are …… novels.
22. Late/Lately (most, mostly)
Late as Adverb means late in time. As— 12. He helped me …… to get over my diffi-
1. He comes late every day. culties. (most, mostly)
2. The theft was committed late at night. 13. The greatest scholars have been ……
3. He married late in life. men. (most, mostly)
Lately means ‘recently’. As— 14. The candidates are …… inexperienced.
1. He has lately started a new business. (most, mostly)
2. He has lately shifted to a new house. 15. She loves her …… . (most, mostly)

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ADVERBS | 83

Hints—(1) hardly; (2) hard; (3) hard; (4) hardly. 2. There is a man in the room.
(5) hardly; (6) late; (7) lately; (8) lately; 3. There came a tiger from the wood.
(9) late; (10) late; (11) mostly; (12) most;
4. There is a function tomorrow.
(13) mostly; (14) mostly; (15) most.
Some Common Rules 27. Adverb and Preposition
(a) Normally no Preposition is used before
24. The Split Infinitive an Adverb. Therefore no Preposition should be
An Infinitive, as we know, consists of to + used before such Adverbs as—Respectfully,
verb. Therefore no adverb should be placed humbly, politely, kindly, slowly, etc. Therefore
between to and the Verb. If we do so, we shall be the following sentences are wrong.
splitting the Infinitive. In Grammar it is called
split infinitive fault. For example, look at this 1. With respectfully I beg to submit.
sentence— 2. With humbly I state.

ww “I request you to kindly grant me leave.” In

this sentence kindly has been placed between to
and grant. This is a grammatical fault. The correct
3. With politely I reply as under.
With should be removed from all these
sentences.

w
form of this sentence would be—‘I request you
kindly to grant me leave.’ (b) Sometimes some time-showing words,

correct—
.Ea
Accordingly, the following sentences are

1. I advise you to read the book carefully.

such as morning, evening, day, night, month,
year, etc. have such qualifying words before them
as this, that, next, last, all, etc. In that case no

diately. syE
2. I instruct you to call the doctor imme-

3. I direct you to reach the office punc-

Preposition is used before them. As—
1. He came last evening.
2. He left the next morning.
tually every day.
25. Present Perfect and Adverb ngi 3. He worked all day.
4. He is coming this evening.
In a sentence in the Present Tense, no
Adverb or Adverbial phrase suggestive of Past
Tense should be used. As such the following nee 5. He did not go that day.
(c) But if the time - showing words are used

rin
sentences are wrong— without the qualifying words (this, that, next,
last, etc.), proper Preposition should be used
1. I have arrived here yesterday. before them. As—
2. I have joined my duties last month.
3. I have passed M. A. last year.
g.n
1. I shall meet you in the evening.
2. I don’t sleep in the day.
The above noted sentences are in the Present
Perfect Tense, while the adverbs connected with
them are suggestive of Past Tense. Therefore, they
are all wrong. The correct form of these sente-
nces would be as follows—
3. I shall come on sunday.
4. Don’t come in the night.e
(d) Home is normally a Noun. But it is also
t
used as an Adverb of Place. In that case, neither a
1. I arrived here yesterday.
Preposition nor a relative Adjective should be
2. I joined my duties last month. used before it. As—
3. I passed M. A. last year. “I am going home.”
26. Introductory ‘There’ This sentence is correct. But we cannot say—
Some sentences begin with There. In these I am going to home. or I am going my home.
sentences There, has no significance, nor is it an The following sentences are correct—
Adverb of Place. In these sentences after There
comes an Intransitive verb or verb to be, and 1. Now we should return home.
after that comes the Subject. As— 2. When do you go home ?
1. There is a book on the table. 3. I go home by bus.

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84 | L.W.C.E.

Exercise 12.The police officer looked hardly at me.

Correct the following sentences : 13.There was hard light when we set out.
1. You are instructed to not make a noise. 14.We hard ever go together.
2. I warn you to regularly do your work. 15.He only retired last month.
3. I request you to kindly recommend my 16.Please watch carefully his actions.
application. 17.I go at 10 O’clock to my office.
4. I have applied for this post last year. 18.I see him rarely these days.
5. You have come to the office only 19.He rarely is seen these days.
yesterday. 20.You have always been enough kind to
6. He has received his Degree at the last me.
convocation. Hints—(1) very ill; (2) very often; (3) very

ww 7. With most respectfully I offer my

services to you.
8. On most humbly I bow to your grace.
urgent; (4) no greater; (5) not the slightest;
(6) none too soon; (7) rather unkind; (8)
rather unsatisfactory; (9) fairly satisfac-

w 9. There is a meeting in this evening.

.Ea
10. He is returning in tomorrow night.
11. I have to go to home before sunset.
tory; (10) late in November; (11) mostly
unripe; (12) looked hard; (13) hardly light;
(14) hardly ever; (15) only last month;
(16) his actions carefully; (17) to my

syE
12. He did not return on that day.
Hints—(1) not to make; (2) regularly to do; (3)
kindly to recommend; (4) ‘applied’ in
office at 10 O’clock; (18) rarely see him;
(19) is rarely seen; (20) kind enough.

place of ‘have applied’; (5) ‘came’ in

place of ‘have come’; (6) ‘received’ in
place of ‘has received’; (7) Most ngi Revision Exercise II
Fill in the blanks with suitable adverbs
from those given in the brackets—
respectfully; (8) Most humbly; (9) ‘this
evening’ without ‘in’; (10) ‘tomorrow nee 1. This drink tastes …… . (bitter, bitterly)
2. They received us very …… at the airport.

rin
night’ without ‘ i n ’; (11) ‘go home’
without ‘to’; (12) ‘that day’ without ‘on’. (warm, warmly)
3. His story does not sound …… .
Revision Exercise I
Correct the following sentences :
g.n (true, truly)
4. He has …… recovered from his illness.
1. I hear that your mother has been much ill.
2. I have many often wished I could visit
America.
3. Is the message much urgent ?
e (hard, hardly)
5. …… he has started a new business.
(late, lately) t
4. He could make not greater mistake than 6. Young men are …… careless.
that. (most, mostly)
5. There is no the slightest sense in what he 7. He is …… serious about his health.
says. (most, mostly)
6. They arrived not too soon. 8. I find this exercise …… difficult.
7. He is fairly unkind to his subordinates. (fairly, rather)
8. His performance is fairly unsatisfactory. 9. His behaviour is …… too good.
9. His performance is rather satisfactory. (no, none)
10. Her birthday falls lately in November. 10. This medicine does me …… good.
11. The mangoes are most unripe. (no, not)

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ADVERBS | 85

11. The examination paper is …… too easy. Revision Exercise III

(not, none) (a) Write sentences of your own using the
12. She is not feeling …… today. following words or expressions preceded by
‘rather’ or ‘fairly’—
(very well, much well)
Lazy, intelligent, too expensive, sooner, gene-
13. She is feeling …… today. rous person, thoughtless person, beautiful, ugly, a
(very better, much better) clever girl, a sensible girl.
14. I …… feared this would happen. (b) Write sentences of your own using the
following words with ‘hard’ or ‘hardly’, ‘late’
(rather, never) or ‘lately’, ‘most’ or ‘mostly’—
15. A horse is …… like an elephant. Study, work, drink, believe, arrive, marriage,
(none, nothing) new adventure, peasants, labour, indecent.

wwHints—(1) bitter; (2) warmly; (3) true; (4) hardly;

(5) lately; (6) mostly; (7) most; (8) rather;
(9) none; (10) no; (11) none; (12) very
(c) Use the following adverbs in sentences
of your own—
Sooner, none, often, enough, too, even, very

w well; (13) much better; (14) rather; (15)

nothing.

.Ea
much, too much, much too, only too, since, ever
since, little, seldom, so far, uptil now, just.

syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
e t

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8 Prepositions
Preposition—This is made of two words— in accordance with on account of
Pre + position. Here Pre means before and posi- in addition to owing to
tion means placed. Hence Preposition is that

ww in (on) behalf of with a view to

word or phrase which is placed before a Noun or
a Pronoun. A Preposition or a Prepositional in case of with an eye to
Phrase shows the relationship of that Noun or in comparison to with reference to

w
Pronoun with some other word in the sentence.

.Ea
Forms of Preposition
A Preposition has the following forms—
1. Simple Prepositions—Prepositions of
in compliance with with regard to
4. Participle Prepositions—Some Present
Participles are also used as Prepositions. As—

syE
Concerning, considering, barring, during,
one word are called Simple Prepositions. As— notwithstanding, pending, regarding, respecting,
In, of, to, at, by, for, from, off, on, out, touching.

ngi
through, till, up, with, down.
Functional Types of Prepositions
2. Compound Prepositions—Prepositions As we have said above, Prepositions show
formed by adding a Prefix to a Noun, Adjective
or Adverb are called Compound Prepositions.
Outwardly they look like one-word Prepositions,
but in fact they are compound words. As—
nee
relationships. In different forms they show rela-
tionship of Place, Time, Cause, Result, Purpose,
Meeting or Parting. On this basis Prepositions

About, above, across, along, amidst, among,

amongst, around, before, behind, below, (1) rin
can be classified under the following groups—
Prepositions of Place
beneath, beside, between, beyond, inside, out-
side, underneath, within, without. g.n
On, at, in, against, above, across, before,
behind, over, under, among, below, bet-

e
ween, upon, etc.
3. Phrase Prepositions—Some Phrases also
serve as Single Prepositions. As—
According to
agreeably to
along with
in consequence of
in course of
in favour of
(2) Prepositions of Time
After, before, at, on, by, behind, during, in,
for, since, through, till, until, with, within,
from, etc.
t
(3) Prepositions of Cause / Purpose
away from in front of
For, of, from, through, with, etc.
because of in lieu of
(4) Prepositions of Agency
by dint of in order to By, in, with, without, at, through, with, etc.
by means of in place of (5) Prepositions of Manner
by reason of in reference to Like, with, by
by virtue of in regard to (6) Prepositions of Possession
by way of in spite of Of, by, with
conformably to instead of (7) Prepositions of Measure / Rate / Value
for the sake of in the event of At, by, for, to

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PREPOSITIONS | 87

(8) Prepositions of contrast / Concession (2) Also when the object is some under-
In spite of, notwithstanding, nevertheless stood (hidden) Relative Pronoun, the Preposition
(9) Prepositions of Separation is placed at the end of the sentence. As—
From, of, off 1. That is the house λ I lived in.
(10) Prepositions of Relationship (In this sentence Relative Pronoun ‘that’
With, together with, in company with, along or ‘which’ is understood at the point
with marked λ)
(11) Prepositions of support / Opposition 2. That is the man (whom) I was speaking
of.
For, against
(12) Prepositions of Exception 3. There is the book (that) you were
looking for.
But, except, barring
(3) When the object is an Interrogative Pro-

ww
(13) Prepositions of Motive/ Inference/ Source/
noun (who/whom/what/which), the Preposition
Origin
is placed at the end of the sentence. As—
From, of
1. What are you looking at ?

w
(14) Prepositions of Direction
To, towards, into, up, down, above, on

.Ea
Note—From the above classification it would
appear that no Preposition has a definite or
2. What are you thinking of ?
3. Which of these houses do you live in ?
4. Whom are you going with ?

syE
fixed sense of relationship. The same Pre-
position may express different ideas or
relationships. This depends upon their use
in different situations.
(4) Sometimes for the sake of emphasis the
object is placed at the beginning of the sentence.
In that case also the Preposition is placed at the
end of the sentence. As—
Use of Preposition
Generally Prepositions are used before their ngi 1. Him I depend on.
2. This I insist on.
objects.
1. The book is on the table.
2. He is in his office.
nee 3. That you must speak out.
(5) In the Passive Voice also the Preposition

rin
is placed at the end of the sentence.
3. He is fond of tea. 1. He can be relied upon.
4. She comes from Delhi.
In the above sentences on, in, of, from are
Prepositions and they have all been used before Exercise
g.n
2. Was the proposal agreed to ?

their objects (table, office, tea, Delhi). A Pre-

position may have two or more than two objects.
The Preposition will be used before the first of all
these objects. As—
1. The cattle graze in valleys and pastures.
e
Correct the following sentences :
1. This is the point on that I insist.
2. This is the post that for I have applied.
3. That is the goal after that he is running.
t
4. Of who are you thinking ?
2. She is very fond of grapes, apples and
oranges. 5. On which chair did you sit ?
But in the following conditions Preposition is 6. That is the thief after the police was
used after the Object— running.
(1) When the object is Relative Pronoun 7. In which house do you live ?
‘that’, the Preposition is placed at the end of the 8. Against whom are you complaining ?
sentence. As— 9. Of that I am really proud.
1. This is the book that you asked for. 10. Of what do you accuse him ?
2. That is the car that you travelled by. Hints—(1) that I insist on; (2) that I have applied
3. I know the man that you were talking to. for; (3) that he is running after; (4) Who

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88 | L.W.C.E.

are you thinking of ? (5) did you sit on ? 1. Please come tomorrow. (not ‘on tomor-
(6) the police was running after; (7) do row’)
you live in; (8) Whom are you complain- 2. He is returning today. (not ‘on today’)
ing against? (9) that I am really proud of;
(10) do you accuse him of. 3. He came yesterday also. (not ‘on yester-
day’)
Omission of Preposition (5) No Preposition is used before H o m e.
In some situations the Preposition is not As—
used. There either it is not required, or it is omit- 1. I am going home. (not ‘to home’)
ted.
2. I go home every Sunday. (not ‘to home’)
(1) No Preposition is required before the
object of a Transitive verb. As— Note—But if there is a Possessive Adjective
before Home, or if Home is used in the
1. I shall meet you again. sense of House, we use appropriate Pre-

ww (‘meet with you’ is wrong.)

2. They caught the thief.
(‘caught to the thief’ is wrong.)
position before it.
(6) If two Verbs are to be used in a sentence,

w
and both the verbs have to take different Pre-
3. I read a book. positions, we must use appropriate Preposition

.Ea
(‘read of a book’ is wrong.)
4. We have done our work.
for each verb separately. As—
1. I have been thinking about and waiting

syE
(‘have done of our work’ is wrong.) for you since the morning.
(2) Before expressions of Place and Time no 2. He has been looking for and enquiring
Preposition (for, from, in, on) is used. As— after you for a long time.
1. I came here last week.
(Not, ‘in last week’)
2. I am going abroad. ngi Exercise
Correct the following sentences—

(Not, ‘for abroad’)

3. Please wait a minute. nee 1. I met to him yesterday.
2. I reached at the station a little late.
3. I can never forget to you.
(Not, ‘wait for a minute’)
4. She is waiting outside. 4. He ran me.
rin
5. Now I shall never speak him.
(Not, ‘waiting on outside’)
(3) When some expressions of Time (as
morning, evening, day, night, month, year, etc.) g.n
6. I met him in last month.
7. It was very cold in this morning.
have some qualifying words as this, that, next,
every, last, all used before them, no Preposition
is needed before them. As—
1. He went this morning.
e
8. I cannot wait for any longer.
9. He cannot go for a step further.
10. Please return my book on tomorrow. t
11. He was absent on yesterday.
2. He met me last evening. 12. I go on a walk the morning.
3. He is coming again next Sunday. 13. I don’t read the night.
Note—But if these expressions of Time have no 14. Now I must go back to home.
qualifying words before them, they take
necessary Prepositions before them. As— 15. He is not home.
1. He went in the morning. Hints—(1) no ‘to’; (2) no ‘at’. (3) no ‘to’; (4) ‘to
me’ / ‘after me’; (5) ‘speak to him’; (6)
2. He met me in the evening.
no ‘in’; (7) no ‘in’; (8) no ‘for’; (9) no
3. He is coming again on Sunday. ‘for’; (10) no ‘on’; (11) no ‘on’; (12) in
(4) No Preposition is required before yester- the morning; (13) in the night; (14) no
day, today, tomorrow. As— ‘to’; (15) not at home.

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PREPOSITIONS | 89

Wrong Use of Prepositions 1. He will return in (at the close of) a

There are some Verbs which take n o Pre- week’s time.
position after them. They are— 2. He will return within (in less than /
before the close of) a week’s time.
attack, await, accompany, assist, request,
investigate, inform, obey, comprise, order, 3. You must finish the work in a month. (by
reach, resemble, resist, violate. the close of a month)
4. You must finish the work within a month.
It is wrong to use any Preposition after the (before the month closes)
above noted verbs, but this error is often com-
mitted. In / At
1. America attacked on Iraq. (no ‘on’) ‘In’ points to a large area of Time or Place,
2. I await for your instructions. (no ‘for’) while ‘at’ refers to a small area or fixed point of
T i m e and Place. Therefore, we use ‘in’ for

ww 3. I shall accompany with you. (no ‘with’)

4. I shall assist to you.
5. I request to you.
(no ‘to’)
(no ‘to’)
countries, states and bigger cities, and ‘at’ for
villages and towns. Similarly, we use ‘in’ for
larger range of time, and at for a fixed point of

w 6. We shall investigate into the case.

.Ea
7. I shall inform to you.
8. I shall obey to you.
(no ‘into’)
(no ‘to’)
(no ‘to’)
time. As—
1. He lives at Agra.
2. He lives in Uttar Pradesh.
3. He will come at six O’clock.

10. I order to you. syE

9. The group comprises of ten boys.
(no ‘of’)
(no ‘to’)
4. He will come in the morning.
5. He lives in Bombay.
11. I reached at the station.
12. He resembles to you.
13. He will resist to you. ngi
(no ‘at’)
(no ‘to’)
(no ‘to’)
6. He lives at Hathras.
In / At

14. He violated to the rule.

Some Typical Prepositions
(no ‘to’)
nee There is one more difference between ‘at’
and ‘in’. At refers to a stationary position, while
in refers to a state of motion. As—
In / Into
In is used to show the position of rest of a rin
1. The train is in motion.
2. He stands at the top of the hill.
thing within another thing, while into shows a
thing in motion, something moving inside some- 4. He is at home.
g.n
3. The work is in progress.

e
thing else. On / upon
In = Position of rest
Into = Position of motion
As—
(a) 1. The table is in the room.
‘On’ refers to a state of rest or stationary
position, while ‘upon’ refers to a state of motion.
As—
1. The book is on the table.
t
2. We shall sit in the hall. 2. He jumped upon the table.
3. There is a tiger in the cage.
(b) 1. The ball fell into the well. Exercise
2. The thief broke into my room. Fill in the blanks in the following sentences
3. The tiger moves into the cave. with the correct preposition from those given in
brackets :
In / Within
1. The frog jumped……the well. (in / into)
‘In’ expresses the time-range up to the last
point / moment of the given period, while within 2. There is no boy …… the class. (in / into)
expresses the limit before the last moment of the 3. There is no ink …… my pen. (in / into)
given period. As— 4. He rode straight……the arena. (in / into)

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5. He is sitting……the drawing room. 1. Divide this property between the two

(in / into) brothers.
6. He lives …… London. (in / at) 2. Divide this property among the three
brothers.
7. He lives …… Hathras …… Aligarh
District. (in / at) 3. There is a passage between the two
lanes.
8. You have a big house …… Bombay.
4. He passed the night among the aliens.
(in / at)
Till / To
9. You have a big house …… Salempur.
Till is used for time, and to for place. As—
(in / at)
1. He worked till 8 O’clock.
10. He comes …… 4 O’clock. (in / at)
2. He came to the outer gate.
11. He comes …… the evening. (in / at)

ww 12. Please close the office carefully ……

8.30. (at / in)
Since / From
‘Since’ is used before a Noun or a phrase to
show a certain point of time. It is used in Perfect

w
13. Please close the office carefully …… the
tense only. From is also used to show a point of
afternoon. (in / at)
time but it is used in non-perfect tense.

.Ea
14. The work is well …… progress. (in / at)
15. The plane is already …… the air. (in / at)
Remember that both since and from show only a
point of time, not a period of time. We can say

syE
16. He is already …… the top. (in / at) since Friday, or since 1995, or since today, but
we cannot say since four days or from a week.
17. Please sit …… the next chair. As—
(on / upon)

ngi
1. I have been living in Canada since 1990.
18. The tiger jumped……the stag. 2. I studied English from the age of six.
(on / upon) 3. I shall start working from Friday.
19. He is sitting …… the roof. (on / upon)
20. Please put the photo …… the stand.
nee 4. He has been working very hard since
July.

rin
(on / upon) Note—For Period of time we use for. As—
Hints—(1) into; (2) in; (3) in; (4) into; (5) in; (6) 1. I have been living in Canada for five
in; (7) at Hathras in Aligarh; (8) in; (9) at;

g.n
years.
(10) at; (11) in; (12) at; (13) in; (14) in; 2. I worked in this office for six months.
(15) in; (16) at; (17) on; (18) upon; (19)
Beside / Besides

e
on; (20) on.
With / By
‘With’ is used for Instrument (lifeless),
while by is used for living Person or Agent.
As—
‘Beside’means by the side of, while ‘besides’
means in addition to. As—
1. The Fort stands beside the river
Yamuna.
t
1. The letter was written with a ball-pen. 2. He came and stood beside me.
2. The letter was written by Ram. 3. He has a scooter besides a car.
3. The branch of the tree was cut with an 4. He has written two short stories besides a
axe. novel.
4. The branch of the tree was cut by the Exercise
servant. Fill in the blanks in the following sentences
Between / Among with the correct preposition from those given in
brackets :
‘Between’ is used for two persons, things or
ideas, while ‘among’ is used for more than two. 1. The letter was carelessly typed …… my
As— secretary. (with / by)

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PREPOSITIONS | 91

2. The pit was dug …… spades …… two Among / Amongst

labourers. (with / by) Both these words have almost the same
3. He sharpened the pencil …… a blade. meaning and usage, but among is more popularly
(with / by) used. But there is one difference in their usage.
4. He turned pale …… fear. (with / by) Amongst must be used in those sentences in
which the word coming after it begins with a
5. He faced the danger …… courage.
Vowel. As—
(with / by)
He is very popular amongst us.
6. The profits will be equally divided ……
He is very popular among the students.
the two partners. (between / among)
7. The profits will be equally divided ….. On / At
all the share holders. (between / among) Both these can show time. But on is used for

ww 8. He had to work …… twelve and two in

the night. (between / among)
a fixed day or date, while at is used for hour.
As—
1. I shall come on Sunday.

w 9. He found himself helpless …… the

strangers.

courses only..Ea
(between / among)
10. You have to choose …… these two
(between / among)
2. I shall come on July 15.
3. I shall come at 5 p.m.
For / During

syE
11. Please wait for me …… 10 O’clock.

12. He accompanied me……the station.

(till / to)
Both these show period of time, but the
difference between them is that for is used for an
indefinite period, while during is used for a

13. He will remain at home …… you reach ngi

(till / to) definite period. As—
1. He has gone for a long time.
there.
14. He came with me …… the main road.
(till / to)

(till / to)
nee 2. He is on leave for a month.
(There is no reference to a definite

rin
month)
15. He has been living in this house …… 3. He will be here during Christmas holi-
1990. (since / from)

g.n
days.
16. I shall start attending the office …… 4. He will stay with me during June.
Monday. (since / from)
Of / Off
17. He has not seen me …… July.
(since / from)
18. I started painting …… my childhood.
Preposition of separation . As— e
‘Of’ is a Preposition of joining, while off is a

1. A member of the family, page of a book,

t
(since / from) student of a college, one of many, etc.
19. There is a small cottage …… my farm. 2. He is off duty today. (Not on duty)
(beside / besides) 3. He jumped off the roof.
20. I know German …… English. Preposition + Gerund
(beside / besides)
There are certain Verbs and Adjectives after
Hints—(1) by; (2) with spades by two labourers.
which Infinitives are never used. In place of
(3) with; (4) with; (5) with; (6) between;
(7) among; (8) between; (9) among; (10) Infinitives we use Preposition + Gerund (verb +
between; (11) till; (12) to; (13) till; (14) ing) after these words. We give below a list of
to; (15) since; (16) from; (17) since; (18) such Verbs and Adjectives along with the Pre-
from; (19) beside; (20) besides. positions which are used with them—

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9. I will come again …… Diwali holidays.

Abstain from, aim at, assist in, based on,
confident of, debar from, desirous of, desist (for / during)
from, despair of, disqualified from, dissuade 10. He fell ill …… examination days.
from, excel in, excuse for, fortunate in, hinder (for / during)
from, hopeful of, insist on, intend on, meditate 11. He has left India …… ever.
on, negligent in, passion for, perceive in, (for / during)
persist in, prevent from, (to take) pride in,
prohibit from, proud of, refrain from, repent 12. I shall not leave you alone …… your
of, succeed in, successful in, think of. illness. (for / during)
13. He is a teacher …… our school. (of / off)
See these sentences. They are all correct— 14. He comes …… a good family. (of / off)
1. He is confident of winning the prize. 15. Your arguments are …… the point.
(‘confident to win the prize’ would be

ww
(of / off)
wrong.) 16. He jumped …… the running train.
2. He insists on going there. (of / off)

w (‘ insists to go’ is wrong.)

3. I cannot think of displeasing him.

.Ea
(‘think to displease’ is wrong.)
4. He is fortunate in having a friend like
Hints—(1) amongst; (2) amongst; (3) among; (4)
at; (5) on; (6) on sunday morning at 8.30;
(7) at; (8) for; (9) during; (10) during;
(11) for; (12) during; (13) of; (14) of; (15)

syE
off; (16) off.
you.
(b) Correct the following sentences :
(‘fortunate to have’ is wrong.)
1. Can you assist me with completing my

ngi
Note—Nowadays Infinitives have also come to home work ?
be used after aim. 2. He is hopeful to win the prize.
1. I aim to win the first prize. 3. He succeeded to reach to the top position.
2. He aims to rise to the top.
Exercise nee
4. He persists to say so.
5. I cannot prevent you to go there.
(a) Fill in the blanks in the following sen-
tences with the correct preposition from those
rin
6. He excels to paint.
7. You have no excuse to stay at home.
given in the brackets :
1. He has the widest knowledge …… us all.
(among / amongst) g.n
8. I did my best to dissuade him to drink.
9. He is disqualified to appear at the exami-
nation.
2. He comes from …… us.
(among / amongst)
3. He is the most brilliant boy …… them.
e
10. He is debarred to apply for the post.
11. You probibited him to enter here.
12. He is fortunate to get out unhurt. t
13. You must refrain to drink so much.
(among / amongst)
14. I cannot think to live in these dirty
4. The college opens …… 10 O’clock. surroundings.
(at / on) 15. He is confident to pass in the first
5. He will not be here …… Sunday. attempt.
(at / on) Hints—(1) in completing; (2) of winning; (3) in
6. Can you come……Sunday morning …… reaching; (4) in saying; (5) from going; (6)
8.30 ? (on / at) in painting; (7) for staying; (8) from
drinking; (9) from appearing; (10) from
7. He offers prayers …… dawn. (at / on)
applying; (11) from entering; (12) in
8. He will be away …… about a month. getting out; (13) from drinking; (14) of
(for / during) living; (15) of passing.

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PREPOSITIONS | 93

The Same Words With Different We are responsible to God.

Prepositions We are responsible for our actions.
There are certain words with which different I charge my failure to / upon you.
Prepositions can be used, but their meaning I charge you with my failure.
changes with the change of Prepositions. Different His face is familiar to me.
Prepositions have come into usage with them. I am familiar with his face.
As—
Let us now proceed to business.
I had the advantage of you.
Let us now proceed with the business.
You gained an advantage over me.
He is the slave / victim of his passions.
I waited upon him at his office.
He is a slave / victim to his passions.
I waited for him yesterday.
He is possessed of property.

ww He prevailed upon me to agree.

He prevailed over me in the dispute.
He is possessed with an idea.
I differ with you on this issue.

w
No argument prevailed with him.
I differ from you in temperament.
You agree with me.

.Ea
You agree to my proposal.
I commence by observing.
Compare a town with a city. (similar things)
Compare anger to madness. (dissimilar
things)

syE
I commence with the observation.
You attended upon his leisure.
You attended to his command.
Many Hindus were converted to Buddhism.
His sorrow was converted into joy.

ngi
I am tired of sitting idle.
He was invested with the crown. I am tired with double duty.
All his money was invested in business. What is the use of discussing ?
He is afflicted with fever.
He was afflicted at your failure. nee
There is no use in discussing.
I have no use for this.
I blush for her.
I blush at her misconduct.
rin
He made war upon luxury.
He made war with superstitions.
What is the cause / reason / occasion /
ground of this delay ?
Is there any cause / reason / occasion / g.n
This behaviour was not expected from you.
It is not expected of us to solve this problem.

ground for this delay ?

This is the subject of inquiry.
This is a subject for inquiry.
e
He has done his duty by his parents.
He has done his duty in this matter.
You will think of me when I am not here.
Think over / on my proposal carefully.
t
He is disqualified from competing. He is destined for business.
He is disqualified for the post. He is destined to misery.
He is liable for damages. I am disappointed in you.
He is liable to a fine. He was disappointed of success.
I concur with you. He demanded vengeance upon you.
I concur in your decision. He demanded vengeance for your deed.
The statesman deals with politics. God will provide for our needs.
The shopkeeper deals in stationery. We must provide against the rainy day.
He lent money at high interest. Communicate with him on this issue.
He lent money on safe security. Communicate this to him.

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I am not concerned in the business. I have a liking for him.

I am much concerned at your losses. I am sensible of pain.
I except you from this responsibility. I am insensible to pain.
I take exception to your language. He is equal to me.
He parted from his family. He is co-equal with me.
He parted with his property. He is qualified to compete.
I am reconciled with my brother. He is disqualified from competing.
I am reconciled to my fate. He encouraged me to go forward.
This discovery was credited to Newton. He discouraged me from going forward.
Newton was credited with this discovery. I have trust in you.

ww Different Forms of Words followed

by Different Prepositions
I sympathise with you.
I have distrust of you.
This is contrary to that.
This is contrasted with that.

w I feel much sympathy for you.

.Ea
I solicited him for his help.
I am solicitous of his help.
This is subsequent to his application.
This is consequent upon his application.
She is different from you.

syE
He is descended from King Arthur.
He is a descendant of King Arthur.
I am regardful of his interests.
She is indifferent to you.
He is neglectful of his studies.
He is negligent in his studies.
I have regard for his interest.
He is fond of colourful dresses. ngi Revision Exercise I
Fill in the blanks with appropriate pre-
He has fondness for colourful dresses.
Pursuant to my wishes.
In pursuance of my wishes.
nee
positions :
1. The river flows …… the bridge.

According to your directions.

rin
2. The work was done …… haste.
3. I am fond …… reading novels.

g.n
In accordance with your directions. 4. He died …… his country.
I am satisfied with your progress. 5. The house was destroyed …… fire.
I feel great satisfaction in / at your success.
He is on leave preparatory to retirement.
He has made all preparations for retirement.
He is proud of his position.
6. What is that …… me ?

e
7. He has not met me …… Sunday last.
8. I have known him …… a long time.
9. This is a matter …… little interest to me.
t
He takes pride in his position. 10. I am tired …… sitting idle.
I am hopeful of success. 11. I shall do it …… pleasure.
I hope for success. 12. I sold it …… ten rupees.
I am delighted with him. 13. It is five O’clock …… my watch.
I take delight in him. 14. Do not cry …… spilt milk.
I am ashamed of him. 15. The public are cautioned …… pick-
I feel shame at his conduct. pockets.
I am going in search of him. 16. The tiger was killed …… the hunter ……
I am going to search for him. the sword.
I have a dislike to him. 17. He does not go to office……10 O’clock.

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PREPOSITIONS | 95

18. He travelled ten miles …… two hours. Hints—(1) with me for nothing; (2) with; (3)
19. He started …… seven …… the morning. with; (4) to; (5) in; (6) to; (7) to; (8) on;
(9) of; (10) on; (11) to ; (12) to; (13) of;
20. He was born …… a small village …… (14) in; (15) to; (16) on; (17) in; (18) to;
Rajasthan. (19) in; (20) of; (21) of; (22) for; (23) to;
Hints—(1) under; (2) in; (3) of; (4) for; (5) by; (6) (24) of; (25) with.
to; (7) since; (8) for; (9) of; (10) of; (11)
with; (12) for; (13) by; (14) over; (15) Revision Exercise III
against; (16) by the hunter with the sword; Fill in the blanks in the following sentences
(17) before; (18) in; (19) at seven in the with appropriate prepositions :
morning; (20) at a small village in Rajas- 1. Our path is beset …… difficulties.
than. 2. Morning walk is beneficial …… health.
3. He is not eligible …… the post.

ww Revision Exercise II
Fill in the blanks in the following sentences
with appropriate prepositions :
4. Foreigners are debarred …… appearing
at this test.
5. This rule is not applicable …… the pre-

w 1. He quarrelled …… me …… nothing.

.Ea
2. He readily complied …… my request.
3. He supplies the poor …… food.
4. He is always true …… me.
sent case.
6. Parents should not connive …… their
children’s follies.
7. Public men should not be sensitive ……

syE
5. He is involved …… many difficulties.
6. I prefer milk …… tea.
criticism.
8. He is addicted …… drinking.
9. Why are you so angry …… me ?
7. I find no exception …… this rule.
8. One has to rely …… one’s own efforts.
ngi 10. His plans are adverse …… my career.
11. They scoffed …… my suggestion.
12. He has been reverted …… his former
9. I inquired …… the servant whether the
office was closed.
10. He insisted …… complaining against nee post.
13. I shall restore the property …… its right-
ful owner.
you.
11. You have to conform …… the rules of
rin
14. He will impart the secret of his trade only
…… his son.
the hostel.
12. Smoking is injurious …… health.
13. He is innocent …… of the crime.
my plans.
g.n
15. He could not prevail …… me to revise

14. Do not indulge …… strong drinks.

15. I am very grateful …… you.
16. He is dependent …… his uncle.
e
16. Do not confide your secrets …… anyone.
17. He is absolutely ignorant …… the whole
affair.
18. He is weak …… Chemistry. t
17. He is deficient …… calculations. 19. He was rewarded for rescuing a child
…… danger.
18. He is indifferent even …… his children. 20. Reward is the most important incentive
19. He is very proficient …… grammar. …… hard labour.
20. Are you not ashamed …… your conduct? 21. Industry and sincerity are indispensable
21. He is completely devoid …… the sense …… success.
of mercy. 22. He is too miserly to part …… his money.
22. He has a passion …… natural beauty. 23. I am sick …… the whole development.
24. The battle resulted …… the victory for
23. I can never prove false …… you. India.
24. He comes …… a rich family. 25. One should be sure …… what one plans
25. Your views don’t accord …… mine. to do.

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Hints—(1) with; (2) to; (3) for; (4) from; (5) to; Words Followed By Appropriate
(6) at; (7) to; (8) to; (9) with; (10) to; (11) Prepositions
at; (12) to; (13) to; (14) to; (15) upon; (16) We give below a list of some Nouns, Adjec-
to; (17) of; (18) in; (19) from; (20) to; (21) tives, Participles and Verbs which are followed
to; (22) with; (23) of; (24) in; (25) of. by some appropriate Prepositions. The use of
Revision Exercise IV wrong prepositions after certain words is a very
common error with English writers and speakers.
Fill in the blanks in the following sentences The student is advised to commit the given list to
with appropriate prepositions :
memory and to consult it in case of any doubt or
1. I shall act …… your advice. difficulty. The list is adapted from J.C. Nesfield’s
2. My grandmother is equally affectionate “English Grammar” (Macmillan).
…… all.
(a) Nouns Followed By Prepositions

ww 3. He has great ambition …… fame.

4. He is highly ambitious …… fame.
Abhorrence of ingratitude.
Ability for or in some work.

w 5. He is not capable …… doing this work.

6. I have no confidence …… you.

.Ea
7. He is fully confident …… his success.
8. He rose equal …… the occasion.
Abstinence from wine.
Abundance of food.
Access to a person or place.
Accession to the throne.

syE
9. I take exception …… your language.
10. Every child is fond …… sweets.
(In) accordance with rule.
Accusation of theft.
Acquaintance with a person or a thing. But make
11. He has no liking …… any sport.
12. Don’t be neglectful …… your dress. ngi the acquaintance of a person.
Adherence to a plan or cause.
13. I always find him negligent …… his
studies.
14. I am prepared …… the worst. nee
Admission to a society of persons or class or
things.
Admission into or to a place.
15. Have trust …… God and do your best.
16. He is wanting …… common sense rin
Advance (progress) of learning.
Advance (of a person) in knowledge.
17. I shall call …… you tomorrow.
18. I called …… your office yesterday. g.n
(To take) advantage of some one’s mistake.
(To gain) an advantage over someone.
(To have) the advantage of anyone.
19. I always count …… your advice.
20. He deals …… stationery.
21. His appeal for help met …… little
success.
Affection for a person.
Allegiance to a person.
Alliance with a person or state.
Allusion to something.
e t
22. He is averse …… my advice. Ambition for distinction.
23. He has a knack …… good painting. Amends for some fault.
24. I refrained him …… acting in haste. Antidote to some poison.
25. He is intent …… going to hill station. Antidote against infection.
Anxiety for anyone’s safety.
Hints—(1) according to; (2) to; (3) for; (4) of;
(5) of; (6) in; (7) of; (8) to; (9) to; (10) Apology for some fault.
of; (11) for; (12) of; (13) in; (14) for; Appetite for food.
(15) in; (16) in; (17) on; (18) at; (19) Application to books.
upon; (20) in; (21) with; (22) to; (23) of; Application for employment.
(24) from; (25) on. Apprehension of danger.

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PREPOSITIONS | 97

Approach to (step towards) anything. Comparison to or with a person or thing.

Aptitude for mathematics. Compassion for a person.
Arrival at a place. Compensation for a loss.
Arrival in a country or large town. Competition with a person.
Arrival in London, Paris, etc. Competition for a thing.
Aspiration after or for fame. Complaint against a person.
Assent to an opinion. Complaint about a thing.
Assurance of help. Compliance with a request.
Atonement for sin. Complicity in a crime.
Attachment to a person or thing. Concession to a demand.
Attack on a person or place. Concurrence with a person.

wwAttendance on a person.
Attendance at a place.
Attention to study.
Concurrence in a proposal.
Condemnation to death.
Condolence with a person.

w
Attraction to or towards a thing.

.Ea
Authority over a person.
Authority on a subject.
Authority for saying or doing.
Confidence in a person.
Conformity with anyone's views.
Conformity to rule.
Connection with a person or thing.

Bar to success.
Bargain with a person.
syE
Aversion to or from a person or thing. Consciousness of guilt.
Consideration for a person.
Consideration of a thing.
Bargain for a thing.
Battle with anyone. ngi
Contact with something.
(A) contemporary of some person.
Beneficence to the poor.
Benevolence towards the poor.
Bias towards a thing.
nee
Contempt for a person or thing.
(A) contrast to a person or thing.
(In) contrast with a person or thing.
Blindness to one's own faults.
Candidate for election.
Contribution to a fund.
rin
Contribution towards some project.
Capacity for mathematics.
Care for his safety. g.n
Control over a person or thing.
Controversy with a person.
Care of his books.
Cause for anxiety.
Cause of trouble.
Caution against error.
Conversation with a person.
Conviction of guilt.
Co-partner with a person.
e
Controversy on or about something.

t
Certainty about a matter. Co-partner in something.
Certificate of good conduct. Copy from nature.
Cessation from work. Correspondence with a person.
Charge of murder (Noun) Correspondence to a thing.
Charge with murder. (Verb) Craving for anything.
Claim on or against someone. Decision on some case.
Cloak for vice. Delight in a person or thing.
Comment on something said. Deliverance from a danger.
Commerce with a country. Dependence on a person or thing.
Compact with a person. Descent from ancestors.

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98 | L.W.C.E.

Desire for wealth. Fine for an offence.

Deviation from rule. Fitness for some position.
Digression from a subject. Fondness for anything.
Disagreement with a person. Freedom from care.
Discouragement of a person. Freedom of action.
(A) discouragement to a person. (Has) a genius for mathematics.
Disgrace to a person. (Is) a genius in mathematics.
Disgust at meanness. Glance at a person or thing.
Dislike of or for a person or thing. Glance over a wide surface.
Dissent from a proposal. Gratitude for a thing.
Distaste for mathematics. Gratitude to a person.

wwDistrust of a person or thing.

Dominion over sea and land.
Doubt of or about a thing.
Greediness for a thing.
Grief at an event.
Grief for a person.

w
Drawback to success.
Duty to a person.

.Ea
Eagerness for distinction.
Economy of time.
Guarantee for or of a man's honesty.
Guess at the truth.
Harmony with anything.
Hatred of or for a person.
Eminence in painting.
syE
Encroachment on one's rights.
Endeavour after happiness.
Hatred of a thing.
Heir to some property.
Heir of some person.
Endurance of pain.
Engagement in a business. ngi
Hindrance to anything.
Hint at some reward.
Engagement with a person.
Engagement (to marry) to.
nee
Hope of better luck. (Noun)
Hope for better luck. (Verb)
Hostility to a person or cause.

rin
Enmity for or with a person.
Entrance into a place. Identity with a person or thing.

g.n
Envy at (or of) another's success. Immersion in water.
Equality with a person. Impediment to progress.
Escape from punishment. Imputation of guilt.
Esteem for a person.
Estrangement from a person.
Evasion of a rule.
Exception to a rule.
Imputation against someone.
Incentive to industry.
Inclination for or to study
Independence of help.
e t
(Make) an exception of some person or thing. Indifference to heat or cold.
Excuse for a fault. Indulgence in wine.
Exemption from a penalty. Indulgence to a person.
Experience of a thing. Inference from facts.
Experience in doing something. Infliction of punishment.
Exposure to danger. Influence over or with a person.
Failure of a plan. Influence on anyone's actions.
Failure of a person in something. Inkling of a secret.
Faith in a person or thing. Inquiry into circumstances.
Familiarity with a person or thing. Insight into a man's character.

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PREPOSITIONS | 99

Instruction in music. Nomination of a person.

Intercourse with a person. Nomination to a post.
Interest in a subject. Obedience to orders, parents, etc.
Interest (influence) with a person. Objection to a proposal.
Interference in or with a man's affairs. Obligation to a person.
Interview with a person. Obstruction to traffic.
Intimacy with a person. Offence against morality.
Intrusion into a man's house. (Take) offence at something done.
Invitation to a dinner. Operation on a person or thing.
Irruption into a country. Opportunity for action.
Irruption by invaders. Opposition to a person.

wwJest at a man's bad luck.

Joy in his good luck.
Judge of a matter.
Order for or against doing a thing.
Outlook from a window.
Outlook on the sea.

w
Jurisdiction over a province.

.Ea
Jurisdiction in a lawsuit.
Justification of or for crime.
Key to a mystery.
Partiality for flatterers.
Partnership in a thing.
Partnership with a person.
Passion for gambling.
Laxity in morals.
Lecture on a subject.
Leisure for amusement.
syE (At) peace with all men.
Penance for some fault.
Penetration into motives.
Leniency to prisoners.
Liability to an illness. ngi
Penitence for some fault.
Perseverance in well-doing.
Libel on a person.
Libel against his character. nee
Persistence in an attempt.
Piety towards God.
Pity for sufferers.
Likeness to a person or thing.
Liking for a person or thing.
rin
Popularity with neighbours.
Postscript to a letter.

g.n
Limit to a man's zeal.
Longing for or after a thing. Power over a person.
Look at a thing. Precaution against infection.
Lust for money.
Malice against a person.
Margin for losses.
Martyr for a certain cause.
Preface to a book.
Preference for one thing. e
Preference to or over another thing.
Prejudice against a person.
t
Match for a person. Preparation for action.
Menace to public health. Pretension to learning.
Motive for action. Pretext for interference.
Necessity for anything. Pride in his wealth. (Noun)
Necessity of the case. Prides himself on his wealth. (Verb)
Need for assistance. Proficiency in mathematics.
(In) need of assistance. Profit to the seller.
Neglect of duty. Progress in study.
Neglect in doing a thing. Proof of guilt. (Noun)
Nerve for riding. Proof against temptation. (Adj.)

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100 | L.W.C.E.

Proportion of three to one. Reverence for age.

Protest against proceedings, decision, etc. Revolt against authority.
(In) Pursuance of an object. Rival in anything.
Qualification for office. Rival for a position.
Quarrel with another person. Rivalry with a person.
Quarrel between two persons. Satire on or upon a person, book, etc.
Question on a point. Satisfaction for some fault.
Ratio of one to five. Search for or after wealth.
Readiness at figures. (In) search of wealth.
Readiness in answering. Shame at or for his fault.
Readiness for a journey. Share of a thing.

wwReason for a thing.

Reason against a thing.
Recompense for labour.
Share with a person.
Sin against God.
(A) slave to avarice.

w
Reference to a person or thing.

.Ea
Reflections on a man's honesty.
Regard for a man's feelings.
(In or With) regard to that matter.
(The) slave of avarice.
Slur on his character.
Sneer at good men.
Sorrow for his misfortunes.

Relapse into idleness. syE

Regret for something done.

Relation of one thing to another.

Specific for or against fever.
Speculation in bank shares.
Stain on one's character.
Relation between two things.
Relations with a person. ngi
Subjection to the laws.
Submission to authority.
Reliance on a man's word.
Relish for food. nee
Subscription to a fund.
Subsistence on rice.
Succession to an estate.

rin
Remedy for or against snakebite.
Remonstrance with a person. Supplement to a book.
Surety for a person.

g.n
Remonstrance against his conduct.
Remorse for a crime. Suspicion of his intentions.
Repentance for sin. Sympathy with or for the poor.
Reply to a letter.
Reputation for honesty.
Request for a thing.
Resemblance to a person or thing.
e
Sympathy with a cause or with a person's views.
Taste (experience) of hard work.
Taste (liking) for hard work.
Temperance in diet.
t
Resignation to fate. Temptation to evil.
Resistance to injustice. Testimony to his character.
Resolution into elements. Testimony against his character.
Resolution on a matter. Traitor to his country.
Respect for a man or his office. Trespass against the law.
(In) respect of some quality. Trust in his honesty.
(With) respect (to) a matter. (In) unison with his character.
Responsibility to the law. (We have no) use for that.
Responsibility for action. (What is the) use of that ?
Result of a proceeding. (There is no) use in that.

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PREPOSITIONS | 101

(At) variance with a person. Annoyed with a person for saying or doing some-
(A) victim to oppression. thing.
(The) victim of oppression. Answerable to a person.
Victory over his passions. Answerable for his conduct.
Want of money. Anxious for his safety.
Warrant for his arrest. Anxious about the result.
Witness of or to an event. Applicable to a case.
Wonder at his rudeness. Appropriate to an occasion.
yearning for his home. Ashamed of his dullness.
Zeal for a cause. Associated with a person.
Zest for enjoyment. Associated in some business

ww
Assured of the truth.
(b) Adjectives and Participles followed
Astonished at his rudeness.
by Prepositions
Averse to hard work.

w
Abandoned to his fate. Aware of his intentions.
Abounding in or with fish. Backward in mathematics.
Absorbed in study.
.Ea
Acceptable to a person.
Based on sound principles.
Bent on doing something.
Accomplished in an art.

syE
Accountable to a person.
Accountable for a thing.
Beset with difficulties.
Betrayed to the enemy.
Betrayed into the enemy's hands.
Accurate in his statistics.
Accused of a crime.
ngi Blessed with good health.
Blessed in his children.

nee
Accustomed to riding. Blind to his own faults.
Acquainted with a person or thing. Blind in one eye.
Acquitted of a charge. Boastful of his wealth.
Adapted to his tastes.
Adapted for an occupation.
Born of rich parents.
Born in England.
rin
Addicted to bad habits.
Adequate to his wants.
Affectionate to a person.
Bought of a person.
Bound in honour.
Bound by a contract. g.n
Afflicted with rheumatism.
Afraid of death.
Agreeable to his wishes.
Alarmed at a rumour.
(Ship) bound for England.
Busy with or at his lessons.
Capable of improvement.
Careful of his money.
e t
Alien to his character. Careful about his dress.
Alienated from a friend. Cautious of giving advice.
Alive to the consequences. Certain of success.
Allied to a thing. Characterised by a thing.
Allied with a person or country. Characteristic of a person.
Amazed at anything. Charged to his account.
Ambitious of distinction. Charged (loaded) with a bullet.
Angry at a thing. Charged with (accused of) a crime.
Angry with a person. Clear of blame.
Annoyed at a thing. Close to a person or thing.

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102 | L.W.C.E.

Clothed in purple. Detrimental to health.

Committed to a course of action. Devoid of foundation.
Common to several persons or things. Different from something else.
Comparable to something else. Diffident of success.
Competent for certain work. Diligent in business.
Composed of a material. Disappointed of a thing not obtained.
Concerned at or about some mishap. Disappointed in a thing obtained.
Concerned for a person's welfare. Disappointed with a person or thing.
Concerned in some business. Disgusted with a thing.
Condemned to death. Disgusted at or with a person.
Conducive to success. Dismayed at a result.

wwConfident of success.
Congenial to one's tastes.
Congratulated on his success.
Displeased with a person.
Disqualified for a post.
Disqualified from competing.

w
Conscious of a fault.

.Ea
Consistent with the facts.
Conspicuous for honesty.
Contemporary with a person or event.
Distinct from something else.
Distracted with pain.
Distrustful of a man's motives.
Divested of office.

Contrary to rule. syE

Contented with a little.

Contrasted with something else.

Doubtful or dubious of success.
Due to some cause.
Dull of understanding.
Conversant with persons or things.
Convicted of a crime. ngi
Eager for distinction.
Eager in the pursuit of knowledge.
Convinced of a fact.
Correct in a statement.
nee
Earnest in his endeavours.
Easy of access.
Educated in the law.

rin
Coupled with something else.
Covetous of other men's goods. Educated for the bar.

g.n
Creditable to his judgment. Effective for a purpose.
Cured of a disease. Eligible for employment.
Customary for a person. Eminent for his learning.
Deaf to entreaties.
Defeated in battle.
Defective in point of style.
Deficient in energy.
Employed in gardening.
Empty of its contents.
Endeared to all men.
Endowed with natural ability.
e t
Delighted with success. Engaged to some person.
Dependent on a person or thing. Engaged in some business.
Deprived of some good thing. Engraved on the memory.
Deserving of praise. Enraged at something done.
Designed for a purpose. Entangled in a plot.
Desirous of success. Entitled to a hearing.
Despairing of success. Enveloped in mist.
Destined for the bad. Envious of another's success.
Destitute of money. Equal to the occasion.
Determined on doing a thing. Essential to happiness.

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PREPOSITIONS | 103

Exclusive of certain items. Hostile to my endeavours.

Exempted or exempt from a fine. Hungry after or for wealth.
Exhausted with labour. Hurtful to health.
Exonerated from blame. Identical with anything.
Exposed to danger. Ignorant of English.
Expressive of his feelings. Ill with fever.
Faithful to a master. Imbued with confidence.
False of heart. Immaterial to the point.
False to his friends. Immersed in water.
Familiar with a language. Impatient of reproof.
Familiar (well known) to a person. Impatient at an event.

wwFamous for his learning.

Fascinated with or by a person or thing.
Fatal to his prospects.
Impatient for results.
Imperative on a person.
Impertinent to his master.

w
Fatigued with travelling.

.Ea
Favourable to his prospects.
Favourable for action.
Fearful of consequences.
Implicated in a crime.
Inclined to laziness.
Inclusive of extras.
Incumbent on a person.
Fertile in resources.
Fit for a position.
Flushed with victory.
syE Indebted to a person.
Indebted for some kindness.
Indebted in a large sum.
Foiled in an attempt.
Fond of music. ngi
Independent of his parents.
Indifferent to heat or cold.
Foreign to the purpose.
Founded on fact.
Fraught with danger.
nee
Indignant at something done.
Indignant with a person.
Indispensable to success.
Free from blame.
Fruitless of results. rin
Indulgent to his children.
Infatuated with a person.
Full of persons or things.
Gifted with abilities.
Infected with smallpox.
Infested with rats. g.n
Glad of his assistance.
Glad at a result.
Good for nothing.
Good at cricket.
Inflicted on a person.
Informed of a fact.
Inherent in his disposition.
Inimical to a person.
e t
Grateful for past kindness. Innocent of a charge.
Greedy of or after or for riches. Insensible to shame.
Guilty of theft. Inspired with hope.
Healed of a disease. Intent on his studies.
Heedless of consequences. Interested in a person or thing.
Held in high esteem. Intimate with a person.
Honest in his dealings. Introduced to a person.
Honoured with your friendship. Introduced into a place.
Hopeful of success. Invested with full powers.
Horrified at the sight. Invested in stocks and shares.

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104 | L.W.C.E.

Involved in difficulties. Overcome with sorrow.

Irrelevant to the question. Overwhelmed with grief.
Irrespective of consequences. Painful to one's feelings.
Jealous of his reputation. Parallel to or with anything.
Lame in one leg. Partial to the youngest son.
Lavish of money. Patient to suffering.
Lavish in his expenditure. Peculiar to a person or thing.
Lax in his morals. Polite in manners.
Level with the ground. Polite to strangers.
Liable to error. Poor in spirit.
Liable for payment. Popular with schoolfellows.

wwLiberal of his advice.

Limited to a certain area.
Lost to all sense of shame.
Popular for his pluck.
Possessed of wealth.
Possessed with a notion.

w
Loyal to the government.

Made for a teacher.

Made of iron. .Ea
Mad with disappointment.
Precious to a person.
Pre-eminent above the rest.
Pre-eminent in cleverness.
Preferable to something else.
Meet for a rich man.
syE
Mindful of his promise.
Mistaken for a traveller.
Prejudicial to his interests.
Preliminary to an inquiry.
Prepared for the worst.
Mistaken in a belief.
Moved to tears. ngi
(A) preventive of fever (noun)
Previous to some event.
Moved with pity.
Moved at the sight.
Moved by entreaties.
nee
Productive of wealth.
Proficient in mathematics.
Profitable to an investor.
Natural to a person.
Necessary to happiness.
Profuse with his money.
Profuse in his offers. rin
Neglectful of his interests.
Negligent of duty.
Prone to idleness.
g.n
Proper for or to the occasion.
Negligent in his work.
Notorious for his misdeeds.
Obedient to parents.
Obligatory on a person.
Proud of his position.
Pursuant to an inquiry.
Qualified for teaching music.
Quick of understanding.
e t
Obliged to a person. Quick at mathematics.
Obliged for some kindness. Radiant with smiles.
Obstinate in his resistance. Ready for action.
Occupied with some work. Ready in his answers.
Occupied in reading a book. Reconciled to a position.
Offended with a person. Reconciled with an opponent.
Offended at something done. Reduced to poverty.
Offensive to a person. Regardless of conseqences.
Open to flattery. Related to a person.
Opposed to facts. Relative to a question.

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PREPOSITIONS | 105

Relevant to the point. Strange in appearance.

Remiss in his duties. Subject to authority.
Remote from one's intentions. Subordinate to a person.
Repentant of his sin. Subsequent to another event.
Repugnant to his wishes. Sufficient for a purpose.
Repulsive to his feelings. Suitable to or for the occasion.
Requisite to happiness. Suited to the occasion.
Requisite for a purpose. Suited for a post.
Resolved into its elements. Sure of success.
Resolved on doing a thing. Suspicious of his intentions.
Respectful to or towards one's superiors. Sympathetic with sufferers.

wwResponsible to a person.
Responsible for his actions.
Restricted in means, ability, etc.
Tantamount to a falsehood.
Temperate in his habits.
Thankful for past favours.

w
Restricted to certain persons.

.Ea
Revenged on a person for doing something.
Rich in house property.
Rid of trouble.
Tired of doing nothing.
Tired with his exertions.
Transported with joy.
True to his convictions.

Sanguine of success. syE

Sacred to a man's memory.

Satisfactory to a person.
Uneasy about consequences.
Useful for a certain purpose.
Vain of his appearance.
Satisfied with his income.
Secure from harm. ngi
Veiled in mystery.
Versed in a subject.
Secure against an attack.
Sensible of kindness.
nee
Vested in a person.
Vexed with a person for doing something.
Vexed at or about a thing.

rin
Sensitive to blame.
Serviceable to a person. Victorious over difficulties.
Void of meaning.

g.n
Shocked at your behaviour.
Shocking to everyone. Wanting in common sense.
Short of money. Wary of telling secrets.
Silent about or on a subject.
Similar to a person or thing.
Skilful in doing a thing.
Slow of speech.
Weak of understanding.
Weak in his head.
Weary of doing nothing.
Welcome to my house.
e t
Slow in making up his mind. Worthy of praise.
Slow at accounts. Zealous for improvement.
Solicitous for your safety. Zealous in a cause.
Sorry for someone. (c) Verbs Followed By Prepositions
Sorry about an occurrence. Abide by a promise.
Sparing of praise. Abound in or with fish.
Stained with crimes. Absolve of or from a charge.
Startled at a sight. Abstain from wine.
Steeped in vice. Accede to a request.
Strange to a person. Accord with a thing.

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106 | L.W.C.E.

Account for a fact. Attain to a high place.

Accrue to a person. Attend to a speaker.
Accuse of some misdeed. Attend on a person.
Acquiesce in a decision. Attribute to a cause.
Acquit of blame. Avail oneself of an offer.
Adapt to circumstances. Avenge oneself on a person.
Adhere to a plan. Bark at a person or thing.
Admit of an excuse. Bask in sunshine.
Admit to or into secret. Bear with someone's faults.
Admonish of or for a fault. Beat against the rocks (the waves).
Agree to a proposal. Beat on one's head.

wwAgree with a person.

Aim at a mark.
Alight from a carriage.
Become of you (what will) ?
Beg pardon of a person.
Beg a person to do a thing.

w
Alight on the ground.
Allot to a person.
Allow of delay.
Allude to a fact. .Ea
Beg for something from someone.
Begin with the first.
Believe in one's honesty.
Belong to a person.

Anchor off the shore.

Answer to a person.
syE
Alternate with something else. Bequeath a thing to a person.
Bestow a thing on a person.
Bethink oneself of something.
Answer for conduct.
Apologise to a person. ngi Beware of the dog.
Blame a person for something.
Apologise for rudeness.
Appeal to a person.
Appeal for redress or help.
nee
Blush at an embarrassing remark.
Blush for anyone who is at fault.

rin
Boast or brag of one's cleverness.
Appeal against a sentence. Border on a place.

g.n
Apply to a person for a thing. Borrow of or from a person.
Appoint to a situation. Break into a house (thieves).
Apprise of a fact. Break oneself of a habit.
Approve of an action.
Arbitrate between two persons.
Argue with a person for or against a point.
Break through restraint.
Break bad news to a person. e
Break (sever relations) with a person. t
Arrive at a small place. Bring a thing to light.
Arrive in a country or a large city, e.g., Arrive in Bring to one's notice.
London. Brood over past grievances.
Ascribe to a cause. Burst into tears.
Ask for a thing. Buy a thing from person or shop.
Ask of or from a person. Calculate on success.
Aspire after or to worldly greatness. Call on a person (visit him at his house or sum-
Assent to your terms. mon to do something).
Associate with a person or thing. Call to (shout to) a person.
Assure a person of a fact. Call for (require) punishment.
Atone for a fault. Canvass for votes.

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PREPOSITIONS | 107

Care for (value, love, or attend upon) a person or Conform with one's views.
thing. Confront a person with his accusers.
Caution a person against danger. Congratulate a person on his success.
Cease from quarrelling. Connive at other men's misdeeds.
Challenge a person to combat. Consent to some proposal.
Charge a person with a crime. Consign to destruction.
Charge payment to a person. Consist of materials.
Charge a person for goods supplied. Consist in (be comprising in), e.g., ‘Virtue con-
Charge goods to a person's account. sists in being uncomfortable.’
Cheat a person of his due. Consult with a person on or about some matter.
Clamour for higher wages. Contend with or against a person.

ww
Clash with another (of colours). Contend for or about a thing.
Clear a person of blame. Contribute to a fund.
Cling to a person or thing. Converge to a point.

w
Close with (accept) an offer.

.Ea
Combat with difficulties.
Come across (accidentally meet) anyone.
Come into fashion.
Converse with a person about a thing.
Convict a person of a crime.
Convince a person of a fact.
Cope with a person or task.

syE
Come by (obtain) a thing.
Come of (result from) something.
Come to (amount to) forty.
Correspond with a person (write).
Correspond to something (agree).
Count on a person or thing (rely on) e.g., I count
Commence with a thing.
Comment on a matter. ngi on you to see this done.
Crave for or after happiness.
Communicate something to a person.
Communicate with a person on a subject.
Compare similars with similars—as one fruit with nee
Crow over a defeated rival.
Cure a man of a disease.
Cut a thing in or into pieces
another.
Compare things dissimilar, by way of illustration
Cut a thing in half.
Dabble in politics.
rin
— as genius to a lightning flash.
Compensate a person for his loss.
Dash against anything.
Dash over anything.
g.n
e
Compete with a person for a prize. Dawn on a person.
Complain of some annoyance to a person.
Complain against a person.
Comply with one's wishes.
Conceal facts from anyone.
Deal well or ill by a person
Deal in (trade in) cloth, tea, spices, etc.
Deal with a person (have dealings in trade etc.).
Deal with a subject (write or speak about it).
t
Concur with a person. Debar from doing anything.
Concur in an opinion. Debit with a sum of money.
Condemn a person to death for murder. Decide on something.
Condole with a person. Decide against something.
Conduce to happiness. Declare for something.
Confer (Trans.) a thing on anyone. Declare against something.
Confer (Intrans.) with a person about something. Defend a person from harm.
Confide (Trans.) a secret to anyone. Defraud a person of his due.
Confide (Intrans.) in a person. Deliberate on a matter.
Conform to (follow) a rule. Delight in music.

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108 | L.W.C.E.

Deliver from some evil. Enjoin on a person.

Demand a thing of a person. Enlarge on a subject.
Depend on a person or thing. Enlist in the army.
Deprive a person of a thing. Enlist a person in some project.
Desist from an attempt. Enter upon a career.
Despair of success. Enter into one’s plans.
Deter a person from an action. Entitle anyone to an estate.
Determine on doing something. Entrust anyone with a thing.
Detract from one's reputation. Entrust a thing to anyone.
Deviate from a certain course. Err on the side of leniency.
Die of a disease. Escape from jail.

wwDie from some cause, as overwork.

Die by violence.
Differ with a porson on a subject.
Exact payment from a person.
Excel in languages.
Exchange one thing for another.

w
Differ from anything (to be unlike).

Dip into a book.

.Ea
Digress from the point.

Disable one from doing something.

Exchange with a person.
Excuse (pardon) for something.
Exempt a person from a rule.
Exonerate a person from blame.

syE
Disagree with a person.
Disapprove of anything.
Dispense with a man's services.
Explain to a person.
Exult in a victory over a rival.
Fail in an attempt.
Dispose of (sell) property.
Dispute with a person about anything. ngi
Fail of a purpose.
Fall among thieves.
Dissent from an opinion.
Dissuade from an action.
Distinguish one thing from another.
nee
Fall in love with a person.
Fall in with one's views.
Fall into error.
Distinguish between two things.
Divert a person from a purpose. rin
Fall on the enemy (attack).
Fall under someone's pleasure.
Divest one's mind of fear.
Divide in half, into four parts.
Fall upon evil days.
Fawn on a person. g.n
Dote upon a person or thing.
Draw for money on a bank.
Draw money from a bank.
Dream of strange things.
Feed (Intrans.) on grass.

e
Feed (Trans) a cow with grass, or grass to a cow.
Feel for a person in his trouble.
Fight for the weak against the strong.
t
Drive at some point. Fight with or against a person.
Drop off a tree. Fill with anything.
Drop out of the ranks. Fire on or at the enemy.
Dwell on a subject. Fish for compliments.
Eat into iron. Flirt with a person.
Elicit from a person. Fly at (attack) anyone.
Emerge from the forest. Fly into a rage.
Encroach on one's authority. Free of or from anything.
Endorse with a signature. Furnish a person with a thing.
Endow a hospital money. Furnish a thing to a person.

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PREPOSITIONS | 109

Gain on someone in a race. Initiate a man into an office or society.

Get at (find out) the facts. Inquire into a matter.
Get away from (escape). Inquire of a person about or concerning some
Get on with a person (live or work smoothly matter.
with him). Insist on a point.
Get out of debt. Inspire a man with courage.
Get over (recover from) an illness. Instil a thing into the mind.
Get to a journey's end. Intercede with a superior for someone else.
Glance at an object. Interfere with a person in some matter.
Glance over a letter. Intermingle one thing with another.
Glory in success. Intersect with each other.

ww
Grapple with difficulties. Introduce a person to someone.
Grasp at (try to seize) something. Introduce into a place or society.
Grieve at or for or about an event. Intrude on one's leisure.

w
Grieve for a person.

.Ea
Grow upon one = (a habit grows upon one).
Grumble at one's lot.
Guard against a bad habit.
Intrude into one's house.
Invest money in some project.
Invest a person with authority.
Invite a person to dinner.
Guess at something.
Hanker after riches.
Happen to a person.
syE Involve a person in debt.
Issue from some source.
Issue in a result.
Heal of a disease.
Hear of an event. ngi Jar against an object.
Jar on one's nerves.
Hesitate at nothing.
Hide a thing from a person.
Hinder one from doing something. nee
Jeer at a person.
Jest at (make fun of) a person.
Join in a game.
Hinge on (depend on) some event.
Hint at an intention. rin
Join one thing to another.
Judge of something by something.
Hope for something.
Hover over a nest. g.n
Jump at (eagerly accept) an offer.
Jump to a conclusion.
Hunt after or for anything.
Identify one person or thing with another.
Impart a thing to a person.
Import goods into a country.
Keep (abstain) from wine.
Keep off the grass.
Keep to (adhere to) a point.
e
Keep back (hold back) a secret.

t
Import things from a country.
Impose on (deceive) a person. Keep under (hold in subjection).
Impress an idea on a person. Keep up (prevent from sinking) prices.
Impress a person with an idea. Knock one's head against a wall.
Impute blame to a person. Knock at a door.
Incite a person to some action. Know of (be aware of) a person.
Infer one fact from another. Labour under a misapprehension.
Inflict punishment on a person. Labour for the public good.
Inform a person of a thing. Labour in a good cause.
Inform against a person. Labour at some task.
Infuse an ingredient into some mixture. Lament for the dead.

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110 | L.W.C.E.

Languish for home. Merge into or with anything.

Lapse into disuse. Mourn for the dead.
Laugh at a person or thing. Murmur at or against anything.
Laugh to scorn. Muse upon the beauties of nature.
Lay by (save money, etc.) for future needs. Object to some proposal.
Lay down one's arms (surrender). Occur to one's mind.
Lay facts before a person. Offend against good taste.
Lead to Calcutta (a road). Officiate for someone in a post.
Lean against a wall. Operate on a patient.
Lean on a staff. Originate in a thing or place.
Lean to a certain opinion. Originate with a person.

wwLevel a city with the ground.

Lie in one's power.
Light on a person or object.
Overwhelm with kindness.
Part with a person or thing.
Partake of some food.

w
Listen to complaints.

.Ea
Live for riches or fame.
Live by honest labour.
Live on a small income.
Participate with a person in his gains.
Pass away (die, come to an end).
Pass by someone's house.
Pass from one thing into another.

Long for anything. syE

Live within one's means.

Look after (take care of) a person or business.

Pass for a clever man.
Pass on (hand round, transfer), as ‘Read this and
pass it on.’
Look at a person or thing.
Look into (closely examine) a matter. ngi Pass over (make no remark upon) his subsequent
conduct.
Look for (search for) something lost.
Look over (inspect one by one) an account.
Look through (glance through) a book.
nee
Pay (suffer) for one's folly.
Perish by the sword.
Perish with cold.
Look to (be careful about) your movement.
Look up a reference.
Persevere in an effort.
rin
Persist in doing something.
Make away with (kill) a person.
Make for (conduce to) happiness.
Pine for something lost.
Play on or upon the guitar.
g.n
e
Play (trick, joke, prank) on a person.
Make for (proceed in the direction of) home, the
shore. etc.
Make off (run away) with stolen goods.
Make up (supply) deficiency.
Make up (compensate), as ‘make up for lost time’;
Play (trifle with, treat lightly) with one's health.
Plot against a man.
Plunge into a river, work, etc.
Point at a person.
t
‘We must make it up to (compensate) him some- Point to some result.
how.’ Ponder on or over a subject.
Make up (invent) a story. Possess oneself of an estate.
Make some meaning of a thing. Pounce on or upon a person or thing.
Marry one person to another. Pray to God for guidance.
Marvel at some sight or report. Prefer one thing to another.
Match one thing with another. Prejudice anyone against some person or thing.
Meddle with other people's business. Prepare for the worst.
Meditate on some subject. Prepare against disaster.
Meet with a rebuff. Present anyone with a book.

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PREPOSITIONS | 111

Preserve from harm. Remonstrate with a person against some proceed-

Preside at a meeting. ing.
Preside over a meeting. Render (translate) into English.
Prevail on (persuade) a person to do something. Repent of imprudence.
Prevail against or over an adversary. Repose (Intrans.) on a bed.
Prevail with a person (have more influence than Repose confidence in a person.
anything else). Reprimand a person for a fault.
Prevent from going. Require something of someone.
Prey upon one's health (or mind). Resolve on a course of action.
Pride oneself on a thing. Rest on a couch.
Proceed with a business already begun. (It) rests with a person to do, etc.

ww
Proceed to a business not yet begun. Result from a cause.
Proceed from one point to another. Result in a consequence.
Proceed against (prosecute) a person. Retaliate on an enemy.

w
Prohibit from doing something.
Protect from harm.

.Ea
Protest against injustice.
Provide for one's children.
Revenge myself of someone for some injury.
Revolt against government.
Reward a man with something for some services
done.

syE
Provide against a rainy day.
Provide oneself with something.
Provoke one to anger.
Ride at anchor.
Rob a person of something.
Rule over a country.
Pry into a secret.
Punish anyone for a fault. ngi
Run after (eagerly follow) new fashions.
Run into debt.
Purge the mind of false notions.
Quake with fear.
Qualify oneself for a post. nee
Run over (read rapidly) an account.
Run through one's money.
Save a person or thing from harm.
Quarrel with someone over or about something.
Quote something from an author.
Scoff at religion.
rin
Search for something lost.
Reason with a person about something.
Rebel against authority. g.n
Search into (carefully examine) a matter.
See about (consider) a matter.
Reckon on (confidently expect) something.
Reckon with (settle accounts with) a person.
Recompense one for some service.
Reconcile to a loss.
e
See into (investigate) a matter.
See through (understand) his meaning.
See to (attend to) a matter.
Seek after or for happiness. t
Reconciled with an enemy. Send for a doctor.
Recover from an illness. Sentence a man to imprisonment (or death).
Refer to a subject. Set about (begin working at) a task.
Reflect credit on a person. Set down (put in writting) your terms.
Reflect (Intrans.) on a man's conduct. Set forth (begin journey or expedition).
Refrain from tears. Set in, as ‘A reaction set in’
Rejoice at the success of another. Set out (begin journey).
Rejoice in one's own success. Set a person over (in charge of) a business.
Relieve one of a task. Set upon (attack) a traveller.
Rely on a person or thing. Show a person over a house into a room.
Remind a person of a thing. Shudder at cruelty.

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112 | L.W.C.E.

Side with a person in a dispute. Tamper with statistics.

Smile at (deride) a person's threats. Taste of salt.
Smile on (favour) a person. Tell of or about an event.
Snatch at (try to seize) a thing. Testify to a fact.
Speak of a subject (briefly). Think of or about anything.
Speak on a subject (at great length). Think over (consider) a matter.
Speculate in shares. Threaten anyone with a lawsuit.
Speculate on a possible future. Throw a stone at anyone.
Stand against (resist) an enemy. Tide over losses.
Stand by (support) a friend. Touch at Gibraltar (ships).
Stand on one's dignity. Touch upon (briefly allude to) a subject.

wwStand up for (defend) something or someone.

Stare at a person.
Stare a person in the face.
Tower over everyone else.
Trade with a country in oranges.
Tremble with fear at a lion.

w
Start for Calcutta.
Stick at nothing.
Stick to his point.
Stoop to meanness. .Ea
Trespass against rules.
Trespass on a person's time or land.
Trifle with anyone's feelings.
Triumph over obstacles.

Strike for higher pay. syE

Strike at (aim a blow at) someone.

Strike on a rock (of a ship).

Trust in a person.
Trust to someone's honesty.
Trust someone with money. (Trans.)
Strike up (begin playing).
Struggle against difficulties. ngi
Turn verse into prose.
Turn to a friend for help.
Subject a person to censure.
Submit to authority.
Subscribe to a fund or a doctrine.
nee
Turn upon (hinge on) evidence.
Upbraid a person with ingratitude.
Urge a fact on one's attention.
Subsist on scanty food.
Succeed to a property. rin
Venture upon an undertaking.
Vie with another (person).
Succeed in an undertaking.
Succumb to difficulties. g.n
Vote for (in favour of) anything.
Vote against a thing.
Sue for peace.
Supply a thing to a person.
Supply a person with a thing.
Surrender to the enemy.
Wait at table.
Wait for a person or thing.
Wait on (attend) a person.
e
Warn a person of danger or consequences.
t
Sympathise with a person in his troubles. Warn a person against a person or thing or doing.
Take after (resemble) his father. Wink at one's faults.
Take a person for a spy. Wish for anything.
Take off (of an aeroplane leaving the ground). Work at mathematics.
Take to (acquire the habit of) gambling. Work for small pay.
Take upon oneself to do a thing. Worm oneself into another man's confidence.
Talk of or about an event. Wrestle with an adversary.
Talk over (discuss) a matter Yearn for affection.
Talk to or with a person. Yield to persuasion.

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9 Conjunctions
Conjunctions join two words or sentences. 8. No sooner had he reached the station
They have no other function except joining. than the train started.
Some Relative Adjectives, Relative Adverbs and 9. It was hardly / scarcely ten O’clock

wwPrepositions also do the function of joining, but

they are not called conjunctions because besides
joining they perform the functions of Adjectives,
when I called on him.
10. He is as much greedy as miserable.
Rule 2—Position of Correlative Conjunctions

w
Adverbs and Prepositions also. Conjunctions only
join and perform no other function.

use— .Ea
The following are the Rules of their correct
The above noted Correlative Conjunctions
are not only used in pairs but the position of
their use in a sentence is also governed by
some rules. The basic rule of their use is that

syE
Correlative Conjunctions
Rule 1— Correlative Conjunctions
Some conjunctions, called Correlative Con-
one part of the Pair is used in one part of the
sentence and the other part of the pair in the
other part of the sentence. Further, if the first

correct only in pairs, not otherwise. The morengi

junctions, are used in pairs only. Their use is
part of the pair is used before a Noun, the
second part should also be used before a
N o u n , not before a Verb, Adjective or

nee
popular pairs are these— Adverb. Likewise, if the first part is used
before a Verb, Adjective or Adverb, the
Either or second part should also be used accordingly.
Neither
Both
nor
and
rin
It is a very important rule. Errors are often
committed in their correct application.
Sometimes even great authors commit errors
Though / Although
Whether
yet
or
g.n
in their application. For example, see this
sentence—

e
Not only but also “He gave me not only food but also
Lest
No sooner
Scarcely / hardly
As much
should
than
when
as
shelter.” In this sentence the use of not only
and but also is correct because in the first part
of the sentence not only is used before the
Noun food, and but also is used in the second
part of the sentence before the Noun shelter.
t
The above sentence would be wrong if we
As— write it as follows—
1. I shall either read or write a story. “He not only gave me food but also
2. He is neither strong nor courageous. shelter.” The error in this sentence is that not
3. Both Mohan and Ram have passed. only is used before a V e r b and but also
4. Though he is poor yet he is honest. before a Noun.
5. I will go whether he comes or not. Exercise
6. He will not only encourage you but also Correct the use of connectives in the follo-
help you. wing sentences :
7. Work hard lest you should fail. 1. He either is a fool or a knave.

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114 | L.W.C.E.

2.He neither knows English nor French. 15. Although he labours very hard but he fails
3.He can write both in Hindi and English. every time.
4.He is though old yet he is very active. 16. Though he is not my friend but even then
5.I do not know he will whether help or I can trust him.
harm you. Hints—(1) or I shall fail; (2) when he was called
6. He is my friend not only but also my away; (3) than I set out; (4) you should
benefactor. miss the train; (5) but also a fool; (6) nor
return my goods; (7) or not; (8) when I
7. He drove very fast lest should miss the saw him …… ; (9) when he wept aloud;
train. (10) than the train started; (11) but also
8. No sooner did I enter the room than saw I deceived; (12) nor industrious; (13) or
a thief jumping out. pay their cost; (14) and a scoundrel; (15)
9. I had hardly opened my eyes when did he yet he fails …… ; (16) yet I can trust

ww break the news to me.

10. He is as much honest as is he industrious.
Hints—(1) is either a fool or …… ; (2) neither
him.
Uses of Conjunctions

w English nor French: (3) write in both

.Ea
Hindi and English; (4) though old yet
very active; (5) whether he will help or
harm you; (6) not only my friend but also
Rule 3—Either…… or / Neither …… nor
Either …… or and neither …… nor can be
used as Conjunctions and also as Pronouns
and Adjectives. As Pronouns and Adjectives
they are used only for two persons or things,

syE
…… ; (7) lest he should miss …… ; (8)
than I saw a thief …… ; (9) when he
broke the news …… ; (10) as much
honest as industrious.
but as Conjunctions they can be used for two
or more than two. In other words, as Corre-
lative Conjunctions they can be used for

Exercise
ngi two or more than two persons or things.As—
1. Neither Ram nor his father, nor even his

nee
Correct the following sentences : friend could be of any help to me.
1. Either you help me otherwise I shall fail. 2. Neither power nor wealth, nor position
2. He had scarcely finished his work then he can hold back the march of law.
was called away.
3. No sooner did I hear the bell when I set
rin
3. Either my father or my brother or my
uncle will help me in my hour of need.
4. Either Kanpur or Lucknow or Agra will
out.
4. Start at once lest you may miss the train.
5. He is not only a coward but even a fool.
retirement. g.n
be good enough to settle down after

6. Neither you pay or return my goods.

7. You must come whether I write to you but
not.
8. I had hardly opened my eyes then I saw
Rule 4—Not either …… or

‘nor’). e
After Not either we should use ‘or’ (not

1. Your friend is not either reasonable or

fair. (‘nor fair’ is wrong.)
t
him standing before me. 2. This book is not either exhaustive or
9. He had hardly heard the news then he up-to-date. (‘nor up-to-date’ is wrong.)
wept aloud. Rule 5—No / Not / Never …… or
10. No sooner had he reached the station
when the train started. If in a sentence there comes no / not / never,
and after them a full clause, the clause would
11. He was not only insulted and also decei- be connected by the conjunction or, not nor.
ved. As—
12. He is neither honest or industrious. 1. He has no relation or friend who can
13. Either you return my books neither pay support him. (not ‘nor’)
their cost. 2. He has not a relation or a friend who can
14. He is both a knave but a scoundrel. support him. (not ‘nor’)

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CONJUNCTIONS | 115

or 13. I shall not go unless I have finished my

He does not have a relation or a friend work.
who can support him. (not ‘nor’) 14. He did not reach the station unless the
3. I never lived there or even went there train had left.
before. (not ‘nor’) 15. I cannot solve this problem until you help
Rule 6—Until / Unless me.
Both these are negative conjunctions, there- 16. Unless you are not very careful you will
fore no negative expression (as not, never, get into difficulties.
etc.) should be used with them, otherwise 17. You will not succeed unless you are not
there would be the fault of double negatives. regular in your work.
Therefore, such expressions as ‘unless he
does not help’ or ‘until he does not come’ 18. He did not reach there unless I did not
show him the way.

ww
are wrong. Their correct forms would be
‘unless he helps’ or ‘until he comes.’ Hints—(1) is either right or wrong; (2) either a
Note—Here it should also be remembered that fool or a very cunning person; (3) or your
until is a Conjunction of time , while brother; (4) nor your influence; (5)

w unless is a Conjunction of condition. They

.Ea
should not be used in each other’s place.
As—
1. I shall wait until you come. (Showing
neither worked nor slept; (6) nor his team;
(7) is neither logical nor acceptable; (8) or
faithful; (9) or fluent; (10) or bush; (11) or
a woman; (12) or even heard of him; (13)
time)
syE
2. I shall fail unless you help me. (Show-
ing condition)
until; (14) until; (15) unless; (16) Unless
you are very careful; (17) unless you are
regular; (18) until I showed him.

ngi
Rule 7—Other / Rather …… than
Exercise After Other/rather and most of Compara-
Correct the following sentences : tive Degree Adjectives the conjunction
1. Either the answer given by you is right or
wrong.
2. Either he is a fool or a very cunning
nee ‘than’ is used. As—
1. I would rather go than stay at home.
2. I would rather have a car than a scooter.
person.
3. Either you nor your brother will have to rin
3. I was helped by no other than the Prin-
cipal himself.
do it.
4. Neither your wealth or your influence
can save him now. g.n
4. He is stronger than you.
5. She is more beautiful than your sister.
5. Neither he has worked nor slept since the
morning.
6. Neither the captain or his team turned up
in time.
Rule 8—Whether / If
e
After whether/if we use the Conjunctions
‘or not’ or ‘or no’. As—
1. I do not know whether (or if) he has
t
gone or not.
7. Your argument neither is logical nor
acceptabe. 2. I doubt whether he will help me or not.
8. He is not either loyal nor faithful to me. 3. Whether he will help me or not is doubt-
ful.
9. Your language is not either correct nor
fluent. Note—
10. There was no tree nor bush that could (i) If a Negative or an Interrogative sen-
give him some shade. tence has to be made with doubt or
11. There was not a man nor a woman that doubtful, we should use the conjunction
survived the flood. ‘that’ in place of whether / or. As—
12. I never met him nor even heard of him 1. I do not doubt that he will help me.
before. 2. Is it not doubtful that he will help you ?

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116 | L.W.C.E.

(ii) Sometimes by mistake some people use 10. He would not accept any amount less to
as to before whether. This is a mistake. this.
For example, the use of as to in the 11. He lives in a house much bigger to yours.
following sentences is wrong—
12. He is more careful above you in all his
1. I doubt as to whether he will help me or actions.
not.
13. I am not sure whether he will come but
2. I do not know as to whether he is honest not.
or not.
14. You decide finally whether you accept
Rule 9—The reason is / the reason why my offer nor not.
Some sentences begin with ‘The reason is’ or 15. I am still undecided if I should accept
‘The reason why’. In such sentences the this offer whether not.
clause coming after them should be connected
16. You should not doubt whether I am your

ww with the conjunction ‘that’, not with because,

due to or owing to. As—
1. The reason why he failed is that he
well-wisher.
17. Do you doubt whether I am your well-
wisher ?

w
did not study seriously.
(Not ‘because he did not study’ or 18. I have no idea as to whether he is coming

.Ea
due to / owing to he did not study’)
2. The reason is that he did not study
seriously. (Not, because, due to /
or not.
19. The reason why he often comes late is

syE
because there is no regular bus service
owing to’) from his colony.
Rule 10—Before 20. The reason of his failure is since he was
not serious about his studies.
When ‘Before’ is used as a Conjunction, it
points to some future event or statement, but
future tense is not used with it, even if itsngi 21. The train cannot arrive before we will
reach.
Principal clause is in the future tense. As—
1. The sun will set before you reach. (Not
‘before you will reach’) nee 22. He will not vacate the house before a
month will have passed.
Hints—(1) than beg; (2) than surrender; (3) than
2. He will retire before a month has passed.
(Not, ‘will pass’ or ‘will have passed’)
rin
endure; (4) than the Chairman himself; (5)
than your father; (6) none other than the
Exercise
Correct the following sentences : g.n
Prime Minister; (7) no other than the
Commandant; (8) much faster than
Mohan; (9) other than this; (10) less than
1. He would rather starve to beg.
2. I would rather die then surrender before
you.
3. He should rather resign to enduring such
e
this; (11) much bigger than yours; (12)
more careful than; (13) come or not; (14)
or not; (15) accept this offer or not; (16)
that I am your well-wisher; (17) that I t
humiliation. am your well-wisher; (18) whether he is
coming or not; no ‘as to’ ; (19) that there
4. The seminar is going to be inaugurated is no regular bus service ; (20) that he
by no other to the Chairman himself. was not serious ; (21) before we reach ;
5. There I saw no other except your father. (22) before a month has passed.
6. The agitators met none other to the Prime Rule 11—As if / As though
Minister himself. Both these are imaginary or conditional ex-
7. He was rescued by no other over the pressions.We should, therefore, use Past
Commandant himself. Conditional Tense after them, not Present or
8. He runs much faster to Mohan. Future Tense. As—
9. He would not accept anything other to 1. He behaved as if (or as though) he were
this. the king.

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CONJUNCTIONS | 117

2. He danced with joy as if (or as though) he As—

had won the first prize. 1. While I was in service, I never saw him.
3. He helped me as though (or as if) he 2. While he lived with me, he laboured very
were my son. hard.
Rule 12—Because / in order that 3. While there is life there is hope.
We use ‘because’ to show reason and ‘in 4. While the students slept, the maid
order that’ to show purpose. As— cooked the food.
1. He failed because he did not work hard. 5. While the boys sang, the girls danced.
2. He worked hard in order that he may
secure first division.
Exercise
Correct the following sentences—
Exercise
1. Two years have passed since he has left
Correct the following sentences :

ww 1. He behaved with me as if he was my

boss.
2. I served him with all sincerity as if I am
Kanpur.
2. Two hours have elapsed since he had
fallen asleep.

w his son.

.Ea
3. He jumped into the well as though he is a
frog.
4. He was punished in order that he was
3. Three months have been over since the
result has been declared.
4. I have never visited Hyderabad since I
have closed my business there.

dishonest.
syE
5. He served me because I should help him.
6. I came so early because I may meet you.
5. You can book a room and a suite in this
hotel.
6. You can go by train and bus from here.

Hints—(1) he were my boss; (2) I were his son;

(3) he were a frog; (4) punished because ngi 7. Work hard and don’t join this course.
8. Are you his boss but his subordinate ?
9. I never drank when I studied in England.
he was dishonest; (5) in order that I should
help him; (6) so early in order that I may
meet you. nee 10. I had to keep awake when she slept.
11. I kept busy with my studies when they

rin
played.
Rule 13—Since (showing time)
12. We stayed at home when it rained.
When ‘Since’ is used as a conjunction, we

g.n
should use the verb in the Present Perfect Hints—(1) since he left Kanpur; (2) since he fell
Tense before it and in Past Indefinite Tense asleep; (3) since the result was declared;
after it. As— (4) since I closed my business there; (5) a
1. Many new developments have taken
place since I left home.
2. I have never seen him since his father
died.
e
room or a suite; (6) by train or bus; (7) or
don’t join; (8) boss or his subordinate; (9)
while I studied; (10) while she slept; (11)
while they played; (12) while it rained.
t
Rule 14—Or (showing alternative or choice) Rule 16—Because / For / Since
Conjunction ‘or’ is used to choose one of two All these three words show cause or reason.
or more than two things. As— The difference in their use is that because has
1. You can have apples or grapes. very great force in it, for has the least force,
2. You can go to Kanpur or Lucknow. and since comes between the two. As—
3. Go at once or you will be late. 1. I must go because my mother is ill.
Rule 15—While 2. He failed because he did not work hard.
While is used in two senses— 3. He could not catch me up since he was
(i) To show time or period of time. lazy.
(ii) To suggest at the same time or along 4. He cannot be trusted for he takes every-
with. thing casually.

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118 | L.W.C.E.

Rule 17—That In this sentence also the use of that before

Conjunction that is used in the following what is correct because after that comes the
forms— Principal clause “…… is not true.”
(a) In Indirect Narration (d) There are some Verbs (as, believe, think,
hope, presume, suppose, be afraid) the
As Conjunction ‘that’ is used only in
that-clause coming after which has the
Indirect Narration, not in Direct Narra-
Conjunction that concealed or under-
tion. As—
stood. As—
He said that he was ill.
1. I believe λ he is right. (That is under-
(Indirect Narration)
stood at the mark λ)
It is wrong to write—
2. I hope λ he is now well.
He said that “ I am ill.”
(Direct Narration) 3. I am afraid λ he is wrong.

ww (b) ‘That’ as Conjunction is not used is

Interrogative, Imperative, Optative or
Exclamatory clauses, whether the whole
Exercise
Correct the following sentences :
1. The train was derailed for the track had

w sentence is in the Direct or Indirect

Narration. The use of ‘that’ is wrong in

.Ea
all the following sentences—
1. He asked me that why I was late.
been damaged.
2. The child could not sleep because it was
very hot.
3. We did not go out for it was raining.

syE
2. He asked me that “Why are you late?”
3. He said to the servant that “Bring me
a glass of water.”
4. He was sad since he had suffered a great
loss.
5. He asked that why he was going there.
4. He said that how beautiful was the
scene !
5. He said that may God bless you ! ngi 6. He asked me that whether I had seen the
thief running out.

(c) ‘That’ as Conjunction is not used in

clauses beginning with Interrogative
Pronouns (which, who, what, etc.) or
nee 7. I requested my friend that to lend me his
book for a day.
8. He said that, “I shall not go to office
Interrogative Adverbs (where, why,
when, how, etc.). The use of ‘that’ in
today.”

rin
9. I hope that you are well and happy.

g.n
all the following sentences is wrong— 10. I believe that he will come.
11. I don’t think that he will return your book
1. He asked that what the time was ?
now.

e
2. He asked that who he was ? 12. I am afraid that he is a cheat.
3. I do not know that when he will
come?
4. He does not know that where he is ?
Note—But if after the clauses beginning with
13. My idea is where he has hidden the
treasure is known to you.
14. I know what you have you will never
give to anyone.
t
Interrogative Pronouns or Interrogative 15. He promises when he comes next he will
Adverbs, there comes the Principal
return your money.
clause , the Conjunction ‘that’ will be
used. As— Hints—(1) because the track had been damaged;
(2) for it was very hot; (3) since it was
1. I promise that when I come next I will
rainning; (4) because he had suffered; (5)
bring your book.
Drop ‘that’; (6) Drop ‘that’; (7) Drop
In this sentence the use of that before when ‘that’; (8) Drop ‘that’; (9) Drop ‘that’;
is correct because after the clause beginning with (10) Drop ‘that’; (11) Drop ‘that’; (12)
when, there comes the Principal clause “I will Drop ‘that’; (13) that where he has hidden
bring your book.” ……; (14) that what you have ……; (15)
2. I know that what he says is not true. that when he comes…….

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CONJUNCTIONS | 119

Functional Conjunctions Rule 20—Conjunctions of Condition

Rule 18—Conjunctions of Comparison The following are Conjunctions of condi-
tion—
The following Conjunctions show Compari-
son— If, unless, provided, provided that, in case,
as …… as; not so/as ……as; than (with supposing that.
Comparative Degree Adjective) As— As—
1. This book is as good as that. 1. If you are honest, you will succeed.
2. This book is not so (as) good as that. 2. Unless you are honest, you will not
succeed.
3. This book is better than that. 3. You will succeed provided you are
Rule 19—Conjunctions of Concession honest.
They are— 4. He will succeed provided that he deals

ww Though, although, even i f , for a l l, no

matter, however, whatever, adjective /
adverb + as. As—
honestly.
5. I will go alone in case he doesn’t come.
6. Supposing that he is honest, he will

w 1. Though he is poor, he is honest.

.Ea
2. Even if he is selfish, I will help him.
3. For all they say about him, he is a good
man.
succeed.
Rule 21—Conjunctions of Cause
The following Conjunctions show cause—
Because, since, as, f o r, that, considering

syE
4. No matter what you say, I will go ahead.
5. However fast he may drive, he cannot
reach in time.
that, seeing that, now that, in that, in as
much as, noun + that, adjective + that.
As—
6. Whatever be the case, he will remain my
friend.
ngi 1. He failed because he did not study regu-
larly.
2. Since it is raining, I cannot go.

nee
7. Simple as he is, he is not a fool.
8. Roughly as he behaves, he is not a cruel 3. As it is raining, I cannot go.
man. 4. Considering that it was very cold, he
did not go for swimming.
Exercise
Correct the following sentences :
rin
5. We started late for the morning was very
cold.

g.n
1. He can speak so fluently as she. 6. I am glad that he has passed.
2. He is not so rich so your father. 7. Seeing that the morning was very foggy,
3. She cannot walk as fast so you. we started late.
4. This house is certainly bigger as that.
5. Gentle so he is, he is not credulous.
6. Rich though he is, so he is not proud.
7. Fast so he drives, he is not careless.
e
8. Now that you have come, I can take a
little rest.
9. He deserves praise in that he has secured
first position.
t
10. He must suffer in as much as he is so
8. Even if he is so powerful, as he will not
lazy.
harm you.
11. A fool that he is, he must suffer.
9. Whatever be the matter, that we shall
12. Foolish that his actions are, he must
settle it amicably.
suffer.
10. For all they say about him, yet he is a
thorough gentleman. Exercise
Hints—(1) as fluently as she; (2) so rich as your Fill in the blanks in the following sentences:
father; (3) as fast as you; (4) bigger than 1. ……you are efficient, you will be promo-
that; (5) gentle as he is; (6) drop ‘so’; (7) ted.
Fast as he drives; (8) drop ‘as’; (9) drop 2. ……you are efficient, you will not be
‘that’; (10) drop ‘yet’. promoted.

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120 | L.W.C.E.

3. You will be promoted …… that you are Exercise

efficient. Correct the following sentences :
4. …… that he is honest, he will be promo-
1. We shall shift to our new house before
ted.
the rains will begin.
5. I will do it alone …… he does not come
for my help. 2. He will not board the train until you will
reach there.
6. …… that it was very dark, we did not
move out. 3. I shall get ready before the bell rang.
7. I was surprised……he behaved so rudely. 4. We shall go together when your summer
vacation began.
8. An honest man …… he is, he must be
respected. 5. He closed the door as soon as his son
arrives.
9. Now …… your examination is over, you

ww must return home without any delay.

10. He was fined …… he had misbehaved
with his boss.
6. I shall come to you after the office had
been closed.
7. He stopped writing as soon as the bell

w
Hints—(1) If; (2) Unless; (3) provided; (4)

.Ea
Provided / Supposing; (5) in case; (6)
Considering; (7) that; (8) that; (9) that;
(10) because.
rings.
8. We shall try again when the college will
open.
9. The train will start after it gives three

syE
Rule 22—Conjunctions of Time
The following are conjunctions of Time—
When, while, before, after, till, until, since,
whistles.
10. He has been in contact with me since he
has been a college student.
as, as soon as.
As— ngi Hints—(1) before the rains begin; (2) until you
reach there; (3) before the bell rings; (4)

nee
when your summer vacation begins; (5) as
1. I will go when you come.
soon as his son arrived; (6) after the office
2. She cooks her food while the child sleeps.
has been closed; (7) as soon as the bell
3. I shall get up before the sun rises.
4. He retired to bed after the show was
over. rin
rang; (8) when the college opens; (9) after
it has given three whistles; (10) since he

g.n
was a college student.
5. Wait for me till I return.
Rule 23—Use of Tense in Conditional Sent-
6. Don’t go home until I come. ences
7. I have known him since he was a child.
8. He woke up as the clock struck six.
9. He got up as soon as he saw me.
10. I shall meet you when you come next.
written in three tenses—
(a) Simple Future Tense
e
Conditional or Supposition sentences can be

1. If you start early, you will reach in

t
Note—(1) If the Principal Clause is in the time.
Future Tense, the sub-ordinate clauses
2. If you are honest, you will be res-
beginning with Conjunctions of Time pected.
should be used in the Simple Present or
In these sentences the Principal Clause is in
Present Perfect Tense (not in Future
Simple Future Tense, while the Subordinate
Tense). For example, see sentences No. 1, Conditional Clause is in Present Tense (not
3, 10 above. in Future Tense). As—
(2) The clause following after is usually in If you will start early, you will reach in time.
the Present Perfect Tense (not in Simple This sentence is wrong because the condi-
Present). As— tional clause beginning with If is in Future
He will return after the train has left. Tense.

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CONJUNCTIONS | 121

(b) Simple Past Tense collected; (7) I would have flown; (8) I
1. If he built two houses, he would give would have been a hero; (9) I would have
you one. got; (10) I would have learnt.
2. If I secured first position, he would Revision Exercise I
give me a golden watch. Correct the following sentences :
3. If you discovered the treasure, you 1. Though he was angry but he listened to
would get your share. me patiently.
Note— 2. He stole for he badly needed money.
(i) In these sentences Past Tense shows 3. I did it since I was angry.
Present or Future Tense.
4. He both has time and money to spare.
(c) Past Perfect Tense
5. Both it was cold and wet.
1. If I had built two houses, I would

ww have given you one.

2. If I had secured first position, he
would have given me a golden watch.
6. We either can have milk or tea.
7. He didn’t go and she didn’t go neither.
8. I didn’t go and either did she.

w 3. If you had discovered the treasure,

.Ea
you would have got your share.
Note—These sentences can also begin with ‘Had’
in place of ‘If’. As—
9. While I left the house I locked it care-
fully.
10. When the sun rose the fog dispersed.

got my share. syE

Had I discovered the treasure, I would have

Exercise
11. Since it grew darker it became colder.
12. Tired he was he carried my luggage on
his head.

Correct the following sentences :

1. If your conduct will be good, you will bengi 13. Some people waste food when others
haven’t enough to eat.
14. Either you help me otherwise I shall fail.
forgiven.
2. If you will be careless about your duties, nee15. Work very hard lest you may fail.
16. You must come whether I write to you

rin
you will come to grief. but not.
3. If you will be loyal to me, I shall stand 17. When he came then I was in the bath-
by you.

g.n
room.
4. If I won a lottery, I will give half the 18. Don’t come until you don’t hear from
money to you. me.
5. If I built a market-complex, I will give
you a shop free of cost.
6. If you had dived to the bottom of the
ocean, you had collected many pearls.
e
19. If you do your work honestly then
everyone will trust you.
20. Don’t count your chickens until they are
not hatched.
t
7. Had I the wings of a dove, I will fly to Hints—(1) yet he listened ……; (2) because he
you. badly needed ……; (3) because I was
8. Had I crossed the British Channel, I had angry; (4) both time and money; (5) both
been a hero. cold and wet; (6) either milk or tea; (7)
9. Had I been a graduate, I had got a good didn’t go either; (8) neither did she; (9)
job. when I left ……; (10) As the sun rose ;
(11) As it grew darker; (12) Tired as he
10. If I had known him before, I could have was / Tired though he was; (13) while
learnt much from him. others haven’t; (14) drop ‘either’; (15) lest
Hints—(1) If your conduct is good; (2) If you are you should fail; (16) or not; (17) drop
careless; (3) If you are loyal; (4) I would ‘then’; (18) until you hear from me; (19)
give; (5) I would give; (6) you would have drop ‘then’; (20) until they are hatched.

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122 | L.W.C.E.

Revision Exercise II 2. Tell me …… you have read.

3. She writes slowly …… neatly.
Correct the following sentences :
1. Give every man thy ear, and few thy 4. The jug will break …… you drop it.
tongue. 5. ……I were your friend, I would help
2. Many things have happened since I have you.
left school. 6. …… the child was sleeping, she was
3. You may either take this book or that. knitting.
4. I would rather suffer to yield before you. 7. I am …… tired that I cannot go.
5. When there is life there is hope. 8. Do you doubt …… she is a good lady ?
6. When it is true of some, it is not true of 9. I would rather resign …… bear this kind
all. of misconduct.
7. Let me know that whether you will do it

ww or not.
8. Tell me that where he lives.
9. Do like he does.
10. …… I only knew.
11. …… respected, he is not loved and liked.
12. He went away …… I came.

w10. It is a week since the examinations begin.

.Ea
11. I will go after he will come.
12. Not only she lost her purse but also her
ticket.
13. Take a lamp, …… the night is dark.
14. I shall do it …… you like it or not.
15. Be just …… fear not.

syE
13. Neither his action was just nor unjust.
14. He is no other but my brother.
15. No other but your father can help you.
Hints—(1) if/when; (2) what; (3) but; (4) if; (5)
If; (6) While; (7) so; (8) that; (9) than; (10)
If; (11) Though; (12) when/before; (13)

ngi
for; (14) whether; (15) and.
16. Until you are in the workshop, you can-
not smoke. Revision Exercise IV
17. Take care that you should fall.
18. He is rich and discontented.
19. Men must work because they may earn a nee Explain whether the following sentences
are correct or incorrect :
1. He is as brave like you.
living.
20. Until you work hard, you will get no
rin
2. No sooner did I see the Principal when I
greeted him.
success.
Hints—(1) but few thy tongue; (2) since I left
school; (3) either this book or that; (4)
in time.
g.n
3. He explained that why he could not reply

4. Until you did not come, I had to wait.

than yield; (5) While there is life; (6)
While it is true of some; (7) drop ‘that’;
(8) drop ‘that’; (9) as he does; (10) the
examinations began; (11) after he comes;
e
5. I shall drown until you help me.
6. He got up early lest he should be late.
7. He had scarcely opened the eye when he
saw a stranger standing before him.
t
(12) not only her purse but also her ticket;
(13) neither just nor unjust; (14) no other 8. Explain to me that how you lost the book.
than; (15) No other than your father; (16) 9. I am glad why he has passed.
So long as you are; (17) lest you should 10. He cannot read nor write.
fall; (18) but discontented; (19) in order 11. You can sleep when I work.
that they may earn; (20) unless you work
12. Ram is honest but Mohan is dishonest.
hard.
13. I will go when the rain will stop.
Revision Exercise III 14. He is so tired as he cannot go any farther.
Fill in the blanks in the following sentences : 15. You can stay with me as long you work
1. Come …… you please. in Delhi.

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10 Verbs
Kinds of Verbs As—
Verbs can be divided into the following three He has gone.

wwcategories—
(1) Transitive Verbs
(2) Intransitive Verbs
In this sentence has is auxiliary verb and
gone Principal Verb. Here has has helped the
Principal Verb in making its Present Perfect

w (3) Auxiliary Verbs / Modal Verbs

Transitive Verbs :
.Ea
“A Verb is Transitive if the action does not
Tense, and in so doing it has lost its own identity
as a Principal verb.
Number of Auxiliary / Modal Verbs

something else.”
I read a book.
syE
stop with the agent, but passes from the agent to
(J. C. Nesfield)
Auxiliary or Modal Verbs are 27 in number.
They are :
Is, was, were, am, are, will, would, shall,
In this sentence the sense is not complete with
‘I read’ only, until it is known what I read. The ngi should, do, does, did, can, could, may, might,
must, ought, has, have, had, need, dare, used, be,

nee
sense is complete only when we say “I read a been, being.
book”. The action, thus, passes on to the book. In These verbs (excluding be, been, being) are
this way the Person or Thing with which the also called Anomalous Verbs.
action of the verb ends is called its Object. A
Transitive Verb must have its Object.
rin
Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
Intransitive Verbs :
“A Verb is Intransitive when the action stops g.n
Regarding Transitive and Intransitive verbs
it is necessary to remember that most verbs are
neither Transitive nor Intransitive in thems-
with the agent, and does not pass from the agent to
anything else.”
I sleep.
(Nesfield)

The sense of this sentence is complete. Its

e
elves. This distinction depends upon their use. A
Transitive verb can be used as an Intransitive
verb, and an Intransitive verb can be used as a
Transitive verb. Therefore Wren and Martin
t
action does not pass on to any other thing. There- observe :
fore it needs no object. An Intransitive Verb has
“Most Verbs can be used both as Transitive
no object.
and as Intransitive Verbs. It is, therefore, better to
Auxiliary / Modal Verbs :
say that a Verb is used Transitively or
Auxiliary or Modal Verbs are also called Intransitively rather than that it is Transitive or
Helping Verbs because they help the Principal Intransitive.”
verb.
“An Auxiliary Verb is one which (a) helps Rule 1. Transitive and Intransitive Use
to form a tense or mood of some Principal Verb, As we have said above, most verbs can be
and (b) forgoes its own significance as a Principal used both as Transitive and Intransitive
Verb for that purpose.” (Nesfield) verbs. As—

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124 | L.W.C.E.

Transitive Use Intransitive Use 4. All his friends laughed at (i.e derided)
1. He speaks the truth. 1. He speaks softly. him.
2. I feel a severe pain in 2. How does he feel 5. I ask for (i.e. request) your kind favour.
my backbone. now ? 6. There is none to look after (i.e. take
3. He can drive any car. 3. He drives very cauti- care of) him.
ously.
Note—Somethimes an Intransitive verb becomes
4. Please ring the bell. 4. The bell rings. Transitive with the addition of a Preposi-
5. He stopped the bus. 5. The bus stopped. tion before it. As :
6. They fought the 6. They fought bravely.
enemy back.
1. He will overcome all his difficulties.
7. I read a book. 7. I read slowly. 2. The river is overflowing its banks.
8. They drink country 8. They never drink. 3. He is bold enough to withstand the attack.
liquor.
Exercise

ww 9. Change your clothes.

10. He invited you.

9. They will never
change.
10. I was not invited.
Use the following Intransitive Verbs as
Transitive Verbs :

w Exercise

.Ea
Use the following Verbs both Transitively
and Intransitively :
Eat, drink, read, write, play, drop, hear, start,
(i) Drown, sank, fell, dry, grow, burn, return,
shout.
Use the following Intransitive Verbs as
Transitive Verbs by adding prepositions before

syE
or after them—
break, drive, stop, love, hate, fight, smell, taste.
(ii) come, cry, go, turn, run, look, stand,
Rule 2. Intransitive Verbs used as Transitive draw, flow, laugh.
Verbs

ngi
Rule 3. Transitive Verbs used Intransitively
(i) When an Intransitive Verb is used in the
Some Transitive Verbs can be used as
Causal / Causative sense ( i.e. in getting
Intransitive verbs under the following condi-
or causing an action done), it becomes a
Transitive verb. As :
Transitive Intransitive neetions :
(i) When a verb is used in such a wide sense
that the need of using its object is not
1. A bird flies.

2. He drives very
1. He flies a kite. (i.e. causes
a kite to fly.)
2. He drives the cattle away
felt. As—

rin
1. Men eat to keep alive.
cautiously.

3. The sportsmen
from the field. (i.e. causes
the cattle to run away.)
3. The captain marched the g.n
2. On the battlefield soldiers have to kill.
(ii) When the Reflexive Pronoun of the verb
is kept concealed. As—
marched in a line. sportsmen in a line. (i.e.
caused them to march in a
line.)
4. The boat floated. 4. I floated the boat. (i.e.
caused the boat to float.)
bolted it.
e
1. He turned (himself) to the door and

2. Please keep (yourself) quiet.

3. He drew (himself) near her.
t
4. The bubble burst (itself).
(ii) Some Intransitive Verbs become Trans-
itive with the addition of a Preposition (iii) Some Transitive Verbs can be used as
with them. In that case the Preposition Intransitive verbs also. As—
becomes a part of the verb and cannot be Transitive Intransitive
separated from it. As : 1. He broke the glass. 1. The glass broke.
1. I have carefully gone through (i.e. read) 2. He closes the shop at 2. The market closes at
your representation. 8 p.m. 8 p.m.
2. Please look into (i.e. investigate) the 3. He burns the dry 3. Dry leaves burn.
matter carefully. leaves.
3. He runs after (i.e. pursues) money at all 4. He opens the office 4. The office opens at
costs. at 10 a.m. 10 a.m.

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VERBS | 125

Exercise 5. Certain ideas are also expressed by using

them. As—
Use the following Transitive Verbs as
Intransitive Verbs : 1. He may come. (Possibility)
Drink, learn, punish, sing, speak, reply, argue, 2. He can help you. (Ability)
stop, turn, start, open, grow, strike, melt, freeze. 3. He must come in time. (Obligatory)
Auxiliary / Modal Verbs : Their Functions 4. He has to remain at home. (Obligatory)
As we have said above, there are in all 2 7 5. I have got a good house. (Possession)
Auxiliary / Modal verbs. They have the following 6. He does not know. (Negative)
6 functions : 6. Negative Verbs are also formed with their
1. To form different Tense Forms help. As—
Different Tenses are formed with the help of 1. He does not go. (‘He goes not’ is wrong.)

ww
Auxiliary verbs. As— 2. He did not laugh. (‘He laughed not’ is
1. He is going. wrong.)
2. He will go. Uses of Auxiliary Verbs

w 3. He has gone.
4. He must go.

.Ea
5. He had already gone.
6. He does not go.
Verbs “to be” : am, is, are, was, were
Rule 1. Is and am
Both these are Singular Verbs of the Present

syE
Tense, but ‘is’ is used with the Third Person
2. To make Interrogative sentences and ‘am’ with the First Person. Therefore we
cannot use am with He or is with I. As—
Some Interrogative sentences are formed
1. He / she is a student.
with the help of Auxiliary Verbs. As—
1. Is he going ?
2. Has he gone ? ngi 2. Ram is a lawyer.
3. I am a student.
3. Will he go ?
4. Can he go ? nee 4. I am a lawyer.
Rule 2. As Intransitive Verbs without Predi-
cate/ Complement
5. Does he go ?
6. Did he go ?
rin
Structure—Subject + Verb ‘to be’
Such sentences show the existence of a per-
7. Do you go ?
3. To form Question-tags and Short Answers
son or thing. As—
1. God is. = God exists.g.n
Question–tags and short answers are also
formed with the help of Auxiliary verbs. As—
1. He plays football, doesn’the ?
2. He is a good man, isn’t he ?
e
2. Stars are. = Stars exist.
Rule 3. As Intransitive Verbs with Predicate /
Complement
Structure—Subject + Verb ‘to be’ + Comp-
t
3. Are you going home ? Yes, I am / No, I lement
am not. In these sentences verb ‘to be’ (is, am, are,
4. Do you like this book ? Yes, I do / No, I was, were) must be followed by a Comple-
don’t. ment (Noun/Pronoun/Adjective/Adverb).
4. They are also used to show agreement or The sentence would be incomplete without
disagreement with a certain statement. As— the complement. As—
1. The weather is very fine. Yes, it is. 1. He is a gentleman. (Complement ‘Noun’)
2. The day is very hot. Yes, it is. 2. You are a sportsman. (Complement
3. He is a rich man. No, he isn’t. ‘Noun’)
4. He likes to read novels. Yes, he does / 3. This book is mine. (Complement ‘Pro-
No, he doesn’t. noun’)

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126 | L.W.C.E.

4. The weather is fine. (Complement ‘Adjec- certain work was to have been completed in
tive’) the past, but this could not be done.
5. He was there. (Complement ‘Adverb’) 1. They were to have left yesterday but had
6. He is inside. (Complement ‘Adverb’) to postpone their departure for a week.
7. They were happy. (Complement ‘Adjec- 2. He was to have been promoted only last
tive’) year but that could not be done.
Rule 4. Subject + Verb ‘to be’ + Infinitive Rule 9. Making of Interrogative sentences
The structure of some sentences is as Some Interrogative sentences are also made
follows— with the help of Verbs to be. An Interrogative
sentence begins with a Verb to be and then
Subject + is / am / was / were / are + Infi- comes its Subject. As—
nitive (Present or Perfect) As :
1. Is he a good man ?
1. He is to come tomorrow.

ww 2. I am to leave tomorrow.
3. They are to assemble here.
2. Are you going ?
3. Was he absent ?

w 4. They were to play a match here. 4. Am I a fool ?

5. You are to see me tomorrow. 5. Were they invited ?

.Ea
6. He was to have come only yesterday.
Rule 5. It + is / was + adjective / infinitive /
Rule 10. Were for supposition or impossible
desire

syE
gerund / clause
Some sentences have the structure as noted
above. As—
Some sentences begin with “were”. These
sentences express just imaginary or impossi-
ble wishes. These sentences have the follow-

ngi
ing structure.
1. It is easy to reach there.
2. It was to happen. Were + Subject + Complement / Predicate
As :

nee
3. It is foolish talking like this.
4. It is good that he reached in time. 1. Were I a king !
Rule 6. Subject + Verb to be + Principal Verb + 2. Were I a bird !
‘ing’
The continuous form of every tense is made
3. Were she young !
4. Were I there !
rin
with the help of verb to be. As—
1. He is reading.
2. He was reading. g.n
Note— Such sentences are also correct in the
following structure :

3. He will be reading.
4. They are going.
5. They were going.
Predicate
As :
1. If I were a king !
e
If + Subject + Were + Complement /

t
6. I am going. 2. If I were a bird !
Rule 7. Passive Voice is also made with the help 3. If she were young !
of Verb to be. As—
4. If I were there !
1. The servant was called.
2. The servant is being called. Exercise
3. He was invited. Make ten sentences on the pattern of each
of the following sentences :
4. They were invited.
5. I am invited. 1. He is a teacher.
Rule 8. Subject + was / were + Perfect infinitive 2. This house is mine.
Some sentences have the above structure. 3. He is to attend the meeting.
These sentences express the sense that a 4. It is foolish waiting for him.

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VERBS | 127

5. He was required to explain the case. Note—It should be remembered in this connection
6. He was to have attended the meeting that ‘have’ is used with I, you, We and
yesterday. Third Person Plural in the Present
Tense, ‘has’ with Third Person Singular
7. He was to have been nominated a member in the Present Tense, and ‘had’ with all
of the Commission last year. Persons (First, Second, and Third) in the
8. Were I the President of India ! Past Tense in both Singular and Plural
9. If I were on the moon ! Numbers.
10. Is he well attended ? Rule 2. Present Perfect + Expressions of Time
Exercise Care should be taken not to use any phrase or
expression suggestive of Past Tense while
Choose the correct alternative : writing a sentence in the Present Perfect
1. Has / have he already gone ? Tense.

ww 2. Are / am we fools ?
3. The day was / were extremely hot.
4. They are / were to attend the meeting in
Some popular phrases expressive of Past
Tense are these :

w
Yesterday, last evening, / night / week /
the afternoon. month / year / summer / winter, the other

.Ea
5. He was / were to have met me here.
6. It is / were good that he called on you.
day, a little while ago, a moment / minute
ago, a few moments / minutes / days /
months / years / ago, etc.

syE
7. He be / was turned back.
8. He is / was to have left India only last The use of such phrases / expressions with the
month. Present Perfect Tense would make a funny
mingling of the Present and Past Tenses,

ngi
9. I am / was to leave for home just now.
which must be avoided. The only expression
10. If I was / were a great scientist ! that can be used with the Present Perfect
11. Was / were she an Indian citizen ! Tense is ‘just now.’
12. Ram or Shyam was / were expected to
help you.
13. Let him be /is permitted to bring his goods.
nee Therefore never make sentences such as
these :

14. That were / was to be !

rin
1. I have come yesterday.
2. I have passed M.A. last year.

g.n
Hints—(1) Has; (2) Are; (3) was; (4) are; (5) 3. He has left a few minutes ago.
was; (6) is; (7) was; (8) was; (9) am; 4. He has met me last winter.
(10) were; (11) were; (12) was; (13) be;
The use of ‘expressions of time’ in all these
(14) was.
Have = have / has / had
Rule 1. Formation of Perfect Tenses
The Perfect forms of all the Tenses (Present,
e
sentences is wrong. If these expressions have
to be used, the verb should be used in the
Simple Past Tense. As :
1. I came yesterday.
t
Past and Future) are made with the help of 2. I passed M.A. last year.
has / have / had. These sentences have the 3. He left a few minutes ago.
following structure :
4. He met me last winter.
Subject + have / has / had + Past Participle
The use of ‘just now’ is correct. As :
As :
1. I have come just now.
1. I have finished my work.
2. He has left just now.
2. He has gone.
Rule 3. Present Perfect + Adverbial/ Prepositio-
3. They have finished their work. nal phrase
4. He had gone to Kanpur by that time. Some sentences of the Present Perfect Tense
5. You had already taken your book. are so constructed that with the help of an

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128 | L.W.C.E.

Adverbial or a Prepositional phrase the Past Tense, and the other part in the Past of the
is connected with the Present. In other words, Past Tense. That is, these sentences indicate
they show an action that started in the Past the occurrence of two actions at two points
and continues to the Present moment. Some of time in the Past. In these sentences one
popular Adverbial or Prepositional phrases action takes place in the near Past and the
that show this continuity are these : other in the distant Past. The action that
Since, for, yet, just, already, ever, never, occurs in the near Past is written in Simple
often, several times, today, lately, recently, so Past Tense and that occurring in distant past
far, until now, upto the present, this day / is written in Past Perfect Tense. These two
week / month, etc. parts of the sentence are joined with one of
the following Conjunctions—When, before,
Their structure is like this : after.
Subject + have / has + Past Participle + As :

ww
Adverbial / Prepositional phrase
The train had left before I reached the
As : station.
1. I have not seen him since July. In this sentence the action of the ‘train leaving

w 2. I have lived in Canada for many years.

.Ea
3. He has not yet come.
4. He has recently built a new house.
Note—The following Adverbs of Time are always
the station’ is earlier in point of time and
therefore written in the Past Perfect Tense,
and the action of ‘my reaching the station’ is
later in point of time and therefore written in

syE
used with the Present Perfect Tense, not
with the Simple Past Tense :
Already, yet, since, uptil now, so far
Simple Past Tense.
Similarly :
1. The patient had died before the doctor
As :
1. He has already gone home. ngi reached.
2. He had left Kanpur before I reached
there.
( Not, ‘already went home’)
2. You have not done any work so far.
(Not, ‘did not do any work so far’) nee 3. The fire had engulfed the house before
the fire-brigade arrived there.

Rule 4. Perfect continuous Tense

The Perfect continuous form of every Tense rin
Note— Some sentences in the Past Perfect Tense
can also be constructed thus :
is also formed with the help of have / has /
had. Their structure is as follows :
g.n
1. He had already spent the whole money.
2. He had given the message much earlier.
Subject + have / has / had / will have / shall
have + been + Present Participle + Time
Phrase
As :
Exercise
e
Correct the following sentences :
1. I already finished my work.
2. He gone to Kanpur.
t
1. I have been living in this house since
1990. 3. I have met my friend yesterday.
2. He has been living in this house for many 4. I have resigned from my post about a
years. month ago.
3. He had been living in this house for many 5. He not written to me for several months.
years before he built his own house. 6. I served as a teacher for many years.
4. He will have been living in this house for 7. Ram already completed his work.
five years by now. 8. He has been working in this factory from
Rule 5. Past Perfect Tense 1990.
The sentences written in Past Perfect Tense 9. He has been writing a novel since many
have two parts—one part written in the Past months.

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VERBS | 129

10. They have not been living together from Rule 7. Causative use of ‘Have’ : Subject +
July last. have + Object + Past Participle
11. The police has arrested the militant before In some sentences the subject does not act
the crowd gathered there. himself : he gets the work done by others.
12. The crowd dispersed before the police had Such sentences are constructed as below with
reached there. the help of have / has / had used causatively :
13. I had reached the station after the train left. Subject + have / has / had + Object + Past
Participle
14. The match finished before the rain started.
As :
15. The clock had struck twelve after I reached 1. I had him punished for his fault.
there.
2. He has a house built.
Hints—(1) have already finished; (2) has gone; 3. I have my essay corrected.

ww
(3) met; (4) resigned; (5) has not written;
4. I shall have my letter typed.
(6) have served; (7) has already comp-
5. They can have their furniture repaired.
leted; (8) since 1990; (9) for many
Note—In the above construction get / got can also

w
months; (10) since July; (11) had arrested;
be used in place of have, has, had. As :
(12) had dispersed…reached; (13) reached

.Ea
the station…train had left; (14) had finis-
hed… started; (15) struck twelve…had
reached.
1. I got him punished.
2. I shall get my essay corrected.
3. He gets his furniture repaired every

syE
Rule 6. Subject + have / has / had + Infinitive
or
year.
4. I am getting my house whitewashed.
Rule 8. ‘Have’ showing possession
Subject + have/has/had got + Infinitive
Some sentences are constructed as above. ngi Have / has / had are also used to show
‘Possession’ in the following form :
These sentences express the idea of necessity,
compulsion or obligation.
As : nee Subject + have / has / had + Noun
Subject + have / has / had got + Noun
As :
1. He has to obey me. He has got to obey
me.
1. I have a book.
2. He has a pen. rin
2. He has to borrow money. He has got to
borrow money.
g.n
3. They have a big house.
4. I had a good friend.
3. He had to borrow money.
4. They will have to follow me.
Note—The Negative of the above sentences is
formed thus :
6. I have got a new book.
e
5. I will have a house very soon.

7. They had got many good chances.

Note—(i) The use of got before have / has / had
t
(i) Subject + have/has/had + not + Infini- increases emphasis.
tive (ii) Such sentences also show relationship.
or As :
1. A chair has four legs.
(ii) Subject + do / does / did + not have +
Infinitive 2. I have two brothers.
3. A cow has two horns.
As :
(iii) They also express the idea of take /
1. He has not to obey me. give / enjoy / experience.
2. He does not have to borrow money. 1. I have my breakfast at 8 a.m.
3. They do not have to follow me. 2. He had his bath very early in the
4. I do not have to follow you. morning.

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130 | L.W.C.E.

3. I have two years’ experience of As :

working in the field. 1. I have no house.
4. We had a good day. 2. He has no house.
5. I have some friends there. 3. You had no house.
(iv) When ‘have’ means give / take / do, it 4. I have not (haven’t) any house.
can be used in Present Continuous
Tense also. As : 5. He has not (hasn’t) any house.
1. We are having a party today. 6. They had not (hadn’t) any house.
2. They are having very difficult times (ii) Subject + do / does / did + not + have +
these days. Noun
But we should not write such sentences : As :
1. I am having a book. 1. I do not have any pen.

ww 2. She is having a small baby.

3. This book is having six chapters.
2. He does not / did not have any pen.
3. They do not / did not have any friend.

w Exercise

.Ea
Correct the following sentences :
1. You have get to carry out my orders.
2. You have to carried out my orders.
Note—Remember that after do not / does not /
did not we always use ‘have’ (not has or
had) whether the subject is Singular or
Plural, or of any Person.

syE
Rule 10. Interrogative sentences with ‘Have’
3. He had to changed his programme. Interrogative sentences are formed in two
4. He does not had to change his progra- ways with the help of have / has / had :
mme.
5. He did not has to change his programme.
6. I had him reward for good work. ngi (i) Have / has / had + Subject + remaining

As :
words

7. I can had you rewarded for good work.

8. He can has me transferred from here. nee 1. Have you (got) a pen ?
2. Has he (got) a pen ?
9. He can got me transferred from here.
10. I am getting my scooter paint blue.
rin
3. Had they (got) a house ?
(ii) Do / does / did + Subject + have + re-
11. He is having a son.
12. My house is having four rooms. As :
maining words

g.n
e
13. He was hading a meeting. 1. Do I have a big house ?
14. The cow have two horns.
15. He having many good friends.
Hints—(1) got; (2) to carry; (3) to change; (4)
have to change; (5) did not have; (6)
2. Does he have a big house ?
3. Do they have no house ?
4. Did you have a big house there ?
Note—As we have said above, we always use
t
rewarded; (7) can have; (8) can have; (9) ‘have’ (not has or had) after do / does /
can get; (10) painted blue; (11) has a son; did with every kind of subject.
(12) has; (13) was having; (14) has; (15)
has. Exercise
Correct the following sentences :
Rule 9. Negative Sentences with ‘Have’
1. I have no any friend.
Negative sentences with have / has / had can
be framed in the following two patterns : 2. I don’t have no friend.
(i) Subject + have / has / had + no + Noun 3. He don’t have any friend.
or 4. He doesn’t has any friend.
Subject + have / has / had + not any + Noun 5. Have you no any house ?

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VERBS | 131

6. Have I a house ? Rule 13. Sometimes Had is also used to express

7. Have you get a new scooter ? condition, wish or imagination.
As :
8. Did he had a new scooter ?
1. Had I been a king !
9. Do he has a new scooter ?
2. Had I seen the Olympic games !
10. Does he have no any new scooter ?
3. Had I won a lottery !
11. He will not has any prize ? 4. He behaved as if he had been my master.
12. Will he not got any prize ? Rule 14. Has been + Noun / Noun with Preposi-
Hints—(1) drop ‘any’; (2) ‘any’ in place of ‘no’; tion
(3) doesn’t have; (4) doesn’t have; (5) These sentences show that some action
drop ‘any’; (6) got a house; (7) got; (8) started in the Past and also ended in the
Did he have; (9) Does he have; (10) drop Past, and is not continuing in the Present.

ww ‘no’; (11) have; (12) get.

Rule 11. Past Perfect + Infinitive
There are some verbs which, if used in Past
As :
1. I have been a Professor.
(i.e. I am not a Professor now.)

w Perfect Tense, would indicate incompletion

.Ea
of action. These verbs express hope, wish,
desire, imagination. They are :
Wish, hope, want, expect, intend, suppose,
2. I have been to England.
(i.e. I am not there now.)
3. He has been a sportsman.
Rule 15. Go = Lose
think.

syE
Also remember that an Infinitive is used after
the Past Perfect form of these Verbs.
Sometimes ‘Go’ is used in the sense of
‘Lose’. In that case we should write is gone /
was gone or is lost / was lost, but not has /
As :
1. I had expected to find him here. ngi had gone or lost.
As :
(But could not find him here.)
2. She had hoped to pass in the first divi-
sion. nee 1. My suitcase is lost / is gone.
2. My suitcase was lost / was gone in the
train.
3. I had wished to buy a new car.
Note—In place of simple Infinitives can also be rin
Exercise
Correct the following sentences :
used Perfect Infinitives :
As : g.n
1. I had expected to meeting you at the club.
2. We had supposed getting a house easily.
1. I had expected to have found him here.
2. She had hoped to have passed in the first
division.
3. I had wished to have bought a new car.
ness.
e
3. You had intended to starting a new busi-

4. I had supposed to have find him at the

club. t
5. You had hoped to have win the prize.
Rule 12. Have had, has had, had had, will have 6. You have have your chance.
had 7. She had have her dinner late in the night.
Sometimes have had, has had or had had are 8. I will had my turn by now.
used together. First time they are used as 9. Have I secured first position in the merit
Auxiliary Verbs and second time as Finite list !
Verbs. As : 10. Have he one more friend like you !
1. I have had my breakfast. 11. She has being a film-heroine.
2. She has had her breakfast. 12. I have be a member of this club.
3. She had had her breakfast very early. 13. My purse has gone.
4. He will have had his breakfast by now. 14. My chance had lost.

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Hints—(1) to meet; (2) to get; (3) to start; (4) to Might + Subject + Verb + Object / Other
have found; (5) to have won; (6) have had; words
(7) had had; (8) will have had; (9) Had I As :
secured; (10) Had he; (11) has been; (12) 1. Might I use your pen, please ?
have been; (13) is gone; (14) was lost.
2. Might I borrow your pen for an hour ?
May / Might 3. Might I go now ?
Rule 1. May Note—Might can be used to show more courtesy
May expresses two ideas : in giving permission also.
As :
1. To give or take permission
You might go now.
2. To express Possibility / Probability or
Doubt Exercise

ww For taking permission : May + Subject +

Verb in the Present Tense
As :
Correct the following sentences :
1. May we played here, uncle ?
2. Yes, you may be played.

w 1. May I come in, sir ?

.Ea
2. May I sit on this chair ?
For giving Permission/expressing Possibility
or Doubt.
3. He may be come by the next train.
4. You may win the prize, though the
chances are very few.

syE
Subject + may + Verb in the Present Tense
1. You may come in. (Permission)
5. Might I sat by your side ?
6. Might I be stay with you for a night ?
7. Yes, you might stayed.
2. You may sit on this chair. (Permission)
3. It may rain. (Possibility)
4. He may be late. (Doubt) ngi 8. He will may change his route.
Hints—(1) play; (2) may play; (3) may come; (4)

nee
might win; (5) Might I sit; (6) Might I
Note—We can also use can in place of May for stay; (7) stay; (8) drop ‘will’.
giving or taking permission. Rule 4. May for Purposem or Wish
Rule 2. Might
Might is the Past Tense of May. It is used to
rin
May is used to express purpose or wish also:
As :
express very little possibility or much
doubt. In May there is normal possibility or
doubt, but in Might the possibility is very g.n
1. May you live long ! (Wish)
2. May God help you ! (Wish)

e
3. I came so early that I may find you at
little or doubt very much. Its structure is :

t
home. (Purpose)
Subject + might + Verb in the Present 4. Workhard so that you may pass.
Tense (Purpose)
As : Rule 5. May + Perfect Infinitive
1. It might rain. (very little possibility) In some sentences May is used with Perfect
2. He might come today. Infinitive or Past Participle. These sentences
express the idea that there was much possi-
3. He might pass.
bility of an action being completed in the
4. He might change his mind. past, but whether the action was really
Rule 3. Might in Interrogative Sentences completed or not is not known. The structure
Might shows more courtesy than May. This of such sentences is this :
courtesy goes to the extent of doubt and Subject + may + Perfect Infinitive (‘to’ of
hesitation. Such sentences are always written the Infinitive remaining concealed)
in Interrogative form and begin with Might. or
Their structure is : Subject + may + have + Past Participle

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VERBS | 133

As : Hints—(1) might; (2) might; (3) May; (4) may;

1. He may have submitted his application. (5) might; (6) might; (7) might; (8) might.
2. He may have given him some help. Can / Could
Rule 6. Might + Perfect Infinitive Rule 1. Can /Could for Power, Ability or Capa-
These sentences show that there was much city
possibility of an action to have been comple- Can / Could express someone’s Power,
ted in the past, but it could not be. Their Ability or Capacity. The structure of such
structure is : sentences is this :
Subject + might + Perfect Infinitive (i) Subject + Can + Verb in the Present
or Tense
Subject + might + have + Past Participle As :

ww
As : 1. He can read.
1. The robber might have killed him. 2. You can play.
(He escaped being killed.) 3. She can sing.

w 2. He might have robbed me.

3. The thief might have escaped from the

.Ea
police custody.
Rule 7. Might in Indirect Narration
(ii) Negative Sentences will be formed thus :
1. He cannot / can’t read.
2. You cannot / can’t play.
3. She cannot / can’t sing.

syE
While converting a sentence from Direct into
Indirect Narration, May is changed into Might
if the Reporting Verb is in the Past Tense.
(iii) Subject + could + Verb in the Present
Tense

ngi
Could is the Past Tense of Can. It expresses
As : the idea that someone had the power, ability
He said, “My father may come today.” or capacity in the past. As :
He said that his father might come that day.
Rule 8. Might for Dissatisfaction or Reproach
Might is also used to express the sense of
nee 1. He could read.
2. You could play.
3. She could sing.
dissatisfaction or reproach towards a person
for not doing his work satisfactorily or to his
rin
(iv) Negative Form :
1. He could not / couldn’t read.
full capacity. As :
1. You might pay a little more attention to
your studies. g.n
2. You could not / couldn’t play.
3. She could not / couldn’t sing.

2. You might come a little earlier.

Exercise
Correct the following sentences :
Rule 2. Can / Cannot

e
Can or cannot expresses the idea of a possi-
bility being or not being there.
1. It can rain today. It cannot / can’t rain
t
1. The roof may have fallen. today.
2. He can win the prize. He cannot win the
2. There may have been a serious accident.
prize.
3. Might he live long ! 3. He can lose the game. He cannot lose
4. He might prove a good friend. the game.
5. He said that the college may be closed for Rule 3. Can / Could
two days. Can/Could are also used for taking or giving
6. I replied that his suspicion may be true. permission like May / Might. In American
7. You may be a little more serious in your English can / could are more popular. As :
studies. 1. Can I go now ?
8. You may reply a little more politely. 2. Yes, you can go. No, you cannot go.

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134 | L.W.C.E.

Rule 4. Can’t expresses the sense of negation Subject + can have + Past Participle
(no) : As :
1. You can’t meet her. 1. He can have reached by now.
2. You cannot / can’t enter the premises. (“He may have reached by now” has
Rule 5. Can / Could for forming Interrogative also the same meaning.)
sentences 2. He can have heard the news.
Can/Could are also used for making Interro- 3. He can have sold the horse.
gative sentences. Their structure is :
Can /Could + Subject + Verb in the Present Rule 8. Could + have + Past Participle / Perfect
Tense Infinitive
1. Can you help me ? Sentences of this structure show that someone
or something had the power or ability to do a

ww 2. Can a horse swim ?

3. Can he speak French ?
Could is used for extreme courtesy.
certain work, but still he could not do it. As :
1. He could have passed the examination.

w
(But he could not.)
1. Could you lend me your pen ?
2. You could have reached in time.

.Ea
2. Could you give me a lift by your car ?
Rule 6. Can / Could in Indirect speech
(But could not.)
3. He could have avoided the accident.

syE
Can becomes Could in Indirect Narration
when the Reporting Verb is in Past Tense. Rule 9. Can in the Negative sense
As : Can is used in Negative (as cannot) or Inter-
rogative sentences, but May is used in Affir-
1. He asked me, “Can you help me ? (Direct)

ngi
He asked me if I could help him. (Indirect)
mative sentences only.
1. Can he come ? (‘May he come ?’ is

nee
2. He said, “I cannot go there.” (Direct) wrong.)
He said that he could not go there. (Indirect) 2. No, he cannot come. (‘may not come’ is
Exercise wrong.)
Choose the correct alternative from the
bold letters :
3.
4.
He may come.
rin
Can this happen ?
1. Can you read ? No, I couldn’t / can’t.
2. Can this happen ? Yes / no, it can.
5.
Exercise g.n
No, this cannot happen.

3. Can this happen ? No, it can / can’t.

4. Can you lift / lifted this box ?
5. Could you lift / lifted this box ?
e
Correct the following sentences :
1. He can have leave the office by now.
2. He can have reach Kanpur this morning. t
6. He said that he can / could carry the 3. He could be passed the test easily.
luggage.
4. His life have been saved.
7. He said, “I cannot / could not reach in
time.” 5. He may not solve this problem.
Hints—(1) Can’t; (2) Yes; (3) can’t; (4) lift; (5) 6. May he cross the river ?
lift; (6) could; (7) cannot. 7. May you challenge a tiger ?
Rule 7. Can have + Past Participle 8. No, he may not cross the river.
This structure expresses the idea of possibi- Hints—(1) left; (2) reached; (3) could have
lity or uncertainty about an action to have passed; (4) could have been saved; (5)
been done in the Past. Can have has the same cannot; (6) Can he cross; (7) Can you
sense as may have. Its structure is : challenge; (8) cannot cross.

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VERBS | 135

Shall / Should 1. I will keep my promise.

Will / Would 2. I will never be late now.
Rule 1. I / We + shall 3. We will fight to the end.
For Ordinary Future Tense shall is used with (2) To express possibility or probability :
First Person Pronoun (I / We). As : 1. He will need a bigger house.
1. I shall do it. 2. He will not reach in time.
2. We shall do it. 3. That will be my letter.
3. I shall go to office. 4. You will get through.
4. We shall go by bus. (3) For invitation, request or favour :
Note—But these days the use of ‘will’ with all 1. Will you have tea with me ?
persons is becoming popular. 2. Will you lend me your pen for a

wwRule 2. You / Third Person + will

Second and Third Persons (you/h e/they)
take ‘will’ to express Ordinary Future
minute ?
3. Will you not support me ?

w
Note—In the above sentences in place of ‘Will’
Tense. we can also use would, woudn’t, or would
As :
.Ea
1. You will go tomorrow.
you mind. As :
1. Would you have tea with me ?

syE
2. They will not do it. 2. Wouldn’t / won’t you have tea with me ?
Rule 3. Shall with Second / Third Persons 3. Would you mind having tea with me ?
Second and Third Persons take shall to Remember that ‘would’ shows more courtesy.
express command, promise and threat in the
Future Tense. As :
1. He shall not do it again. ngi (4) To indicate some characteristic habit :
1. He will only talk about his sons.

2. You shall get your share.

3. He shall be punished for his misbeha- nee 2. He will play upon his guitar till midnight.
Exercise
viour.
Note—These days ‘will’ is being used in place of
rin
Choose the correct alternative :
1. We will / shall go tomorrow.
‘shall’ in such sentences also.
Rule 4. Shall with Second and Third Persons
for Permission g.n
2. They shall / will do it willingly.
3. He will / shall obey me.

e
4. He will / shall have to obey me.

t
‘Shall’ is used with Second and Third Per- 5. I shall / will have to obey him.
sons to obtain Permission.
6. He shall / will not disobey me any longer
1. Shall I lock the gate ? now.
(i.e. Do I have your permission to lock 7. I will / shall have my pound of flesh.
the gate ?) 8. He will / shall not be allowed to remain
2. Shall I bring my father tomorrow ? here now.
(i.e. Do I have your permission to bring 9. Will/shall he attend the office tomorrow?
my father tomorrow ?) 10. Shall / will I see you tomorrow ?
3. Shall he be allowed to go ? 11. I shall / will do my best for you.
(i.e. Will he have your permission to go?) 12. Will / would you mind going on a picnic
Rule 5. Use of Will with us.
Will is used in the following cases also : Hints—(1) shall; (2) will; (3) will; (4) shall; (5)
(1) With First Person (I / We) to express will; (6) shall; (7) will; (8) shall; (9) Will;
determination : (10) Shall; (11) will; (12) Would.

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136 | L.W.C.E.

Rule 6. Will have + Past Participle Rule 13. Should have + Past Participle
Will have + Past Participle express possibi- Should have + Past Participle express
lity or likelihood of an action having taken the sense that some person or thing
place in the Past. As : could not complete its allotted task in the
1. The train will have crossed Allahabad. Past. As :
2. He will have left the office by now. 1. They should have built their own
house.
Rule 7. Would have + Past Participle
2. He should have completed his work
Would have + Past Participle express the before going home.
idea of a work that could not be completed in 3. The tree should have borne fruit by
the Past. As : now.
1. If he had worked a little harder, he would Rule 14. Should sometimes expresses the sense of
have secured first division.

ww 2. Had he come a few days earlier, he would

have seen his mother.
‘If’. As :
1. Should you come in time, I would
give you a prize.

w
Rule 8. ‘Would’ also expresses the idea that a
certain action occurred occasionally in

.Ea
the Past. As :
1. He would often spend his evenings in the
2. Should I seek his help, he would
certainly help me.
Exercise

syE
club. Choose the correct alternative :
2. He would often go for swimming. 1. The match will / would have been over
Rule 9. Would rather / Would sooner by now.
These phrases express Preference.
1. I would rather remain at home.
ngi 2. The match will / would have been over
by now if it had not rained.
3. He will / would have been the manager
2. I would rather break than bend.
3. I would sooner give up my claim.
Rule 10. ‘Should’ expresses the sense of Duty, nee of the factory if he had not offended the
chairman.
4. He will / would often be found sitting all
goodwill, and desirability or propriety
of some thought or action. As :
rin
alone on the sea-shore.
5. I will / would rather resign than bear this
1. We should be kind to the animals.
2. You should serve your parents.
insult.

g.n
6. I will / would sooner vacate this house
than quarrel with the landlord.
3. You should not come late.
4. He should be more reasonable.
Rule 11. ‘Should’ also expresses the sense of
Advice or Opinion. As :
to the poor and needy. e
7. We would / should be more considerate

8. She should / would be major next year.

9. Would / should you apply next time, I
t
1. You should regularly go for the morning would consider your claim.
walk.
10. He would / should have taken more
2. You should not read in dim light. interest in his business.
Rule 12. Will / Would / Should Hints—(1) will; (2) would; (3) would; (4) would;
They express the sense of guess, assumption (5) would; (6) would; (7) should; (8)
or probability. As : should; (9) Should; (10) should.
1. She should be in class IV. Rule 15. Shall/Will changed into should / would
2. She would be around sixteen years of in Indirect Narration
age. While converting a sentence from Direct to
3. I see a boy coming. He will / would / Indirect Narration, ‘shall’ becomes ‘should’
should be my class-mate. and ‘will’ becomes ‘would’.

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VERBS | 137

1. He said, “I shall do it willingly.”(Direct) 1. He will travel by car.

He said that he should do it willingly. Or
(Indirect) He is going to travel by car.
2. You said, “You will not go there.” 2. I shall have my dinner at the Imperial
(Direct) Hotel.
You said that you would not go there. Or
(Indirect) I am going to have my dinner at the
Rule 16. Shall / Should, Will / Would help in Imperial Hotel.
making Interrogative sentences. Their Rule 19. Would after wish
structure is : If ‘would’ is used after ‘wish’, it expresses
Shall / Should / Will / Would + Subject + strong desire. As :

ww Verb in the Present Tense

As :
1. I wish you would not refuse me.
2. I wish you would study science.

w 1. Shall we go now ?
2. Shall I be allowed to go now ?

.Ea
3. Will he come today ?
4. Would you now go ?
Note—After ‘wish’ we do not use ‘will’.
Exercise
Correct the following sentences :

syE
Rule 17. Would like / Should like
‘Should like’ is used with First Person (I /
1. He said that he shall not start a new busi-
ness.
2. He asked, “What will you do if you fail

ngi
W e ) and ‘would like’ with Second and in business ?”
Third Persons. Their structure is :
3. Will we start now ?
Subject + would like/should like + Infinitive
As :
1. I should like to know your future plan. nee 4. Shall he be able to do it ?
5. He will like to know how you will pro-
ceed in the matter.
2. He would like to know your future plan.
Note—(i) In colloquial and American English
rin
6. I will like to reach there by the earliest
available train.
‘would like’ can be used in place of
‘should like’.
(ii) There are some other expressions also
drink. g.n
7. We will prefer to have tea than a cold

which are used like would like / should

like :
Would / should care / prefer / be glad / be
inclined
your company.
e
8. I shall be glad to have the pleasure of

9. I really wish you will accept my pro-

posal.
t
As : 10. I shall be going to purchase a new car.
1. I should prefer to travel by bus. 11. He will not be going to believe you.
2. He would be glad to meet you. 12. We wish they will be friendly with us.
3. I should be inclined to go with you. Hints—(1) ‘would’ in place of ‘shall’; (2) What
Rule 18. Shall / Will = Going to would you do; (3) Shall; (4) Will or
In some sentences ‘going to’ can be used in Would; (5) would like to know; (6)
place of shall / will for Future Tense. But it would like to reach; (7) would prefer; (8)
should be remembered that ‘going to’ is used should be glad; (9) you would accept;
to express the sense of ‘immediate Future’ (10) am going to purchase; (11) is not
only (not ‘distant Future’). As : going to believe; (12) would be friendly.

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138 | L.W.C.E.

Must / Ought Rule 7. Must be / Must have been also convey

the sense of certainty. As :
Rule 1. Must / Ought express compulsion or
necessity. As : 1. He talkes very proudly. He must be an
arrogant person.
1. You must come to office at 10 O’clock.
2. He spoke very fluently. He must have
2. You ought to come to office at 10 been an orator.
O’clock.
Rule 8. Ought to have
Note—Remember that after ought the Infinitive
comes with ‘to’, but after m u s t the This expression conveys the sense that a
Infinitive is used without ‘to’. certain action ought to have been completed
in the Past, but it could not be. As :
Rule 2. Must not / Mustn’t Or Ought not /
1. He ought to have appeared at the
Oughtn’t
examination.

ww They convey the sense of Negative com-

pulsion or Prohibition (i.e. emphatic ‘no’ or
restraint)
2. He ought to have told the whole truth.
3. He ought to have come out in your
support.

w 1. You mustn’t jump out from a moving

train.

.Ea
2. You oughtn’t to jump out from a moving
train.
Exercise
Correct the following sentences :
1. He must to meet me this evening.
Rule 3. Must / Ought
syE
They express the sense of Assumption or
Likelihood. As :
2. He ought meet me this evening.
3. This problem must to have been solved
like this.
1. This book must be very popular.
2. This book ought to be very popular. ngi 4. This problem ought have been solved
like this.
Rule 4. Must / Ought
They also express the sense of Duty and
Obligation. As :
nee 5. You must not to act in a hurry.
6. You ought not act in a hurry.
7. He ought have reached well in time.
1. We must love our country.
2. We ought to love our country. rin
8. I ought have done it much earlier.
9. He ought not to have fight in the street.
3. We must / ought to be kind to the poor.
Rule 5. Must / Ought
much. g.n
10. We ought not to have encourage him so

They also convey the sense of Advice or

warning.
1. You must drive cautiously.
2. You ought to drive cautiously.
e
Hints— (1) drop “to” before ‘meet’; (2) ought to
meet; (3) must have been solved; (4)
ought to have been solved; (5) must not
act; (6) ought not to act; (7) ought to have
reached; (8) ought to have done; (9)
t
3. You must avoid strong drinks. fought; (10) encouraged.
4. You ought to avoid strong drinks. Need / Needn’t
Rule 6. Must have + Past Participle Rule 1. Need denoting ‘Necessity’
This structure conveys the idea that a certain When Need is used in the simple sense of
action must have been completed in the Past. necessity, it is used as an ordinary verb; i.e. in
As : the Present tense, third person, singular it
1. He laboured very hard. He must have is needs, and in the Past Tense, it is needed.
secured first division. As :
2. He started very early. He must have 1. I need a pen.
caught the train. 2. You / they need a pen.

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VERBS | 139

3. He needs a pen. Exercise

4. I / you / he / they needed a pen. Choose the correct alternative :
5. I don’t need a pen. 1. I need / am need a good house.
6. She doesn’t need a pen. 2. I am need / in need of a good house.
Rule 2. Need in Negative Sentences 3. He doesn’t need / needs your help.
In Negative sentences wherein need is 4. He need / needs not go so early.
followed by a Negative word (not, never, 5. Ram need / needs not apply again.
none) or a Semi-Negative word (scarcely,
hardly), we use need (not needs) even with 6. He need / needs hardly any more
Third Person, Singular in the Present medicine now.
Tense. And after that comes the Infinitive 7. Need / needs he meet you there ?
without ‘to’. As : 8. Does he need meet / to meet you there ?

ww 1. He need not fear me.

2. He need never fear me.
9. Did he need to quarrel / quarrel over
such a petty matter ?

w 3. He need hardly take my help.

4. He need scarcely demand any more help.

.Ea
Rule 3. Need in Interrogative Sentences
In Interrogative sentences beginning with
10. He needn’t to wait / wait so long.
11. She needn’t have sell / sold her car.
12. Your father needn’t to have / have
worried so much about you.

syE
Need also we use only need (not needs) even
with Third person, Singular. And then we
use Infinitive without ‘to’. As :
Hints—(1) need; (2) in need; (3) need; (4) need;
(5) need; (6) need; (7) Need; (8) to meet;
(9) to quarrel; (10) wait; (11) sold; (12)
1. Need he go there ?
2. Need he try again ?
ngi have.
Dare / Daren’t
Rule 4. Need in ‘Do’ Interrogatives
In Interrogative sentences beginning with Do
/ does / did, we use the Infinitive with ‘to’. nee
Rule 1. Dare denoting ‘Challenge’
When Dare is used in the sense of challenge,
we use it as an ordinary verb. That is, it is
As :
1. Do I need to go with him ?
rin
used according to the Number and Person of
the subject in the Present Tense as either
2. Does he need to go with you ?
3. Did you need to behave like this ?
g.n
dare or dares. The Infinitive is used with
‘to’. As :

e
Rule 5. Needn’t 1. He dares me to climb to the peak.
Needn’t expresses the sense of not binding.
We use needn’t both with the Singular and
Plural. As :
1. You needn’t work so hard.
2. I dare you to compete with me.
3. They dare me to move this boulder.
Rule 2. ‘Dare’ in Negative Sentences
t
2. He needn’t go there. In Negative sentences when dare is followed
3. They needn’t go there. by a Negative word (not, never, none) or
Semi-Negative word (hardly, scarcely), we
Rule 6. Needn’t have + Past Participle
use dare (not dares) even with T h i r d
This construction means that an action com- Person, Singular in the Present Tense. Also,
pleted in the past was either not necessary or the Infinitive is used without ‘to’. As :
not proper. As :
1. He dare not fight with me.
1. He needn’t have gone there.
(unnecessary) 2. I dare not stand before you.
2. He needn’t have behaved like this. 3. They dare not question my integrity.
(improper) 4. He dare hardly speak before me.

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140 | L.W.C.E.

Rule 3. ‘Dare’ in Interrogative Sentences 11. We daren’t / not dare act against his
In Interrogative sentences beginning with will.
Dare, we use dare (not dares) even with 12. Did he dare to neglect / neglect you ?
Third Person, Singular in the P r e s e n t Hints—(1) dares; (2) dare; (3) dare; (4) dare; (5)
Tense. Also, the Infinitive coming after it is speak; (6) disobey; (7) speak; (8) Dare;
used without ‘to’. As : (9) to wrestle; (10) daren’t; (11) daren’t;
1. Dare he speak before you ? (12) to neglect.
2. Dare he repeat the mistake ? Used to
Rule 4. ‘Dare’ in ‘Do’ Interrogatives Rule 1. Used to carries the sense that an action
In Interrogative sentences beginning with was done either continually or habitu-
Do / Does / Did, the Infinitive is used with ally.
‘to’. As : 1. He used to work on daily wages.

ww 1. Does he dare to challenge you ?

2. Did he dare to argue with you ?
2. He used to quarrel with his neighbour.
3. He used to play football in his school

w 3. Do I dare to stand before him ?

Rule 5. Daren’t

.Ea
In Negative sentences both with Singular
and Plural subjects we use daren’t (not
days.
Rule 2. Negative and Interrogative of ‘Used to’
Negative and Interrogative sentences with
used to are formed as given below :
daresn’t). As :

syE
1. He daren’t come before me.
2. I daren’t go there alone.
1. He used not to live in this house.
2. Used he to live in this house ?
Rule 3. Subject + Verb ‘to be’ + used to +
Rule 6. Daren’t have + Past Participle
This construction means that an action com- ngi Noun / Gerund
These sentences express the idea of being
pleted in the Past was either not necessary or
not proper. As :
1. He daren’t have gone alone in the deep nee habituated to a certain matter or action. As :
1. He is used to hard life.
2. I am used to reading till late in the night.
wood.
2. You daren’t have challenged him like
rin
3. They are used to travelling in crowded
buses.
this.
Exercise
Rule 4. Do + use to

g.n
In colloquial and spoken English we make
Negative or Interrogative sentences with do
Choose the correct alternative :
1. He dare / dares me to swim across the
river.
2. I dare / dares you to swim across the
As :
e
/ does / did followed by use to (not used to).

1. He did not use to live in this house.

2. Did he use to live in this house ?
t
river with me.
3. He dare / dares not accept my challenge. Exercise
4. She dare / dares not speak before me. Correct the following sentences :
5. He dare hardly speak / to speak before 1. We use / used to work here together.
me. 2. He use / used to be so kind to me.
6. I dare not disobey / to disobey him. 3. He used not / did not used to wear white
7. Dare he speak / to speak before me ? khadi.
8. Dare / dares he wrestle with me ? 4. He used to sit / sit on the last bench.
9. Does he dare wrestle / to wrestle with 5. I used / am used to an easy-going life.
me ? 6. He is used to read / to reading till late in
10. He daren’t / daresn’t challenge me. the night.

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VERBS | 141

7. He did not use / used to drive his own car. Exercise

8. Did he use / used to go every day by bus ? Correct the following sentences :
Hints—(1) used; (2) used; (3) used not; (4) to sit; 1. He can write and will write a long essay.
(5) am used; (6) to reading; (7) did not use; 2. He should tell and will tell you a good
(8) Did he use. story.
Two Auxiliaries and Principal Verb 3. He has not and will not place all the facts
before you.
Rule 1. Two Auxiliaries + Principal Verb
4. He cannot and has not done any good to
Sometimes two Auxliary Verbs can be used anybody.
with One Principal Verb only. But this is
5. He dare not and has not gone alone to the
possible only when the same form of the
wood.
Principal Verb may be used with both the

ww Auxiliaries. As :
1. He neither can nor will help you.
6. We should not and have never quarrelled
over our property.
7. We did not and have never told a lie.

w 2. He did not and should not tell a lie.

The use of Auxiliaries and the Principal Verb

.Ea
is correct in both these sentences. In the first
sentence the Auxiliaries are can and will and
8. We have never and will never hide
anything from you.
Hints—(1) can and will write; (2) should and will
tell; (3) has not placed; (4) cannot do; (5)

syE
with them the use of the same form of the
Principal Verb help is grammatically correct.
In the second sentence the Auxiliaries are did
dare not go; (6) should not quarrel; (7) did
not tell; (8) have never hidden.
Position of Subject, Verb, Object and
and should both of which would take the
same form of the Principal Verb tell.
But if the Auxiliaries in the sentence are suchngi Complement
Rule 1. Subject + Tr. Verb + Object
as would need different forms of the Principal
Verb, the same form of the Principal Verb nee Simple Affirmative sentence has the follow-
ing structure :
1. He killed a snake.

rin
would not serve the purpose. In that case,
different forms of the Principal Verb with 2. She loves her home.
each Auxiliary will be needed. As :

g.n
Rule 2. Subject + Tr. Verb + Object (Indirect)
1. He neither has helped nor will help you. + Object (Direct)
2. He has not told and should not tell a lie. There are some verbs which may take two
In the first sentence there are two Auxiliary
Verbs—has and will. They will take two
different forms of the Principal Verb : Has
will take ‘helped’ and will ‘help’. Therefore
e
objects. One of these objects is generally
living ( a n i m a t e ) and the second is
inanimate. The animate object is called
Indirect Object and the Inanimate object is
called Direct object. As :
t
the Principal Verb will be used separately in
the proper form with each helping Verb. In 1. He gave me a book.
the same way, in the second sentence has will I n this sentence m e (animate) is Indirect
take ‘told’ and should ‘tell’ separately with Object and b o o k (inanimate) is Direct
each Auxiliary Verb. Object. In such sentences Indirect Object is
We cannot write the above sentences as used first and Direct Object at the second
below : place.
1. He neither has nor will help you. In some cases b o t h the objects may be
Inanimate. The question would then arise
2. He has not and should not tell a lie. which of the two inanimate objects is Direct
Such errors are common and should be avoi- object and which is Indirect object. In this
ded. regard it should be remembered that the object

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142 | L.W.C.E.

with which we may use ‘to’ or ‘for’ within Rule 3. Subject + Tr. Verb + Object + Comple-
the sentence would be Indirect Object, and ment
that with which ‘to’ or ‘for’ may not be used Remember that complement is used after the
is Direct Object. As : object. As :
1. He has given his car a new look. I nominate you member of the committee.
2. We have given your village a new appro- Here you is object and member is comple-
ach road. ment.
In the first of these two sentences we can use Rule 4. Causative Verbs (make / get / have)
‘to’ before the object his car, but we cannot
use ‘to’ or ‘f o r’ before the second object Causative Verbs are those in which the Sub-
look. In the same way, we can use ‘to’ before ject itself does not act, but causes something
village in the second sentence, but not before or someone else to act on its behalf. The
structure of these sentences is as follows :

ww
road. Therefore in these two sentences car
and village are Indirect objects, and look and Subject + Make / get / have + Object +
road are Direct objects. remaining part
1. He made him run away.

w
Now the question is whether Direct object
should be used first or the Indirect one in such 2. I got him dismissed.

.Ea
cases. The general rule, as we have said
above, is that Indirect object comes first and
the Direct object later. But over and above
3. He had the orders passed.
Rule 5. Verb + Preposition / Adverb + Noun

mind :
syE
this rule two more points should be kept in

(1) The object to which we want to give more

There are some sentences in which the Verb
is used along with some Preposition / Adverb
(up / on / off / in / down / out / away). At the
importance should be used first. With the
change of emphasis, the sense of the whole
sentence also changes a little. Look at the ngi same time the Verb also has a Noun or a
Pronoun for its object. Now the question is
whether the Preposition / Adverb is to be used
following sentence :
‘He gave me a book.’ nee earlier or the object. For this the general rule
is that if the object is small (of one word
only), it should be used before the Preposition

rin
In this sentence the emphasis has been laid on / Adverb, but if the object contains more
me because it has been used as the first words, it should be used after the Preposition
object. The sentence, therefore, means that he / Adverb. As :
gave the book to me alone and to none else.
But if we write the same sentence thus :
1. Turn him out.
g.n
(Object before the Preposition)
‘He gave a book to me.’
Now the emphasis has been changed from me
to book. The sentence now means that he
gave me only a book and nothing else.
2. Bring him in.
e
(Object before the Preposition)
3. I’ll see you off.
(Object before the Preposition)
t
(2) Another point to be kept in mind is that be-
tween the two objects, the one which is 4. Take your coat off.
smaller (in fewer words) is used first, and (Object before the Preposition)
the bigger one (in more words) is used later. 5. Put your shirt on.
As : (Object before the Preposition)
‘He gave sweets to every member of the 6. Turn out the dirty beggarly man.
family.’ (Object after the Preposition)
Here ‘sweets’ is the smaller object and there- 7. Bring in my very dear friend.
fore used first, and every member of the (Object after the Preposition)
family, being the bigger object (in number of
words), is used later (although it is Indirect 8. Put on your blue sport shirt.
object). (Object after the Preposition)

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VERBS | 143

Question-Tags / Tail Questions (c) When the subject of the statement is All
of you / some of you / none of you / one
Question–tags or Tail Questions are often of you / most of you, the subject of the
used in conversational or Colloquial language. Question–tag would be ‘you.’ As :
Question–tags are often placed after some state-
ment, request, proposal or command. They are 1. All of you can do it, can’t you ?
always in Question form. As : 2. None of you can do it, can you ?
1. You love me, don’t you ? (d) When the subject of the statement is All
2. Let us now play, shall we ? of them / some of them / none of them /
3. You don’t love me, do you ? one of them / most of them, the subject
4. Don’t go there, will you ? of the question–tag would be, ‘they’. As :
1. All of them were present, weren’t
The following are the rules for framing
they ?
Question-tags :
2. None of them were present, were

wwRule 1. With Positive statement / request we add

Negative Question-tag and with Negative
statement or request we add Positive
they ?
(e) When the subject of the statement is
Nothing / something / everything /

w Question-tag.
Positive → Negative

.Ea
Negative → Positive
As :
anything, the subject of the Question–tag
would be ‘It’. As :
1. Everything is lost, isn’t it ?
2. Nothing is lost, is it ?

syE
1. He is a good man, isn’t he ?
2. He is not a good man, is he ?
3. He doesn’t work hard, does he ?
(f) If the subject of the statement is I am,
and the statement is affirmative, the
subject of the Question–tag would be
4. He works hard, doesn’t he ?
Note—Semi-negative words As : few, little,
hardly, scarcely, rarely, seldom, etc. are ngi aren’t I (not, ‘am not I’), but if the
statement is Negative, we use ‘am I ?’
As :
also believed to be Negative and therefore
we use Positive Question–tags after them.
As :
nee 1. I am only a student, aren’t I ?
2. I am not a student, am I ?
(g) When the statement has this pattern :
1. He rarely comes here, does he ?
2. Few people are interested in this rin
There + Auxiliary Verb + Subject, the
Question–tag would have ‘Verb + there’
scheme, are they ?
Rule 2. The subject of a Question–tag is always
g.n
(not Verb + Pronoun). As :
1. There is no good college, is there ?
( Not, Is it there ?)

e
a Pronoun (not a Noun).
2. There is a good college, is not there ?
The rules for this are :
(a) When the subject of the statement is
None / anyone / someone / every one /
everybody / anybody / nobody, the
subject of the Question–tag would be ‘he
( Not, Is it not there ?)
(h) When the statement has need / needs, the
Question–tag would have d o n ’ t /
doesn’t, and with used to, we use didn’t.
t
/ they.’ As : As :
1. No one will come, will he / will they ? 1. I need a book, don’t I ?
2. Any one can come, can’t he / can’t 2. He needs a book, doesn’t he ?
they? 3. He used to live here, didn’t he ?
(b) When the subject of the Statement is All (i) For positive request / command, we use
of us / some of us / none of us / one of will you / won’t you ? in the Question–
us / most of us, the subject of the tag, but for negative request / command,
question–tag would be ‘we.’ As : we use only will you ? As :
1. All of us will go, shall we not ? 1. Ring the bell, will you ? Or won’t you ?
2. None of us has done it, have we ? 2. Don’t ring the bell, will you ?

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144 | L.W.C.E.

(j) If the statement begins with Let, it may 13. Does he dare offend you ?
have two meanings, and with them two 14. He never smiles nor ever will.
different types of Question–tags are 15. He has never been true nor will ever be true
added : to me.
(i) If the statement suggests Proposal 16. He has not and never can dismiss my case.
or Suggestion, the Question–tag
17. He will often talk of his school days.
will have Shall we ?
18. I wish he will come for my rescue.
1. Let us now go for dinner, shall we ?
19. He said that he will not wait any longer.
2. Let us form a society, shall we ?
20. Little did I know that he will deceive me.
(ii) If the statement suggests Permis-
sion, the Question–tag will have will Revision Exercise —2
you ? As : Choose the correct alternative :

ww 1. Let them read here, will you ?

2. Let her take the book, will you ?
Exercise
1. I believe I (should, can, may) be able to go.
2. He (shall, will, dare) not return your book
until he is compelled.

w Add Question-tags to the following state-

ments :

.Ea
1. They love and admire you.
2. I have not seen Calcutta.
3. You (should, would, ought) to be punctual.
4. I wish you (will, would, should) be
successful.
5. (Shall, will, would) you please help me ?

4. He can speak French.

5. Few people know him.
syE
3. He does not know English. 6. (Shall, will, may) I help you ?
7. You (should, ought, must) return my book
at once.
6. No one will like your attitude.
7. Every one is most welcome here. ngi 8. He (need, dare, would) not ask for any
promotion.

nee
8. All of us should play a game. 9. (Shall, might, could) you show me the way
9. Nothing could be saved. to the station ?
10. I am a soldier. 10. I (would, used, ought) to be a teacher but
11. There is no Railway station here.
12. Call the peon.
rin
now I have taken to business.
11. I (will, shall, am) to address a meeting in

g.n
the afternoon.
Revision Exercise —1
12. I wish he (should, would, may) not betray
Correct the following sentences : me.
1.
2.
3.
4.
I think it shall rain tonight.
Will I buy a television ?
Shall you be able to visit us tomorrow ?
I shouldn’t have done this if I was you ?
e
13. He (is, was, has) to carry out my orders.
14. (Doesn’t, oughtn’t, hasn’t) he served you
so faithfully ?
15. I am your true follower, (amn’t, aren’t,
t
5. If I was the President of India, I would isn’t) I ?
make English a compulsory subject. 16. There is no news, but he (may, would,
6. He needs not have shouted at me. should) come.
7. He dares not go against the wishes of his 17. (Should, would, may) you have one more
master. cup ?
8. He needs not to pay the next instalment. 18. He said that he (is, was, will) in great
9. The earth moves round the sun, isn’t it ? trouble.
10. You will be going home in the summer, 19. (May, might, would) I borrow your pen for
will you ? a minute ?
11. Why you are so sad ? 20. You (needn’t, couldn’t, haven’t) wait for
12. Take your old shoes off ? her any longer.

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11 Non-Finite Verbs
Kind of Non-Finite Verbs pleted. But there are some Verbs after which
Infinitives are used without ‘to’.
Non-Finite Verbs are of three kinds :
Infinitive without ‘to’ : The following are

ww 1. The Infinitive
2. The Gerund
3. The Participle
the rules of the use of Infinitives without ‘to’ :
Rule 1—The Infinitive is used without ‘to’ after
these Verbs—hear, see, feel, make, let,

w All these Non-Finite Verbs are Independent

.Ea
verbs. They are called independent because they
are not governed by the Number and Person of
the Subject like other verbs. They are indepen-
bid, watch, behold, know, notice,
observe, need not, dare not. As—
1. He bade me go.
2. We shall watch him dance.
dent of the subject.

syE
Let us consider the rules governing the Non-
Finite Verbs one by one.
3. Let him sing.
4. Make him work.

ngi
5. Behold / see / observe him play.
(1) The Infinitive Note—
Kinds of Infinitive—Infinitives are of two (i) If ‘dare’ and ‘need’ sentences have do/
kinds :
1. T h e Noun-Infinitive—Noun-Infinitive is
also called Simple Infinitive. It is used like a nee does/did used within them, the Infinitive
is used with ‘to’. Also affirmative sente-
nces with ‘need’ and ‘dare’ take the Infi-
Noun. Therefore it is also called Verb–Noun. It
performs all the Functions of a Noun.
rin
nitive with ‘to’, As—
1. Does he dare to challenge you ?
2. The Gerundial Infinitive—Gerundial
Infinitive is also called Qualifying Infinitive. It
performs the Functions of an Adjective or an g.n
2. Does he need to challenge you ?
3. He dares me to cross the river.
Adverb.
Tense-Forms of the Infinitive—The Infini-
tive has the following Forms according to Tense
or Time :
4. He needs to go at once.

e
(ii) If the verbs listed above under Rule 1 are
used Passively, they will take the Infini-
tive with ‘to’. As— t
Tense/Time Form Active Voice Passive Voice
Present Simple To do To be done
Continuous To be doing
Past Perfect To have done To have been done
Perfect Continuous To have been doing
There is no Future form of the Infinitive. 1. He was made to do it.
Infinitive with or without ‘To’ 2. He was known to have hidden the trea-
Most of the Infinitives have ‘to’ before them. sure.
This is the sign to recognize them, as—to go, to 3. He was bidden to go.
eat, to drink, to be loved, to have been com- 4. He was seen to be crossing the river.

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146 | L.W.C.E.

Rule 2—The Infinitives coming after these verbs 7.I would sooner to yield before my father
also do not take ‘to’ before them—shall, than to oppose him.
will, should, would, do, did, may, 8. He would rather to give up his claim.
might, must, can, could. As—
9. He can do nothing but to abuse
1. He could do it. shamelessly.
2. We shall try. 10. She is better able to sing than to dance.
3. You would laugh. 11. I would have you to keep your promise.
4. He can play. 12. You had better to apologize to your
master.
Rule 3—Infinitives do not take ‘to’ after these
expressions a l s o —had better, had Hints—(1) drop “to”; (2) drop “to”; (3) to refuse;
rather, would sooner, would rather, (4) to swim; (5) drop “to”; (6) to keep; (7)

ww
sooner than, rather than, had sooner. drop “to” before “yield” and “oppose”;
As— (8) drop “to”; (9) drop “to”; (10) drop
1. He had better resign. “to” before dance; (11) drop “to”; (12)

w 2. He would rather withdraw.

.Ea
3. I would sooner resign than serve in
these conditions.
4. I would study rather than waste my
drop “to” before “apologize.”
Uses of Noun-Infinitives
Noun-Infinitives have the following uses :

syE
1. As the Subject of a Verb
time.
To err is human.
Rule 4—‘To’ is not used with the Infinitive after To find fault is easy.
the conjunction ‘than’. As—
He is better able to write than speak.
ngi
Rule 5—‘To’ is not used with the Infinitive after
To earn is not so difficult as to spend (is
difficult)

nee
To live honourably is not easy.
the Preposition ‘but’, provided that but
2. As the Object of a Verb.
has ‘do’ Verb before it. As—
He loves to read novels.

rin
1. She can do nothing but weep.
I want to go.
2. We did nothing but play.
He likes to play chess.
Rule 6—If Have / has / had have a Noun or a
Pronoun after them, the Infinitive com-
ing thereafter will not have ‘to’ with it. g.n
He desires to settle down here.
3. As the Object of a Preposition
As—
1. I will have you remember me.
2. He had him know his fault.
3. He will have me forget my insult.
e
He has no choice but to go.
The show is about to start.
The enemy is about to surrender. t
I want nothing but to be free.
Exercise 4. As the Complement of a Verb
Correct the following sentences : My only ambition is to be a doctor.
1. You need not to pity him. His habit is to sleep in the afternoon.
2. Behold him to dance on the stage. The old custom was to sacrifice a goat.
3. Do you dare refuse me ? His dream is to have a huge factory.
4. He dares me swim against the flow of the 5. As an Objective Complement
river. I saw him dance.
5. I watched him to cross the road. I bid you go.
6. He was bidden keep quiet. I will have you accept your fault.

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NON-FINITE VERBS | 147

Functions of the Gerundial Infinitive 1. Please tell me how to reach there.

Gerundial Infinitives have the following func- 2. I wonder how to account for it.
tions— 3. Please show me how to close it.
1. To qualify a Noun 4. I can’t decide how to get out of the fray.
There is no book to read. Rule 2—Verb + Infinitive
I have no time to waste.
Some Verbs when joined with an Infinitive
He is not a man to be respected. show the occurrence of an action. They also
I have a horse to sell. carry the sense of sudden occurrence of the
2. To qualify an Adjective action concerned. These Verbs are : happen,
This book is good to read. seem, chance, appear. As—
Mangoes are sweet to eat. 1. I happened to see a snake.

ww I am eager to go.
The weather is pleasant to enjoy.
3. To qualify a Verb (to express a pur-
2. He seemed to have forgotten me.
3. I chanced to meet him in the market.

w pose) 4. He appeared to recognize me.

Rule 3—Noun / Adjective + Infinitive

.Ea
He came to seek my permission.
We earn to live comfortably. In some sentences an Infinitive is used after a
We work to make a living. Noun or an Adjective. This Infinitive quali-

syE
He went to meet his friend.
4. To qualify a sentence
To tell the truth, I am very tired.
fies the Noun or the Adjective concerned.
As—
1. The problem is easy to solve.

He was, so to speak, pierced to the heart.

Exercise ngi 2. He has a horse to sell.
3. I have a house to furnish.

(A) Use the following Infinitives as directed :

1. “To write” as the subject and object of a nee 4. He is hard to please.
5. These mangoes are sweet to eat.
Note—In such sentences the Infinitive is used
verb
2. “To love” as the subject and object of a
rin
only in Active Voice, not in Passive
Voice. Therefore we cannot write the
verb.
3. “To fight” as the object of a preposition.
4. “To obey” as the object of a preposition.
following sentences:

g.n
1. The problem is easy to be solved.

5. “To walk” as the complement of a verb.

6. “To preach” as the complement of a verb.
(B) Use the following Verbs as Gerundial
Infinitives—
e
2. He has a horse to be sold.
3. I have a house to be furnished.
4. He is hard to be pleased.
5. These mangoes are sweet to be eaten.
t
Serve, conquer, bathe, taste, work, study, Rule 4—Noun / Infinitive + Preposition
admit, tell, travel, arrive. In some sentences an Infinitive comes after
Other Uses of Infinitives the Noun and at the end of the sentence
comes a Preposition. In such sentences the
Rule 1—How + Infinitive Noun functions as the agent or instrument to a
If an Infinitive is used as the object of the purpose. As—
following verbs, how is used before the 1. I have no pen to write with.
Infinitive. These verbs are :
2. There is a chair to sit on.
know, see, learn, observe, forget, discover,
decide, teach, show, wonder, ask, enquire, 3. I have a house to live in.
explain, tell. As— 4. There is no friend to talk to.

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Rule 5—Verb + Object + Infinitive Exercise

There are some Transitive Verbs which take Correct the following sentences :
an Object after them, and after the object an 1. Could you tell me to explain the point ?
Infinitive. These verbs are :
2. I really wonder to express my gratitude to
Allow, permit, order, advise, tell, request,
you.
force, invite, remind. As—
1. He allowed me to go. 3. Do you know to drive a car ?
2. He forced me to resign. 4. This exercise is not easy to be done.
3. I advise you to go. 5. I have an essay to be written.
4. You remind him to come. 6. He has a growing family to be maintained.
Rule 6—There are some Verbs and some Adjec- 7. I have no debt to be paid.
tives after which only an Infinitive is 8. The river is very deep to be crossed.

ww used, not a Gerund (verb + ‘ing’). These

Verbs are—Agree, desire, hope, expect,
want, wish, promise, refuse, dare,
9. She has no colours to paint.
10. There is no blackboard to write.

w decide, fail, glad, happy, eager,

anxious, easy, hard, able, ready. As—

.Ea
1. I am ready to go. (Not, ‘ready to going’
or ‘ready for going’)
2. He expects to pass. (Not, ‘to passing’)
11. She has no friend to go.
12. I invite to come this evening.
13. He ordered to make the payment at once.
14. I request to help me.

‘to coming’) syE

3. He promised / refused to come. (Not,

4. I shall be glad to allow your request.

15. Don’t fail in reaching in time.
16. He is eager for meeting you.
(Not, ‘to allowing’)
Rule 7—Subject + Verb + Infinitive / Gerund ngi 17. I am really glad to be meeting you.
18. He hopes of passing in the first division.

nee
There are s o m e Verbs after which either 19. You cannot force to accept your terms.
Infinitve or Gerund (verb + ‘ing’) can be 20. I again advise to be serious about your
used. But then their meanings change. studies.
‘Verb + Gerund’ show that an action is
being done in the normal course, while Verb
rin
Hints—(1) how to explain; (2) how to express; (3)
how to drive; (4) easy to do; (5) to write;

g.n
+ Infinitive show that an action is being done (6) to maintain; (7) to pay; (8) to cross; (9)
under some special situation or on a to paint with; (10) to write on; (11) to go
particular occasion. These Verbs are : like, to; (12) invite you to come; (13) ordered
dislike, stop, begin. As—
1. I like dancing.
2. I like to dance on such occasions.
3. He began writing.
e
me to make; (14) request you to help; (15)
to reach; (16) to meet; (17) to meet; (18) to
pass; (19) force me to accept; (20) advise
you to be serious. t
4. He began to write. (2) The Gerund
5. He has stopped going there. Its Form
6. He has stopped to go there. “A Gerund is that form of the verb which
Rule 8—Infinitive of Purpose / Result ends in “ing” and has the force of a Noun and a
Some Infinitives come after the Verb and Verb.” (Wren and Martin)
they carry the sense of some special purpose It would appear from the above definition that
or result. As— a Gerund is formed by adding ‘ing’ to a Verb,
1. He went to Agra to see the Taj. and it performs the functions of both Noun and
2. He came to return my books. Verb. The sign of recognizing a Gerund is that it
3. He failed to win the prize. is always a ‘Verb + ing’, as—running , walking,
4. He came to repent sincerely. driving, reading, writing, etc.

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NON-FINITE VERBS | 149

Note—It may be remembered in this connection 4. As the Complement of a Verb

that in form the Present Participle is also 1. What I hate is telling lies
Verb + ing. But the functions of Gerund
2. His habit was reading till late in the
and Present Participle are quite different.
night.
The function of Gerund is Verb + Noun,
while that of Present Participle is Verb + 3. What I detest most is sitting idle.
Adjective. 4. His weakness is drinking.
Gerund = Verb + Noun (Verbal Noun) 5. As case in Apposition
Participle = Verb + Adjective (Verbal 1. It is no use running after shadows.
Adjective) 2. It is useless talking to him.
Its Different Forms 3. It was foolish of him weeping alone.
Tense Active Voice Passive Voice 4. It was so sweet of her trusting me.

wwPresent or Loving
Continuous
Being loved 6. Absolute use
Hunting being hateful to him, we did

w
Perfect Having loved Having been loved not carry our guns.
Drinking being his weakness, we did

.Ea
Gerund and Noun-Infinitive
not take him with us.
As we have said above the function of Gerund
Rules of the Use of Gerund
is Verb + Noun. The function of Noun Infinitive

syE
is also Verb + Noun. Therefore in most sentences
either Gerund or Noun Infinitive can be used
without any change in meaning.
The following are the Rules of the use of
Gerund :
Rule 1—Gerund and Possessive Case
Teaching is easy. (Gerund)
To teach is easy. (Infinitive) ngi The Noun or Pronoun coming before Gerund
must be used in Possessive case. As—

nee
1. I am sorry for my being late.
To see is to believe. (Infinive)
(not “for me / I being late”)
Seeing is believing. (Gerund)
2. I am glad at your reaching here in time.
Functions of Gerund
Like Infinitive, Gerund also performs the
rin
(not “at you reaching”)
3. Please excuse me for my coming late.
following functions of the Noun :
1. As the Subject of a Verb
g.n
(not “me / I coming late”)
4. Nobody can prevent my going there. (not
1. Walking is good for health.
2. Seeing is believing.
3. Fishing is popular in coastal areas.
2. As the object of a Verb
“me going there”)

e
Note—(i) If the Noun coming before Gerund is a
lifeless thing, it should not be used in the
Possessive case. As—
t
1. There is a chance of the milk turning
1. Stop shouting. sour. (not “milk’s turning”)
2. I hate telling lies. 2. There is danger of the roof falling in
3. He loves hunting. rains. (not “roof’s falling”)
4. He likes sitting idle. (ii) In the same way, Possessive case should
3. As the object of a Preposition not be made of Plural Nouns ending in –
s, or of Demonstrative Pronouns (this /
1. He is fond of reading novels.
that / these / those).
2. I was tired of waiting.
Rule 2—There are some Verbs after which only
3. I believe in working hard. Gerund should be used (not Infinitive).
4. I am against fighting. These Verbs are :

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150 | L.W.C.E.

Feel, mind, avoid, consider, enjoy, excuse, 3. You cannot force me withdrawing my
finish, miss, can’t help, look forward, to claim.
give up, go on, it is n o good, it is no use. 4. There is risk of the train’s being late.
As—
5. There is likelihood of a storm’s coming in
1. I avoid going there. (not “avoid to go”) the evening.
2. I can’t help rejecting your application. 6. We look forward to meet you again soon.
(not “can’t help to reject”)
7. It is no use to cry over your loss now.
3. We just missed catching the train. (not
8. Don’t give up to try again.
“missed to catch”)
9. The writing this book was not easy.
4. Would you mind leaving me alone. (not
“mind to leave”) 10. Coming of the storm was forecast.
Rule 3—Compound Nouns as Gerunds Hints—(1) my failing; (2) your deceiving; (3) my

ww The following compound Nouns have Verb +

ing as one part of their form. This Verb + ing
part is called its Gerund. As—
withdrawing; (4) train being; (5) storm
coming; (6) to meeting; (7) crying; (8)
trying; (9) the writing of ; (10) the coming

w Walking-stick, writing-table, frying-pan,

.Ea
hunting-whip, sitting-room, inking-pad,
etc.
This is because the ‘ing’ part is not separable
of.
(3) The Participle
Definition—“A participle is that form of the

syE
verb which partakes of the nature both of a verb
from the complete word, and therefore it can- and of an adjective.” (Wren and Martin)
not be a qualifying Adjective.
Thus a Participle performs the functions both
Rule 4—Compound Gerunds
Sometimes Gerunds can be formed by using
Past Participle form of the Verb after Having ngi of the Verb and the Adjective. Therefore it is also
called Verbal Adjective.
Kinds of Participle—

nee
or Being. They are called Compoud Ger-
unds. As— Participles are of three kinds—
1. He is fond of being praised. 1. Present Participle (Verb × ‘ing’)
2. He is afraid of being punished.
3. We hear of his having won a reward.
rin
e.g. running, dancing, singing, crying, etc.
2. Past Participle (third form of the verb
4. He is guilty of having deceived a friend.
Rule 5—Gerunds as Ordinary Nouns
g.n
usually ending in—ed, –d, –t, –en, –n)
e.g. tired, learned, burnt, broken, hurt, etc.
3. Perfect Participle (having + Past Parti-
Sometimes Gerunds can be used as pure
ordinary Nouns. They have ‘The before
them and ‘of’ after them.
1. Now there remains only the signing of
the treaty.
ciple)
e
e.g. having done, having completed,
having seen, etc.
Forms of Participles—Participles have the
t
2. From here we can watch the setting of following forms—
the sun. Active Voice Passive Voice
3. Let us now begin the singing of the Present : loving Present : being loved
hymns.
Perfect : having loved Past : loved
4. This is no time for the playing of cards.
Perfect : having been
Exercise loved
Correct the following sentences : Uses of the Participle
1. I am sorry for me failing in my duty. Since the Participle performs the same func-
2. I can never pardon you for you deceiving tions as the Adjective, it can be used in three
me. ways like the Adjective—

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NON-FINITE VERBS | 151

1. Attributive Use : The day being rainy, the college remai-

1. He jumped off a running train. ned closed. (‘being’ has ‘day’ before it.)
2. The river has flowing water. 2. It being a cold morning, I did not go for
a walk. (‘being’ has ‘It’ before it.)
3. The tired horse could run no farther.
or
4. The wounded soldier was carried to
The morning being cold, I did not go for
the camp.
a walk. (‘being’ has ‘morning’ before it.)
2. Predicative Use : Rule 2—Wrongly Attached Participle
1. I had to keep waiting. There is another serious error generally com-
2. He felt completely exhausted. mitted in the use of Participle. The sen-tence
3. He came running. containing a Participle has two parts—one
part containing the Participle, and the
4. He seems much worried.

ww 3. Absolute Use (with a noun or pronoun

going before)
second main part. In such a case, if the part
containing the Participle has no Subject, the
Subject of the main part will be considered

w
1. The day being hot, we did not go out. to be the subject of the Participle part / phrase
2. Time permitting, I will surely come. also.

.Ea
3. God willing, we shall win the match.
4. The sun having set, nothing could be
From this point begins the problem. If the
subject of the Participle phrase and that of the
main part is the same common person or
seen.

syE
Note—Under the Absolute use, the part contain-
ing the Participle is quite independent of
thing, no difficulty arises, because that would
be the common subject of both the parts. The
difficulty arises when the subjects of the two
the main part.
Rules of correct use of Participles ngi parts are different, and the subject of the
Participle part has not been given.
In such a case, a little slip or carelessness can
Rule 1—Unattached Participle
Since the Participle performs the same func-
tion as the Adjective, it must have a Noun or
nee entirely change the sense of the whole
sentence and make it absurd and ridiculous.
For example, look at the following sentence—
a Pronoun before it, which it must qualify.
Without this Noun or Pronoun the Participle rin
‘Going to school, a dog bit Ram.’
Now this sentence has two parts—one, Parti-
will have no function to perform. Such a
participle is called unattached Participle,
g.n
ciple part (‘Going to school’), and the other,
main part (‘a dog bit Ram’). Now since the
Participle part has no subject, the subject of
which is a serious error in Grammar. Look at
the following sentences—
1. Being a rainy day, the college remained
closed.
e
the main part (i.e. dog) will be considered the
subject of the Participle part also. This would
mean as if the ‘dog’ was going to school and
it bit Ram. This becomes ridiculous. This error t
2. Being a cold morning, I did not go for a can be corrected by changing the construction
walk. of the main part in such a way that its Subject
The use of the Participle ‘Being’ in both the may become a common Subject with the
sentences above is wrong because there is no Participle part. This can be done by changing
Noun or Pronoun used before it, which it may the Voice (from Active to Passive) of the main
qualify. This error can be corrected by using a part. The sentence would then become—
Noun or a Pronoun (real or imaginary) before Going to school, Ram was bitten by a dog.
‘Being’. Thus the above sentences can be correc- Now Ram becomes the common subject of
ted as below : both the parts, and the sentence is correct.
1. It being a rainy day, the college remained If you don’t want to change the sentence like
closed. (‘being’ has ‘It’ before it.) this, the second way is to convert the Parti-
or ciple phrase into a whole clause thus :

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152 | L.W.C.E.

While Ram was going to school, a dog bit 9. Tired of the day-long labour, no more
him. work could be done.
Take another sentence : 10. Driving my car, the way was lost.
Jumping from behind the bush, Ram was Hints—(1) It being a fine day; (2) It being
attacked by a tiger. Sunday; (3) he made no further attempt;
In this sentence, Ram (the subject of the main (4) we could not know the history of the
part) becomes the common subject of the Taj; (5) he was hit by a thief on the head;
Participle part also. That would mean as if (6) I saw a snake under my table; (7) he
Ram jumped from behind the bush and was found some old coins; (8) I lost my cycle;
attacked by a tiger. This error can be corrected (9) I could do no more work; (10) I lost
by changing the main part from Passive to my way.
Active Voice. The sentence would then be : Rule 3—Past Participles used as pure Adjec-

ww Jumping from behind the bush, a tiger tives

attacked Ram. There are some Past Participles which are
The sentence is now corrrect. used as pure Adjectives, not as the Past

w
Participle form of Verbs. They are—Drun-
Similarly see the following sentences which ken, molten, bounden, c l o v e n , graven,

.Ea
are all correct— stricken, shrunken, sunken, shorn.
1. Walking along the footpath, he was hit They can qualify only a Noun, as—a drunken
with a stone. driver, molten lava, bounden duty, cloven

syE
2. Being tired of night-long journey, he
could do no work.
3. Insulted by his demotion, he resigned
foot, graven image, stricken heart, shrunken
face, sunken ship, shorn sheep.
The normal Past Participle forms of the above
from service.
4. Having finished my work, I returned ngi noted Past Participles are these :
Drunk, melted, bound, clove, graved,

nee
home early. struck, shrunk, sunk, sheared.
5. Having been injured, he stopped fighting. Rule 4—Past Participle and Passive Voice
Both the parts of the above noted sentences Most Past Participles are used in Passive
have a common subject.
Exercise rin
Voice. Therefore they are used after the Noun.
As—
Correct the following sentences :
1. Being a fine day, we went on a picnic g.n
1. Remember the lessons taught by him.
2. I live in the house built by you.
party.
2. Being Sunday, I am not going to office
today.
3. Having failed in the first attempt, no
e
3. Where is the book written by you ?
4. I shall never forget the favour shown to
me.
Note—But there are some Past Participles which
t
further attempt was made by him. can be used both as Verbs and Adjec-
4. Having no guide with us, the history of tives. They are—Torn, written, born, bro-
the Taj could not be known. ken, fallen, given, spoken, stolen. As—
5. Sleeping in his room, a thief hit him on 1. Here is the broken window.
the head. 2. Where is the window broken by the
thief.
6. Reading in my room, a snake was seen
under my table. 3. I want a written statement.
7. Ploughing his field, some old coins were 4. This is the letter written by me.
found. Rule 5—Present Participle and Active Voice
8. Returning from the market, my cycle was Present Participles are mostly used in Active
lost. Voice before the Noun. As—

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NON-FINITE VERBS | 153

1. This is our reading room. Rule 9—Participles of Condition.

2. There is no drinking water. 1. Turning to the left, you will see the
3. Hawk is a hunting bird. Railway station. (i.e. If you turn to the
left.)
4. Don’t get down a running bus.
2. Conditions remaining the same, there
Rule 6—Participles used as Prepositions will be no problem in organizing the
Some Participles are used as Prepositions and function. (i.e. If conditions remain the
they depend on the main part of the sentence. same.)
As— Rule 10—Participles of Concession / Contrast
1. Referring to your letter, I have to say 1. Believing what you say, I will still look
that........ into the matter myself. (i.e. Even though I
2. Regarding my qualifications, I would believe what you say.)

ww submit that.....
Rule 7—Participles of Time
Some Participles suggest time. The sense of
2. Living from hand to mouth, he yet
maintains his self-respect. (i.e. Though he
lives from hand to mouth.)

w time becomes more clear when the Participle

phrase is converted into a clause. As—

.Ea
1. Going to school, I dropped my pen
somewhere. (i.e. while I was going to
Exercise
Correct the following sentences :
1. I am not duty bounden to go.
2. He was stricken on the head.
school.)

syE
2. Having finished my work, I returned
from my office. (i.e. After I had finished
3. A goat has clove feet.
4. He was picked up dead drunken.
5. Here is a spun wheel.
my work.)
Rule 8—Participles of Reason / Cause
1. Being tired, I could not go any farther. ngi 6. This is my written book.
7. We live in your built house.

nee
8. This is our ground playing.
(i.e. Because I was tired.) Hints—(1) duty bound; (2) was struck; (3) cloven
2. Having been satisfied, I did not take any feet; (4) dead drunk; (5) spinning wheel;

rin
further action. (i.e. Because I had been (6) the book written by me; (7) in the
satisfied.) house built by you; (8) playing ground.

g.n
e t

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12 Time and Tense

Distinction Between Time and Tense Tense, but in sense the first sentence is in Past
In order to understand this chapter, it is Time, the second in Present Time, the third in

wwnecessary first to understand the meanings of Future Time. As—

Time and Tense and the distinction between the 1. I sent a message to my brother yesterday.
two. Time is used in the ordinary sense as we (Past Tense and Past time)
know it in life. Time has three dimensions—the 2. If I sent a message to my brother just now,

w
Present Time, the Past Time, and the Future Time.

.Ea
But Tense is a grammatical term, showing the
grammatical forms of the Verb. Thus Time points
to the meaning of the Verb, and Tense to the
he would receive it tomorrow. (Past Tense
and Present time)
3. If I sent a message to my brother tomor-
row, he would receive it on Sunday morn-

syE
form of the Verb. There are three broad divisions
of Tense—the Present Tense, the Past Tense, and
the Future Tense. Each Tense is further divided
ing. (Past Tense and Future time)
Therefore a student must clearly understand
the distinction between Present Tense and Present

ngi
into four sub-divisions—1. Simple, 2. Continuous Time, Past Tense and Past Time, and Future Tense
(Progressive), 3. Perfect, 4. Perfect Continuous. In and Future Time.
this way Time has three divisions, while Tense Let us now study in detail the Tenses and
has twelve divisions.
It may further be pointed out that One Tense
may show more than one dimension of Time. nee
Time Sense.
Three Forms of Verbs
For example, Simple Present Tense may show
Present Time, Past Time and Future Time. Like-
wise, Simple Past Tense can also show Present
Some Difficult Verbs
rin
Present, Past and Past Participle Forms of

Time, Past Time and Future Time.

For example, see the following Question and g.n
Each Verb has Three Forms :
I Form or Present Tense.
II Form or Past Tense.
its Answer :
Q. How does Ram earn his living ?
Ans. He runs a shop.
The above Answer is in Simple Present
e
III Form or Past Participle.
Since no sentence can be formed without
using a Verb in a certain form, we give below a
list of the I, II, and III Forms of some typical
t
Tense, but in its sense it shows Past, Present and
Verbs in the use of which an error is often
Future Time, because he had the shop in the past;
committed :
he has it in the present, and he will keep it in
future too. In other words this sentence is in Group I
Simple Present Tense but in Past, Present, and
Future Time. I Form II Form III Form
Now see this sentence— Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle
“I go to Bombay tomorrow morning.” Arise arose arisen
This sentence is in Simple Present Tense, but Bear bore born
in sense it shows Future Time. Bear bore borne
Now see the following sentences written in Beat beat beaten
Simple Past Tense. All these sentences are in Past Beget begot begot

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TIME AND TENSE | 155

I Form II Form III Form I Form II Form III Form

Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle
Bid bade bidden Slide slid slid
Bite bit bitten Smell smelt smelt
Bind bound bound Smite smote smitten
Blow blew blown Speak spoke spoken
Break broke broken Spoil spoilt spoilt
Burn burnt burnt Steal stole stolen
Chide chid chid Stride strode stridden
Choose chose chosen Strike struck struck
Creep crept crept Strive strove striven

ww Deal
Dwell
Draw
dealt
dwelt
drew
dealt
dwelt
drawn
Swear
Sweep
Take
swore
swept
took
sworn
swept
taken

wDrink
Drive
Eat
Fall
drank

.Ea
drove
ate
fell
drunk
driven
eaten
fallen
Teach
Tear
Throw
Tread
taught
tore
threw
trod
taught
torn
thrown
trodden
Feel
Fly
Forbear
syE
felt
flew
for bore
felt
flown
forborne
Wear
Weave
Weep
wore
wove
wept
worn
woven
wept
Forget
Forsake
forgot
forsook
forgotten
forsaken ngi Write wrote
Group II
written

Freeze
Get
Give
froze
got
gave
frozen
got
given
nee
Abide
Awake
abode
awoke
abode
awoke

Go
Grow
went
grew
gone
grown
Build
Become
rin
built
became
built
become

Hang
Hide
hanged
hid
hanged
hidden
Begin
Behold
Bend
began
beheld
bent g.n begun
beheld
bent
Kneel
Know
Laugh
Lie
knelt
knew
laughed
lay
knelt
known
laughed
lain
Cling
Come
Dig
clung
came
dug
e clung
come
dug t
Feed fed fed
Mean meant meant
Fight fought fought
Ride rode ridden
Rise rose risen Find found found
See saw seen Fling flung flung
Shake shook shaken Grind ground ground
Show showed shown Hold held held
Shrink shrank shrunk Lend lent lent
Sink sank sunk Lead led led
Sow sowed sown Ring rang rung
Slay slew slain Run ran run
Sleep slept slept Read read read

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156 | L.W.C.E.

I Form II Form III Form 1. PRESENT TENSE

Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle Read the following sentences carefully—
Shine shone shone
Sing sang sung 1. PRESENT INDEFINITE TENSE
Spin spun spun (i) Affirmative Sentences—
Spring sprang sprung I read my book.
Stand stood stood He loves his school.
Stick stuck stuck You help the poor.
Sting stung stung They love their country.
String strung strung
(ii) Negative Sentences—
Swim swam swam
Win won won I do not read my book.

ww Wind
Wring
wound
wrung
wound
wrung
He does not love his school.
You do not help the poor.
They do not love their country.

w
Group III
(iii) Interrogative Sentences : Affirma-
The following Verbs remain the same in all the
three forms :
Bet .Ea
bet bet
tive—
Do I read my book ?
Does he love his school ?
Burst
Cast
Cut
burst
cast
cut syE burst
cast
cut
Do you help the poor ?
Where does he go ?
Cost
Hit
Hurt
cost
hit
hurt
cost
hit
hurt ngi (iv) Interrogative Sentences : Negative—
Do I not read my book ?
Let
Put
Read
let
put
Read
let
put
Read
nee Does he not love his school ?
Do you not help the poor ?
Where does he not go ?
Rid
Set
rid
set
rid
set rin
Rules
Shed
shut
shed
shut
shed
shut g.n
Rule 1—In Affirmative sentences I, We, You,
They and Plural Nouns take the verb in
the First Form. But He, She, It and
Split
Spread
Thrust
split
spread
thrust
split
spread
thrust
Structure of Sentences According to
First Form with s / es.
Structure :
e
Singular Nouns take the Verb in the
[See (i)]
t
I / We / You / They / Plural Nouns + V1
Tenses He / She / It / Singular Nouns + V1 + s / es
As we have said above, there are Three
Tenses, and each tense is further divisible into Rule 2—In Negative sentences I, We, You, They,
four sub-divisions. Thus there are in all twelve and Plural Nouns take donot + Verb in
divisions, and each division has its own gramma- the First Form. But He, She, It and
tical structure. We are giving below examples of Singular Nouns take does not + Verb
all these twelve structures along with their Rules. in the First Form. [See (ii)]
Note—In the Rules given below, V1 stands Structure :
for the First Form (Present Tense) of the Verb, V2 I / We / You /They/Plural Nouns + do not + V1
for the Second Form (Past Tense) and V3 for the
He / She / It / Singular Nouns + does not + V1
Third Form (Past Participle) of the Verb.

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TIME AND TENSE | 157

Rule 3—Interrogative Sentences have two struc- Structure :

tures : I + am + V1 x ‘ing’
(i) Those that begin with Do Verb (do, We/You/They/Plural Nouns + are + V1 x ‘ing’
does, did). After the Do Verb comes the
subject and thereafter Verb in the First He / She / It / Singular Nouns + is + V1 x ‘ing’
Form. Rule 2—In Negative Sentences not is added after
(ii) Those that begin with Interrogative is, am, are in the above noted structures.
Adverb (What, Where, Why, When, [See (ii)]
W h o , etc.). After the Adverb there
follows the same structure as given Structure :
above. [See (iii)] I + am + not + V1x ‘ing’
Structure : We / You / They / Plural Nouns + are + not +

ww (i) Do Verb + Subject + V1

(ii) Adverb + Do Verb + Subject + V 1
V1x ‘ing’
He / She / It / Singular Nouns + is + not + V1 x
‘ing’

w
Rule 4—In the Interrogative Negative Senten-

.Ea
ces both the structures are the same as
under Rule 3 above except that in them
not is added after the subject. [See (iv)]
Rule 3—Interrogative sentences begin with the
Auxiliary Verb Is / Am / Are. Adverbial
Interrogatives are used even before the
Auxiliaries. [See (iii)]
2.
(i) syE
PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE
Affirmative Sentences—
I am reading my book.
Structure :
Am + I + V1 x ‘ing’
He is going to school.
They are playing football. ngi Are + We / You / They + V 1 x ‘ing’
Is + he / she / it + V 1 x ‘ing’
You are going.
(ii) Negative Sentences—
I am not reading my book. nee
Rule 4—Interrogative Negative Sentences fol-
low the same structures as given under
He is not going to school.
You are not going.
rin
Rule 3 above except that not is used
before the Principal Verb. [See iv]

(iii) Interrogative Sentences : Affirma-

tive—
Structure :
Am + I + not + V1 x ‘ing’ g.n
e
Am I reading my book ? Are + We / You / They + not + V1 x ‘ing’
Is he going to school ?
Are you going ?
Where are you going ?
(iv) Interrogative Sentences : Negative—
Is + he / she / it + not + V1 x ‘ing’

3. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

t
Am I not reading my book ? (i) Affirmative Sentences—
Is he not going to school ? I have read my book.
Are you not going ? You have finished your work.
Where are you not going ? He has gone to Calcutta.
They have left Agra.
Rules
(ii) Negative Sentences—
Rule 1—In Affirmative Sentences I takes am +
V1x ‘ing’, You, We, They and Plural I have not read my book.
Nouns take are + V1x ‘ing’, and He, She, You have not finished your work.
It and Singular Nouns take is + V1 x He has not gone to Calcutta.
‘ing’. [See (i)] They have not left Agra.

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158 | L.W.C.E.

(iii) Interrogative Sentences : Affirma- 4. PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

tive— TENSE
Have I read my book ? (i) Affirmative Sentences—
Have you finished your work ? I have been working for four hours.
Has he gone to Calcutta ?
He has been sleeping since 6 O’clock.
Have they left Agra ?
Where have they gone ? You have been living here since July.
(iv) Interrogative Sentences : Negative— (ii) Negative Sentences—
Have I not read my book ? I have not been working for four hours.
Have you not finished your work ? He has not been sleeping since 6 O’clock.
Has he not gone to Calcutta ? You have not been living here since
Have they not left Agra ? July.

ww What have they not done ?

Rules
Rule 1—In Affirmative sentences I, We, You,
(iii) Interrogative Sentences : Affirma-
tive—
Have I been working for four hours ?

w They, and Plural Nouns take have +

.Ea
third form of the Verb. He, She, It and
Singular Nouns take has + third form
of the Verb. [See (i)]
Has he been sleeping since 6 O’clock ?
Why has the child been weeping for two
hours ?

syE
(iv) Interrogative Sentences : Negative—
Structure :
Have I not been working for four hours ?
I / We / You / They + have + V3 Has he not been sleeping since 6 O’
He / She / it + has + V 3
Rule 2—In Negative sentences we use not after ngi clock?
Why have you not been reading since the
morning ?

nee
has or have in the above structures.
[See (ii)] Rules
Structure : Rule 1—Perfect Continuous Tense expresses per-
I / We / You / They + have + not + V3
He / She / it + has + not + V3 rin
iod of time. If the period of time is defi-
nite (i.e. the starting point of time is
known), we use since, as since July, since
Rule 3—Interrogative sentences begin with the
Auxiliary Have or H a s, after which g.n
4 O’clock, since Monday, since 1964,
etc. But if the period of time is not
definite (i.e. the starting point of time is
comes the Subject and then Verb in the
Third Form. Interrogative Adverbs, if
any, are used even before Have or Has.
[See (iii)]
e
not known), we use for, as for some
time, for five hours, for fifteen years,
etc.
Rule 2—In Affirmative Sentences I, We, You,
t
Structure : They, and Plural Nouns take have been
Have / Has + Subject + V3 followed by the Verb in the First Form
X ‘ing’. He, She, It and Singular Nouns
Interrogative Adverb + have/has+Subject + V3 take has been followed by the Verb in the
Rule 4—In Interrogative Negative sentences not First Form X ‘ing’. [See (i)]
is used before the Verb. [See (iv)] Structure :
Structure : Subject + have/has been + V1x ‘ing’ + Time
Have / Has + Subject + not + V3
Rule 3—In Negative Sentences we use not after
Interrogative Adverb + have / has + Subject + have or has in the above structure.
not + V 3 [See (ii)]

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TIME AND TENSE | 159

Structure : Structure : Subject + V2

Subject + have not been / has not been + V1 x Rule 2—In Negative sentences we use did not
‘ing’ + Time followed by the Verb in the First Form
Rule 4—In Interrogative Sentences we use Have / with every Subject. [See (ii)]
Has at the beginning of the Sentence, Structure : Subject + did not + V 1
followed by the Subject and then comes
been and then Verb in the First Form X Rule 3—In Interrogative Sentences we begin the
‘ing’, and then Time. [See (iii)] sentence with D i d , and then use the
Structure : Subject and after that Verb in the First
Have / Has + Subject + been + V1 x ‘ing’ + Form. [See (iii)]
Time Structure : Did + Subject + V1

wwRule 5—In Interrogative Negative sentences we

use not before been. [See (iv)]
Rule 4—In Interrogative Negative sentences not
is used before the main verb. [See (iv)]

w
Structure :

+ Time.
.Ea
Have / Has + Subject + not + been + V 1x ‘ing’
Structure :

6. PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE

Did + Subject + not + V1

syE
2. PAST TENSE
Read the following sentences carefully—
(i) Affirmative Sentences—
I was reading my book.
He was going to school.
5. PAST INDEFINITE TENSE
(i) Affirmative Sentences—
ngi They were playing football.
You were going.

nee
I helped my friend.
(ii) Negative Sentences—
You loved your school.
He wrote a book. I was not reading my book.
(ii) Negative Sentences—
I did not help my friend.
rin
He was not going to school.
You were not going.
You did not love your school.
He did not write a book. tive—
g.n
(iii) Interrogative Sentences : Affirma-

Was I reading my book ?

e
(iii) Interrogative Sentences : Affirma-

t
tive— Was he going to school ?
Did I help my friend ? Were you going ?
Did you love your school ? Where were you going ?
Did you write a book ? (iv) Interrogative Sentences : Negative—
Where did you go ?
Was I not reading my book ?
(iv) Interrogative Sentences : Negative—
Was he not going to school ?
Did I not help my friend ?
Were you not going ?
Did you not love your school ?
Where did you not go ? Where were you not going ?
Rules Rules
Rule 1—In Affirmative Sentences we use the Rule 1—In Affirmative sentences I, He, She, It
Second Form of the Verb with every and Singular Nouns take was + V 1x
Subject of any Person or any Number. ‘ing’. You, We, They and Plural Nouns
[See (i)] take were + V1x ‘ing’. [See (i)]

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160 | L.W.C.E.

Structure : (iv) Interrogative Sentences : Negative—

I/He/She/It/Singular Noun + was + V1x ‘ing’ Had I not taken my dinner before the sun
set ?
You/We/They/Plural Nouns+were + V1x ‘ing’
Had he not gone before you reached
Rule 2—In Negative Sentences not is used after there ?
was or were. [See (ii)] Had the patient not died before the doc-
Structure : tor reached ?
Subject + was / were + not + V1x ‘ing’ Why had you not gone before he came ?
Rule 3—In Interrogative sentences the Auxiliary Rules
Verb was or Were is used at the
Rule 1—In sentences of Past Perfect Tense there
beginning of the sentence. Interrogative
is usually an expression of Time, a s
Adverb, if required, is used even before

ww was or were.
Structure :
[See (iii)] before, after, already, long ago, etc. The
verb used is in the form of had + verb in
the Third Form with every subject of

wWas / Were + Subject + V 1x ‘ing’.

Interrogative Adverb + was / were + Subject +
V1x ‘ing’.
.Ea
Rule 4—In Interrogative Negative Sentences not
any Person or Number.
Structure :
[See (i)]
Subject + had + V3
Rule 2— Past Perfect Tense is usually used in

syE
Complex sentences. The Subordi-nate
is used before the main verb. [See (iv)] clause i s connected with the Principal
Structure : clause with before or after.
Rule 3—In sentences in which before is used, the

ngi
Was / Were + Subject + not + V1x ‘ing’
Principal clause requires the verb as had
7. PAST PERFECT TENSE + V3 (Past Perfect) and the Subordinate
(i) Affirmative Sentences—
He had left India before independence.
He had already gone. nee clause requires only V 2 (Past Indefinite
Tense).
Structure :
[See (i & ii)]

I had taken my dinner before sunset.

He had gone before you reached there.
The patient had died before the doctor (Principal Clause) rin
Subject + had + V3 + before + Subject + V2
(Sub. ord. Clause)
reached.
Mohan came after Ram had left. g.n
Rule 4—In sentences in which after is used, the
Principal clause requires only Past
(ii) Negative Sentences—
I did not take my dinner after the sun had
set.
He had not gone before you reached Structure :
e
Indefinite Verb (V2) and Subordinate
Clause Past Perfect Verb (had + V3).
[See (ii)] t
there.
The patient had not died before the doc- Subject + V2 + after+ Subject + had + V3
tor reached. (Principal Clause) (Subordinate Clause)
(iii) Interrogative Sentences : Affirma-
tive— Rule 5— In Negative sentences formed under
Rule 1 above not is used after had; in
Did I take my dinner after the sun had sentences formed under Rule 3 above
set ? not is used in the Principal Clause after
Had he gone before you reached there ? had ; and in sentences formed under
Had the patient died before the doctor Rule 4 above, the Past Indefinite Verb
reached ? (V 2) in the Principal Clause is con-
Why had you gone before he came ? verted into did not + V1. [See (ii)]

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TIME AND TENSE | 161

Structure : Had he been sleeping since 6 O’clock ?

(1) Subject + had + not + V3 Had we been living in Delhi since
1980?
(3) Subject + had + not + V3 + before + Why had the child been weeping for
Subject + V2 two hours ?
(4) Subject + did not + V1 + after + Subject + (iv) Interrogative Sentences : Negative—
had + V3 Had I not been working for four hours ?
Rule 6—In Interrogative sentences formed under Had he not been sleeping since 6
Rules (1) and (3) above, had is shifted to O’clock ?
the beginning of the sentence (keeping Had we not been living in Delhi since
the remaining structure unchanged). In 1980 ?
sentences formed under Rule (4) above, Why had you not been reading since the

ww Sub-ject + V2 are converted into Did +

Subject + V1.
Structure :
[See (iii)]
morning ?
Rules
Rule 1—Sentences of Past Perfect Continuous

w(1) Had + Subject + V3

.Ea
(3) Had + Subject + V3 + before + Subject +
V2
Tense also carry the sense of Time. For
definite starting point of time we use
since, and for indefinite point of time we
use for (as under Past Perfect Tense

+ V3
syE
(4) Did + Subject + V1 + after + Subject + had above).
Rule 2— In Affirmative Sentences we use the
Verb in the form of had been + Verb in
Rule 7—In Interrogative Negative sentences not
is used before the main Verb in each
form. [See (iv)] ngi the First Form x ‘ing’ with every subject
of any Person or any number.
Structure :
[See (i)]

Structure :
(1) Had + Subject + not + V 3 nee
Subject + had been + V1x ‘ing’ + Time phrase
Rule 3— In Negative Sentences we use not
(3) Had + Subject + not + V3 + before +
Subject + V2 Structure : rin
between had and been. [See (ii)]

(4) Did + Subject + not + V1 + after +

Subject + had + V3
g.n
Subject + had not been + V 1x ‘ing’ + Time

8. PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

(i) Affirmative Sentences—
I had been working for four hours.
e
Rule 4—In Interrogative sentences we begin the
sentence with Had, or with Interroga-
tive Adverb used even before Had.

Structure :
[See (iii)] t
He had been sleeping since 6 O’clock.
We had been living in Delhi since 1950. Had + Subject + been + V1 x ‘ing’ + Time
(ii) Negative Sentences— phrase
I had not been working for four hours. Interrogative Adverb + Had + Subject + been
He had not been sleeping since 6 x ‘ing’ + Time
O’clock. Rule 5—In Interrogative Negative sentences we
We had not been living in Delhi since use not before b e e n in the structure
1960. under Rule 4 above. [See (iv)]
(iii) Interrogative Sentences : Affirma- Structure :
tive—
Had + Subject + not + been + V1x ‘ing’ + Time
Had he been working for four hours ?

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162 | L.W.C.E.

3. FUTURE TENSE Rule 3—In Interrogative sentences we begin the

sentence with shall or will, or with Inter-
Read the following sentences carefully— rogative Adverb used even before Shall /
9. FUTURE INDEFINITE TENSE Will. [See (iii)]
(i) Affirmative Sentences— Structure :
I shall help you.
Shall / will + Subject + V1
He will come today.
Interrogative Adverb+shall/will + Subject+V1
You will do your work.
They will go to Kanpur. Rule 4—In Interrogative Negative sentences we
(ii) Negative Sentences— use not before the main verb in the
structure under Rule 3 above. [See (iv)]
I shall not help you.
Structure :

ww He will not come today.

You will not do your work.
They will not go to Kanpur.
Interrogative Adverb / shall / will + Subject +
not + V 1

w (iii) Interrogative Sentences : Affirma-

tive—

.Ea
Shall I help you ?
Will he come today ?
Rule 5—Sometimes for the sake of emphasis we
use will with I / We, and shall with He /
You / They / any Noun.
10. FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE

syE
Will you do your work ?
Will they go to Kanpur ?
(i) Affirmative Sentences—
I shall be helping you.

ngi
Where will they go ? You will be going to Kanpur.
(iv) Interrogative Sentences : Negative— He will be coming today.
Shall I not help you ?

nee
(ii) Negative Sentences—
Will he not come today ? I shall not be helping you.
Will you not do your work ? You will not be going to Kanpur.
Will they not go to Kanpur ?
Where will they not go ?
rin
He will not be coming today.
(iii) Interrogative Sentences : Affirma-
Rules
Rule 1—In Affirmative sentences I and We take
tive—
g.n
Shall I be helping you ?
shall followed by Verb in the First Form,
and He, You, They and every Noun take
will followed by Verb in the first Form.
[See (i)]
e
Will you be going to Kanpur ?
Will he be coming today ?
Where will you be going ?
(iv) Interrogative Sentences : Negative
t
Structure :
Shall I not be helping you ?
I / We + Shall + V1 Will you not be going to Kanpur ?
He / You / They / any Noun + will + V1 Will he not be coming today ?
Rule 2—In Negative sentences we use not after Where will you not be going ?
shall or will in the structure under Rule 1 Rules
above. [See (ii)] Rule 1—In Affirmative sentences I / We take
Structure : shall be followed by Verb in the First
I / We + shall + not + V1 Form X ‘ing’, and You / He / They / any
Noun take will be followed by Verb in
He / You / They / any Noun + will + not + V1 the First Form X ‘ing’. [See (i)]

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TIME AND TENSE | 163

Structure : (iv) Interrogative Sentences : Negative—

I / We + shall be + V1x ‘ing’. Shall I not have finished my work ?
Will you not have gone before he
You/He/They/any Noun + will be + V1x ‘ing’.
comes?
Rule 2—In Negative sentences we use not after Will he not have reached the station
shall / will. [See (ii)] before the train leaves ?
Structure : Why will he not have gone before you
I / We + shall + not + be + V1 x ‘ing’. reach ?
You / He / They / any Noun + will + not + be Rules
+ V1 x ‘ing’. Rule 1—In Affirmative sentences I / We take
shall have, and You / He / They / every
Rule 3—In Interrogative sentences we use Shall Noun take will have, followed by the

ww / Will at the beginning of the sentence or

Interrogative Adverb even before shall
/ will. [See (iii)]
verb in the Third Form.
[See (i)]

w
Structure :
Structure :

.Ea
Interrogative Adverb / Shall / Will + subject +
be + V1x ‘ing’.
I / We + shall have + V3
You / He / They / Noun + will have + V3

Rule 3 above. syE

Rule 4—In Interrogative Negative sentences we
use not before be in the structure under
[See (iv)]
Rule 2—In Negative sentences we use not after
shall / will.
Structure :
[See (ii)]

ngi
Structure :
Subject + shall not have / will not have + V3
Shall / Will + Subject + not + be + V1x ‘ing’
Rule 3—The Interrogative sentence begins with
Rule 5—For emphasis we use will with I / We
and shall with You / He / They / every
Noun. nee Will or Shall. Interrogative Adverb, if
any, is used even before will / shall.
[See (iii)]
11. FUTURE PERFECT TENSE
(i) Affirmative Sentences—
Structure :
rin
I shall have finished my work.
You will have gone before he comes. g.n
Shall / Will + Subject + have + V3
Rule 4—Interrogative Negative sentences take
He will have reached the station before
the train leaves.
(ii) Negative Sentences—
I shall not have finished my work.
not before have.
Structure :
e [See (iv)]

Shall / Will + Subject + not have + V3 t

You will not have gone before he comes. 12. FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS
TENSE
He will not have reached the station
before the train leaves. (i) Affirmative Sentences—
(iii) Interrogative Sentences : Affirma- I shall have been reading for four hours.
tive— He will have been living in Delhi since
Shall I have finished my work ? 1980.
Will you have gone before he comes ? You will have been waiting for him for
Will he have reached the station before two hours.
the train leaves ? (ii) Negative Sentences—
Why will he have gone before you I shall not have been reading for four
reach? hours.

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164 | L.W.C.E.

He will not have been living in Delhi Rule 5—In Interrogative Negative sentences we
since 1980. use not before have in the structure under
You will not have been waiting for him Rule 4 above. [See (iv)]
for two hours. Structure :
(iii) Interrogative Sentences : Affirma-
Shall / Will + Subject + not + have been + V1x
tive—
‘ing’.
Shall I have been reading for four hours?
Will he have been living in Delhi since Uses of the Tenses
1980 ?
Why will he have been waking for four (i) Simple Present Tense
hours ? The Simple Present Tense is used in the
(iv) Interrogative Sentences : Negative— following situations—

ww Shall I not have been reading for four

hours ?
Will he not have been living in Delhi
1. To express some universal Truth or Prin-
ciple. These sentences carry the sense of Past,
Present and Future Time. As—

w
since 1980 ? 1. The sun rises in the east.
Why will he not have been waiting for

.Ea
2. The earth moves round the sun.
us since morning ?
3. The moon appears in the night.
Rules
4. The rose smells sweet.

syE
Rule 1—These sentences always use some phrase
of Time. For a definite starting point of
time we use since, and for an indefinite
5. Water freezes at – 4°C.
2. To express some Permanent Activity or
Nature. They indicate Past, Present and Future

ngi
starting point we use for.
Rule 2—In Affirmative sentences I / We take Time. As—
shall have been, and You / He / They / 1. Birds lay their eggs in their nests.
any Noun take will have been, followed
by Verb in the First Form x ‘ing’.
[See (i)] nee 2. Fish live in water.
3. She is always cheerful.

rin
4. I regularly go for a walk.
Structure :
3. To express some habitual action or some
I / We + shall have been + V1x ‘ing’ repeated action. As—
You / He / They / any Noun + will have been
+ V1x ‘ing’.
1. I love children.
g.n
2. She uses heavy cosmetics.
Rule 3—In Negative sentences not is used after
shall / will.
Structure :
[See (ii)] 4. He does not talk much. e
3. He reads till late in the night.

4. To express some Programme, Function or

Decision fixed for Future. It indicates Future
t
Subject + shall not have been / will not have
been + V1 + ‘ing’ Time. As—
1. Our examinations begin tomorrow.
Rule 4—Interrogative sentences begin with shall
/ will, or with Interrogative Adverb, if 2. We play a friendly match next Sunday.
required, even before shall / will. 3. I go to Bombay tomorrow morning.
[See (iii)] 4. Deepawali falls next month.
Structure : 5. To express some historical truth, vivid
description, live commentary or broadcasting.
Shall / Will + Subject + have been + V1x ‘ing’
As—
Interrogative Adverb + shall / will + Subject +
1. Now Shivaji escapes from the Fort of
have been + V1x ‘ing’
Agra.

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TIMES AND TENSE | 165

2. India gets Independence on the 15th of 1. We are playing a match tomorrow.

August, 1947. 2. I am leaving for Calcutta this evening.
3. In the course of the exciting car rally a 3. My father is coming today.
car falls into the valley. 4. I am going to the cinema tonight.
4. Now Kapil Deo strikes a sixer.
3. To express some possibility or determina-
5. The Prime Minister hoists the national tion. As—
flag.
1. I am going to buy a car.
6. Clauses of time or condition are also ex-
2. She is going to give a performance.
pressed in Simple Present Tense. As—
3. He is going to boat in the lake.
1. If you work hard, you will pass.
4. You are going to lose in this bargain.
2. You will be appointed if you apply.
3. Please wait until I come. (iii) Present Perfect Tense

ww 4. The train will leave before you reach.

7. The following Verbs are mostly used in
the Simple Present Tense. They should not be
Present Perfect Tense is used in the follow-
ing situations—
1. To indicate an action that has just been

w
used in Present Continuous Tense. These Verbs
are :

.Ea
1. Verbs of perception ..........
see, hear, smell, notice, recognize.
completed and has, therefore, ceased to have its
connection with the present time. As—
1. He has just closed the shop.
2. I have just come from Delhi.

syE
2. Verbs of appearing ..........
appear, look, seem.
3. You have finished your work.
4. She has gone with her father.
2. It is also used to indicate an action that
3. Verbs of emotion ………..

ngi
want, wish, desire, feel, like, love,
hate, hope, refuse, prefer.
started some time in the past and continuing up to
the present moment. As—

4. Verbs of thinking ……….

think, suppose, believe, agree, nee 1. I have lived in Bombay for five years.
2. She has been ill since last week.
3. I have not met him for a long time.
consider, trust, remember, for-
get, know, understand, imagine,
mean, mind.
months.
rin
4. They have not come here for many

5. Verbs of “having” ......….

have, own, possess, belong to, g.n
3. To indicate past actions of which time is
not given and not definite. As—
1. He has never come here.
contain, consist of, be (in the
active voice)

(ii) Present Continuous Tense

e
2. He has been a famous actor.
3. I have read Shakespeare.
4. He has been to America.
4. The following Adverbs or Adverbial
t
Present Continuous Tense is used in the
phrases can be used with the Present Perfect
following situations—
Tense—just, ever, never, often, so far, till now,
1. To express an action going on at the time already, for, since, today, this morning, this
of speaking. As— week, etc. As—
1. He is reading his book. 1. He has never come till now.
2. The baby is sleeping. 2. I have just arrived.
3. The teacher is teaching. 3. He has not seen me so far.
4. The birds are flying. 5. Adverbs or Adverbial phrases of Past
2. To indicate a certain programme or a time (yesterday, last year, some time ago, etc.)
decision scheduled to take place in near future. It cannot be used with the Present Perfect Tense.
carries the sense of Future Time. As— The following sentences are wrong :

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166 | L.W.C.E.

1. He has come yesterday. 2. This Tense also expresses some persistent

2. He has passed M. A. last year. h a b i t s in the past. Adverbs of Frequency
(always, often, continually, etc.) are often used
Such sentences should be written in Simple
with this Tense. As—
Past Tense. As—
1. He was often grumbling.
1. He came yesterday.
2. He was always complaining.
2. He passed M. A. last year.
3. She was continually harassing her hus-
(iv) Present Perfect Continuous Tense band.
The Present Perfect Continuous Tense is (vii) Past Perfect Tense
used to express the actions that began some time
in the past and are still continuing. As— Past Perfect Tense is used in the following
situations—
1. He has been studying since 6 O’clock.

ww
1. To express an action already completed
2. It has been raining since morning.
before a certain point of time in the past. As—
3. He has been working in this factory for
1. He had built his house before 1980.
many years.

w 4. I have been living in this house since

1990.

.Ea
(v) Simple Past Tense
2. He had resigned from his post before
joining here.
3. Cholera had broken out in Africa fifteen
years earlier also.

syE
Simple Past Tense is used in the following 4. He had already decided to settle down
cases— in America.
1. To express actions that ended in the past, 2. If reference is to two activities completed
in the past, one activity having been completed
and carry the sense of Past Time. As—
1. I wrote a letter yesterday
2. She came to me this morning. ngi earlier than the other, the one completed earlier
will require Past Perfect Tense, and the later one

nee
Simple Past Tense. As—
3. I studied in this college. 1. The doctor arrived after the patient had
4. I met him in the market. died.
2. This tense also expresses past habits or
style of working. As—
rin
2. The patient had died before the doctor
arrived.

g.n
1. He used to wear white trousers. 3. He reached the station after the train had
2. He never went to bed before midnight. left.
3. He never told a lie. 4. He had gone to bed before you reached
4. He often came on foot.
Note—In such sentences Adverbs of Frequency
are often used.
there.

e
Note—(i) The Conjunctions used to connect the
Principal and Sub-ordinate clauses in such
sentences are before or after. t
(vi) Past Continuous Tense (ii) If two actions are completed almost at
Past Continuous Tense is used in the the same time in the past, the Simple Past
following cases— Tense is used for both. As—
1. The Past Continuous Tense indicates an 1. He closed the door and went to bed.
action going on till some time in the past. These 2. The servant came and gave me a glass of
sentences may or may not use some phrase of water.
time. As—
(viii) Past Perfect Continuous Tense
1. We were watching the T.V. this evening.
2. They were playing football. The Past Perfect Continuous Tense is used
to express an action started before a certain point
3. I was teaching them Shakespeare. of time in the past and continuing to the present
4. I was sleeping at that time. moment. As—

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TIME AND TENSE | 167

1. It had been raining for two hours. 1. We shall be playing the match at this
2. He had been teaching at this school for time.
ten years. 2. I shall be staying with my brother.
3. He had been playing cricket in England 3. We shall be travelling by train.
for five years. 2. These sentences also convey the sense of
4. I had been practising law for a number future planning or intention. As—
of years. 1. I shall be meeting the Prime Minister on
Tuesday.
(ix) Simple Future Tense
2. We shall be attending a conference at
Simple Future Tense is used to convey the Delhi next week.
following sense—
1. To indicate an action scheduled to take (xi) Future Perfect Tense

wwplace in future. As—

1. I shall go to office tomorrow.
2. We shall have holiday tomorrow.
1. Future Perfect Tense is used to convey
the sense of completion of an action by a certain
point of time in future. As—

w 3. He will come on Monday.

.Ea
4. You will get your chance next time.
Note—To express strong will, determination,
warning or order / command, I / We take
1. I shall have reached Calcutta by this
time tomorrow.
2. We shall have completed our project by
the end of the next month.

syE
will + Verb, and You / He / They take
shall + Verb. As—
1. I will not act against my conscience.
The Future Perfect Tense also conveys the
sense of likelihood or probability. It refers to an
action in the past. As—

2. We will not accept our defeat.

3. You shall not be late. ngi 1. You will have met my brother at
Calcutta.
2. You will have seen the Taj.
4. He shall not be allowed to go.
2. Some Interrogative sentences begin with nee 3. He will have been at your residence.
(xii) Future Perfect Continuous Tense

rin
Shall I / Shall we, which convey the sense of
advice / suggestion / request / proposal, and they The Future Perfect Continuous Tense indi-
express Present time. As— cates the continuance of some action for a long
1. Shall I draw the curtain ?
2. Shall we now go ?
time in future. As—
g.n
1. He will have been building his house.
3. Shall I prepare tea for you ?
4. Shall we start the match now ?
3. Sometimes Simple Future Tense is used to
convey universal truth or habit. These sentences
examination.
Exercise 1 e
2. I shall have been preparing for my

Correct the following sentences :

t
express all the three times—Past, Present and 1. I had been married in 1990.
Future. As— 2. She finished her work when I met her.
1. Sin will be sin. 3. They had gone to Calcutta last night.
2. Roses will bloom in spring. 4. Who had invented the gramophone ?
3. A drunkard will drink. 5. The fair had been over ten days ago.
6. He had come to my room while I was
(x) Future Continuous Tense reading.
Future Continuous Tense is used to convey 7. I saw her when I had been passing yester-
the following ideas : day.
1. To convey the sense that a certain activity 8. He was ill for a week when the doctor was
will continue for some time in future. As— sent for.

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168 | L.W.C.E.

9. The rain had ceased yesterday. Exercise 3

10. I have written my application yesterday. Choose the correct alternative form of the
11. The lion had been caged last night. verb given in brackets :
12. I understood what you say. 1. He (wants, is wanting) to talk to you.
13. I lived for twenty years in Bombay. 2. You (bought, had bought) a new scooter
14. He had come only yesterday. last week.
15. Examinations have been held next month. 3. I (have just cleaned, just cleaned) my
Hints—(1) was married; (2) had finished; (3) shoes.
went to Calcutta; (4) invented; (5) was 4. She (has done, did) a lot of work today.
over; (6) came into my room; (7) was
5. I shall return your book when I (will come,
passing; (8) had been ill; (9) ceased
come) next time.
yesterday; (10) wrote my application;

ww (11) was caged; (12) understand; (13) have

lived; (14) came; (15) will be held/are
going to be held.
6. She (has been, is) ill for over a week.
7. I know all about this book because I (read,
have read) it twice.

w Exercise 2

.Ea
Choose the correct verb form from those
given in brackets :
1. He (has, is having) a house in Bombay.
8. I (didn’t see, have not seen) him since we
met a year ago.
9. I (smell, am smelling) something burning.
10. My father (arrives, will have arrived)

syE
3. The earth (moves, moved) round the sun.
3. We (saw, have seen) the Prime Minister
yesterday.
tomorrow morning.
11. We (finished, have finished) our lunch half
an hour ago.
4. I shall meet you when he (comes, will
come) back.
5. It started raining while we (played, were ngi 12. Did you think you (have seen, had seen)
him sometime earlier also ?
playing) football.
6. Can I have some milk before I (go, am
going) to bed ?
nee13. The train (has left, will have left) before we
reach the station.
14. He jumped off the train while it (ran, was
7. He (fell, had fallen) asleep while he was
driving. rin
running, had been running).
15. He rarely (comes, is coming) these days.
8. I am sure I (met, had met) him at the
station yesterday.
9. He (is living, has been living) in this house g.n
Hints—(1) wants; (2) bought; (3) have just
cleaned; (4) has done; (5) come; (6) has
been; (7) have read; (8) have not seen; (9)
for ten years.
10. He thanked me for what I (have done, had
done) for him.
11. She (is, will be) twenty next birthday.
(15) comes.
Exercise 4
e
smell; (10) arrives; (11) finished; (12) had
seen; (13) will have left; (14) was running;
t
12. We (have been working, are working) in Fill in the blanks with the correct form of
this factory for five years. the verb given against each sentence :
13. She (is wanting, wants) to be a doctor. 1. It is years since I . . . . . . . him. (see)
14. If you (start, started) at once, you will reach 2. Of late he. . . . . . . me. (not meet)
there by this evening.
3. In a fit of rage she . . . . . . . up the letters.
15. He (went, had gone) out five minutes ago.
(tear)
Hints—(1) has; (2) moves; (3) saw; (4) comes; (5)
4. The old man . . . . . . . by a mad dog. (bite)
were playing; (6) go; (7) had fallen; (8)
met; (9) has been living; (10) had done; 5. A better day for this function could not……
(11) will be; (12) have been working; (13) . (choose)
wants; (14) start; (15) went. 6. The cart . . . . . . . in the mud. (stick)

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TIME AND TENSE | 169

7. She had . . . . . . . all through the winter. (7) has been reading; (8) knew; (9) had
(work) met; (10) work hard; (11) am writing; (12)
8. I wish I . . . . . . . him. (know) began the work; (13) stops; (14) is living;
(15) go; (16) has been teaching; (17) has
9. If only I . . . . . . . her. (know) his breakfast; (18) passed; (19) has already
10. I . . . . . . . him a week ago. (see) done; (20) discovered.
11. He . . . . . . . here for more than five years. Tenses and Time
(work)
12. Take your raincoat in case it . . . . . . . . Normally Present Tense, Past Tense and
(rain) Future Tense indicate Present Time Past Time,
and Future Time. But in some typical sentences
13. I . . . . . . . to my office tomorrow. (go) and their implied sense some Tenses express more
14. He often . . . . . . . late. (reach) dimensions of Time than the main time for which

ww 15. My sister . . . . . . . twenty on the

Deepawali day. (will be)
Hints—(1) saw; (2) has not met; (3) tore up; (4)
they stand. We have already discussed in detail
the relationship between Time and Tense in the
earlier part of this chapter. Now we give

w was bitten; (5) have been chosen; (6) was hereunder a brief chart of the relationship between
stuck; (7) had been working; (8) knew; (9) Time and Tense.

.Ea
knew; (10) saw; (11) has worked; (12)
rains; (13) go; (14) reaches; (15) would be.
1. Simple Present Tense
Simple Present Tense expressses the follow-

syE
Exercise 5
Correct the following sentences :
1. It is high time you resolve your differences.
ing dimensions of Time—
(i) All Inclusive Time—Past, Present and
Future Time. As—
2. He retired to bed before we reached there.
3. I know him for many years. ngi (a) Sentences of Eternal Truth
1. The sun shines during the day.
4. I am having a car.
5. He left for America next week. nee 2. Birds fly.
3. Cows are animals.
4. A week has seven days.
6. I will return as soon as he came.
7. She is reading since the morning.
rin
(b) Sentences of Permanent Nature

g.n
1. Men wear clothes.
8. I wish I know him.
2. She never comes late.
9. I met him before he came to the town.
3. Sugar is sweet.
10. You won’t pass until you will work hard.
11. I write an essay this time.
12. It is time we will begin the work.
13. Don’t get down the bus until it will stop.
4. Trees are useful.
e
(c) Sentences Showing Long Habits
1. He knows swimming. t
2. She loves her children.
14. He lives in Calcutta now.
3. I read in the morning.
15. I am going to office every day by bus.
4. He is always merciful.
16. He is teaching at this school since 1985.
17. He is having his breakfast at 8 a. m. (ii) Future Time
18. He has passed M. A. last year. (a) Sentences of Programme and Planning
19. He already does his work. 1. I go to Calcutta tomorrow.
20. Who has discovered the force of gravita- 2. My brother returns from America next
tion? week.
Hints—(1) resolved; (2) had retired; (3) have 3. The marriage takes place on Monday next.
known; (4) have; (5) leaves; (6) he comes; 4. So we meet tomorrow.

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170 | L.W.C.E.

(b) Sentences of Time and Condition (b) Sentences of Advice or Suggestion

1. I shall help you if you come. 1. You had better leave me alone.
2. He will miss the train if he doesn’t start at 2. I would rather go alone.
once. 3. I would sooner resign than work under
3. He will wait for you until you reach. these conditions.
(c) Sentences of “It is time + Verb in the Past
4. He will not awake until the sun rises. Tense”
(iii) Past Time 1. It is time we returned home.
Sentences of Historical Truth 2. It is high time you had given up this habit.
1. Now Napoleon advances towards (ii) Future Time
England. Sentences having would/could in Indirect
2. Octavius Caesar succeeds Julius Caesar. Narration

ww 3. Now America drops atom bombs on

Japan.
4. Finally Hitler commits suicide.
1. He said that he would not stay.
2. He said that he could not reach there.
Present/Future Time

w
2. Present Continuous Tense

.Ea
Present continuous Tense expresses Future
time also. As—
(a) If-clause for Simple Past Tense
1. If he worked regularly, he would be
successful.
2. If he applied in time, he would be called

syE
(a) Sentences of Programme and Planning
1. We are leaving for U. K. next month.
2. They are playing a friendly match this
for interview.
(b) Sentences of “wish” (Impossible wish)

ngi
1. I wish I were a Prince. (Present Time)
Sunday.
2. I wish I were there. (Present Time)
3. They are shortly opening a new branch.
3. If I were a King. (Present Time)
4. They are returning tomorrow morning.
(b) Sentences of Probability and Intention
nee
4. Simple Future Tense
(i) Present Time

rin
1. We are soon building a new house. Interrogative Sentences of request/advice/
2. It is going to rain. suggestion
1. Shall I bring a cup of tea for you ?
3. They are not going to buy a car so soon.
4. He is unnecessarily inviting trouble for
himself. 3. Shall we now go ? g.n
2. Shall I lock the front gate ?

3. Simple Past Tense

Simple Past Tense expresses the following
dimensions of Time—
Future
e
(ii) All-inclusive Time—Past, Present and

1. Servants will be servants.

2. Kings will be kings. t
(i) Present Time 3. The poor will always be there.
(a) Sentences of Request 4. If I were a King !
1. Could you lend me your pen for a min- 5. Future Perfect Tense
ute? (i) Past Time
2. Would you do it for me ? 1. You will have met him there.
3. Might I expect some help from you ? 2. She will have reached home.

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13 Active and Passive Voice

Some sentences can be written in two forms the Object in the Passive form. Some-
—in Active Voice or in Passive Voice. These times by is kept understood or implied
sentences can be converted from the Active Voice also. As—

wwto the Passive Voice and from the Passive Voice

to the Active Voice. As—
Active : I read a book.
Active : Ram loves Shyam.
Passive : Shyam is loved by Ram.

w Passive : A book is read by me.

.Ea
There are definite Rules for conversion from
the Active Voice to the Passive Voice. But before
Rule 2—While interchanging the Subject and
Object in the Passive Voice, the Arti-
cles, Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
connected with each are also carried over
with them. They are not separated either
some basic concepts.
syE
discussing these Rules, it is essential to know

Conditions under which Conversion

from the Subject or the Object. As—
Active : All the children heard an
interesting story.
into the Passive Voice is not possible
1. The sentences in which the main verb is ngi Passive : An interesting story was heard
by all the children.
Intransitive cannot be converted into the Passive
Voice. Only those sentences which have a Transi-
tive Verb can be converted into the Passive Voice. nee
Rule 3—When the Pronouns are transferred from
the place of Object in the Active Voice
to the place of Subject in the Passive

rin
For example, look at the following sentences— Voice, their form is changed as follows—
1. I read. I in place of Me
2. We go.
3. They laugh.
We in place of Us
He in place of Him
g.n
e
These sentences cannot be converted into She in place of Her

t
the Passive Voice because the Verbs used in them They in place of Them
are Intransitive. Note—No change is made in the use of You or It
2. The sentences of Future continuous Tense or any Noun.
cannot be converted into the Passive Voice. Active : Ram loves her.
3. No Perfect Continuous Tense of any Passive : She is loved by Ram.
Tense can be converted into the Passive Voice. Active : Mohan hates them.
Rules for Conversion from the Active Passive : They are hated by Mohan.
to the Passive Voice Rule 4—When the Pronouns are transferred from
Rule 1—Interchange of Subject and Object the place of Subject in the Active Voice
to the place of Object in the Passive
While changing from the Active to the Voice, their form is changed as follows—
Passive Voice, the Subject is made the
By me in place of I
Object, and the object becomes the
Subject in the Passive Voice. Also, by is By us in place of We
used before the Subject when it is made By him in place of He

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172 | L.W.C.E.

By her in place of She Structure of the Verb :

By them in place of They Am / Is / Are + V 3 (Third Form of the Verb)
Note—There is no change in You, It or any (ii) Continuous :
Noun, but by is added before them. Active : He is writing a letter.
Active : We love the child. Passive : A letter is being written by him.
Passive : The child is loved by us. Active : They are reading books.
Active : I see a bird. Passive : Books are being read by them.
Passive : A bird is seen by me. Active : Ram is helping me.
Active : You write a letter. Passive : I am being helped by Ram.
Passive : A letter is written by you. The Structure of the Verb in this Tense is :
Rules for Change in Verbs is/ am/ are + being + III form of the Verb.

wwRule 5—The following changes are made in the

Verb—
(i) The main Verb is used in the Third (Past
(iii) Perfect :
Active : Ram has written a letter.
Passive : A letter has been written by

w Participle) Form.

.Ea
(ii) An appropriate Verb ‘to be’ (is, are, am,
was, were, be, been, being) is used
before the Third Form of the main Verb
Ram.
Active : Mohan has read many books.
Passive : Many books have been read by
Mohan.

syE
according to the Number and Person of
the Subject and Tense of the Verb.
The different forms of the Verb ‘to be’ used
Active : He has helped me.
Passive : I have been helped by him.
The Structure of the Verb in this Tense is :

ngi
with the Verb Love, for illustration, are given in
the following Table— Has/ have + been + III form of the Verb.
Verb ‘to be’ + Love in Passive Voice
Tense
Present
Indefinite
am loved
Continuous
am being loved nee Perfect
have been loved
Perfect
No Passive Voice
is loved
are loved
is being loved
are being loved
has been loved
have been loved
rin No Passive Voice
No Passive Voice

g.n
Past was loved was being loved had been loved No Passive Voice
were loved were being loved had been loved No Passive Voice
Future will be loved × will have been loved No Passive Voice
shall be loved

A. Present Tense
Examples
× shall have been loved
B. Past Tense e
No Passive Voice

(i) Simple Past Tense / Indefinite Past Tense :

t
(i) Indefinite : Active : Ram wrote a letter.
Active : He reads a book. Passive : A letter was written by Ram.
Passive : A book is read by him. Active : Ram read many books.
Active : Ram writes letters. Passive : Many books were read by Ram.
Passive : Letters are written by Ram. Active : He helped me.
Active : Ram follows me. Passive : I was helped by him.
Passive : I am followed by Ram. The Structure of the Verb in this Tense is :
You will see from the Table above that am, Was/ were + III form of the Verb.
is, or are have been used before the Third Form of
the main Verb according to the Number and (ii) Past Continuous :
Person of the Subject. Active : Ram was writing a letter.

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ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE | 173

Passive : A letter was being written by Note—In Present Perfect Continuous, Past Perfect
Ram. Continuous and Future Continuous and
Active : Hari was reading a book. Future Perfect Continuous Tense there can
be no conversion from the Active to the
Passive : A book was being read by Hari. Passive Voice.
Active : Ram was helping me. Rule 6—In sentences in which auxiliary Verbs
Passive : I was being helped by Ram. can / could / may / might / should /
The Structure of the Verb in this Tense is : would are used with Finite Verbs, the
auxiliaries are retained as they are, and
Was/ were + being + III form of the Verb.
they are followed by be + Third Form
(iii) Past Perfect : of the Verb. Structure of the Verb in the
Active : Ram had written a letter. Passive Voice is :
Passive : A letter had been written by Auxiliary Verb (unchanged) + be + V3 As—

ww Ram.
Active : Ram had read many books.
Active : They can help you.
Passive : You can be helped by them.

w
Passive : Many books had been read by Active : She should help Sita.
Ram. Passive : Sita should be helped by her.

.Ea
Active : Ram had helped me.
Passive : I had been helped by Ram.
Rule 7—In some sentences Verb ‘to be’ (am, is,
are, was, were) is followed by has /

syE
The Structure of the Verb in this Tense is : have / had, which are followed by an
Infinitive (to + Verb). While converting,
Had + been + III form of the Verb. such sentences into the Passive Voice,
C. Future Tense Verb ‘to be’ and has / have / had are
(i) Future Indefinite :
Active : Ram will write a letter. ngi retained in the form appropriate to the
subject, after which are used to be +
Verb in the Third Form.
Passive : A letter will be written by Ram.
Active : Ram will read books. nee The Structure of the Verb would be :
Verb ‘to be + to be + V3
Passive : Books will be read by Ram.
Active : Ram will help me.
rin
Has / have or had + to be + V3 As—
Active : I am to help him.
Passive : I shall be helped by Ram.
The Structure of the Verb in this Tense is :
g.n
Passive : He is to be helped by me.
Active : She has to help me.
Passive : I have to be helped by her.
Will/ shall + be + III form of the Verb.
(ii) Future Perfect Tense :
Active : Ram will have written a letter.
Passive : A letter will have been written
e
Active : He was to bring you here.
Passive : You were to be brought here by
him. t
Rule 8—Sometimes an Intransitive Verb joined
by Ram.
with a Preposition does the work of a
Active : Ram will have read many Transitive Verb. Sentences using this
books. type of Verb are converted into the
Passive : Many books will have been read Passive Voice according to the normals
by Ram. Rules, keeping in mind that the Pre-
Active : Ram will have helped me. position must be retained with the Verb.
Passive : I shall have been helped by As—
Ram. Active : She looks after him.
The Structure of the Verb in this Tense is : Passive : He is looked after by her.
Will/ shall + have been + III form of the Active : They laughed at him.
Verb. Passive : He was laughed at by them.

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Rule 9—Some sentences have two objects— Active : Show the papers.
(i) Direct (or Inanimate) object, (ii) Indirect Passive : Let the papers be shown.
(or Animate) object. As— Rule 12—If the Imperative sentence carries the
‘She teaches me grammar.’ sense of request or advice, should be
Here ‘grammar’ is Direct Object and ‘me’ is must be used before the Third Form of
Indirect Object. the Verb. These sentences do not begin
with Let. As—
While converting such sentences into the
Passive Voice, the Indirect (or animate) Active : Help the poor.
object should be used as the Subject. Passive : The poor should be helped.
As— Active : Feed the child.
Active : She teaches me Hindi. Passive : The child should be fed.

ww Passive : I am taught Hindi by her.

Active : They gave you a prize.
Passive : You were given a prize by them.
Active : Love your country.
Passive : Your country should be loved.
Note—In Passive Voice expressions such as

w Active : I shall give you necessary help.

.Ea
Passive : You will be given necessary
help by me.
Note—Sometimes, however, Direct (or Inani-
Please, Kindly, etc. are left out.
Rule 13—If the Imperative sentence is Negative,
the Passive Voice should have Let not in
place of Do not. Also, after the Subject

syE
mate) Object can also be used as the Sub-
ject in the Passive Voice. As—
Active : He teaches me Hindi.
be + Third Form of the Verb should be
used. As—
Active : Do not read a bad novel.

Passive : I am taught Hindi by him.

Or ngi Passive : Let not a bad novel be read by
you.
Active : Do not beat the child.
Hindi is taught to me by him.
Rule 10— Some sentences containing double
objects begin with Let in the Active
nee Passive : Let not the child be beaten.
Active : Do not defend the thief.

Voice. In Passive Voice also these

sentences begin with Let, and the Direct rin
Passive : Let not the thief be defended.
Rule 14—Conversion of Negative Sentences

g.n
(Inanimate) object is used as the Subject. into Passive Voice
Also, be should be used before the Third Negative Sentences are converted into the
Form of the Verb. As— Passive Voice just like the Affirmative sen-
Active : Let him bring a glass of water.
Passive : Let a glass of water be brought
by him.
e
tences. Not is retained at its normal position,
i.e. after the first auxiliary Verb. As—
Active : The boy did not kill the cat.
Passive : The cat was not killed by the
t
Conversion of Imperative Sentences boy.
into Passive Voice Active : The baby was not hitting a toy.
Rule 11—If the Imperative sentence carries the Passive : A toy was not being hit by the
sense of order or command, its Passive baby.
Voice should begin with Let, and be Active : This boy cannot lift the box.
should be used before the Third Form Passive : The box cannot be lifted by this
of the Verb. As— boy.
Active : Bring the pen. Rule 15—Conversion o f Interrogative Senten-
Passive : Let the pen be brought. ces into Passive Voice
Active : Shut the door. If the Interrogative sentence begins with a
Passive : Let the door be shut. Helping Verb (do, does, did, is, was, were,

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ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE | 175

are, am, has, have, had), the Passive Voice Rule 17—Some sentences begin with ‘There’,
also begins with the Helping Verb, but the followed by Verb + Subject + Infini-
form of the helping Verb changes according tive. No change is made in such sente-
to the new Subject in the Passive Voice. nces in the Passive voice except that the
Note—(i) Has, have, had take been before the Simple Present Infinitive is changed into
Third Form of the Verb. the Past Infinitive (to be + Past Parti-
(ii) Interrogative sentences beginning with ciple). The rest of the sentence remains
an Interrogative Pronoun / Adverb unchanged. As—
(Who, What, Whom, etc.) begin in the Active : There is no milk to waste.
Passive Voice with by whom or By / Passive : There is no milk to be wasted.
with what. As—
Active : Does he help Ram ? Active : There is no time to waste.
Passive : Is Ram helped by him ? Passive : There is no time to be wasted.

ww Active : Has he killed the dog ?

Passive : Has the dog been killed by him ?
Active : Who has deceived you ?
Rule 18—In some sentences Infinitive without
‘to’ is used. As—
Active : I made him run away.

w Passive : By whom have you been decei-

.Ea
ved ?
Active : What pleased you so much ?
Passive : With what were you pleased so
Passive : He was made to run away.
In sentences of this pattern normal Rules are
applied for conversion into the Passive Voice,
with one more provision that Infinitive with
much ?
syE
Some Other Structures
Rule 16—Usually by is used before the Object in
‘to’ is used in place of Infinitive without
‘to’. The structure of the main Verb would
be—
the Passive Voice. But there are some
Verbs on account of which some other
Prepositions are used before the Object ngi to ‘be’ + Past Participle
Here are some more sentences of this pat-
tern—
in place of by. As—
(i) ‘at’ is used after : Surprised, astonished,
shocked, alarmed, disappointed, displea- nee Active : We saw him jump the ditch.
Passive : He was seen to jump the ditch.
sed, distressed
(ii) ‘to’ is used after : Known and obliged
rin
Active : He let me go.
Passive : I was let go.
(iii) ‘With’ is used after : Pleased, satisfied,
disgusted, impressed
(iv) ‘in’ is used after : Interested, consisted, g.n
Note—It may be noted here that ‘to’ is not used
after ‘let’ even in the Passive Voice.
Rule 19— In some sentences that + a N o u n
contained
Active : Her behaviour disappointed me.
Passive : I was disappointed at her behavi-
our.
e
clause is used after the Principal clause,
and this Noun clause is the Object of the
Transitive Verb in the Principal clause.
Some special care has to be taken in
t
Active : His condition alarmed me. converting such sentences into the Pas-
Passive : I was alarmed at his condition. sive Voice. In such sentences no Passive
Active : I know his sister. Voice is made of the Principal clause,
only its sense is expressed in some way.
Passive : His sister is known to me.
Then the Noun clause is changed into the
Active : Your honesty has pleased me. Passive Voice according to normal Rules.
Passive : I have been pleased with your In such sentences we don’t usually use
honesty. by + object. As—
Active : This job interests me. Active : We know that he is a great scho-
Passive : I am interested in this job. lar.
Active : Your talk displeases me. Passive : He is known to be a great scho-
Passive : I am displeased at your talk. lar.

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176 | L.W.C.E.

Active : It is believed that he is absolu- Exercise 2

tely honest. Change the following sentences from Active
Passive : He is believed to be absolutely into Passive Voice :
honest. 1. They are singing a song.
Note—The Verbs after which a Noun clause can 2. He will have written a poem.
be used as the object are these—
3. Does she love flowers ?
Know, say, believe, think, consider, find,
4. Do you know him ?
claim, report, hold, etc.
5. Does he ever read a book ?
Rule 20— Sometimes in the sentences of the
above pattern, the Noun clause is already 6. Fear God.
in the Passive Voice. As— 7. Forgive the innocent.
‘He wants that he should be recognized as a 8. I am to help him.

ww great scholar.’
In converting such sentences into the Passive
Voice, the Principal clause is retained
9. They are to support me.
10. Has he written a play ?
11. Have they closed the factory ?

w unchanged. The that + Subject + Verb of the

.Ea
Noun clause are removed. After the Verb of
the Principal clause we should use to be +
Third Form of the Verb of the Noun clause.
12. I am going to build a house.
13. Open the main gate.
14. I shall have finished my book.

syE
As— 15. He has given up smoking.
Active : He wants that he should be Exercise 3
recognized as a great scholar.
Change the following sentences into Passive
Passive : He wants to be recognized as a
great scholar.
Active : He desires that he should be ngi Voice :
1. He kept me waiting.
respected by all.
Passive : He desires to be respected by all.
nee 2. The man is crossing the river.
3. He told me to leave the room.
4. The Principal is watching you very care-
Exercise 1
Change the following sentences into Passive
fully.
rin
5. You promised me a present.
Voice :
1. He killed a serpent.
2. I can pardon you this time. g.n
6. We saw the storm approaching.
7. The nurse looks after the patients.

e
8. Don’t look down upon the poor.
3. He does not like music.
4. A dog was chasing a cat.
5. She was writing a letter.
6. She will forgive him.
9. She brought up the orphan child.
10. He gave me a new book.
11. I showed him the best house.
12. Do you know him ?
t
7. I know my friend very well. 13. There is no money to spare.
8. He has given up all his bad habits. 14. We saw him fight with a sword.
9. The President will give him a medal. 15. They let the prisoner go.
16. People know that he is a cheat.
10. We should love our country.
17. They believe that he is dead.
11. He can never discover the fact.
18. He claims that he is the real successer.
12. He may appoint you.
19. The old man wants that he should be
13. You have done your duty. loved and respected.
14. Bring a glass of water. 20. Every poor man wants that he should be
15. Never tell a lie. helped.

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14 Direct and Indirect Narration

SOME GENERAL TERMS Rules for Connectives
We can report the words of a speaker in two The whole sentence in the Direct Narration

wwways—(i) Direct Reporting or Direct Narration,

(ii) Indirect Reporting or Indirect Narration.
Direct Narration—It is the method in which
form consists of two parts. The first part is
outside the Inverted commas which is called
Reporting Speech, and the second part is within

w
the actual words of the speaker are reported within
inverted commas. As—

.Ea
Ram said, “I am going.”
Mohan says, “He is my friend.”
the Inverted commas which is called Reported
Speech. When the whole sentence is required to
be changed from Direct into Indirect narration,
the two parts of the sentence are joined by some
connectives. There are some Rules for using the

syE
Indirect Narration— It is the method in
which the substance or idea of the speaker’s words
is reported without using his actual words.
correct connectives. The following are these
Rules—
(1) Assertive Sentences— If the Reported
The sentences given above in Direct Narra-
tion would be converted into Indirect Narration, ngi speech is in the form of an assertive sentence, the
connective used to join it with the Reporting
speech is ‘that’—

nee
thus—
Ram said that he was going. As—
Mohan says that he is his friend. Direct : He said, “He is going home.”
Reporting Speech—The part of the whole
sentence outside the Inverted Commas in Direct rin
Indirect : He said that he was going home.
(2) Interrogative Sentences—If the Reported
Narration is called the Reporting Speech, and the
Verb used in this part is called the Reporting
Verb. g.n
speech is in the form of an Interrogative sen-
tence, it can be connected in two ways according
to the structure of the Interrogative sentence.
Reported Speech— The part of the whole
sentence in which the actual words of the speaker
are written within the Inverted Commas is called
the Reported Speech, and the Verb used in this
e
(a) If the Interrogative sentence begins with an
Interrogative Adverb (Where, What,
When, How, Why, etc.) or with an Interro-
gative Adjective / Pronoun (Who, Whose,
t
part is called the Reported Verb. Whom, Which, What, etc.), no connective
is required to join it. It is a serious mistake
Rules for Changing Direct Narration into to use that to connect such a sentence. As—
Indirect Narration
Direct : He said, “Where are you going?”
The Rules for changing the Direct Narration Indirect : He asked (me) where I was
into Indirect Narration may be divided into four going.
groups— ( Not, that where I was going)
1. Rules for Connectives Direct : He said, “Who is your friend ?”
2. Rules for Change of Tenses Indirect : He asked me who my friend
3. Rules for Change of Persons was.
4. Other Rules for Miscellaneous Changes. ( Not, that who my friend was)

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178 | L.W.C.E.

(b) If the Interrogative sentence begins with an Reported speech. For example, in place
Auxiliary Verb, the connective whether or of say or said, we can use tell or told, or
if is used to join it (not, that whether or that we can use replied, remarked, asked,
if). observed, declared, etc. according to the
Direct : He said, “Is he a doctor ?” sense. But in no case there should be a
change in the Tense of the Reporting
Indirect : He asked whether (or if) he was Verb.
a doctor.
Rule 2—If the Reporting Verb is in the Present
(Not, that whether (or if) he was or Future Tense, no change is made in
a doctor) the Tense of the Reported Verb. But, of
Direct : I said, “Do you smoke ?” course, the form of the Auxiliary Verb
Indirect : I asked whether (or if) you smo- will change according to the change in
ked. Person of the Subject in the Indirect

ww (Not, that whether (or if) you

smoked)
(3) Imperative Sentences—If the Reported
Narration form. For example, am can be
changed into is or are; or do and have
can be changed into does or has, but no

w
speech is in the form of an Imperative sentence

.Ea
(indicating command or request), no connective
is needed but the main Verb of the Imperative
sentence is converted into an Infinitive. As—
change can be made in the Tense in the
process of this change. As—
Direct : He says, “I am not feeling well
today.”

syE
Indirect : He says that he is not feeling
Direct : He said, “Please give me a glass well today.
of water.”
Direct : He will say to me, “You are not
Indirect : He requested to give him a glass kind to me.”
of water.
Direct : He said to the servant, “Close ngi Indirect : He will tell me that I am not
kind to him.

nee
the door.”
Solved Examples
Indirect : He asked the servant to close the
door. Direct : I often say to my friends, “You

rin
are all very dear to me.”
(4) Exclamatory Sentences—If the Reported
sentence is in the form of an Exclamatory sen- Indirect : I often tell my friends that they
are all very dear to me.

g.n
tence (indicating surprise, fear, contempt or
wish), it is changed into an Assertive sentence in Direct : You say to your father, “My tea-
the Indirect Narration form, and connective ‘that’ cher is very kind and sympathe-
is used to join it with the Reporting sentence.
As—
Direct : He said, “May you live long ! ”
Indirect : He wished that you may live
Indirect
tic.”

e
: You tell your father that your
teacher is very kind and sympa-
thetic. t
long. Direct : I will go and say to my father, “I
am not satisfied with the job that
Direct : He said, “What a horrible scene
you have found for me.”
!”
Indirect : I will go and tell my father that I
Indirect : He observed that it was a horri- am not satisfied with the job that
ble scene. he has found for me.
Rules for Change of Tenses Direct : Mohan will go to Delhi to tell
Rule 1—It should first be remembered that no his uncle, “Are you not finding
change is ever made in the Tense of the some job for me ? ”
Reporting Verb. But, of course, without Indirect : Mohan will go to Delhi to ask
changing the Tense, the verb can be his uncle whether he is not
changed according to the sense of the finding some job for him.

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DIRECT AND INDIRECT NARRATION | 179

Direct : I shall say to my father, “Please Direct : Ram said, “He visited Delhi last
let me participate in the marri- year.”
age of my friend.” Indirect : Ram said that he visited Delhi
Indirect : I shall request my father to let last year.
me participate in the marriage of Direct : He said, “The horse died last
my friend. night.”
Direct : I say to my father whenever I Indirect : He said that the horse had died
meet him, “I do not want to last night.
marry at such an early age.”
(b) Past Continuous is changed into Past
Indirect : I tell my father whenever I meet Perfect Continuous Tense.
him that I do not want to marry
at such an early age. As—

ww Direct : Mohan will say to his servant, Direct : He said, “My brother was work-
“You are the greatest dunce that ing in this factory.”
I have ever seen in my life.” Indirect : He said that his brother had

w Indirect : Mohan will tell his servant that been working in that factory.
he is the greatest dunce that he (c) No change is made in Past Perfect and

.Ea
has ever seen in his life.
Rule 3—If the Reporting Verb is in the Past
Past Perfect Continuous Tense.
As—

syE
Tense, the Tense of the Reported Verb
is changed according to the following
Rules—
Direct : He said, “I had finished my
work long ago.”
Indirect : He said that he had finished his

ngi
(I) (a) Present Indefinite is changed into Past work long ago.
Indefinite Tense. As—
Direct : Ram said, “I had been doing that
Direct : He said, “I am unwell.”

nee
work for several years.”
Indirect : He said that he was unwell. Indirect : Ram said that he had been doing
(b) Present Continuous is changed into Past that work for several years.

rin
Continuous Tense. As—
Rule 4—Will and shall of the Future Tense are
Direct : He said, “My father is reading changed into Would and Should. As—
his book.”
Indirect : He said that his father was read-
ing his book. g.n
Direct : He said, “I shall definitely do
this work.”
Indirect : He said that he would definitely
(c) Present Perfect is changed into Past
Perfect Tense. As—
Direct : He said, “I have passed the exa-
mination.”
do that work.
e
Direct : He said, “Ram will go to the
market.”
Indirect : He said that Ram would go to
t
Indirect : He said that he had passed the the market.
examination.
(d) Present Perfect Continuous is changed Rule 5—May is changed into might and can into
into Past Perfect Continuous Tense. As— could. As—
Direct : Mohan said, “I have been work- Direct : He said, “I can do this work.”
ing hard since July.” Indirect : He said that he could do that
Indirect : Mohan said that he had been work.
working hard since July. Direct : The teacher said, “He may be
(II) (a) Ordinarily no change is made in the Past allowed to go.”
Indefinite Tense, but sometimes it is Indirect : The teacher said that he might
changed into Past Perfect Tense. As— be allowed to go.

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180 | L.W.C.E.

Rule 6—There is no change in Must. As— Direct : My friend said, “I am going to

Direct : He said, “I must go at once.” write a letter to my father.”
Indirect : He said that he must go at once. Indirect : My friend said that he was go-
ing to write a letter to his father.
Rule 7—If the Reported speech refers to some Direct : He said, “I have been successful
universal truth or habitual action, no in my work.”
change is made in the Tense of the
Indirect : He said that he had been succe-
Reported Verb, even if the Reporting
ssful in his work.
Verb is in the Past Tense. As—
Direct : He said, “Ram’s dog has killed
Direct : The teacher said in the class, my hen.”
“The sun rises in the east.”
Indirect : He said that Ram’s dog had
Indirect : The teacher said in the class that killed his hen.
the sun rises in the east.
Direct : He said, “I do not believe in the

ww Direct : He said, “Man lives by bread.”

Indirect : He said that man lives by bread.
orthodox principles of Hindu-
ism.”

w
Chart of Changes in Tenses
Tense of the Reporting Original Tense of the Reported Changed Tense of the Reported
Verb
.Ea
Present Tense or Future Tense No Change
Verb
No Change
Verb

Past Tense
syE Present Indefinite
Present Continuous
Present Perfect
Past Indefinite
Past Continuous
Past Perfect

ngi
Present Perfect Continuous Past Perfect Continuous
Generally no change‚ but
Past Indefinite
nee sometimes changed into
Past Perfect Tense

rin
Past Tense Past Continuous Past Perfect Continuous
Past Perfect
Or No Change

Past Tense
Past Perfect Continuous
Will or shall g.n
Would or should
Can or may
Must
Universal Truth
No Change
No Change
e
Could or might

t
Solved Examples Indirect : He said that he did not believe
in the orthodox principles of
Note the changes made in the Tense of the Hinduism.
Reported Verb in the following examples—
Direct : Ganesh said, “I have been suffe-
Direct : The Station Master said, “This ring from this disease for six
train is going to Punjab.” months.”
Indirect : The Station Master said that that Indirect : Ganesh said that he had been
train was going to Punjab. suffering from that disease for
Direct : “I cannot believe you ?” said the six months.
merchant in anger. Direct : He said, “My servant has been
Indirect : The merchant said in anger that working in the field since this
he could not believe him. morning.”

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DIRECT AND INDIRECT NARRATION | 181

Indirect : He said that his servant had Direct : He said, “I am doing my work.”
been working in the field since Indirect : He said that he was doing his
that morning. work.
Direct : Mohan said, “I reached the stat- Direct : You said, “I am going to Delhi
ion before the arrival of the to meet my uncle.”
train.”
Indirect : You said that You were going to
Indirect : Mohan said that he had reached Delhi to meet your uncle.
the station before the arrival of
Direct : I said, “I am reading my book.”
the train.
Indirect : I said that I was reading my
Direct : She said in the court, “My hus-
book.
band had been leading an immo-
ral life for several years before I Rule 2—Every Second Person Pronoun in the
Reported speech is changed according to

ww
was married to him.”
the Object / Predicate of the Reporting
Indirect : She said in the court that her
Verb.
husband had been leading an
Direct : Ramesh said to him, “You are

w
immoral life for several years
before she was married to him. not doing your work seriously.”

.Ea
Direct : He said, “The students were
learning their lessons in the
class.”
Indirect : Ramesh told him that he was
not doing his work seriously.

syE
Direct : Mohan said to you, “You are not
Indirect : He said that the students had doing your work seriously.”
been learning their lessons in the Indirect : Mohan told you that you were
class. not doing your work seriously.
Direct : “One of the servants had stolen
my watch,” said Sohan. ngi Direct : Ramesh said to me, “You are
not doing your work seriously.”
Indirect : Sohan said that one of the ser-
vants had stolen his watch.
Direct : He said, “I had made all arrange-
nee Indirect : Ramesh told me that I was not
doing my work seriously.
Rule 3—Third Person Pronoun remains unchan-
ments for the reception of the
President before his arrival at
ged.
rin
Formula
Agra.”
Indirect : He said that he had made all
arrangements for the reception
All First Persons
g.n
Changed according to the
Subject of the Reporting
of the President before his arri-
val at Agra.
Direct : Mohan said, “I was doing my
work when Ram came to me.”
Verb

e
All Second Persons Changed according to the
Object or Predicate of the
Reporting Verb t
Third Persons No Change
Indirect : Mohan said that he had been
doing his work when Ram came Solved Examples
to him. Direct : He said, “I have completed my
Rules for Change in Persons work with my own hard labour.”
All Pronouns (I, we, you, he, she, they) used Indirect : He said that he had completed
in the Reported speech are changed according to his work with his own hard
the following Rules— labour.
Rule 1—Every First Person Pronoun used in the Direct : You said to your friend, “I am
Reported speech is changed according to going to Delhi today.”
the Person of the Subject of the Report- Indirect : You told your friend that you
ing speech. were going to Delhi that day.

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182 | L.W.C.E.

Direct : My teacher said to me, “You Hither Thither

will fail if you do not work Here There
hard.”
Hence Thence
Indirect : My teacher warned me that I
Thus So
would fail if I did not work hard.
Come Go
Direct : The watchman said to you, “You
cannot pass through this lane at Today That day
this time of the night.” Tomorrow Next day
Indirect : The watchman told you that you Yesterday The previous day
could not pass through that lane Last night The previous night
at that time of the night.
Ago Before
Direct : My father said to him, “You
Direct : He said, “I will do this work

ww Indirect
seem to be proud of your stren-
gth.”
: My father told him that he see-
now.”
Indirect : He said that he would do that

w med to be proud of his strength. work then.

Direct : He said, “I came to this village

.Ea
Direct : “I cannot give you a single pice,”
said my father to the street-beg- long ago.”
gar, “because you are strong Indirect : He said that he had gone to that

syE
enough to earn your livelihood.” village long before.
Indirect : My father told the street-beggar Exercise
that he could not give him a sin- Change the following sentences from Direct

ngi
gle pice, because he was strong into Indirect Narration :
enough to earn his own liveli-
hood. 1. He said, “I cannot help you at present be-
cause I am myself in difficulty.”
Direct : I said to my father, “I cannot go
to school today because I am not
feeling well.” nee2. Mohan said, “We shall go to see the Taj in
the moonlit night.”
Indirect : I told my father that I could not
go to school that day because I
rin
3. My father said to us, “We should study to-
gether and get a good division in the exami-
nation.”
Direct
was not feeling well.
: Mohan said to him, “Your bro-
ther is a good sportsman.” g.n
4. The servant said, “He met Ramesh when he
was coming from the market after deliver-
Indirect

Direct
: Mohan told him that his brother
was a good sportsman.
: Mahesh said to Ram, “I have
lost your purse on account of my
ing the letter.”

e
5. Ram said, “He met his father last Sunday.”
6. The watchman cried, “The thieves have
broken into the house and stolen away all
t
carelessness.” the property.”
Indirect : Mahesh told Ram that he had lost 7. Ramesh said, “I was having my dinner
his (Ram’s) purse on account of when the peon called upon me.”
his (Mahesh’s) carelessness. 8. Mohan said, “I have been studying very
regularly since July.”
Miscellaneous Changes
9. My friend said, “He had been running a
(i) Some typical words used in the Reported shop in Bombay before coming to U.P.”
speech are changed as listed below—
10. My mother will say, “You cannot go
Words Changed Form anywhere at this hour of the night.”
Now Then 11. My father says, “A good student should not
This or these That or those waste his time in idleness.”

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DIRECT AND INDIRECT NARRATION | 183

12. Ramesh said, “I am not taking the examina- needed to join it with the Reporting
tion because I am not very confident about speech. This is a very important Rule and
my studies.” must be very carefully observed.
13. My friend will say to you, “I have never Rule 5—The Interrogative sentence is changed
seen a more intelligent person than into an Assertive sentence in the Indirect
Ramesh.” Narration. In order to change an Interro-
14. The teacher said, “The earth moves round gative sentence into an Assertive one, the
the sun.” Subject is used before the Verb, and the
Mark of Interrogation should be remo-
15. Lord Christ said, “Man is mortal.” ved.
16. He said, “I am so confident of myself that I Rule 6—The Auxiliary do or does of the Repor-
can take the work independently.” ted speech is removed, and in their place
17. Ram said, “The matter shall be decided the Past Indefinite Tense of the main

ww here and now.”

18. Mohan says, “I shall go tomorrow.”
19. My friend says, “My father is not at home
Verb is used. As—
Direct : He said to Ram, “Do you know
his name ?”

w and therefore I cannot go out.”

.Ea
20. His letter says, “I herewith offer you the
appointment.”
Indirect : He asked Ram whether he knew
his name.
Direct : Ram said to him, “Does Suresh
go to school ?”

ways—
syE
(2) Interrogative Sentences
Interrogative Sentences can begin in two
Indirect : Ram asked him whether Suresh
went to school.
Rule 7—The Auxiliary did of the Reported
(i) With Auxiliary or Helping Verb such as—
Is, are, am, was, were, has, have, had, will, ngi speech is removed and the Past Perfect
form of the main Verb is used. As—

nee
shall, do, did, does, can, could. Direct : I said to him, “Did you go to
school yesterday ?”
(ii) With Interrogative Adjective/Pronoun or
Interrogative Adverb such as— Indirect : I asked him whether he had gone

rin
to school the previous day.
Who, whom, whose, which, what, when,
Rule 8—If the Reported speech has do not or
where, why, how.
does not, in the Indirect Narration, it will
Rules
Rule 1—We can make a change in the Reporting g.n
have did not + First Form of the Verb.
As—
Verb according to the sense, but without
making any change in its Tense. For
example, in place of said, we can use
asked, enquired, demanded, etc.
Rule 2—Connective ‘that’ is not used to join any
know me ?”
e
Direct : He said to Ram, “Do you not

Indirect : He asked Ram whether he did

not know him. t
Direct : Mohan said, “Does not Ramesh
kind of Interrogative sentence. tell a lie ?”
Rule 3—If the Interrogative sentence begins with Indirect : Mohan asked whether Ramesh
an Auxiliary or Helping Verb in t h e did not tell a lie.
Direct Narration, i t begins with If or Rule 9—If the Reported speech has did not, in
Whether in the Indirect Narration. the Direct Narration, it will have had
Rule 4—If the Interrogative sentence begins with not + Past Perfect Form of the Verb in
an Interrogative Adverb / Adjective / the Indirect Narration. As—
Pronoun in the Direct Narration, it will Direct : I said to him, “Did you not pro-
begin with the same Interrogative mise to come ?”
Adverb / Adjective Pronoun in the Indirect : I asked him whether he had not
Indirect Narration also. No connective is promised to come.

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184 | L.W.C.E.

Rule 10—The Rules for change in Pronouns are Direct : The teacher said to the student,
the same as applicable in Assertive sente- “How can you prove that the
nces. earth is round ?”
Solved Examples Indirect : The teacher asked the student
Direct : He said, “What is your name ?” how he could prove that the
earth is round.
Indirect : He asked (him) what his name
was. Exercise
Direct : Ram said to Mohan, “Where do Change the following sentences from Direct
you live ?” into Indirect Narration :
Indirect : Ram asked Mohan where he 1. Ram said, “Are these mangoes sweet ?”
lived. 2. He said, “Were you present at the scene of
Direct : Keshav said to his wife, “Which accident ?”

ww of these sarees do you like

most?”
Indirect : Keshav asked his wife which of
3. He said to me, “Why do you want to go
home ?”

w
4. Ramesh said to him, “How do you do ?”
those sarees she liked most. 5. He said, “Am I responsible for your fail-

.Ea
Direct : The teacher said, “Who is the
author of this book ?”
Indirect : The teacher asked (the boys)
ure?”
6. Ram said, “Who does not know that he is a

syE
who the author of that book was.
Direct : He said, “Are you going to
Delhi?”
thief ?”
7. He said, “How can I help you in these
circumstances ?”

Indirect : He asked (him) whether (if) he

was going to Delhi. ngi 8. My father said to me, “What have you done
with all the money I gave you ?”
9. The teacher said, “Who has prepared this
Direct : Mohan said to his friend, “Can
you help me in unloading my
cart ?” nee chapter thoroughly ?”
10. My friend said to the Station Master,
“When does the Punjab Mail reach Agra ?”
Indirect : Mohan asked his friend if he
could help him in unloading his
rin
11. He said, “Why did you enter my house
without taking my permission ?”
cart.
Direct : Ramesh said to the Station
Master, “Has the train left ?” g.n
12. He said, “Can I be of any service to you ?”
13. Ram said, “Could I get another chance to

Indirect : Ramesh asked the Station

Master whether (if) the train had
left.
Direct : Mohan said to his friend, “Are
try my luck ?”

e
14. Ram said, “Had I not warned you long ago
that the work is difficult ?”
15. Mohan said, “What have you been search- t
ing for all these hours ?”
you in a position to help me
now?” (3) Imperative Sentences
Indirect : Mohan asked his friend whether The sentences which carry the sense of order,
he was in a position to help him request, wish, advice, etc. are called Imperative
then. sentences. These sentences often begin with
Direct : My father said to me, “Why are Finite Verb. As—
you so eager to go to picture Go away; Work hard; Bring a glass of water,
today ?” etc.
Indirect : My father asked me why I was Sometimes these sentences also begin with—
so eager to go to picture that Let, Please, Kindly and such other polite expres-
day. sions. As—

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DIRECT AND INDIRECT NARRATION | 185

Please help me; Kindly leave the seat; Let Direct : The captain said to the soldier,
him come. “Go to the batallion office and
Rules come back within half an hour.”
Rule 1—The Reporting Verb can appropriately Indirect : The captain ordered the soldier
be changed according to the sense, but to go to the batallion office and
without making any change in its Tense. (to) come back within half an
For example, in place of ‘said’, we can hour.
use requested, asked, ordered, advised, Direct : The doctor said to the patient,
suggested, proposed, forbade, etc. “Do not smoke so long as you
Rule 2—The Reported Verb is changed into an are under my treatment.”
Infinitive (to + Verb). No other change Indirect : The doctor instructed the patient
is made in the Verb. As— not to smoke so long as he was
under his treatment.

ww Direct : The teacher said to the students,

“Work very hard.”
Indirect : The teacher advised the students
Direct : The teacher said to Mohan, “Im-
prove your handwriting if you
want to pass.”

w to work very hard.

Direct : Ram said to his servant, “Bring a

.Ea
glass of water.”
Indirect : Ram ordered his servant to bring
Indirect

Direct
: The teacher advised Mohan to
improve his handwriting if he
wanted to pass.
: He said, “Save me from this

syE
a glass of water.
calamity.”
Rule 3—If the Reported speech begins with Do
not, we remove Do, and the main Verb is Indirect : He appealed (to them) to save
changed into an Infinitive. As— him from that calamity.
Direct : My father said to me, “Don’t go
there.” ngi Direct : Ram said, “Please come with
me.”
Indirect : My father advised me not to go
there.
Rule 4—The Rules for change in Tense and Pro-
nee Indirect

Direct
: Ram requested (him) to go with
him.
: The teacher said, “Always speak
nouns are the same as discussed under
Assertive sentences. Indirect rin
the truth.”
: The teacher advised (the stu-
Rule 5—Some Imperative sentences carry the
sense of prohibition. In such sentences
forbid or forbade can be used. As—
Direct
g.n
dents) always to speak thetruth.
: He said to his friends, “Let us
go on a picnic.”
Direct : My father said, “Don’t play in
the sun.”
Indirect : My fahter forbade me to play in
the sun.
Indirect

Direct
on a picnic. e
: He proposed to his friends to go

: I said to my father, “Please let

me go to Delhi.”
t
Solved Examples Indirect : I requested my father to let me
Direct : Ram’s father said to him, “Do go to Delhi.
not be impatient about the result Exercise
of your examination.”
Change the following sentences from
Indirect : Ram’s father advised him not to Direct into Indirect Narration :
be impatient about the result of
his examination. 1. Ram said to him, “Please be quiet.”
Direct : He said, “Please do not enter my 2. The teacher said to the student, “Do not talk
room without my permission.” nonsense.”
Indirect : He requested (them) not to enter 3. My father said to me, “Work very hard lest
his room without his permission. you should lose your division.”

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186 | L.W.C.E.

4. Mohan said to the servant, “Bring a hot cup Direct : He said, “O, what a chance !”
of tea.” Indirect : He exclaimed that it was a fine
5. Ram said to me, “Welcome home.” chance.
6. He said, “Let the sweets be distributed Direct : His mother said, “May you live
among the children.” long !”
7. He said to me, “Please lend me your foun- Indirect : His mother wished (prayed) that
tain-pen.” he might live long.
8. My fahter said to me, “Speak the truth and Direct : He said, “What a piece of work
be noble.” is man !”
9. He said, “Let us go for the morning walk.” Indirect : He exclaimed that man is a
10. He said, “Please do not disturb me in my strange piece of work.
studies.”

ww ( 4) Exclamatory Sentences
The sentences which carry the sense of sudden
Exercise
Change the following sentences from Direct
into Indirect Narration :

w
joy, sorrow, wonder, disappointment are called

.Ea
Exclamatory sentences. These sentences generally
begin with such exclamatory words as—Alas, Oh,
Hurrah, Bravo, How, What a, etc.
1. Ram said, “Alas ! I am ruined.”
2. Mohan said, “Alas ! My friend has drow-
ned.”
3. Mohan said, “Bravo! We have got the

syE
Rules
Rule 1—In place of the Reporting Verb ‘said’
shield.”
4. He said, “How happy I am !”
5. My mother said, “May Heaven bless you !”
some other Verbs as exclaimed, wished,
prayed are used according to the sense.
Rule 2—Connective ‘that’ is used. ngi 6. The poor man said, “May Heaven hear my
prayers !”
Rule 3—After the Reporting Verb, we use such
expressions as joyfully, sorrowfully,
with sorrow, with joy, in astonishment,
nee 7. Ram said, “Good Heavens ! What a sight it
was !”
8. Mohan said, “O ! You have come !”
etc. according to the sense.
Rule 4—Exclamatory sentence is changed into rin
9. He said, “Could I see my mother at this
hour !”
Assertive sentence.
Rule 5—The Rules for change of Tense and g.n
10. Ram said, “O, could I help him !”
(5) Question-Tags
Pronoun are the same as used in Asser-
tive sentences.
Rule 6—If the Exclamatory sentence in the Direct
Narration is incomplete, it is made a
complete sentence in the Indirect
e
Question-Tags can be added to two types of
sentences—Interrogative sentences and Imperative
sentences. We shall consider them separately. t
(I) Interrogative Question-Tags
Narration by adding appropriate Subject
and Verb. The following Rules apply in changing the
Question–Tags connected with the Reported
Solved Examples
speech from Direct into Indirect Narration—
Direct : He said, “Alas ! I am ruined.”
Rule 1— While changing into Indirect Narration,
Indirect : He cried with grief that he was the Assertive sentence is left out.
ruined.
Rule 2— The Question-Tag is changed into Indi-
Direct : The Captain said, “Bravo ! We rect Narration under normal Rules, but
have won the match.” the Question–Tag (which is generally an
Indirect : The Captain exclaimed with joy incomplete sentence) is made a complete
that they had won the match. sentence. As—

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DIRECT AND INDIRECT NARRATION | 187

Direct : He said, “You are a good sports- Let : Proposal

man, aren’t you ?” Sometimes Let suggests Proposal. In these
Indirect : He asked whether I was a good sentences the following Rules apply—
sportsman. (i) Proposed or suggested is used for Re-
Direct : I said, “Ram has secured first porting Verb.
division, hasn’t he ?” (ii) Connective that is used.
Indirect : I asked whether Ram had secu- (iii) Let is removed, and ‘should’ is used in
red first division. its place.
(II) Imperative Question-Tag (iv) The Objective case coming after ‘Let’
The Imperative Question–Tags are changed is changed into Nominative case. As—
into Indirect Narration under the following Rules– Direct : The Captain said, “Let us play a
friendly match.”

wwRule 1—In the Indirect Narration the Question–

Tag is left out.
Rule 2—Only the Imperative sentence is conver-
Indirect : The Captain proposed that we
should play a friendly match.

w ted into Indirect form under normal Rules

discussed earlier in this chapter. The

.Ea
Reporting Verb is changed into told,
asked, requested, etc., and the main Verb
is changed into an Infinitive. As—
Let : Wish
Sometimes ‘Let’ suggests wish or desire. In
these sentences the following Rules apply—
(i) Requested, wished or desired are used

syE
Direct : He said to me, “Bring me a cup
of tea, will you ?”
for Reporting Verb.
(ii) Connective that is used.
(iii) Should is used in place of Let.

ngi
Indirect : He requested me to bring him a
cup of tea. (iv) The Objective case coming after Let is
Direct : He said, “Go away from here, changed into Nominative Case. As—
will you ?”
Indirect : He asked me to go away form
there. nee Direct : The boy said, “Let me go out to
play.”
Indirect : The boy wished that he should
(6) Sentences beginning with ‘Let’
rin
go out to play.
Direct : The man said, “Let me have the

g.n
Sentences beginning with ‘Let’ express the
first choice.”
sense of order, wish, proposal, imagining, con-
dition, etc. They are converted into Indirect Indirect : The man wished that he should

e
Narration according to their sense. The Reporting have the first choice.
Verb is changed into ordered, requested, pro-
posed, wished, supposed, etc. according to the
sense. In all such sentences ‘Let’ is removed and
connective ‘that’ is used. Other changes are made
according to normal Rules. Some typical points
Some General Observations
(1) In order to maintain continuity of thought,
different sentences in a paragraph are connected
with such expressions as the following—
t
are given below— He continued, He further said, He also
Let : Order said, Continuing he said, etc.
Sometimes Let suggests order. In such (2) As we have stated above, the Interroga-
sentences orderd, asked, or directed are used for tive and Imperative sentences in the Reported
the Reporting Verb. In place of L e t we use speech are changed into Assertive sentences. For
should. As— doing so, the subject is used before the Verb.
Direct : The Principal said, “Let no stu- As—
dent stand here.” Direct : He asked, “Where are you go-
Indirect : The Principal ordered that no ing?”
student should stand there. Indirect : He asked where he was going.

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188 | L.W.C.E.

Direct : He said, “Hurrah ! We have won Direct : The teacher said, “Where are
the match.” you going, Ramesh ?”
Indirect : He exclaimed joyfully that they Indirect : Calling Ramesh the teacher
had won the match. asked him where he was going.
Direct : He said, “Alas ! he is dead.” Direct : The policeman said, “I will put
Indirect : He mournfully exclaimed that he you behind the bars, you
was dead. wicked.”
(3) The sense of Oh, Alas, Hurrah, Bravo, Indirect : Calling him wicked the police-
etc. used in Exclamatory sentences is expressed by man said to him that he would
such expressions as the following— put him behind the bars.
He said sorrowfully or joyfully or cheerfully Direct : He said, “Give unto me the light
or surprisingly or mournfully etc. of truth, Reverend Father.”

ww (4) When words like Sir, your Honour, your

Majesty, Please, Kindly, etc. are used in the
Reported speech, their sense is expressed by using
Indirect : Calling him Reverend Father he
implored him to give unto him
the light of truth.

w
the following expressions with the Reporting
(8) When ‘May’ is used in the sense of
Verb, and these words are dropped—

.Ea
request or prayer in the Reported speech, it is
He said respectfully or politely or humbly or shifted from there and its sense is expressed by
gently or reverently etc. As— such words as ‘He prayed ……’ along with the
Direct : The student said to the teacher,

syE
“Sir, mark me present.”
Indirect : The student respectfully reques-
ted the teacher to mark him pre-
Reporting Verb. As—
Direct : He said, “May you live long !”
Indirect : He prayed for a long life to him.
sent.
(5) In the same way, the sense of G o o d ngi (9) The student can exercise his own
discretion too and use certain words from his own
side in order to make the sense clear in the
Morning, Good Evening, etc. is expressed by
such expressions as ‘He greeted him’.
(6) When words like Yes, No, Certainly, Not nee
Indirect Narration.
Solved Examples
at all, Never, etc. are used in the Reported speech,
their sense is expressed by such expressions as—
(I) Direct

rin
: A fawn one day said to his
mother, “Mother, you are
bigger than a dog and swifter

g.n
“He replied in the affirmative or negative.”
and better-minded, and you
Direct : Ram asked him, “Will you go to
have horns to defend yourself:
Delhi ?” He replied, “No”.

e
how is it that you are so afraid
Indirect : Ram asked him whether he

t
of the hounds ?” She smiled
would go to Delhi. He replied in and said, “All this, my child, I
the negative. know fully well. But no soo-
(7) When some person or thing is addressed ner do I hear a dog bark than
to in the Reported speech, or when some special somehow or other my heels
Adjective is used for a thing or person, those take me off as fast as they can
words of address or admiration are shifted from carry me.”
there and expressed with the Reporting Verb. Indirect : A fawn one day said to her
As— mother that she was bigger
Direct : The speaker said, “Ladies and than a dog, and swifter and
Gentlemen, it is my proud privi- better-minded, and she had
lege to talk to you this after- horns to defend herself : how
noon.” was it, then, he asked, that she
Indirect : Addressing the audience he said was so afraid of the hounds.
that it was his proud privilege to At that she smiled and ans-
talk to them that afternoon. wered to her child that she

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DIRECT AND INDIRECT NARRATION | 189

knew all that fully well; but (VI) Direct : Pt. Nehru said, “Ladies and
no sooner did she hear a dog gentlemen, the whole society
bark than somehow or other, is responsible for the preva-
her heels took her off as fast lence of corruption in the
as they could carry her. country.”
(II) Direct : But the sea-god cried, “Do not Indirect : Addressing the audience Pt.
be afraid, noble prince; I have Nehru said that the whole
taken pity on you and will society was responsible for
help you.” the prevalence of corruption
Indirect : But the sea-god told the noble in the country.
prince not to be afraid, and (VII) Direct : He said, “Please daddy, let me
assured him that he had taken attend the marriage party of
pity on him (the prince) and my friend.”

ww(III) Direct :
would help him.
“Curse it !” exclaimed the dri-
ver, “Who could have fore-
Indirect : He requested his daddy to per-
mit him to attend the marriage
party of his friend.

w Indirect :
seen such ill-luck ? But for
the accident we should have

.Ea
caught the train easily.”
The driver exclaimed with a
(VIII) Direct : He said to me, “Are you not
going to school today?” I said,
“No.”
Indirect : He asked me whether (if) I

syE
curse that nobody could have
foreseen such ill-luck, and
said that but for that accident
they would have caught the
was not going to school that
day. I answered that I was not.
(IX) Direct : He said, “I am not going to

(IV) Direct :
train easily.
Once a rich man said to his ngi help you, you fool.”
Indirect : Calling him a fool he said that
poor brother, “Why do you
not enter the service of the
king, so that you may relieve nee
(X)
he was not going to help him.
Direct : “Let us see him today”, said
Ram.

rin
yourself from the baseness of
labour ?” Indirect : Ram suggested (proposed) that
Indirect : Once a rich man asked his they should see him that day.
poor brother why he did not
enter the service of the king,
g.n
Revision Exercise 1
Change the following sentences into Indirect

e
so that he might relieve him-
Narration :

t
self from the baseness of
labour. 1. Ram said to Mohan, “I can tell you what
(V) Direct : Finding no remedy she said to strikes me as the most useful medicine in
herself, “It is better to die than the world.” “Can you, Ram ? I should like
to live in such misery as I am to hear of it ? What is it used for ?” asked
compelled to suffer from a Mohan.
husband who treats me and 2. “This beautiful girl, ”said he,“ is one whom
has always treated me so un- I have decided to marry.”
kindly.”
Indirect : Finding no remedy she said to 3. “Can you tell me the address of Mr.
herself that it was better to die Somprakash ?” said the stranger to me, “I
than to live in such misery as have to see him in connection with some
she was compelled to suffer important business.”
from a husband who treated 4. He said to me, “Is it the suit you put on last
her and had always treated her night ?” “No”, I said, “that was a different
so unkindly. one.”

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190 | L.W.C.E.

5. “Can you tell me the name of your father ?” 19. All her maidens watching said, “She must
said the teacher to the boy, “I want to see weep, or she will die.”
him before Sunday.” 20. “I am sorry indeed”, replied the king, “that
6. Mohan said, “It is a pleasant time when the my vessel is already chosen; and I cannot
sun is setting and the birds are returning to therefore sail with the son of the man who
their nests. I want to go for a walk.” served my father.”
7. He said, “Father ! take pity. The purse has 21. “The person who caused me this injury was
been stolen by the servant and not by me.” wearing a black suit,” said the injured
8. The lawyer said, “My profession is one that person returning to consciousness, “I can
needs strenuous work and serious study.” recognise him if he is brought before me.”
9. “And you are the most naughty boy of the 22. He said, “Let him do whatever he can; I am
class,” said the teacher, “I shall turn you not afraid of him.”

ww out of the class.”

10. The doctor said, “Do not take butter while
you are under my treatment, otherwise the
23. Mohan said to his brother, “Do not go to
the river today. It is in flood and you may
drown.”

w disease is likely to be aggravated.”

.Ea
11. Churchill said, “Believe in conciliatory
politics but keep the powder dry.”
12. The violent man said, “What violence have
24. “And the game was excellently played by
them,” said Sohan : “they lost only 4
wickets for 150 runs.”
25. The lawyer said, “What could I do if the

syE
I done ? What anger have I been guilty of
?” Then the other laughed and to said to
him, “Why should we speak ? You have
Magistrate himself was a fool ? But why
should you worry about his judgment. Let
us prefer an appeal to the High Court.”
given us sufficient proof of your violent
temper.”
ngi 26. My friend said, “M/s Pannalal Manikchand
are a very honest firm. You can safely deal
with them.”

nee
13. “Your drawing room is excellently decora-
ted,” said the visitor : “Where did you find 27. The teacher said entering the classroom,
the artist who painted these pictures ?” “Why? What is the matter ? The attendance
14. The sailor said, “We were all frightened
when the ship started tilting towards the
right. After a few seconds the engine- rin
is so thin.” The boys replied, “Sir, most of
our friends have gone to visit the exhibi-
chamber was flooded and the ship ultima-
tely sank to the bottom.”
tion.”

g.n
28. The money-lender said, “Why should I wait
for a week ? Didn’t you promise to pay me
15. The old woman said, “I have surprised
many people by saying that I am seventy-
five years old, because I do not look so old
on account of my good health.”
e
today ? I cannot budge an inch without
realising the whole amount from you.”
29. He said, “I will help you whenever you
need my help but you will have to work at
t
16. “I shall persuade my friend to give up the same time.”
smoking, ” said Ramesh to the doctor. “He
should recover otherwise his family will 30. The holyman said, “Do not be impatient
starve.” about the result. Leave it to God. You have
done your duty, that’s all.”
17. He cried to them in agony, “Row back at
any risk ! I cannot bear to leave her behind 31. He said, “My father was groaning with pain
to be drowned.” when the doctor came. But his medicine
was so effective that pain disappeared in
18. And he said, “I will arise and go to my
five minutes.”
father, and will say unto him : Father, I
have sinned against heaven and before thee 32. He said to me, “Your brother has secured
and am no more worthy to be called thy first class in B.A. What have you thought
son. Make me as one of thy hired servants.” about his further studies ?”

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DIRECT AND INDIRECT NARRATION | 191

33. My neighbour said, “Last night the dacoits 3. Kali, the youngest of them began to sob and
raided my house. They searched the entire moan. “What shall I do ?” she cried, “So
house and took away the ornaments with young to die ! I have not yet seen life.”
them. Didn’t you hear the gun-shots ?” “Peace, child, ” said Sita, the eldest among
them. “wailing will not help us. Let us seek
34. The servant said, “Sir, somebody has come aid from the gods, they will surely hear us.”
to meet you. He is waiting outside.”
4. The teacher said to Hari, “Bring your book
35. He said, “It was raining heavily when I left and stand near me.” Hari was a little
my house. But I was saved by my over- nervous and replied. “Sir, I bring my book
coat.” to school everyday but I have forgotten to
36. When the water started boiling, the lid of bring it today.” At this the teacher was
the kettle was flung aside by the force of angry and said, “Why are you not looking
steam, and James Watt said, “Oh ! Steam is into the book of your friend, then ? Are you

ww very powerful. I can work wonders with its

help.”
Revision Exercise (Advanced) 2
not ashamed of yourself ?”
5. “I saw your father and he was looking very
ill,” I said. “Yes”, Sita replied, “that is just

w .Ea
Change the following sentences from Direct
into Indirect Nar-ration :
1. “Why did you not come to school yesterday
what worries me.” “But why worry”, I said,
“why not consult a physician ?” She kept
quiet for a while and then said, “Alas ! We
are too poor for that.”

syE
?” asked the teacher. “My mother is very
ill, sir, and my father has gone to Calcutta”,
replied Govind. “Is there no one else to
6. Ram : “Please come and tell me some-
thing.”
Shyam : “What do you want me to tell
look after your mother”, enquired the
teacher. Govind said there was none and
prayed, “Please excuse me for being absent ngi you?”
Ram : “There is not anything special, for I

yesterday and grant me leave for today and

tomorrow.” nee only want to know how many children were
born in Calcutta yesterday ?”
7. “What are you doing here ?” said the Tiger
2. The master said to the servant, “What have
you done with the money I gave you yester-
rin
to the Hare. “I am looking at my grand-
father’s going,” replied the Hare. “Where is

g.n
day ?” “I have spent it all, sir, but I will not it ?” asked the Tiger. The Hare said, “It is
ask for any today,” replied the servant. “Is there under the tree. Have a good look at it,
that the way to talk to your boss?” enquired but please don’t kill me.”
the master. The servant was sorry and said
with folded hands, “Please, forgive my
rudeness.” e
8. “Pardon me, dear master,” said Ariel, “I
will obey your commands.” “Do so,” said
his master, “and I will set you free.”
t

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15 Analysis
Some General Observation Principal, Co-ordinate and Subordinate clauses
and pointing out their mutual grammatical rela-
Some Basic Concepts tionships.

wwClause—
“A group of words that forms part of a
sentence, and has a Subject and a Predicate of its
How to break up a sentence into its Clauses—
While breaking up a complex / compound

w
sentence into its clauses, it should be remembered
own, is called a Clause.” (Wren) that it will have as many clauses as it has Finite

.Ea
Clauses are of Three kinds :
1. Principal Clause
2. Subordinate Clause
Verbs. It should be kept in mind that only the
Finite Verbs, and not Gerunds, Infinitives, or
Participles make the clauses.

syE
3. Co-ordinate Cluase
Principal Clause—Principal Clause is the
main clause of the whole sentence.
How to find the Principal Clause—
The first step in clause Analysis is to find out
the Principal Clause. The question is how to
Subordinate Clause—“A Subordinate
Clause is a component part of some other clause, ngi distinguish a Principal clause from its co-ordinate
or Subordinate clauses. In this connection it
should be remembered that a sub-ordinate clause
in which it does the work (without possessing the
form) of a Noun, Adjective or Adverb”. (Nesfield)
Co-ordinate Clause—“A Co-ordinate clause nee
always begins with a subordinating conjunction.
Likewise, a Co-ordinate clause begins with a co-
ordinating conjunction. Therefore a clause which
is not a component part of any other clause but
forms a complete grammatical whole by itself.”
rin
begins neither with a subordinating nor a co-
ordinating conjunction is the Principal Clause.

g.n
(Nesfield) The following are the Subordinating conjunctions
Simple Sentence—A simple sentence is one with which a subordinate clause may begin—
which has only one Finite Verb, and may have a
Subject and a Predicate.

one Finite verb.” (Wren)

Or
“A Simple Sentence is one which has only
e
When, where, which, what, how, who,
whom, whose, whether, if, provided, provided
that, notwithstanding, as, as if, as though, as
much as, as far as, as soon as, as long as, so
long as, according as, after, before, because,
t
Complex Sentence—A complex sentence is since, until, unless, for, in that, than that, now
one that contains one Main Clause (Principal that, though, so that, in order that, so much so
clause) and one or more Subordinate clauses.” that.
(Wren)
Compound Sentence—“A Compound Sent- A Principal clause will not begin with any of
ence is one made up of two or more Co-ordinate the above listed conjunctions—
clauses.” For example—
It may or may not have a subordinate clause. I met the man who came yesterday.
Clause Analysis In this sentence there are two clauses :
Clause Analysis means analysing or breaking One, ‘I met the man’, and the second, ‘who
up of a complex or compound sentence into its came yesterday’. Now, this second clause begins

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ANALYSIS | 193

with the Subordinating conjunction who; therefore (III) Noun Clause as the Object of a Preposi-
this is the Subordinate Clause. The first clause tion—
does not begin with any Subordinating conjunc- (a) Give full attention to what I say.
tion and is, therefore, the Principal Clause.
“what I say” is the object of the Pre-
Analysis of Complex Sentences position ‘to’.
As we have stated above, a complex sentence (b) My success in future depends upon how
has a Principal clause and one or more Subordi- you help me in this case.
nate clauses.
“how you help me in this case” is the
Subordinate Clauses are of three kinds— object of the Preposition ‘upon’.
1. Subordinate Noun Clause (c) This book will sell for what it is worth.
2. Subordinate Adjective Clause
(d) I can find no meaning in what you have
3. Subordinate Adverb Clause said.

ww (I) Subordinate Noun Clause

Subordinate Noun Clause does the work of a
(e) I have no complaint except that I have
a headache.

w
Noun— (IV) Noun Clause as a Complement to a
A Noun Clause has the following Five func- Verb—
tions—
.Ea
(i) The Subject of a verb
(a) This is what I told you.
“what I told you” is the complement to

syE
(ii) The Object of a Transitive verb
(iii) The Object of a Preposition
(iv) The Complement to a verb of incomp-
the Verb ‘is’.
(b) My great fear is that he may drown.
“that he may drown” is the comple-
lete predication.
(v) Case in apposition to a noun.
(I) Noun Clause as the Subject of a verb— ngi ment to the Verb ‘is’.
(c) Life is how we live it.

(a) Where he lives is not known to me.

“Where he lives” is the subject of the nee (d) My question was whether you could do
this work.
(e) This is where I lived last year.
Verb ‘is’.
(b) That you should tell a lie surprises me.
rin
(V) Noun Clause as Case in Apposition to a
Noun—
“That you should tell a lie” is the subject
of the Verb ‘surprises’.
In the same way : g.n
(a) The rumour that he committed the
murder has come true.

(c) How he reached there is a mystery.

(d) When I shall return is uncertain.
(e) Whether he will help you is not sure.
e
“that he committed the murder” is case
in apposition to the noun ‘rumour’.
(b) The report that the enemy is coming is
wrong. t
(II) Noun Clause as the Object of a Transitive “that the enemy is coming” is case in
verb— apposition to the noun ‘report’.
(a) He told me that he was going to Calcutta. (c) Your suspicion that the servant has
“that he was going to Calcutta” is the stolen the watch is baseless.
object of the Verb ‘told’. (d) His hope that he would be selected for
(b) I do not know where he lives. the post has been belied.
“where he lives” is the object of the Verb (e) His ambition that he may become the
‘know’. President of India is illfounded.
(c) I spend what I earn. How to recognize a Noun Clause—
(d) I do not know which book you want. Noun Clause often begins with the following
(e) He replied that he did not go there. three connectives—

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(I) Conjunction “That” 15. Except that he is annoyed very soon, he is

A clause beginning with that and coming an excellent man.
immediately after a Transitive Verb is a Noun 16. Your verision of the case that Ram
clause. As— committed the theft is wrong.
He said that he was not guilty. 17. His argument that an absconder is always
(II) A clause beginning with any Relative or a thief, is untenable.
Interrogative Adverb is a Noun clause, provided 18. The news that I have passed in the first
that the Adverb so used does not have its antece- divison has given great pleasure to my
dent. As— mother.
I want to know where he lives. 19. This is what I never expected.
Or 20. I wanted to know whether you can help
I do not know why he came last night. me in this work.

ww (III) A clause beginning with any Relative or

Interrogative Pronoun is a Noun clause, provi-
ded that the Pronoun so used does not have its
21. Tell me how you found out the solution
of this problem.
22. Which is the biggest city in the world is

w
antecedent. As—

.Ea
I want to know who has done this.
Exercise
not known to many people.
23. ‘That Christ is the embodiment of God on
earth’ is the belief of an orthodox Chris-
tian.

syE
Pick out the Noun Clauses in the following
sentences and point out their functions—
1. It is not known whether the school is
24. Whatever you learn is forgotten without
practice.
25. I cannot rely on what you say.
closed today.
2. How the horse received such a grievous
injury is difficult to tell. ngi (II) Subordinate Adjective Clause

nee
“An Adjective Clause is one which does the
3. What you have done today will bring work of an Adjective in relation to some other
disgrace to you. clause.” (Nesfield)
4. I know that my son is innocent.
5. Mohan can tell you where your friend has
rin
An Adjective Clause is the clause which
qualifies a Noun or a Pronoun in some other
clause in the sentence.

g.n
gone.
6. That the sun is hot is known to (1) An Adjective clause begins with a Rela-
everybody. tive Pronoun or a Relative Adverb, provided the
7. It is evident from his conduct that he is
not prepared to compromise.
8. I believe that you are the only successful
student in the whole class.
tely before it. As—
e
Pronoun or Adverb has its Antecedent immedia-

(a) This is the boy who stole my fountain-

pen. t
“who stole my fountainpen” is an
9. I knew that the thief had escaped. Adjective Clause because it begins with
10. Even a fool can tell that an elephant is the Relative Pronoun ‘who’ and its Ante-
bigger than a bull. cedent ‘boy’ has been used immediately
11. I am prepared to face whatever calamity before it.
falls on me. (b) I want to know the time when the train
12. Perceiving what an error he had arrives here.
committed, he yielded. “when the train arrives here” is an
13. A man’s salary depends upon what post Adjective Clause because it begins with
he holds. the Relative Adverb ‘when’ and its Ante-
cedent ‘time’ comes immediately before
14. My ring is made of what we call gold.
it.

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ANALYSIS | 195

(c) Do you know the place where he lives ? beginning with ‘than’ is an Adjective
(d) Tell me the reason why you have dismis- clause.
sed me. (b) It was a blow than which no crueler
(e) He is the man whom I admire most. could be struck.
(f) This is the serpent that is most poison- In this sentence ‘than which’ means ‘in
ous. comparison to which’, therefore the
clause begining with ‘than’ is an Adjec-
(g) He is the man whose house caught fire tive clause.
last night.
(2) Sometimes the Relative Pronoun or the
Exercise
Relative Adverb with which the Adjective clause Pick out the Adjective clauses in the follow-
begins, remains understood. In such a case, the ing sentences and point out the Noun or Pronoun
Relative Pronoun / Adverb should be mentally which they qualify—

wwadded from your side before attempting the

analysis. As—
(a) He is the man λ I know very well.
1. The ring I lost was very costly.
2. Tell me the time when you want me to go
there.

w In this sentence ‘whom’ is understood at

.Ea
the point marked thus λ . Therefore ‘I
know very well’ is an Adjective clause.
(b) Return the book λ I gave you.
3. Do you know the spot where gold is
hidden ?
4. He who reads without understanding is
sure to fail.

syE
‘that’ is understood.
(c) Here is the servant λ I engaged yesterday.
5. He does best who begins best.
6. All that glitters is not gold.
7. He that is poor need fear no theft.
In this sentence ‘whom’ is understood.
(d) He is the man λ I called here yesterday.
‘whom’ is understood. ngi 8. We are such stuff as dreams are made of.
9. There was not a soldier in the squad but

(3) Sometimes ‘but’ is used as a Relative

Pronoun, which is negative in meaning. In such a nee could hit the target.
10. All the milk we use comes from villages.
11. God helps those who help themselves.

rin
case the clause beginning with ‘but’ is an
Adjective clause. As— 12. The hour I chose to meet my friend was
odd.
(a) There was not a soldier but fought
bravely to the end.
In this sentence ‘but’ means ‘who did sant.
g.n
13. The time when the sun sets is very plea-

not’, and therefore but ‘fought bravely’ is

an Adjective clause.
(b) There is no man but loves his country.
Here ‘but’ means “who does not.”
e
14. He is the boy who stole my pen.
15. There is not a man in India but adores
Mahatma Gandhi.
16. The woman I married turned unfaithful. t
(c) There is no crime but can be detected. 17. The gods we adore write their names on
our faces.
Here ‘but’ means ‘that cannot be’.
18. I have seen the place where Mahatma
(4) Sometimes ‘than’ is used as a Preposi- Gandhi was born.
tion before a Relative Pronoun. In such a case, the
clause beginning with ‘than’ is a Relative Pro- 19. Those whom God loves die young.
noun. As— 20. Those who live in glass houses should not
throw stones at others.
(a) We are all followers of the principles of
Mahatma Gandhi than whom India has (III) Subordinate Adverb Clause
produced no nobler saint. “An Adverb Clause is one which does the
In this sentence ‘than whom’ means ‘in work of an adverb to some Verb, Adjective, or
whose comparison’, therefore the clause Adverb in some other clause.” (Nesfield)

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Like an Adverb it qualifies some verb, Adjec- (III) Adverb Clause of Purpose—points to
tive or Adverb in another clause. The following some purpose and begins with that, so that, lest,
are its Adverbial functions— etc.
(i) Adverb Clause of Time (a) He worked very hard that he may pass.
(ii) Adverb Clause of Place “that he may pass” is Adverb Clause of
Purpose because it shows purpose.
(iii) Adverb Clause of Purpose (b) Go quickly lest you should miss the
(iv) Adverb Clause of Cause or Reason train.
(v) Adverb Clause of Condition (c) Forgive so that you may be forgiven.
(vi) Adverb Clause of Result (IV) Adverb Clause of Cause or Reason—
(vii) Adverb Clause of Comparison points to c a u s e or reason and begins with
because, since, as, for, that, etc.
(viii) Adverb Clause of Supposition.

ww (I) Adverb Clause of Time—Adverb Clause

of Time shows time and begins with Adverbs of
(a) I must take rest because I am tired.
“because I am tired” is Adverb Clause of
Reason.

w
time like ‘When’, ‘Whenever’, ‘While’, ‘After’, (b) Since you are so clever, I cannot trust
‘Before’, ‘Since’, ‘As’, etc. you.

.Ea
(a) I shall go with you when you return
from Kanpur.
(c) As I am indisposed, I cannot attend the
college today.

syE
“when you return from Kanpur” is (d) I am glad that you have come in time.
Adverb Clause of Time because it shows (V) Adverb Clause of Condition—shows
time. condition and begins with If, Whether, Unless,
Provided, On condition, etc. As—

ngi
(b) I shall come whenever you need my
help. (i) (a) I shall go if you come in time.
(c) Do not disturb while the patient is sleep- “if you come in time” is Adverb Clause of
ing.
(d) He reached here after the clock had
struck ten.
nee Condition.
(b) I shall not help you unless you promise
to work very hard.

(e) Take rest before you are tired. reply or not.

rin
(c) You must go whether you receive my

(d) I can forgive you on condition that you

g.n
(f) I have not been well since I returned
from America. do not repeat the crime.
(g) Apply the brakes as I give you the (ii) Sometimes Adverb Clause of condition has
signal.
(h) No sooner did I enter the room than the
thief bolted away.
(II) Adverb Clause of Place—Adverb Clause
e
the connective ‘If’ understood. As—
(a) Had I not seen it with my own eys, I
would not have believed it.
Here “Had I not” means “If I had not”
(b) Were he more honest, he would have
t
of Place points to place and begins with Adverbs been happier.
of place like ‘Where’, ‘Wherever’, ‘Whence’, Here “Were he” means “If he were”.
‘Whither’, etc. (iii) If the Relative Pronoun or the Relative
(a) You should stand where you are. Adverb does not have its Antecedent before
it, the clause beginning with it can be an
“where you are” is Adverb Clause of Adverb Clause of Condition. As—
Place because it points to place.
(a) I shall go whatever happens.
(b) I shall purchase the book wherever it (b) We cannot reach before sunset which-
may be found. ever train we catch.
(c) Return at once whence you came. (c) However you try, you cannot deceive
(d) The wind bloweth whither it listeth. me.

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ANALYSIS | 197

(VI) Adverb Clause of Result points to some (VIII) Adverb Clause o f Supposition—It
result and often begins with ‘that’, preceded by points to some supposition and often begins with
‘so’ or ‘such’. It can also begin with ‘therefore’. the Subordinating conjunction ‘Though’,
As— ‘Although’ or ‘Even if’. As—
(a) He worked so hard that he secured first (a) Although he was tired, he finished the
division. work before sunset.
“that he secured first divison” is Adverb “Although he was tired” is Adverb
Clause of Result. Clause of Supposition.
(b) He is so saintly that everybody respects (b) Though he is poor, he is honest.
him. (c) Do not be depressed, even if you fail.
(c) He worked hard so he passed. Exercise
(d) He worked i n such a defective manner
Pick out the Adverb clause in each of the

ww that he failed to get success.

(e) I worked hard, therefore I passed.
(ii) Sometimes the connective ‘that’ may be
following sentences and tell which kind of Adverb
clause it is and which word in the Principal it
modifies—

w understood also.

.Ea
He is so tired, λ he cannot stand. In this
sentence ‘that’ is understood.
(VII) Adverb Clause of Comparison—
1. He is honest, though he is poor.
2. Do in Rome as the Romans do.
3. The doctor was as kind as I thought.
4. Your handwritting is so beautiful that
son.
syE
There are two kinds of Adverb Clause of compari-

(i) Adverb Clause of Comparison of Degree.

everyone should admire it.
5. A glutton lives that he may eat.
6. The thief was caught on the road as he was
(ii) Adverb Clause of Comparison of Manner.
(1) Adverb Clause o f Comparison of De- ngi running away with the purse.
7. I reached the station after the train had
gree—It shows comparison of state or situation
and often begins with the Subordinating con-
junction ‘than’ or Relative Adverb ‘as’. As— nee steamed off.
8. I will keep awake while you sleep.
9. Wash your hands before you take your
(a) He is not so foolish as his father thinks.
“as his father thinks” is Adverb Clause
meals.

rin
10. I have been ill since I left Simla.

g.n
of Comparison of degree. 11. He failed as I could not help him.
(b) Her heart is as pure as her face is beauti- 12. I will give you money whenever you need.
ful.

e
13. I must meet my friend wherever I may
(c) Your health is better than it was before.

t
find him.
(ii) In Adverb Clause of Comparison the Verb 14. The wind bloweth whither it listeth.
often remains understood.
15. It is better to reign in hell than to serve in
As— heaven.
(a) I am a better swimmer than you (are). 16. If you do not strike while the iron is hot,
Here Verb ‘are’ is understood. you cannot mould it.
(b) You have visited a larger number of 17. He promised to pay Rs. 100/-in cash, lest
foreign countries than I (have). he should lose the bargain.
(2) Adverb Clause of Comparison of Man- 18. He ran very fast that he might catch the
ner—It shows comparison of manner, and often train.
begins with the Relative Adverb ‘as’.
19. Women are more sentimental than they are
(a) As you earn so you must spend. wise.
“as you earn” is Adverb Clause of 20. Since the man was very cruel, his wife
Comparison of manner. refused to go with him.
(b) He did as he pleased. 21. I am glad that you have come in time.

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198 | L.W.C.E.

22. Some people talk as though they were very (d) I put several questions to him but he
honest. failed to answer any of them.
23. Enmity with a wise man is better than (II) Sometimes co-ordinating connective re-
friendship with a fool. mains understood. In that case the comma (,) or
24. He is stronger than he looks. Semi-Colon (;) does the work of connective con-
25. Have you gone mad that you stare at me in junction. Sometimes even the Verb also remains
such a manner ? understood. As—
26. The thief, while he was passing through (a) His life is simple; his thoughts sublime.
the gallery, was seen by the servant of the (b) Action is life, idleness death.
house. (c) Beauty is truth, truth beauty.
27. Strike the iron while it is hot. (d) Prosperity finds friends, adversity tries
them.
28. The cuckoo comes when the winter is

ww over. (III) Sometimes a co-ordinate clause may

begin with a subordinating connective. As—
29. I love you as much as your father.
(a) I shall meet you tomorrow, when we
30. The moon is cool though it shines.

w
shall finalise the plan.
31. The farmer works all day that he may earn
In this sentence ‘when’ means ‘and then’.

.Ea
his bread.
Therefore the clause beginn-ing with
32. He looks quite healthy considering that he when is a co-ordinate clause.
is above seventy.
(b) We went to the aerodrome, where we
dark.
syE
33. Men fear death as children fear to go in the

34. Had there been no sun, it would have been

bade him adieu.
Here “where” means “and there”.
(c) I found a purse, which I brought home.
dark all over the world.
35. As soon as you get the clue, give the
signal to me. ngi Here “which” means “and which”.
(IV) Sometimes Compound sentences are

nee
written in their contracted form, and only one
36. If my uncle comes today, I shall leave for Verb is used for both the Verbs. As—
Calcutta with him.
(a) He is rich but unhappy.
37. He is so weak, he can hardly speak.
38. I know more about my brother than you
know about him.
rin
In the above sentence ‘but unhappy’ is the
contracted form of “but he is unhappy”.
Therefore this is a co-ordinate clause.
39. The souls of holy men go to heaven
whence they do not return.
40. I do it because I cannot help doing so. g.n
(b) Either you must pay or your father.
Here “or your father” means “or your

Analysis of Compound Sentences

A Compound Sentence is one which has one
Principal Clause and one or more Co-ordinate
father must pay”.

e
(c) Neither my father nor I can help you.
This sentence would mean “Neither my
father can help you nor can I help you”.
t
Clauses to the Principal Clause. It may or may not (d) All the soldiers as well as the comman-
have Subordinate Clauses. der were killed on the battle-field.
(I) Co-ordinate Clause often begins with This sentence means “All the soldiers
Conjunction ‘And’ or ‘But’ As— were killed on the battle-field as well as
(a) I went to the market and purchased a the commander was killed on the battle-
book. field”.
“and purchased a book” is Co-ordinate (V) Sometimes a co-ordinate clause may
Clause. begin with some Subordinating conjunctions like
(b) He went to Delhi yesterday and met the either……or; neither……nor; else, otherwise,
President there. etc. As—
(c) I offered to help him but he declined. (a) Either work hard or give up your studies.

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ANALYSIS | 199

(b) Neither you nor your father will get any (a) Breathes there the man with soul so dead
help. ……… (Principal Clause)
(c) Act according to my advice otherwise (b) Who never to himself hath said ………
you will repent. (Adjective Clause, Subordinate to Clause
(d) Behave properly, else I shall report A, qualifying ‘man’ in Clause A.)
against you. (c) “This is my own my native land” ………
Solved Examples (Noun Clause, Subordinate to Clause B,
Object to the Verb ‘hath said’.)
Analyse the following sentences :
The whole sentence is complex.
1. I have a generous friend, who gave me more 5. He that holds fast the golden mean,
monetary help than his financial condition
would have allowed. And lives contentedly between

ww
The little and the great,
(a) I have a generous friend ………………
(Principal Clause) Feels not the wants that pinch the poor,
Nor plagues that haunt the rich man’s door,
(b) Who gave me more monetary help ……

w (Subordinate Adjective Clause, qualify-

.Ea
ing “friend” in Clause A.)
(c) Than his financial condition would have
allowed ………… (Subordinate Adverb
Embittering all his state.
(a) He ……… feels not the wants. (Principal
Clause)
(b) that holds fast the golden mean ……

syE
Clause of Comparison)
The whole sentence is complex.
2. We, who are fortunate enough to live in this
(Adjective Clause, qualifying ‘he’ in
Clause A.)
(c) and lives contentedly between the little
enlightened century, hardly realise how our
ancestors suffered from their belief in the
existence of mysterious and molevolent ngi and the great. (Co-ordinate to Clause B.)
(d) that pinch the poor ……… (Adjective
beings.
(a) We … hardly realise. (Principal Clause) nee Clause, qualifying ‘wants’ in Clause A.)
(e) Nor (feels) plauges ……… (Co-ordinae
Clause to A.)
(b) Who are fortunate enough to live in this
enlightened century, ……… (Subordinate
Adjective Clause, qualifying “We” in rin
(f) that haunts the rich man’s doors, embit-
tering all his state…… (Adjective Clause,
Clause A.)
(c) How our ancestors suffered from their g.n
Subordinate to Clause E, qualifying
“Plagues” in Clause E.)
belief in the existence of mysterious and
malevolent beings ……… (Noun Clause,
Object to the Verb ‘realise’ in Clause A.)
The whole sentence is complex.
Exercise (General)
e
The whole sentence is compound.

Analyse the following sentences :

1. My heart leaps up when I behold the
t
3.A mere scholar who knows nothing but
rainbow in the sky.
books, must be ignorant even of them.
2. He is the greastest literary artist the world
(a) A mere scholar ……… must be ignorant
has ever produced.
even of them. (Principal Clause)
3. It is a common plea of the coward that
(b) Who knows nothing but books ……… success depends mainly upon luck.
(Adjective Clause, Subordinate to Clause
4. If the human arteries do not work properly,
A, qualifying “scholar” in Clause A.)
the body gets sick and a doctor has to be
The whole sentence is complex. called in.
4. Breathes there the man with soul so dead who 5. When the old man had gone, God called
never to himself hath said, “This is my own, Abraham and asked him where the stranger
my native land !” was.

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200 | L.W.C.E.

6. That Ahimsa is the highest duty of man is called the slaves of the person who bought
the teaching of Jainism. them.
7. A man who wants to control his animal 20. The history of mankind is a long story of
passions can easily do so if he controls his bloody wars and its most prominent figures
palate. are those who conquered other countries or
8. Milton said that he did not educate his defended their own against foreign
daughters because one tongue was enough invasions.
for a woman. 21. It is this line of argument that was extended
9. If we could only get a detached view of the to us when we were called upon to maim
continued efforts of mankind, we would be and kill, to wound and destroy people
amazed and profoundly moved. against whom we have no ill-will.
10. Indian culture has lived and flourished and 22. Those who want to perform national
will continue to do so because of the service or to have gleam of real religious

ww mighty creation of Vyas.

11. When I am ill, I am far more interested in
what the doctor hears through the 23.
life must lead a celebate life renouncing all
the pleasures of the world.
The man who can play most heartily when

w stethoscope in the flutterings of my heart.

.Ea
12. I hope it will give comfort to great numbers
who are passing through the world of
obscurity, when I inform them how easily 24.
he has the chance of playing, is generally
the man who can work most heartily when
he must work.
Should you be so unfortunate as to suppose

syE
distinction may be obtained.
13. All who have meant good work with their
whole heart, have done good work,
that you are a genius and that things will
come to you, it would be well to undeceive
yourself as soon as it is possible.

ngi
although they may die before they have the 25. We have seen how the government is
time to sign it. taking care of our railways, roads and ships
so that they can act as better carriers for the
14. Whatever luxuries a bachelor may be
surrounded with, he will always find his
happiness incomplete unless he has a wife
and children who may share and enhance
nee
26.
nation and add to the economic prosperity
of the people.
We cannot have peace until all the nations
his pleasure.
15. History says that Socrates, when he was rin
deal with each other in a spirit of equality
and friendliness until we develop a new
conception of integrated social life.
given the cup of hemlock, continued to talk
to the friends who were standing around
him, as he drank it.
27.
g.n
Even in ordinary affairs we know that
people do not know who rules or why and
16. If you put the end of an iron in the fire and
hold it there, you do something more than
heat that end, for you heat the whole of it
up to the end that you hold in your hand.
28. e
how he rules; and yet they know that there
is a power that certainly rules.
A gentleman who was fashionably dressed
was strolling, with a goldheaded cane in his
hand, when he was hailed by a miserable
t
17. The valley, which is called the Vale of looking lame man who was apparently in
Kashmir, is so charming that it has a world- needy circumstances.
wide fame. 29. If we recollect that we live among men
18. The rich man was much pleased that on who are imperfect by nature, we should not
account of the honesty of the owner of the be in such a fear when we find our friend’s
hut, he got back his bag which contained a failings.
hundred coins of gold. 30. Each generation is inclined to think that it
19. In olden times the cruel custom was in is wiser than all those that have gone
vogue that men, women and even children before, and in some respects the claim can
were sold as sheep and goats and they were be made good.

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16 Synthesis
Synthesis of Sentences— Separate : Turn to the left. You will
“Synthesis is the opposite of Analysis and reach the hospital.
means the combination of a number of simple Combined : Turning to the left you will

wwsentences into one new sentence—Simple, Com-

pound or Complex.” (Wren)
reach the hospital.
Separate : He sat on the sofa. He took

w
Synthesis has mainly three forms— his pen. He wrote a letter.
1. Combining of two or more Simple sente- Combined : Sitting on the sofa and taking

.Ea
nces into a single Simple Sentence.
2. Combining of two or more simple sente-
his pen, he wrote a letter.
Exercise

syE
nces into a single Complex Sentence.
Combine the following groups of sentences
3. Combining of two or more simple sente- into a new Simple Sentence by using Partici-
nces into a single Compound Sentence. ples :
Combining of Two or More Simple
Sentences into a Single
ngi 1. He drew his sword. He wounded his
enemy.
Simple Sentence
The following are the six ways of combining
two or more Simple sentences into a single Simple nee2. He took off his clothes. He plunged into the
river.
3. He opened his purse. He produced a five
Sentence—
1. By using a Participle.
rin
rupee-note. He purchased the ticket.
4. He drew his revolver. He loaded it quickly.
2. By using a Noun or a Phrase in Apposi-
tion
3. By using a Preposition with a Noun or g.n
He fired at the dacoit.
5. I saw two pretty girls. They were playing
with a ball.
Gerund
4. By using a Nominative Absolute
5. By using an Infinitive
6. By using an Adverb or Adverbial Phrase.
He was milking his cow.e
6. I was returning home. I saw a milk-man.

7. The thief saw the policeman. He made

good his escape.
t
We give below the details of each way— 8. He decided to pass the examination. He
(1) By using a Participle— studied day and night.
Separate : He saw a lion. He fled away. (2) By using a Noun or a Phrase in Apposi-
Combined : Seeing a lion he fled away. tion—
Separate : He jumped up. He ran away. Separate : Shakespeare died in 1616. He
Combined : Jumping up he ran away. was the greatest English poet
Separate : He was tired of reading. He and dramatist.
retired to bed. Combined : Shakespeare, the greatest
Combined : Tired (Being tired) of reading English poet and dramatist,
he retired to bed. died in 1616.

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202 | L.W.C.E.

Separate : Agra was once the capital of Combined : The train had left before our
the Mughal Empire. It is now reaching the station.
a very backward city. Or
Combined : Agra, once the capital of the Before our reaching the
Mughal Empire, is now a very station, the train had left.
backward city.
Separate : The Magistrate examined the
Separate : Subhashchandra Bose was statement. He found it full of
killed in a plane-crash. He gross errors.
was one of the greatest Combined : On examining the statement,
fighters for India’s freedom. the Magistrate found it full of
Combined : Subhashchandra Bose, one of gross errors.
the greatest fighters for Separate : The servant swept the room.

ww
India’s freedom, was killed in He found a rupee. The rupee
a plane-crash. was lying in the corner.
Separate : I love Mohan very much. He Combined : While sweeping the room, the

w
is my friend. servant found a rupee lying in
Combined : I love my friend Mohan very the corner.

Separate .Ea
much.
: I saw the famous wrestler. His
Separate : He saw an advertisement in
the paper. He applied for the

syE
name was Dara Singh. post. It was the post of an
Combined : I saw the famous wrestler, Accountant.
Dara Singh. Combined : On seeing an advertisement
for the post of an Accountant,
Exercise
Combine the following sentences into a
ngi he applied for it.
Separate : He has failed many times. He

nee
Simple Sentence by using a Noun or a Noun still hopes to get success at
phrase— last.
1. His father died. He was a man of eighty. Combined : In spite of many failures he
2. Columbus discovered America. He was a
famous sailor. last.
rin
still hopes to get success at

g.n
3. Everyone knows Dr. Radhakrishanan. He Separate : He failed at the examination.
was a great philosopher. He heard the news. He disap-
peared.
4. Gama died at Lahore at the age of eighty.
He was a world champion.
5. London is one of the biggest cities in the
world. It is the capital of Great Britain.
Great Britain is a great country.
disappeared.
Exercise
e
Combined : On hearing the news of his
failure at the examination, he

t
6. Nalanda was once the biggest centre of Combine the following sentences into a
learning. It is now a heap of ruins. Simple Sentence by using a Noun or a Gerund
7. Twice I have been to Delhi. It is the capital with a Preposition—
of India. 1. I made a thorough enquiry. I found him
8. Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru was a famous guilty.
lawyer. He studied at Agra College. Agra 2. I reached the house of my friend. He had
College is the oldest institution. gone to the market before that time.
(3) By using a Noun or a Gerund with a Pre- 3. He ran very fast. He could not catch the
position— thief.
Separate : We reached the station. The 4. I requested the teacher. He pardoned the
train had left by that time. boy.

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SYNTHESIS | 203

5. My brother was beaten with canes. I was 7. My brother received a serious injury. I took
present. him to the hospital.
6. His behaviour was strange. I was taken 8. The level of water had gone low. The crow
aback. started dropping pebbles in the jar.
7. He has died. I am sure. 9. The king was killed. His army ran away.
8. Your behaviour is very good. I am highly 10. My friend had lost his way. He was looted
pleased. by a robber.
(4) By using a Nominative Absolute— (5) By using Infinitives—
Separate : The house caught fire. All the Separate : I am going to Delhi. I have to
furniture was burnt to ashes. purchase a car.
Combined : The house having caught fire, Combined : I am going to Delhi to pur-
all the furniture was burnt to 0chase a car.

ww ashes.
Separate : The deer was caught in the
net. He struggled hard for
Separate : He is very much tired. He
cannot work.
Combined : He is too tired to work.

w escape.

.Ea
Combined : Having been caught in the net,
the deer struggled hard for
escape.
Separate : He is very weak. He cannot
pass this year.
Combined : He is too weak to pass this
year.

syE
Separate : The thieves were caught by
the police. They surrendered
the stolen property.
Separate : There are still three questions
left. I have to solve them.
Combined : I have still three more ques-
Combined : Having been caught by the

ngi
police, the thieves surrendered
the stolen property.
tions to solve.
Separate : There are three prisoners in
Separate : Rains have been plentiful this
year. The crop of sugarcane
has been rich.
nee the jail. They are to be tried.
Combined : There are three prisoners in
the jail to be tried.
Combined : Rains having been plentiful
this year, the crop of sugar- rin
Separate : I have only one servant. He
cooks my food. He washes the
cane has been rich.
Exercise g.n
utensils.
Combined : I have only one servant to
cook my food and wash the
Combine the following sentences into a
Simple Sentence by using Nominative Abso-
lute—
1. The day was very hot. I did not go to the
utensils.
Exercise e
Combine the following sentences into a t
office. Simple Sentence by using Infinitives—
2. My father was angry. He did not give me a 1. My father has gone to market. He has to
single rupee. purchase a watch.
3. The sun set. The birds started flying 2. I am writing a book. It will be published.
towards their nests. 3. He is a great liar. He cannot be believed.
4. My sister has run into debt. I have to 4. I cannot leave him behind. He will lose his
support her. way.
5. The arrow pierced the deer’s neck. It fell 5. He went to the library. He wanted to read
down. the newspaper.
6. The train left before my arrival. I looked for 6. He went to his teacher’s house. He wanted
a bus. to study Milton.

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204 | L.W.C.E.

7. I am very busy. I cannot talk to you. (c) Adjective / Adverb + Enough—

8. I have sent my son to England. He will be Separate : He is rich. He can buy a car.
educated there. Combined : He is rich enough to buy a
9. He has painted a beautiful picture. It will be car.
presented to the President. Separate : He is intelligent. He can solve
10. He keeps a pair of dogs. They will guard this problem.
his house. They will keep away burglars. Combined : He is intelligent enough to
(6) (a) By using an Adverb or an Adverbial solve this problem.
Phrase— Separate : This hall is large. Two hun-
Separate : He has been punished. The dred persons can sit in it.
punishment was unjust. Combined : This hall is large enough for
Combined : He has been unjustly punis- two hundred persons to sit.

ww hed.
Separate : The thief was flogged by the
Separate : He has much time. He can
complete the book.
Combined : He has time enough to comp-

w
police. The flogging was very
severe. lete the book.

.Ea
Combined : The thief was very severely
flogged by the police.
Exercise
Combine the following sentences into a

syE
Separate : It was morning. The train had Simple Sentence by using an Adverb or an
not reached by that time. Adverbial phrase—
Combined : The train had not reached by 1. He admitted his fault. He apologised.
morning.
Separate : He was dismissed from ser-
vice. His dismissal was unde- ngi 2. He declined to answer the question. He
regretted his inability to answer.
3. He was absent from the meeting. His
served.
Combined : He was undeservedly dismis- nee absence was unavoidable.
4. He was in the fault. There is no doubt about
it.

rin
sed from service.
5. He did this work. He did not do it carefully.
Separate : He has passed in the first
division. It was very credi- 6. The programme was ammended. It was
table.
Combined : He has very creditably passed
made suitable to me.
g.n
7. Mohan put on his clothes. He was in a great
hurry.
in the first division.
(b) By using Too + Adjective/Adverb—
Separate : He is tired. He cannot run.
Combined : He is too tired to run.
about it. e
8. I shall return by the morning. I am definite

9. The river was flowing. Its flow was rapid.

10. Everyone listended to his lecture. There
t
Separate : He is weak. He cannot stand. was perfect silence.
Combined : He is too weak to stand. 11. He is weak. He cannot lift this heavy box.
Separate : She is poor. She cannot have a 12. He is frank. He will tell you the whole
new dress. truth.
Combined : She is too poor to have a new Exercise (General)
dress. Combine the following sets of sentences into
Separate : I am old. I cannot drive a car. Simple Sentences :
Combined : I am too old to drive a car. 1. The accused was innocent. He was let off.
Such sentences always express a negative 2. I arrived at the station. I found the train
sense. ready to steam off.

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SYNTHESIS | 205

3. He has completed the work. He is worthy Separate : He is a thief. Everybody

of admiration for it. knows it.
4. He has sent his daughters to Bombay. He Combined : Everybody knows that he is a
wants them to be trained in dancing. thief. (Object)
5. The sun set. My father had not returned. Separate : I told you that yesterday. You
6. My brother fell seriously ill. I could not go must rely on it.
to the school yesterday. Combined : You must rely on what I told
7. I received my father’s letter. I left for you yesterday.
Bombay. I had to see a gentleman. The (Object to a preposition)
gentleman was the friend of my father.
Separate : He has failed. The reason is
8. He looked round him. He found no place of his negligence.
shelter. He climbed up the tree. He decided
Combined : The reason of his failure is

ww to pass the night there.

9. My watch was late. I reached the station.
The train had left before my reaching there.
that he is negligent.
(Complement)

w
10. The camel saw the signs of storm. He sat
down with his neck between the legs. He

.Ea
wanted to save his eyes from dust.
11. The sun rose. The fog disappeared. The
Separate

Combined
: He was innocent. This was his
statement. It was wrong.
: His statement that he was
innocent was wrong.

syE
General determined to delay no longer. He (Case in apposition)
gave the order to advance.
12. The sun set. The thief started from his Exercise
house. He wanted to commit theft in the
house of an old man. The old man was a
wealthy merchant. ngi Combine the following sentences into a
single Complex Sentence—
13. The train received the signal. It started
moving. Its movement was slow.
14. The sun rose. Govind started to his sister’s nee 1. Mohan is the best boy of the class. It is
true.
2. He is doing something. I do not know what
house. He did not reach there before sunset.
15. The day is very hot. We should go very
it is.

rin
3. You wish me to do something. I cannot do

g.n
early. We have to do a little marketing. that.
Combining two or more Simple 4. The accused is guilty. It has been proved
Sentences into a single Complex beyond doubt.
Sentence
(1) By using a Noun Clause—
It has been discussed in the chapter on Clause
e
5. You should go to the Principal immedia-
tely. This is my advice to you.
6. He is dishonest. I cannot, however, prove it. t
Analysis that a Noun clause performs five 7. I came late. It is true.
functions—(i) Subject of a verb, (ii) Object of a 8. The function will be held somewhere. Do
Transitive Verb, (iii) Object of a Preposition, (iv) you know where ?
Complement of a verb of Incomplete Predication 9. He hid something in his pocket. I could not
(is, was, are, a m, were), and (v) case in Appo- see it.
sition to a Noun. We can do synthesis by using a
10. You threatened him with a knife. That was
Noun Clause in any one of these five forms. We
his complaint.
give below examples of each form—
Separate : You are telling a lie. It is 11. Where have you been so long ? Tell me.
known to all. 12. I gave you something yesterday. You can
Combined : That you are telling a lie is play with it.
known to all. (Subject) 13. His father had died. This news was true.

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206 | L.W.C.E.

14. He is a fool. This was my apprehension. It 6. My brother has gone somewhere. I do not
is wrong. know the place.
15. The new dam has cracked. I want to know 7. Here is a book. I purchased it yesterday.
the cause of the same. 8. The murder was committed last night. The
(2) By using an Adjective Clause murderer has been caught.
We can make an Adjective Clause beginning 9. You seem to be very happy these days. Can
with a Relative Pronoun or a Relative Adverb— you tell me the reason ?
Separate : I met an old man. He was 10. The sailor helped me cross the river. He
very poor. should be rewarded.
Combined : I met an old man who was 11. I went there yesterday. The time was odd.
very poor. 12. I met him yesterday. I do not remember the
Separate : I saw a fountain-pen. It was place.

ww black in colour.
Combined : I saw a fountain-pen which
was black in colour.
13. London is one of the largest cities of the
world. It is the capital of Great Britain.

w Separate : I met your friend. His box was

.Ea
stolen in the train.
Combined : I met your friend whose box
was stolen in the train.
14. I met a man in the street. I could not
recognise him.
15. I heard the charming music. A girl was
singing it.

syE
Separate : I have seen the park. The
murder was committed there.
Combined : I have seen the park where
(3) By using an Adverb Clause—
We have explained above in the chapter on
Clause Analysis that an Adverb Clause may point
the murder was committed.
Separate : You went there yesterday.
Tell me the hour. ngi to Time, Place, Reason, Condition, Compari-
son, Contrast, Manner, or Result. A complex
sentence can be made by using an Adverbial
Combined : Tell me the hour when you
went there yesterday. nee
clause showing any one of these functions. As—
Separate : I could not come. I was tired.

rin
Separate : I have purchased a house. It Combined : I could not come because I
has a big hall. The hall is well was tired.
furnished. Separate : He committed the theft. He
Combined : The house that I have pur-
chased has a big hall which is g.n
has been caught by the police.
Combined : He committed the theft, so he
well furnished.
Exercise
Combine the following sentences into a
Complex Sentence by using an Adjective
e
has been caught by the police.
Separate : He is poor. He is honest at the
same time.
Combined : Though he is poor, he is
t
Clause— honest.
1. I met the father of my friend. I had never Separate : Tell me the truth. I shall par-
seen him before. don you.
2. This is a chest. I have kept my valuables in Combined : I shall pardon you if you tell
it. me the truth.
3. My father will come from Bombay. Do you Separate : America is a powerful coun-
know the time ? try. Russia is not so powerful.
4. Somebody has stolen my watch. Do you Combined : Russia is not so powerful as
know him ? America (is).
5. I gave you a book last week. Please return Separate : He is intelligent. His brother
it. is equally intelligent.

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SYNTHESIS | 207

Combined : His brother is as intelligent as Combining two or more Simple

he (is). Sentences into a Compound Sentence
Separate : My examination is about to be By using Co-ordinating Conjunctions—As
over. Thereafter I shall go to we have explained in the chapter on Clause
the hills. Analysis, Co-ordinate clauses can be made by
Combined : I shall go to the hills after my using co-ordinating conjunctions such as and,
examination is over. but, either, or, neither, nor, too, also, so,
therefore, likewise, either……or, neither……
Separate : He fled somewhere. The nor. Sometimes only a comma (,) or a Semicolon
police could not pursue him. (;) can be used as a co-ordinating conjunction. A
Combined : He fled where the police compound sentence can be made by using any one
could not pursue him. of these co-ordinating conjunctions. As—
Separate : I went to the market. I saw a

ww
Separate : The thief saw the police. He
took to his heels. beautiful watch. I could not,
however, purchase it.
Combined : As soon as the thief saw the
Combined : I went to the market and saw

w police, he took to his heels.

.Ea
Exercise
Combine the following sentences into a
single Complex Sentence by using an Adverb
a beautiful watch but could
not purchase it.
Separate : He is slow. He is regular.
Combined : He is slow but (he is) regular.
Clause—
syE
1. Last night it was very hot. I could not have
a sound sleep.
Separate : Do not be a borrower. Do not
be a lender either.
Combined : Neither a lender (be) nor a
2. I entered the room. I heard a sound.
3. The orphan went in. The hermit was ngi borrower be.
Separate : Get in. You may catch cold.
performing his worship there.
4. She loves me. A mother loves her son in
the same way. nee Combined : Get in or you may catch cold.
Separate : Do not run so fast. You may
fall.
5. Go on working. You will succeed.
6. The problem was intricate. It could not be rin
Combined : Do not run so fast; you may
fall.
solved.
7. His behaviour was unnatural. One could not g.n
Separate : I shall try to solve your pro-
blem. I cannot guarantee.
Combined : I shall try to solve your pro-
bear it easily.
8. The lake is very deep. You cannot cross it.
9. She is beautiful. Her elder sister is more
beautiful.
rantee. e
blem; I cannot, however, gua-

Separate : He is industrious. He is intel-

ligent.
t
10. He is strong. He is timid at the same time. Combined : He is not only industrious but
11. You are not a chance offender. I cannot also intelligent.
excuse you. Separate : It was very hot last night. I
12. The show was delightful. Still many people could not have a sound sleep.
did not like it. Combined : It was very hot last night and
13. He sent his daughter to Bombay. He therefore I could not have a
wanted her to be trained in dancing. sound sleep.
14. You told me to do it. I have done it in the Separate : He was annoyed. Still he kept
same manner. quiet.
15. The bride is not beautiful. Her complexion Combined : He was annoyed, still he kept
is nevertheless fair. quiet.

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208 | L.W.C.E.

Exercise ment, otherwise he would be

punished.
Combine the following sentences into a
single Compound Sentence— (Complex Sentence)
Separate : The girl was beautiful. She
1. Her hair was long. Her feet were light.
was well educated. He did not
2. He is strong. He is timid. marry her. Her parents were
3. He is rich. He leads a simple life. poor.
4. The sky was cloudy. The night was dark. Combined : Though the girl was beautiful
The way was lonely. and well educated, he did not
5. He was angry. I did not say anything. marry her because her parents
were poor. (Complex)
6. She is beautiful. She is also good-natured.
Or
7. We can go by the train. We can also go by

ww
The girl was beautiful and
the bus. well educated but he did not
8. He lifted his eye to the door. He saw a man marry her because her parents
coming towards his room. were poor. (Compound)

w 9. You may take Aspro. You may take

.Ea
Anacin. You must take either of the two.
10. Your pants are clean. Your shirt is dirty.
Separate

Combined :
: I offered him help. He needed
help. He persisted in refusing
help. I left him to his fate.
I offered him help, as he

syE
11. The Indian cows have hump. They have
horns. needed it, but he persisted in
12. The tail of a peacock is beautiful. Its legs refusing it, and therefore I left
are ugly. him to his fate. (Compound)
13. He is guilty. He is the object of compas-
sion. ngi Separate : Ravindranath Tagore was a
great poet. He was born in

nee
Bengal. He was the author of
14. The woman was pregnant. She was not Gitanjali. He was awarded
punished with death. the Nobel Prize.
15. He is weak. He can walk.
16. He is a hermit. He can also be a beggar.
17. The food was tasty. I had no appetite.
Combined :

rin
Ravindranath Tagore, born in
Bengal, a great poet and
author of Gitanjali, was
18. My father is poor. My uncle is rich.
19. Mohan is afraid of the tiger. He does not go g.n
awarded the Nobel Prize.
(Simple)
to the forest.
20. She loves me. I do not like her.
Solved Examples
Or

e
Ravindranath Tagore, who
was born in Bengal, was a
great poet and author of
Gitanjali, and was awarded
t
Separate : He should not leave the court
without completing his state- the Nobel Prize.
ment. He would be punished. (Compound)
The witness was warned. Or
Combined : The witness was warned, on Ravindranath Tagore who was
pain of punishment, not to born in Bengal and who was a
leave the court without com- great poet and author of
pleting his statement. (Simple) Gitanjali was awarded the
Or Nobel Prize. (Complex)
The witness was warned that Separate : There was a crow. It was very
he should not leave the court clever. It started dropping
before completing his state- pebbles into the jar. It wanted

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SYNTHESIS | 209

to bring up the level of the 3. He is quite rich. He lives a miserly life.

water. 4. He is the same gentleman. He came last
Combined : A clever crow started dropp- year too. He is a famous doctor.
ing pebbles into the jar in 5. The problem is very easy. I can solve it in
order to bring up the level of no time.
the water. (Simple)
6. We drove very fast. We could not reach in
Or time. We missed a golden chance.
There was a clever crow 7. I returned late in the night. It was raining at
which started dropping peb- that time.
bles into the jar, for it wanted
to bring up the level of the 8. She wrote a letter. She wrote the letter to
water. (Complex) her father. She described her miserable
condition in the letter. Her father was much

ww Exercise pained at it.

Combine the following sets of sentences into 9. He laboured very hard. He fell ill. He had
Simple Sentences : to go under a long treatment.

w1. I cannot tell him. What should he do ?

.Ea
2. He heard the noise. He came out of the
door.
3. He is sad and disappointed. I found him so.
10.

11.
I saw his garden. It is a very large garden.
All
He
kinds of fruits grow there.
is a good and loyal servant. This is the
report about him. I believe it.

syE
4. He came to me. He wanted money. He
wanted to purchase some books.
12. The king walked into the hut. He saw an
old woman there. The old woman wel-
comed him. She offered him fruits.
5. His wife encouraged him. She is a highly
refined lady. He persevered.
ngi
6. The thief had been in prison before. He was
13. You have failed. I am sorry to hear this.
You have failed a second time.
14. He has come. I do not know the reason of
severly punished.
7. He felt tired. He retired to bed. neehis coming a second time. He has no
business with me. This is as far as I think.
15. We have seen the Himalayas. The Hima-

rin
8. He could not eat hard food. He was very
old. He had lost his teeth. layas guard our northern border. They are
9. Maharana Pratap was the ruler of Mewar. spread from east to west of the country.
He was a great patriot. He fought with the
Mughals.
Exercise
g.n
Combine the following sets of sentences into
10. I have told you the facts. I have nothing Compound Sentences :
more to say. I will sit down.
11. I was returning home. I saw a man. He
looked very old. He was groaning with
pain. 2.
e
1. The sun set. Darkness prevailed over the
landscape. We could see nothing.
He is foolish. He is obstinate also. He can-
t
not adjust himself.
12. He will reach Mathura soon. He will go by 3. His father was not at home. He had no
bus. He may go by his scooter also. money to pay his fee. His name was struck
13. The storm ceased. The sun came out. off.
14. He solved the problem. It took him no time. 4. I had a message for you. You were not
Exercise available. I left the message with your
friend.
Combine the following sets o f sentences into 5. You have to follow the school discipline.
Complex Sentences : You will be expelled.
1. He is a very noble person. This is known to 6. Make haste. You will be late. There is no
all. other train available. You will miss your
2. What is my duty ? Who will tell me ? interview.

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210 | L.W.C.E.

7. He was my class-fellow. He has become a 7. A hermit is born in the world. He lives in

great man. He refuses to recognize me. the world. He has nothing to do with the
8. He is dumb. He is deaf too. He is very world.
laborious. He weaves beautiful carpets. 8. Some people help others. They are respec-
9. I do not refuse your offer. I do not like it. I ted. Some people help others without a
have no use of it. selfish motive. They are still more respec-
10. The clouds gathered. The wind blew. There ted.
were sharp showers. 9. I was highly confused in the examination. I
11. He is all right. He is only tired. He needs could not answer a single question
rest. correctly. I knew their answers very well.
12. It is raining heavily. I must take my um- 10. India has produced several saints. Gandhiji
brella. I shall spoil my suit. was the noblest of them. His contribution to

ww 13. The monsoon failed. The tanks became dry.

There was no drinking water available.
14. You can travel by train. You can travel by
the cause of freedom was great. We can
never forget him.
11. He lifted the cradle. He found the child

w bus. You cannot reach before morning.

15. Mohan is ill. He cannot work. He still goes
to office.
.Ea
Exercise (General)
unhurt. He found an enormous snake lying
dead on the floor. The snake had been
killed by his faithful dog.
12. The other day I met a man. He wore a long

syE
Combine the following sets of sentences into
Simple, Complex or Compound Sentences :
1. Fire is hot. You cannot touch it.
beard. He had painted his beard red. He
liked this colour more than any other.
13. The bell rang for the third time. The old
2. He is an honest man. That is my opinion.
3. My enemies are many. My friends are few. ngi man came out of his room into the
courtyard. There he met the young stranger.
The stranger recognized him at once.
Courage is my greatest friend. It is always
with me. I am safe.
4. Our milkman is very regular. We open the nee
14. There were five hundred persons on board
the ship. All of them drowned. Only one
escaped. His name was Krishna.
door in the morning. We find him standing
before the door.
rin
15. I met my friend yesterday. He lives at
Allahabad. Allahabad is a holy city. It is on

g.n
5. The train whistled. It steamed off. All the
passengers bolted the doors. the banks of Ganga and Yamuna. Many
pilgrims bathe in these rivers.
6. It is no good having a foolish friend. It is
better to have a wise enemy. The wise
enemy may do some harm. The foolish
friend may do a still greater harm. e
16. Agra is an old city. Every foreigner visits it
on account of the Taj. The Taj is famous all
over the world.
t

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17 Transformation
TRANSFORMATION OF Let us consider all these methods one by one
SENTENCES in detail.

ww “To transform a sentence is to change it from

one grammatical form to another without altering
its sense.” (Nesfield)
1. Transformation of Sentences Containing
“too” or “so”
(i) He is too tired to walk.

w Thus in Transformation we change the cons-

.Ea
truction of a sentence from one grammatical form
to another without changing its meaning.
There are a number of ways in which a given
‘Too’ in such sentences has a negative
meaning, or ‘beyond necessary or desir-
able limits.’
The above noted sentence can, therefore,

syE
sentence can be transformed from one form to
another. The following are the main ways in
which the Transformation of Sentences can be
be transformed as below—
“He is so tired that he cannot walk.”
In the same way—
carried out—
1. Interchange between “too” and “so”.
2. Interchange between different forms of ngi (ii) He is too clever to be deceived.
He is so clever that he cannot be decei-
ved.
Conditional Sentences.
3. Interchange between different forms of nee (iii) This news is too good to be true.
This news is so good that it cannot be

rin
sentences expressing Concession or Con- true.
trast. (iv) He is too lazy to keep pace with you.
4. Interchange of Degrees of Adjectives.

g.n
He is so lazy that he cannot keep pace
5. Interchange between two “Voices”—from with you.
Active to Passive and Passive to Active. Exercise
6. Interchange between Affirmative and
Negative sentences.
7. Interchange between different Parts of
Speech.
e
Transform the following sentences by
changing “too” into “so…that”, or “so…that”
into “too” :
1. He is so foolish that he cannot understand
t
8. Interchange between Exclamatory and you.
Assertive sentences. 2. He is so small that he cannot go alone.
9. Interchange between Simple and Com- 3. The light is so dim that I cannot read in it.
plex sentences— Noun, Adjective and
Adverb clauses. 4. He speaks too fast to be followed.
10. Interchange between Simple and Com- 5. It is never too late to mend.
pound sentences. 6. Your writing is too illegible for me to read.
11. Interchange between Complex and Com- 7. That spectacle was too horrible to be des-
pound sentences. cribed.
12. Interchange between Principal and Sub- 8. This boat is too heavy to be steered by one
ordinate Clauses. rudder.

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212 | L.W.C.E.

9. The pan is too hot to be touched. 3. In case we are divided in opinion, we will
10. She is too beautiful to be appreciated in refer the matter to a third person.
words. 4. Had you started your business, you would
11. The girl was too timid to go alone. have made enormous profit by this time.
12. He is too idle to work hard. 5. Provided the weather is good, the school
will open tomorrow.
2. Conditional Sentences—
6. I will not buy the machine unless you give
Conditional Sentences have several forms. A guarantee for its durability.
given sentence can be transformed into any one of
those forms. As— 7. I cannot part with the horse except on
payment of the price in advance.
If you speak the truth, I shall pardon you.
8. Had you been more careful, you would
The above sentence can be transformed into have done the work better.

wwany one of the following forms—

Rule 1—By adding—Conjunction ‘Unless’
Unless you speak the truth, I shall not
9. Take care of your digestion and you will
remain healthy.
10. But for my help, he would not have passed.

w pardon you.

.Ea
Rule 2—By keeping ‘If’ understood or concea-
led—
(i) Should you speak the truth, I shall par-
11. Supposing he does not turn up in time, we
shall make Mohan our opening batsman.
12. If you are poor, you need not have fear of

syE
thieves.
don you.
13. Were you more frank in telling me the true
(ii) Had you spoken the truth, I should have story, I would have given you a better
pardoned you. advice.
(iii) Were you to speak the truth, I should
have pardoned you.
ngi 14. You cannot succeed in business unless you
are honest.
In the last two examples the Tense changes.
Rule 3—By using a Conjunctional Phrase
In case you speak the truth, I shall par- nee
15. You can accomplish this task provided you
are persistent and firm.
3. Sentences showing Concession or Con-
don you.
Rule 4—By using a Participle Phrase
trast—
rin
These sentences also can have many forms,
(i) I shall pardon you provided you speak
the truth.
g.n
and they can be transformed into any of them.
Though he is poor, he is honest.
(ii) Supposing you speak the truth, I shall
pardon you.
Rule 5—By using the Imperative Mood
Speak the truth, and I shall pardon you.
e
Rule 1—By using “Notwithstanding”
He is honest notwithstanding that he is
poor.
Rule 2—By using “However” t
However poor he is, he is honest.
Rule 6—By using a Prepositional Phraseu
Rule 3—By using the Conjunction “As”
But for your speaking the truth, I shall Poor as he is, he is honest.
not pardon you.
Rule 4—By using the Phrase “all the same”
Exercise He is poor; all the same he is honest.
Transform the following sentences in as Rule 5—By using a “Participle”
many forms as possible : Admitting that he is poor, he is honest.
1. If you control your palate, you can control Rule 6—By using the Phrase “At the same
your other animal passions easily. time”
2. Had you been wise, you would not have He is poor; at the same time he is
done it. honest.

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TRANSFORMATION | 213

Rule 7—By using the Phrase “for all that” 2. Some metals are at least as heavy as iron.
He is poor; for all that he is honest. (Positive degree)
Rule 8—By using the Adverb ‘indeed’ followed (i) Iron is not heavier than some other
by the conjunction ‘but’. metals. (Comparative degree)
He is poor indeed but he is honest. (ii) Some metals are not less heavy than
iron. (Comparative degree)
Exercise
(iii) Iron is not the heaviest of all metals.
Transform the following sentences in as many (Superlative degree)
forms as possible :
1. He is wrong; all the same he is bold. Exercise
2. He is uneducated indeed but he is a man of Transform the following sentences by
high eminence. changing the Degree of Adjective :

ww 3. Admitting that he is not poor, he yet wears

tattered clothes.
4. You should not doubt his competence not-
1. The son is wiser than his father.
2. Running is the best exercise.
3. Kapil Deo is the best of cricket players.

w withstanding that he is weak in Grammar.

.Ea
5. Though he is obedient, his father does not
love him.
6. Admitting that you were hungry, you might
4. Few countries are as cold as England.
5. Gold is not heavier than Platinum.
6. A deer can run faster than a dog.

syE
yet have waited till my arrival.
7. There is hardly any hope of compromise;
all the same I will do my best to effect one.
7. Malt is the best of foods.
8. I know his character better than you.
9. Honesty is the best policy.
8. Poor as I am, I will not serve a villain.
9. He still loves you, though you were insin- ngi 10. The Americans are the richest people in the
world.
cere to him.
10. Though he was put to great physical tor-
ture, he did not confess his crime. nee
5. By interchanging Active and Passive
Voices—
1. Active : The policeman has caught the
11. Howsoever good you may be in swimming,
you cannot cross the Atlantic.
thief.

rin
Passive : The thief has been caught by the

g.n
12. Though he is poor, he is a man of character. policeman.
13. Cow’s milk is better than other kinds of 2. Passive : My pen has been stolen by this
milk, though it has a lower percentage of boy.
fat.
14. Ugly though she is, her husband loves her
deeply.
15. Honesty makes a man admirable though it
e
Active : This boy has stolen my pen.
3. Active : Your honesty has impressed me
much.
Passive : I have been much impressed with
t
does not make him rich. your honesty.
4. By changing Degrees of Adjectives— 4. Active : It is now time to test your know-
1. No other king in the history of India is as ledge.
great as Ashok. (Positive degree of Adjective) Passive : It is now time for your knowledge
In the above sentence the Adjective ‘great’ is to be tested.
in Positive Degree. This can be changed into 5. Active : Observe the rules of the road
Comparative or Superlative Degree. As— while you walk.
(i) No other king in the history of India is Passive : The rules of the road must be
greater than Ashok. observed while you walk.
(ii) Ashok is the greatest king in the history 6. Active : Some people rely on medicine for
of India. keeping their health.

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214 | L.W.C.E.

Passive : Medicine is relied upon by some 3. He will be defeated by me.

people for keeping their health. 4. You are requested to stay here.
7. Passive : It is too much to be expected by 5. Instruct him not to move an inch from his
you. place.
Active : It is too much for you to expect. 6. These travellers have been robbed by the
8. Active : Summer follows winter. thieves.
Passive : Winter is followed by summer. 7. Always obey your elders.
9. Passive : Let the room be lighted before 8. Can you permit me to see this book ?
you enter. 9. The watch has been stolen.
Active : Light the room before you enter. 10. You cannnot gain anything without efforts.
10. Active : Your behaviour has astonished me 11. His sudden visit surprised me.

ww much.
Passive : I have been much astonished at
your behaviour.
12. Who has broken the glass ?
13. Why do you suspect me ?

w
14. The ship was set on fire and abandoned by
11. Active : They are building the house very
the crew.
quickly.

.Ea
Passive : The house is being built very
quickly by them.
15. He has broken the university record.
16. It is not necessary to consult a doctor.
12.

syE
Passive : He begged his father that he might
be forgiven.
Active : He begged his father to forgive
17. I am worried about your health.
18. Let your ideas be known to me.
19. Never trust those who have deceived you

13.
him.
Passive : Our army has been defeated by
the enemy. ngi once.
20. The wise are always admired.

Active : The enemy has defeated our

army. nee
6. By interchanging Negative and Affirmative
sentences—
1. Affirmative : America is more powerful
14. Passive : I shall be obliged to stay.
Active : Circumstances will oblige me to Negative
rin
than Russia.
: Russia is not as powerful as

15.
stay.
Passive : What cannot be cured must be
endured. g.n
America.
2. Affirmative : Ramesh is more clever than
Ram.

16.
Active : We must endure what we cannot
cure.
Passive : Better behaviour can be expected
from the students of a university.
Negative

3. Negative
Ramesh. e
: Ram is not so clever as

: There is none who does not

love his country.
t
Active : One can expect better behaviour Affirmative : Everybody loves his country.
from the students of a university. 4. Negative : He did not find him honest.
17. Active : The crowd laughed at him. Affirmative : He found him dishonest.
Passive : He was laughed at by the crowd. 5. Negative : His services cannot be for-
Exercise gotten.
Transform the following sentences by Affirmative : His services have been too
changing them from Active to Passive Voice or great to be forgotten.
Vice Versa : 6. Negative : A wise man will not tell a lie.
1. He gave me some money. Affirmative : A wise man will abstain
2. The thief was caught by me. himself from telling a lie.

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TRANSFORMATION | 215

7. Negative : None but a lawyer can ans- 7. By interchanging Exclamatory and Asser-
wer this question. tive sentences—
Affirmative : A lawyer alone can answer 1. Exclamatory : Oh, what a horrible sight it
this question. was !
8. Negative : No sooner did I enter the Simple : It was a very horrible sight.
room than he started rebuking 2. Exclamatory : O, for a beaker of vintage !
me.
Simple : I wish I had a beaker of
Affirmative : As soon as I entered the
vintage.
room, he started rebuking
me. 3. Exclamatory : May you live long !
Exercise Simple : I wish you a long life.
(a) Transform the following sentences by Or

wwchanging them from Negative to Affirmative :

1. Learned men are not always wise.
2. No one can doubt that your son did his best.
I wish you may live long.
4. Exclamatory : O, that I had the wings of a
dove !

w3. It is not difficult to run half a mile at a time.

.Ea
4. Great men belong to no one nation, nor to
one particular class.
5. Never again will I see my friend.
Simple : I wish I had the wings of a
dove.
5. Exclamatory : What sweet delights a quiet
life gives !

syE
6. As long as the teacher was in the class, not
a boy broke silence.
7. The tragedies of Shakespeare are not likely
Simple : A quiet life gives very sweet
delights.
Exercise
to be forgotten.
8. His wishes cannot be disregarded. ngi Change the following sentences from Excla-
matory to Simple sentences :
9. It was not long after his departure that I
came to know of the disappearance of the
ring. nee 1. O, what a fall was there, my countrymen !
2. What a delicious flavour these mangoes
have !
10. He left no scheme untried.
(b) Transform the following sentences from
rin
3. O, for a glass of cool water !
4. That you should dare to abuse me !
Affirmative to Negative :
1. You are as foolish as your brother.
2. We all expect him to succeed in the long g.n
5. What would I not do to see you happy !
6. How nicely he handles the bat !
run.
3. Your son is a boy of uncommon intelli-
gence.
4. This book can only be understood by one
9. That we should meet here !
e
7. O, that I were young again !
8. Alas, that fortune should be so short-lived !

10. Shame on you to kick the poor beggar !

t
who knows English.
8. Interchange of One Part of Speech for
5. Your daughter is beautiful. another—
6. The happening of such an event is possible (i) Your work does not satisfy me.
in future.
In this sentence the Verb ‘satisfy’ can be
7. He is greater than I.
changed into a Noun. As—
8. As soon as the lion came out of the cave, I
ran away. Your work does not give me satisfaction.
9. She is too beautiful to be admired in ordi- (ii) Do your work carefully.
nary words. In this sentence the Adverb ‘Carefully’ can be
10. My father was doubtful whether I would changed into a Noun. As—
pass. Do your work with care.

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216 | L.W.C.E.

(iii) He has successfully finished the work. 4. The meaning of the word ‘useful’ is not the
In this sentence the Adverb ‘successfully’ can same as that of ‘valuable’.
be changed into a Verb. As— 5. No one can gain admission without prior
He has succeeded in finishing the work. permission.
6. He has no intention of leaving the town in
(iv) He is a disgrace to the family.
near future.
In this sentence the Noun ‘disgrace’ can be 7. I have a disinclination for work today.
changed into a Verb. As—
8. He refused to give his consent to my going.
He has disgraced the family.
(v) Mohan is more intelligent than his elder Exercise
brother. Rewrite the following sentences, changing the
In this sentence the Adjective ‘intelligent’ can Adverbs in bold letters into Verbs—

wwbe changed into a Noun. As— 1. I have completed my work successfully.

Mohan has more intelligence than his elder 2. London is admittedly the largest city in the
brother. world.

w (vi) He was dismissed on the charge of negli-

gence.

.Ea
In this sentence the Noun ‘negligence’ can be
changed into an Adjective. As—
3. The scene was surprisingly beautiful.
4. They welcomed the news most joyfully.
5. The silver dishes should be used sparingly.
Exercise

syE
He was dismissed because he was negligent.
(vii) The two events occurred differently in
point of time.
Rewrite the following sentences, changing the
Verbs and Adjectives in bold letters into Nouns—

ngi
1. The younger brother is more diligent than
In this sentence the Adverb ‘differently’ can the elder one.
be changed into an Adjective. As— 2. He is active and industrious and is admi-
The time of the occurrence of the two events
was different.
Or nee red by everybody.
3. You must sign a receipt before I pay you
what is due to you.
The two events occurred at different times.
(viii) His dress was poor and shabby. rin
4. The best way to be healthy is to abstain
from the use of harmful things.
In this sentence the Adjectives ‘poor’ and
‘shabby’ can be changed into Adverbs. As— impair your prestige.
Exercise g.n
5. The fact that you admit your fault will not

He was poorly and shabbily dressed.

(ix) He broke the rule without any intention
of doing so.
In this sentence the Noun ‘intention’ can be
e
Rewrite the following sentences, changing
Nouns and Adverbs in bold letters into Adjec-
tives—
1. In all certainty he will get success.
t
changed into a Gerund. As—
2. He was dismissed for negligence rather
He broke the rule without intending to do so. than incompetence.
Exercise 3. Her beauty was remarkable.
Rewrite the following sentences, changing the 4. He was certainly clever but evidently he
Nouns in bold letters into Verbs— lacked diligence.
1. He did not fulfil his promise. 5. There can be no dispute on this point.
2. Gold gains stiffness if copper is mixed with Exercise
it. Rewrite the following sentences, changing the
3. He made a compromise of his claims with Nouns and Adjectives in bold letters into
the other party. Adverbs—

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TRANSFORMATION | 217

1. Your dress is shabby. 9. He must attend the court on pain of

2. I have come to you on purpose. prosecution.
3. A careful inspection of the letter by you 10. The train having stopped at the platform, all
may disclose a number of relevant facts. the passengers alighted.
4. His mistake was evident, but his sincerity 11. With all his strength he is far from being
was also obvious. proud.
5. He hurt you without any intention of 12. Entering the Darwar Hall Akbar sat down
doing. on the golden throne.
13. Notwithstanding several efforts, he failed.
9. (A) By converting Simple sentences into
Compound sentences— 14. Taking pity on the cat, the holy sage turned
it into a dog.
1. Simple : He died a brave death leaving
15. Being desirous to win his favour, he agreed

ww
an example in the world.
to serve the holy man for six months.
Compound : He died a brave death and left
an example in the world. 16. Possessing all the advantages of money and
guidance, he could not make a good career

w
2. Simple : To his own disadvantage he
broke off with his brother.

.Ea
as a student.
Compound : He broke off with his brother 9. (B) By converting Compound sentences into
and it was to his own dis- Simple sentences—

syE
advantage. 1. Compound : He took a piece of paper and
started writing on it.
3. Simple : Besides robbing the traveller,
they also murdered him. Simple : Taking a piece of paper he
started writing on it.
Compound : They not only robbed the
traveller but also murdered
him. ngi2. Compound : He was poor but he was res-
pected by all the people of his
4. Simple : He must work hard to pass
this year.
nee Simple
village.
: In spite of his poverty, he was
respected by all the people of

rin
Compound : He must work hard or he will
his village.
not pass this year.
3. Compound : Do not steal or you will be
Exercise
Change the following sentences from Simple Simple
g.n
punished.
: Do not steal on pain of puni-
shment.

e
into Compound Sentences :
1. He was turned out on account of his
arrogance.
2. Coming forward, he pushed the door open.
3. Taking off his clothes, he plunged into the
4. Compound : You must either pay the bill at
once or return the goods.
Compound : Failing prompt payment the
goods must be returned.
t
swelling river. Exercise
4. The toy being beautiful, we decided to Change the following sentences from Com-
purchase it at any cost. pound into Simple Sentences :
5. In his tower sat the poet gazing at the sea. 1. Somebody pulled the chain and the train
6. Despite the stupendity of his learning he is stopped.
not an original thinker. 2. He opened the casement and cast a glance
7. To my extreme horror the engine of the at the dark forest.
train was derailed. 3. He is rich, yet he is not contented.
8. Besides educating his nephew, he also set 4. He was a dull boy and therefore he was
him up in business. often rebuked by his teachers.

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218 | L.W.C.E.

5. Make haste or else you will miss the train. 6. Simple : His silence proves his guilt.
6. He worked hard, but he failed. Complex : The fact that he is silent
7. He must have killed the lion for he is a proves his guilt.
good marksman. (Noun Clause)
8. His wife died and it added to his misfor- 7. Simple : He owed his success to my
tunes. help.
9. He practised daily and so he became an Complex : It was owing to my help that
expert player. he succeeded.
10. The peasants had not completed their work (Noun Clause)
and the sun set. 8. Simple : The house was thoroughly
11. He was found guilty of murder and hanged. searched.

ww 12. He is a good and regular worker; only he is

rather slow.
13. Your mother is very old and you must take
Complex : The house was searched as
completely as it was possi-
ble. (Adverb Clause)

w care of her.

.Ea
14. He is a learned man but in matters of
business he is a fool.
15. Though he is poor, he is honest.
9. Simple : A man’s smartness is in
inverse proportion to his bulk.
Complex : The more bulky a man is the
less smart he is.

syE
10. (A) By converting Simple sentences into
Complex sentences—
10. Simple
(Adverb Clause)
: Wise men do not talk too
much.

ngi
1. Simple : He admitted his fault. Complex : The men who are wise do not
Complex : He admitted that he was at talk too much.
fault. (Noun Clause) (Adjective Clause)
2. Simple : The king took shelter in the
hermit’s hut.
nee
11. Simple : His ambition is to become a
doctor.

rin
Complex : The king took shelter in the Complex : His ambition is that he may
hut which belonged to the become a doctor.
hermit. (Adjective Clause)
3. Simple : This bill is likely to be intro-
duced in the parliament at the 12. Simple
g.n (Noun Clause)
: My son worked on my advice.
commencement of the winter
session.
Complex : This bill is likely to be intro-
duced in the Parliament when
13. Simple
him.
e
Complex : My son worked as I advised
(Adverb Clause)
: He is strong for a child of ten.
Complex : He is very strong although he
t
the winter session comme-
is a child of ten.
nces. (Adverb Clause)
4. Simple : Non-vegetarians are not admi- (Adverb Clause)
tted. 14. Simple : Intelligent boys never fail.
Complex : If you are not a vegetarian, Complex : The boys who are intelligent
you cannot be admitted. never fail.
(Adverb Clause) (Adjective Clause)
5. Simple : It was the cruelest blow. 15. Simple : We are sure of winning the
Complex : It was a blow than which no match.
crueler could have been. Complex : We are sure that we shall win
(Adjective Clause) the match. (Noun Clause)

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TRANSFORMATION | 219

16. Simple : He had to leave for want of Exercise

efficiency. Convert the following Simple sentences into
Complex : He had to leave because he Complex sentences, using Adjective clauses—
was not efficient. 1. Rabindranath Tagore was the first Indian to
(Adverb Clause) receive the Nobel Prize.
17. Simple : Men’s evils live after them. 2. He is spending his father’s earnings.
Complex : Evils which men do live after 3. Have you seen the blind musician ?
them. (Adjective Clause) 4. The advantages of study are innumerable.
18. Simple : He cannot succeed without 5. The watch is not a toy for you to play.
your help. 6. Brutus was a man of grand character.
Complex : He cannot succeed unless you 7. Shakespeare, the greatest of English drama-

ww19. Simple
help him. (Adverb Clause)
: Ayodhya is the place of Ram’s
birth.
tists, died in 1616.
8. It is the work of the government.
9. That is not the way of addressing the court.

w Complex : Ayodhya is the place where

.Ea
Ram was born.
(Adjective Clause)
10. This is not the method of becoming rich.
Exercise
Convert the following Simple sentences into
Complex sentences, using Adverb clauses—
20. Simple
Complex
syE
: Listen to the teacher.
: Listen to what the teacher
says. (Noun Clause)
1. He absconded to avoid arrest.
2. Since the time of our last meeting, I have

ngi
hardly entertained any other guest.
Exercise 3. Between the two brothers the elder is
Convert the following Simple sentences into stronger.
Complex sentences, using Noun clauses—
1. I cannot disclose the grounds of my conclu-
sion. nee4. Do not enter the hall without ticket.
5. He married in the days of prosperity.

2. He confessed his guilt.

3. The secret of his success is not known. rin
6. He is honest notwithstanding his poverty.
7. With all his riches, he is not cotented.

4. I wish you happiness.

5. His father is sure of his success at the
father.
g.n
8. I shall do according to the wishes of my

9. He replied to the best of his ability.

examination.
6. He is said to be a good orator.
7. Her husband is likely to divorce her.
Simple sentences— e
10. (B) By converting Complex sentences into

1. Complex : It is popularly believed among

orthodox Hindus that the
t
8. I cannot believe his report.
earth rests on the hood of a
9. I am glad at your arrival in time. big snake. (Noun Clause)
10. He pleaded ignorance of the law. Simple : According to the popular ortho-
11. I hope to pass this year. dox Hindu belief, the earth
rests on the hood of a big
12. We believed the information to be true. snake.
13. Do you want me to accompany you to 2. Complex : The men who have risen by
Delhi ? their own efforts are always
14. I do not think it proper to disturb him in his respected. (Adjective Clause)
sleep. Simple : Self-made men are always res-
15. His rudeness has surprised me. pected.

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220 | L.W.C.E.

3. Complex : Success comes automatically to 13. Complex : You can eat as much as you
a man who is diligent and like. (Adverb Clause)
patient. Simple : You can eat to your full satis-
(Adjective Clause) faction.
Simple : Success comes automatically to 14. Complex : I want a locality where I may
a diligent and patient man. be away from the noise and
4. Complex : Everyone admires a man if the bustle of the town.
man is honest. (Adjective Clause)
(Adverb Clause) Simple : I want a locality away from the
Simple : Everyone admires an honest noise and bustle of the town.
man. 15. Complex : When the cat is away, the
5. Complex : As you sow so you will reap. mice will play.

ww (Adverb Clause)
Simple : You will reap the fruits of your
(Adverb Clause)
Simple : The mice will play in the
absence of the cat.

w own sowing.
6. Complex : Youth i s the time when seeds

.Ea
of character are sown.
(Adverb Clause)
16. Complex : What he wrote was illegible.
(Noun Clause)
Simple : His writing was illegible.

syE
Simple : Youth is the time for the forma-
tion of character.
7. Complex : He said that he was not guilty.
17. Complex : We get up when it is six
O’clock.
(Adverb Clause)
(Noun Clause)
Simple : He pleaded innocence. ngi Simple : We get up at six O’clock.
18. Complex : He speaks as if he were a boy

nee
8. Complex : He was so weak that he could of ten.
not walk. (Adverb Clause)
(Adverb Clause) Simple : He speaks like a boy of ten.
Simple : He was too weak to walk.
9. Complex : Ashoka who was one of the rin
Exercise

g.n
greatest of Indian Kings, em- Convert the following Complex sentences
braced Buddhism. into Simple sentences by removing the Noun
Clauses—

e
(Adjective Clause)
1. I doubt that you are honest.
Simple : Ashoka, one of the greatest of
Indian Kings, embraced Buddh-
ism.
10. Complex : I want to know where your
2. I was astonished to know how old the saint
was.
3. I want to know how much you earn every
month.
t
father lives. (Noun Clause) 4. We hope that you will pass.
Simple : I want to know the address of 5. The king ordered that the traitors should be
your father. punished.
11. Complex : No one knows whence the oil 6. The news that the enemy had landed spread
comes. (Noun Clause) like wild fire.
Simple : No one knows the origin of oil. 7. It cannot be said when he will return.
12. Complex : He died at the village where he 8. I am not sure whether I shall succeed this
was born. time.
(Adjective Clause) 9. Whoever is honest is respected.
Simple : He died at his native village. 10. Do not ask why I love you.

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TRANSFORMATION | 221

Exercise 3. Compound : Send the money within fif-

teen days or you will not get
Convert the following Complex sentences the books.
into Simple sentences by removing Adjective
Clauses— Complex : You will not get the books
unless you send the money
1. The solidiers who are brave are respected.
within fifteen days.
2. Rivers which are deep flow in silent maje-
sty. 4. Compound : Waste not, want not.
3. People who live in glass houses should not Complex : If you do not waste, you will
throw stones at others. not want.
4. All that glitters is not gold. 5. Compound : Kalidas was sitting on the
branch of a tree and was
5. Yesterday I saw a man who was very tall.
cutting it with his axe.

ww 6. He who is poor is served by God.

7. Uneasy lies the head that wears the crown.
8. The men who rise by their own efforts are
Complex : Kalidas was sitting on the
branch of a tree, which he
was cutting with his axe.

w always respected.

.Ea
9. The services he has rendered to the country
cannot be forgotten.
10. The boy who stood first got the prize.
Exercise
Convert the following Compound sentences
into Complex sentences—

syE
Exercise
Convert the following Complex sentences
1. Be careful in your studies or you will fail
this year.
2. The enemy aeroplane was shot down by our
into Simple sentences by removing Adverb
Clauses—
1. I returned home after the sun had set. ngi fighters but its pilot was not killed.
3. Speak the truth and you will be pardoned.

2. He was so weak that he could not speak.

3. He gave me the signal as soon as he heard
the news.
nee
4. He failed in his first attempt and never tried

5.
again.
Spare the rod and spoil the child.
4. A businessman grows rich in the long run if
he is honest. rin
6. He was all right; only he was fatigued.
7. I shall not oppose your design; I cannot
5. Nobody talked to him because he was poor.
6. He worked hard that he may succeed.
however approve it.
g.n
8. He was obstinate, therefore he was punis-

e
7. I have done it as you advised me. hed.
8. I admire her because she is beautiful.
9. I could not come to you because I had no
time.
10. He cannot go until I permit him.
9. I was ill yesterday and could not attend the

10.
function.
Only
reason
do the right and you will have no
to feel ashamed.
t
11. (A) By converting Compound sentences into 11. My brother may not be industrious but he is
Complex sentences— certainly intelligent.
1. Compound : Be honest and you will be 12. He grew very weak but he did not break the
respected by all. fast.
Complex : If you are honest, you will 13. Do not take your supper in the rainy season
be respected by all. and you will not need medicine.
2. Compound : Do not go ahead or you may 14. Give him an inch and he will demand a
be drowned. yard.
Complex : If you go ahead, you may be 15. Take care of the pence and the pounds will
drowned. take care of themselves.

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222 | L.W.C.E.

16. Her complexion was fair but her face was 7. I shall not cross the river because the flood
ugly. has not yet receded.
17. The thief ran away or he would have been 8. I do not think he will come.
caught. 9. If you do not quit the room, you will be
18. It seems too good to be true; nevertheless it thrown out.
is a fact. 10. I should go there as it is my duty.
19. The Rajputs were few, but they were brave. 11. Though they were few, they were brave.
20. His starting was good and so he won the 12. His bark is worse than his bite.
race. 13. If you wrap yourself in a blanket, you will
11. (B) By converting Complex sentences into be safe from cold.
Compound sentences— 14. Because he committed theft, he was
1. Complex : I know that you are a swin- punished.

ww dler.
Compound : You are a swindler and I
know this.
15. I would have come, had I not fallen ill.
16. Take down his words, lest you should
forget them.

w
2. Complex : If you search his pocket,

.Ea
you will find the watch.
Compound : Search his pocket and you
will find the watch.
17. However clever you may be, you cannot
succeed without hard labour.
18. If I put a civil question, I expect a civil
reply.

syE
3. Complex : He ate more than ten cakes
which he could not digest.
Compound : He ate more than ten cakes,
19. As the question was difficult, no one could
answer it.
20. They bear witness to the fact that Bhagat
and he could not digest them.
4. Complex : If I get some help from my ngi Singh was a great patriot.
12. By interchanging Principal and Subordi-

nee
father, I shall succeed in nate Clauses—
setting up my business. (i) I suggested for you a bride who was
Compound : I may get some help from my very beautiful.
father and in that case I
shall succeed in setting up
my business.
beautiful.
rin
The bride I suggested for you was very

g.n
(ii) I did not reach the station until the train
5. Complex : A glutton lives that he may had left.
eat. The train had left before I reached the
Compound : A glutton wants to eat and
therefore he lives.
Exercise
Convert the following Complex sentences
station.

e
(iii) No sooner did I threaten him than he
confessed the guilt.
He confessed the guilt as soon as I t
into Compound sentences— threatened him.
1. As the man was absent from his house, I (iv) I met your father when he was going to
could not meet him. the office.
2. I loved a beautiful girl, though I could not Your father was going to the office
marry her. when I met him.
3. Unless you tell your name and address Exercise
correctly, you will be put behind the bars. Transform the following sentences b y con-
4. Had you not reached there in time, he verting the Principal Clause into Subordinate
would have put an end to his life. Clause and vice versa :
5. We eat that we may live. 1. He screamed as soon as he saw the lion.
6. The evil that men do, lives after them. 2. Many days shall pass before I return.

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TRANSFORMATION | 223

3. No sooner did he appear than all were 11. The day-before-yesterday I was able to
silent. play. (Negative and Interrogative)
4. The sun did not set until the farmers finis- 12. Rich people have four meals a day.
hed their work. (Negative and Interrogative)
5. I never make a promise which I cannot ful- 13. I have had some tea. (Negative)
fil. 14. Tell everybody that I shall go to Delhi.
6. Abhimanyu learnt all the tactics of the (Negative)
battle before he was fourteen. 15. I know something about it. (Negative)
7. That is the most hazardous step that you 16. They both must go. (Negative)
have taken. 17. The man in the corner is my friend.
8. No sooner did he earn fifty pounds than he (Complex Sentence)
squandered them.

ww
18. They thought him to be a clever man and
9. As soon as he saw the policeman, he took called him master magician.
to his heels. (Passive form)
10. You are wiser than I thought.

w
11. I cannot give my opinion until I see the

.Ea
pros and cons of the case.
12. He is more kind and courteous than he
appeared to be.
19. When the sun set the birds stopped singing.
(Simple Sentence)
20. Govind is brighter than any other boy in the
class. (Superlative form)

syE
Revision Exercise
Change the following sentences according
21. The man ate some fruits and the woman
drank a little water. (Into Negative form)
22. Mohan did not work hard and so he did not
to the instructions given in brackets :
1. The old lady who is standing on the river- ngi pass.
(Into positive conditional form using ‘If’)

nee
bank is Sita’s grandmother. 23. Each of the books his father gave him costs
(Change into Simple Sentence) a lot. (Into Interrogative form)
2. Satish did not come to my house yesterday, 24. They say that another world war will dest-
and Harish did not come either.
(Simple Sentence) rin
roy all life on earth.
Revision Exercise
(Into Passive form)

3. I met a man this morning. He had a long

beard. (Simple Sentence)
g.n
Transform the following sentences accord-
ing to the instructions given in brackets—
4. Last year Mr. Sharma went to England. His
brother went with him.
(Simple Sentence)
5. He works hard from morning till night.
e
1. She is too beautiful to be admired.
(Remove “too”)
2. My father is so weak that he cannot walk.
(Use “too”)
t
(Present perfect continuous) 3. His brother is too foolish to become a law-
6. The man ate and drank as much as he yer. (Remove “too”)
could. (Interrogative) 4. That merchant is so dishonest that we
7. You did not ask him where he lived. cannot trust him. (Use “too”)
(Interrogative) 5. Can the sun ever set in the east ?
8. The boy meets his friend and gives him all (Assertive)
he has. (Plural)
6. This picture is beautiful. (Negative)
9. Nobody would like to be called a fool.
7. He is not courageous. (Assertive)
(Interrogative)
10. Who is fitter than he for the job ? 8. Happiness is not abiding. (Assertive)
(Negative) 9. When can their glory fade ? (Negative)

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224 | L.W.C.E.

10. Everest is the highest peak in the world. 31. We hope for the betterment of our financial
(Interrogative) conditon. (Complex)
11. Brahmaputra is longer than any other river 32. It is unjust to discriminate among people on
in India. (Positive degree Adjective) racial grounds. (Complex)
12. Steel is not the heaviest metal. 33. He is more intelligent than his elder bro-
ther. (Positive degree)
(Positive degree Adjective)
34. Provided you work hard, your success is
13. My house is not as big as yours. sure. (Use ‘If’)
(Comparative degree Adjective) 35. His wife is beautiful, but her health is poor.
14. He has broken the rule unintentionally. (Complex)
(‘unintentionally’ to be changed into Noun) 36. Loading his gun he fired at the lion.
15. The company has gone into liquidation. (Compound)

ww (‘liquidation’ to be changed into Verb)

16. It is beyond my expectation.
37. Your adversary is too strong to be defeated
by you. (Active voice)
38. European history has been thoroughly

w .Ea
(‘expectation’ into Verb)
17. His lecture was very scholarly.
(Complex sentence)
18. He opened the chest and pulled out a
studied by me. (Active voice)
39. He is so brave that no one can defeat him.
(Passive voice)

syE
bundle of bank notes.
19. Though heavy, your ring is not made of
pure gold.
(Simple)

(Complex and Compound)

40. Do not miss the golden opportunity.
(Passive voice)
41. As a rule, the English Parliament should be
20. How can I believe a man who has deceived
me thrice ? ngi
(Assertive)
called at least once a year. (Complex)
42. It is abundantly clear from his behaviour
that he is not inclined to help us. (Simple)
21. The management of the company is likely
to change. (Complex)
22. Do not cross the railway line, or you may
nee
43. When the cat is away, the mice must play.
(Simple)
be killed by the running train. (Complex)
23. He has committed the crime, but he is an rin
44. Their friendship is not permanent.
(Assertive)
object of compassion. (Complex)
24. O, How can I discharge your obligation !
45. He admitted his fault.
g.n (Complex)
46. The name of the American President is not

25. Deep rivers flow in silent majesty.

(Assertive)

(Complex)
26. He has been released without any condi-
known to me.

e (Active voice)
47. The broth is spoilt by too many cooks.

48. We are confident of our success.

(Active voice)
t
tion. (Complex)
49. We must work, otherwise we cannot live.
(‘condition’ to be change into Adverb)
(Simple)
27. Rice is not the most nutritious of grains.
50. Your work does not satisfy me.
(Positive and Comparative degree Adjec-
tive) (‘Satisfy’ change into Adjective)
28. A burnt child dreads the fire. (Complex) 51. Sita is the eldest member of the family and
of her four daughters Urmila is the pret-
29. Barking dogs seldom bite. (Complex) tiest. (Comparative degree Adjective)
30. Peacock is the most beautiful of birds. 52. The difficulty was solved by means of spe-
(Comparative and Positive degree Adjec- cial service devised for the occasion
tive) (‘Service’ be made Subject)

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TRANSFORMATION | 225

53. You are already as well acquainted with my 60. I am very desirous to meet you once more.
friends as I am. (Use ‘Known’) (Exclamatory)
54. There was hardly a man who did not res- 61. He is so clever that I cannot keep pace with
pond to his call. (Simple Assertive) him. (‘too’ to be used)
55. When the commander informed the king
that his troops had won a great victory, he 62. He was more worthy of praise than any one
ordered national rejoicing. (Passive voice) else. (Negative)
56. Our expenditure goes up with our income. 63. Every man within India can claim the pro-
(Complex) tection of law.
57. When the war broke out, prices went up (Negative and Interrogative)
rapidly. (Simple) 64. Work hard and you will succeed at last.
58. You can imagine my horror at the news of
(Complex)

ww
dacoity in my house. (Complex)
59. It is most probable that he will come back 65. But for prompt medical help, he would
today. have succumbed to his injuries.

w (‘Probable’ to be changed into Adverb) (Complex)

.Ea
syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
e t

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18 Formation of Words
Every Language of the world is a kind of – ery, – ry : slavery, drudgery, machinery.
well-knit and progressive huge family. Every – ful : mouthful, handful, spoonful.
word of that language is a member of that family.

wwTherefore the development of the whole language

depends upon the development of each word in it.
Further, each word has its own family too, and its
(ii) Common Noun to Abstract Noun
– hood : womanhood, boyhood, priest-
hood, knighthood.

w
family also grows and develops by slow degrees.
Every word has its origin in some Primary or

.Ea
Base Word. Many words are formed from each
Primary word through a number of linguistic
– dom : officialdom, martyrdom, wis-
dom.
– ship : kingship, friendship, member-
ship, fellowship.

syE
processes. Many new words are formed by the
addition of Prefixes and Suffixes to the Primary (iii) Adjective to Noun (Abstract)
words and their Derivatives, and these new words – ness : Happiness, kindness, gentleness,
belong to different Parts of Speech and are of greatness.
different Numbers and Genders. Thus, for
example, Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs, etc. can be
formed from Nouns, and so on. The Vocabulary of ngi – ity : seniority, diversity, activity,
superiority.

a student can develop immensely by under-

standing and making use of these linguistic pro-
cesses. Therefore, we give below a comprehensive
nee
(iv) Other words to Noun (Abstract)
– t, th (With frequent changes in Vowels) :
high-height, thief-theft, dead-death, hot-heat.
list of Suffixes and Prefixes and the words formed
by them.
(v) Verb to Noun
rin
– er, or : driver, waiter, writer, actor, dic-
Prefixes are used before and Suffixes after
the Primary words or their Derivatives to form
new words.
– ant
tator.
g.n
: consultant, informant, inhabi-

Let us first take the Suffixes. These Suffixes

are called Conversion Suffixes because they
convert the Primary words into different Parts of
Speech and their kinds—
– ee
e
tant, determinant.
: payee, employee, nominee.
– action : dictation, citation, starvation,
exploitation. t
– ment : judgement, postponement, pay-
Suffixes ment, government.
(1) Noun Suffixes – al : arrival, dismissal, disposal, pro-
posal.
(i) Noun to Noun
– ing : painting, drawing, gardening,
– an : Republican, Indian, Russian. drinking.
– ese : Chinese, Japanese. – age : cartage, postage, usage, carriage.
– ist : Florist, socialist, royalist. (vi) Nouns made by change of Vowel or Con-
– ism : idealism, absenteeism, Buddh- sonant in the Verb
ism. breathe-breath; lose-loss; lend-loan; feed-
– eer : engineer, profiteer. food; think-thought.

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FORMATION OF WORDS | 227

(2) Verb Suffixes Nume-

Noun / Adjective to Verb rals : five-rupee note, three-storied,
(i) – ify : beautify, classify, modify, simp- fifty-year old, fourteenth-century
lify, terrify. poet.
– ize : sympathize, humanize, memo- (4) Adverb Suffixes
rize, idealize.
– en : quicken, widen, heighten, – ily, ly : heavily, largely, painfully,
strengthen. greatly, easily.
(ii) Prefixes be–, en–, em– : embitter, empower, – ward(s) : downward(s), upward(s), heaven-
enrage, encourage, bemoan, belittle. ward(s), homeward(s).
(3) Adjective Suffixes – wise : lengthwise, clockwise, money-
wise.

ww
(i) Noun to Adjective
A list of popular words converted into
– ful : beautiful, useful, helpful, boun-
tiful. different parts of speech is given below :

w
– less : harmless, useless, childless, (i) NOUNS INTO VERBS
meaningless. Authority – Authorize Class – classify
– y, ly

– like .Ea
: hairy, glassy, rosy, lovely,
manly, brotherly.
: childlike, teacherlike.
Apology –
Allusion –
apologize
allude
Colony –
Collision –
colonize
collide

– ish
syE
: selfish, girlish, foolish.
– some : handsome, troublesome.
– worthy : praiseworthy, trustworthy, air-
Blood –
Beauty –
Body –
bleed
beautify
embody
Company –
Custom –
Camp –
accompany
accustom
encamp

– al
worthy.
: cultural, natural, agricultural.
ngi Circle –
Excellence –
Economy –
encircle
Excel
economize
Character –
Origin –
Office –
characterize
originate
officiate

nee
– ive : attractive, expensive, responsive.
Food – feed Perception – perceive
– ous, eous,
Fool – befool Patron – patronize
ious : amitious, injurious, pious, virtu-
Force – enforce Peace – pacify

rin
ous, famous, beauteous.
Friend – befriend Person – personify
– ie : heroic, scientific, emphatic.
Grass – graze Prison – imprison

g.n
– esque : picturesque, statuesque.
Glory – glorify Peril – imperil
– arian,
ean : authoritarian, Shakespearean. Gold – gild Power – empower
(ii) Verb / Adjective to Adjective
– able,
ible : dependable, readable, memor-
able, comprehensible, divisible.
Habit –
Harmony –
Haste –
Height –
habituate
harmonize
hasten
heighten
Right –

e
Relief –
Sermon –
Shrine –
rectify
relieve
sermonize
enshrine t
Idol – idolize Slave – enslave
– ish : longish, bluish,s greenish, smal-
lish. Justice – justify Substance – substantiate
– ing : running, rising, sinking, boiling. Knee – kneel Throne – enthrone/
Loss – lose dethrone
– ed : tired, walled, spotted, adopted. List – enlist Title – entitle
(iii) Compound Adjectives Monopoly – monopolize Tomb – entomb
Present Participle Magnet – magnetize Utility – utilize
(– ing) : fast-moving train, long-suffering Memory – memorise Verse – versify
man, grass-cutting, high-flying. Nature – naturalize Vigour – invigorate
Past Participle Notice – notify Vacancy – vacate
(– ed, – t) : long-haired, well-fed, thin-cove- Necessity – necessitate Victim – victimize
red, wind-swept, well-kept. Vice – vitiate

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228 | L.W.C.E.

(ii) VERBS INTO NOUNS (v) NOUNS INTO ADJECTIVES

Accom accomplish- Respond – response Advice – advisable Angel – angelic
plish – ment Heal – health Air – aerial Authority – authoritative
Accom accom- Know – knowledge Angle – angular Autumn – autumnal
pany – paniment Lend – loan Bounty – bounteous Merchant – merchantile
Acquit – acquittal Move – motion Brass – brazen Metal – metallic
Bathe – bath Narrate – narration Beast – bestial Medicine – medicinal
Betray – betrayal Oblige – obligation Contempt – contemp- Merit – meritorious
Conceive – conception Persuade – persuasion tuous/ Minister – ministerial
Commit – commitment Please – pleasure contemptible Muscle – muscular
Calamity – calamitous Myth – mythical
Deceive – deception Precise – precision
Circle – circular Money – monetary

wwDefy –
Deny –
Do –
defiance
denial
deed
Pursue –
Redeem –
Urge –
pursuit
redemption
urgency
College – collegiate
Conscience – conscientious
Night –

Circumstance – circumstantial
nocturnal

w
Rely –

Apt –
reliance

NOUNS
aptness.Ea
Vary –
(iii) OTHER WORDS INTO ABSTRACT

Long –
variety

length
Emperor –

Example –
Enemy –
imperial
Expectation – expectant
exemplary
inimical
Nose –
Offence –
Omen –
Population –
nasal
offensive
ominous
populous
Beautiful –
Bond –
Beggar –
beauty
bondage
beggary
syE Machine –
Regent –
Servant –
mechanism
regency
service
Essence –
Explana-
tion –
essential
explana-
tory
Professor –
Pathos –
Picture –
professorial
pathetic
picturesque/
Coward –
Courageous –
cowardice
courage
Sad –
Smooth –
sadness
smoothness ngi
Fraud –
Flower –
fraudulent
floral Prejudice –
pictorial
prejudicial

nee
Fable – fabulous Problem – problematic
Dead – death Short – shortness
Fever – feverish Palace – palatial
Difficult – difficulty True – truth
Fate – fatal Ruin – ruinous
Deep – depth Weak – weakness
Generous –
Hero –
generosity
heroism
Wise –
Witch –
wisdom
witchery
Grief –
Grass –
grievous
grassy
rin
Supersti-
tion –
supersti-
tious

g.n
Hand – handy Sun – solar
Infant – infancy Warm – warmth Hypocrite – hypocritical Star – starry
Jealous – jealousy Young – youth Industry – industrious Sedition – seditious

Able –
Acid –
Brief –
(iv) ADJECTIVES INTO NOUNS
ability
acidity
brevity
Local –
Merry –
locality
merriment
Magnificent – magnifi-
Joy –
Joke –
Judge –
Licence –
joyous
jocular
judicial
licentious
e
Service –
Secretary –
Study –
Tribe –
serviceable
secretarial
studious
tribal
t
Busy – business cence Lustre – lustrous Vice – vicious
Chaste – chastity Notorious – notoriety Voice – vocal
Civil – civility Obedient – obedience (vi) FORMATION OF SOME TYPICAL
False – falsehood Pious – piety ADJECTIVES
Ferocious – ferocity Public – publicity Age – senile Church – ecclesias-
Gay – gaiety Rival – rivalry Brother – fraternal tical
Grand – grandeur Secret – secrecy Blood – sanguinary Dog – canine
Generous – generosity Splendid – splendour Cat – feline Egg – oval
Humble – humility Vain – vanity City – urban Eye – optical
Just – justice Wide – width Flock – gregarious Flesh – carnal
Liberal – liberality Worthy – worth Hair – capillary Sun – solar

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FORMATION OF WORDS | 229

Life – vital Tooth – dental Negotiate – negotiable Terrify – terrific

Love – amorous Town – urban Perish – perishable Transfer – transferable
Moon – lunar Taste – palatable Punish – punishable Vary – various
Punishment– penal Village – rural Permit – permissible Work – workable
Salt – saline War – martial Negative Prefixes and Suffixes
Sea – marine Woman – effeminate
Antonyms are formed by adding the follow-
Ship – naval Watch – vigilant
ing Prefixes or Suffixes before or after some
Sky – etherial Youth – juvenile words—
Spring – vernal Year – annual
(a) Prefixes
(vii) ADJECTIVES INTO VERBS il –before words beginning with l ( as illegal )
Able – enable Large – enlarge im–before b, m, or p, ( as imbalance, imma-
Abundant – abound Little – belittle ture or impure )

wwBitter –
Base –
Clear –
embitter
debase
clarify
Long –
Mad –
Moist –
prolong
madden
moisten
ir–before r ( as irreligious )
in–before other letters (as inability, indepen-
dent )

w
Civil –
Clean –
Different –
Double –
civilize
cleanse

.Ea
differentiate
duplicate
Noble –
Public –
popular –
Poor –
ennoble
publish
popularise
impoverish
un–( as untrue )
dis– ( as disadvantage )
non–(as nonviolence, nonvegetarian, non-
Dramatic –
Equal –
Fat –
dramatize
equalize
fatten
syE Perpetual –
Pure –
Real –
perpetuate
purify
realize
sense)
(b) Suffix-less (as graceless, meaningless,
powerless)
Fertile –
Firm –
fertilize
confirm
Rich –
Safe –
enrich
save
ngi
(c) Verb Prefixes
em – ( as empower, embody, embitter )

nee
Fresh – refresh Sweet – sweeten en – ( as enable, ensure, encourage )
Feeble – enfeeble Solid – solidify re – ( as recall, remind, reopen )
Fond – fondle Sure – ensure
de – ( as devalue, decompose, decontrol)
General – generalize Vile –
Venerable –
vilify
venerate
rin
mis – ( as misunderstand, miscalculate )
pre – ( as prepaid, prejudge )
(viii) VERBS INTO ADJECTIVES
Agree – agreeable Change – changeful
g.n
A list of popular Antonyms formed by
Negative Prefixes is given below :

e
Accept – acceptable Divide – divisible
(i) il —

t
Bear – bearable Defend – defensive
Break – breakable Desire – desirable Legal illegal Legible illegible
Consider – considerable Deceive – deceitful Legitimate illegitimate Liberal illiberal
Encourage – courageous Resist – resistible Literate illiterate Logical illogical
Fear – fearful Read – readable (ii) im—
Gain – gainful Regret – regrettable Balance imbalance Material immaterial
Govern – governable Respect – respectable Mature immature Measurable immeasurable
Harm – harmful Respond – responsive Mobile immobile Modest immodest
Hate – hateful Receive – receptive Moral immoral Mortal immortal
Imagine – imaginative Spend – spendthrift Movable immovable Perfect imperfect
Injure – injurious Succeed – successful Pertinent impertinent Pious impious
Loathe – loathsome Slip – slippery Partial impartial Possible impossible
Marry – marriageable Solicit – solicitous Patient impatient Penitent impenitent
Manage – manageable Taste – tasteful Proper improper Prudent imprudent
Meddle – meddlesome Tire – tiresome Pure impure

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230 | L.W.C.E.

(iii) in— (v) un—

Ability inability Accessible inaccessible Able unable Answerable unanswerable
Accurate inaccurate Action inaction Bearable unbearable Called-for uncalled-for
Adequate inadequate Animate inanimate Certain uncertain Comfor- uncomfor-
Applicable inapplicable Artistic inartistic Fit unfit table table
Fortunate unfortunate Foreseen unforeseen
Coherent incoherent Competent incompetent
Known unknown Happy unhappy
Complete incomplete Consistent inconsistent Pleasant unpleasant Natural unnatural
Conveni- inconveni- Social unsocial Seen unseen
ence Correct ence incorrect Timely untimely Thinkable unthinkable
Credible incredible Capable incapable Well unwell Usual unusual
Decent indecent Dependent independent (vi) dis—
Advantage disadvantage Agree disagree

wwDirect
Efficient
Fallible
indirect
inefficient
infallible
Domitable
Elegant
Formal
indomitable
inelegant
informal
Agreeable
Appoint
Comfort
disagreeable
disappoint
discomfort
Appear
Close
Connect
disappear
disclose
disconnect

w
Human
Secure
Sufficient
Valid
inhuman
insecure

.Ea
insufficient
invalid
Organic
Sincere
Tolerant
Variable
inorganic
insincere
intolerant
invariable
Credit
Grace
Honour
Order
Regard
discredit
disgrace
dishonour
disorder
disregard
Encourage
Honest
Like
Qualifica-
tion
discourage
dishonest
dislike
disqualifica-
tion
Vulnerable
(iv) ir—
invulnerable

syE Satisfaction
Union
dissatisfaction
disunion
Respect
Service
Unity
disrespect
disservice
disunity

ngi
Rational irrational Recoverable irrecoverable (vii) less—
Regular irregular Religious irreligious Artful artless Careful careless
Reconcil- irreconcil- Removable irremovable Cheerful cheerless Colourful colourless
able
Resolute
able
irresolute
Reparable
Repressible
irreparable
irrepressible
nee
Fruitful
Hopeful
Merciful
fruitless
hopeless
merciless
Graceful
Harmful
Powerful
graceless
harmless
powerless

rin
Redeem- irredeemable Painful painless Remorseful remorseless
able Tasteful tasteless Thoughtful thoughtless

g.n
e t

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19 Antonyms
“Antonyms are words of the same gramma- Analysis : (breaking up) synthesis
tical class (Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives, etc.) that (combination)
have opposite meanings.” David Green

ww
Ancestor : (forefathers) descendant
Antonyms are of two kinds— (coming down
(i) The first kind of Antonyms are those that from ancestors)

w are formed by the addition of Prefixes or

Suffixes before or after some words.

.Ea
(ii) The second kind of Antonyms are those
words that have opposite meanings to the
Ancient : (old)

Aristocrat :
Arrive :
modern (of the
present time)
commoner
depart

syE
given words without having any etymolo-
gical relationship with them—
The Antonyms that are formed by the addi-
Ascent : (rising)
Assent : (agree)
Asset : (capital)
descent (declining)
dissent (disagree)
liability
tion of some Prefixes or Suffixes have been discu-
ssed in detail above in chapter 18 (Formation of
Words). In that chapter a Complete list of Anto- ngi Attract :
(debit side)
repel
nyms so formed has also been given. Therefore,
the student should study this part of chapter 18
carefully before studying the present chapter. nee
Awake :
Barren : (unproductive)
Base :
asleep
fertile (productive)
noble
The Antonyms of the second category are
independent words, which are not bound by any
Beautiful :
Belief : rinugly
doubt
rules. Therefore, a long list of such Antonyms has
been given below for the student’s ready
reference. Meanings of difficult words have also
Benediction : (blessing)
Benevolence : (generosity) g.n
malediction (curse)
malevolence(lack
been given.
Above :
Abstract :
(unreal, conceptual only)
below or beneath.

concrete (real)
Bold :
e
of generosity)
timid
Bonafides : (Trustworthiness) malafides
(not trustworthy) t
Boom : (rise) slump (fall)
Accept : reject
Bravery : cowardice
Acquit : (to set free) condemn
Bright : dim or dull
(to punish)
Carnal : (of the senses) spiritual (of the
Advance : retreat
Affirm : (accept, admit) deny (refuse) spirit or soul)
Affluence : (prosperity) poverty Centrifugal : (moving away centripetal
(being poor) from the centre) (drawn towards
Aggravate : (increase) alleviate or lessen the centre)
(reduce) Cheap : dear or costly
Agree : differ Cheerful : gloomy
Allow : forbid Clean : dirty

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232 | L.W.C.E.

Clergy : (priest) laity Exclude : (leaving out) include

(common men) (counting in)
Clever : stupid Exit : (gate to go out) entrance
Common : rare (gate to come in)
Compulsory : optional Exotic : (foreign / strange) indigenous (local /
Concord : (agreement) discord native)
(disagreement) Expand : contract
Confident : diffident Explicit : (clear) implicit (implied)
(having confidence) (lacking Exterior : (outside) interior (inside)
confidence) External : internal
Convex : concave Extravagant : (wasteful) frugal or thrifty

wwCovert : (concealed)
Create :
Dark :
overt (open)
destroy
light Famous :
(careful in
spending)
obscure

w
Dawn :
Debit :
Debtor : (one in debt)
.Ea
dusk
credit
creditor (one
who gives loans)
Fast :
Fat :
Fictitious : (imaginary)
Flattery :
loose or slow
lean or thin
real
detraction

particular) syE
Deduction : (from general to induction (from
particular to
general)
Float :
Forget :
sink
remember
Foreign : (of other countries) native
Deep :
Defendant : (defending side)
shallow
plaintiff ngi (of one’s own
country)

Defensive : (on the defense)

(complainant)
offensive (one who
offends)
nee
Frequent :
Fresh :
Friendly :
rare
stale
hostile
Deficit : (short balance) surplus (saving,
extra)
Full :
Gain : rin empty
loss
Deflate :
Deliberate :
inflate
unintentional or
Gather :
General : g.n
scatter
particular or

Democracy :
Diligent :
Dilute :
accidental.
autocracy
lazy
concentrated
Generous : (large–hearted)

Gentle :
e
special
mean (narrow–
minded)
rough t
Dwarf : giant Genuine : (real / pure) spurious (impure /
Ebb : flow imitation)
Efflux : (flow out) influx (flow in) Glut : (too much supply) scarcity (short
Egoism : (of the self) altruism (of the supply)
others beyond self) Gradual : abrupt or sudden
Elevation : (rise) depression (fall) Grave : gay
Emigrant : (citizens of our immigrant Guilty : innocent
country settled in other (Foreigners settled Harsh : gentle
countries) in our country) Hasty : leisurely
Exaggeration : understatement Hate : love
(high estimation) (low estimation) Haughty : meek

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ANTONYMS | 233

Heavy : light Landlord : tenant

Help : hinder Lascivious : (sensual) chaste (pure / holy)
Hero : villain Licentious : moral (of noble
High : low (given to immoral habits) character)
Hit : miss Lewd : (immoral, of low virtuous
Hollow : solid values) (possessing good
Homogenous : heterogeneous qualities)
(of the same kind) (of a different Later : earlier
kind) Latter : former
Honour : shame Lead : follow
Hope : despair Lend : borrow

wwHost :
Hurt :
Ideal :
guest
heal
actual
Let :
Liberate :
Literal : (actual)
hire
enslave
figurative

w
Idle :
Imagination :

.Ea
Immanent : (indwelling)
busy
reality
transcendent
(beyond the
(decorative)
Loose :
Loquacious : (too talkative)
tight
taciturn (gentle
and soft-spoken)

Import :
Increase :
syE material world)
export
decrease
Lose :
Major :
Many :
find
minor
few
Individual : general
Industrious : (hard working) indolent or lazy ngi
Marriage :
Masculine :
celibacy
feminine

Inferior :
Inhale : (to breathe in)
(slow in working)
superior
exhale (to breathe
nee
Material :
Maximum : (highest)
Memory : (in remembrance)
spiritual
minimum (lowest)
oblivion

Input :
out)
output Microcosm : rin (forgotten)
macrocosm
Insert :
Jolly, Jovial :
extract
morose or gloomy
(in small measure)
Mild : g.n (in large measure)
stern or severe
Joy :
Junior :
Justify : (to hold right)
sorrow
senior
condemn
(to blame)
Miser :
Monogamy : (system of one
marriage only)
espendthrift
polygamy
(system of many
marriages)
t
Keen : blunt or dull Monotheism : (worshipping polytheism
Kernel : shell of one God only) (worshipping of
Kill : resurrect many gods)
(to revive) Monotony : variety or diversity
Kind : cruel Motion : rest
Kindle : extinguish Naive : (simple) sophisticated
King : subject (highly cultivated)
Knowledge : ignorance Narrow : broad
Lament : (to weep in sorrow) rejoice Native : foreign
(to feel delighted) Natural : artificial

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234 | L.W.C.E.

Nebulous : (hidden in mist) distinct (clear) Promote : demote

Negative : positive Prow : (front part of the ship) stern (back part of
Neutral : partial the ship)
Niggard : (very greedy) spendthrift Public : private
(wasteful) Quiet : noisy
Noxious : (harmful) wholesome Queer : normal
(useful) Rash : (hasty) cautious (careful)
Observe : reverse Rapid : slow or leisurely
Odd : even Recede : (going backward) advance
Offer : refuse (going forward)
Often : seldom Ralative : absolute

wwOmission : (leaving out)

Optimistic : (hopeful)
commission
(devoted to action)
pessimistic
Reluctant : (hesitant)
Remember :
Remitter : (he who sends)
ready or willing
forget
receiver or

w
Oral :

.Ea
Oriental : (of the East)
(hopeless / sad)
written
occidental
(of the West)
Reserved :
Resist : (to stand against)
recipient (he who
receives)
sociable
submit (to yield)

Orthodox : (believer in
syE
Original : (real / first copy) duplicate (false
copy, not real)
heterodox
Retail :
Reward :
Ripe :
wholesale
punish
raw
religion) (non-believer in
religion) ngi Rise :
Rough :
fall or set
smooth
Ostensible : (showy)
Partly :
Permanent :
actual (real)
wholly
temporary
nee
Rude :
Sacred : (holy)
Safe :
polite
profane (unholy)
risky or dangerous
Permit :
Philanthropist : (given to
prohibit
misanthropist
Saint :
Servant : rin sinner
master
public good) (against public
good)
Sharp :
Simple : g.n blunt
complex or
Pleasure :
Practice :
Pragmatic : (practical)
pain.
theory
idealistic
(in ideal state only)
Sink :
Smile :
Sober :
ecomplicated
swim or float
frown
drunk or rash
t
Praise : blame Solid : liquid
Precede : (coming before) succeed Starboard : (right side of port or larbord
(coming after) the ship) (left side of the
Pride : humility ship)
Profit : loss Straight : crooked or curved
Progress : regress or Strait : broad
retrogression Strange : familiar
Progressive : (forward going) reactionary or Subjective : objective
retrograde Succeed : fail
(backward going) Sure : doubtful

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ANTONYMS | 235

Sweet : bitter or sour Urban : (of the city) rural (of the
Sympathy : (kind attitude) antipathy village)
(unkind attitude) Urbane : rude or uncultured
Tall : short Vacant : occupied
Temporal : (physical) spiritual or eternal Vague : clear or definite
(of the spirit / soul) Variable : (changing) constant (fixed)
Tense : relaxed Vanguard : (front portion) rearguard
Terrestrial : (of the earth) celestial (back portion)
(of heaven) Vertical : (standing,
Thesis : antithesis perpendicular) horizontal (flat)
Thick : thin Victory : defeat

wwTight :
Top :
Tranquil : (quiet)
loose or slack
bottom
Disturbed or
Virtue :
Voluntary : (optional, free)
vice
compulsory
(obligatory)

w
Transparent :
Triumph :
Trivial : .Ea
agitated (unquiet)
opaque
defeat
important
Wake :
Wax : (grow)
Wealth :
Wide :
sleep
wane (reduce)
poverty
narrow
True :
Unite :
Upper :
syE false
separate
lower
Win :
Wise :
Zenith : (highest point)
lose
foolish
nadir
Upright : dishonest
ngi (lowest point)

nee
rin
g.n
e t

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20 Synonyms
Synonyms are the words which have the 5. Ill—(not in health)
same meaning. They are the opposite of Anto- He is ill these days.

wwnyms. Antonyms are the words which are opposite

to each other in meaning, while Synonyms are the
words which are similar to each other in mean-
Sick—(under the effect of some disease)
A sick man must take his medicine regu-

w
ing. But a close study would reveal that though larly.
the synonyms are similar in meaning, there is 6. Mistake—(misunderstanding or miscalcula-

.Ea
always a shade of difference in their intention and
application. Therefore, a student must understand
the minute distinction between their meanings to
tion)
They mistake him for a gentleman.

syE
be able to use them carrectly. We give below a list
of popular Synonyms explaining the delicate
difference in their meanings and their use in
Don’t commit such a mistake again.
Blunder—(serious or gross mistake)

ngi
sentences. You would be committing a blunder if
1. Home—(dwelling place with all its happy you don’t report the matter to the police.
associations such as furnishings, family, love, Error—(departure from established rules or
etc.)
He is returning home after many years. nee practice).
Avoid grammatical errors.
House—(dwelling place, building only)
He has built a big house.
rin
7. Oral—(in the spoken form)
The teacher took an oral test.
2. Hear—(in the ordinary sense)
We could hear them talking.
g.n
Verbal—(in words only as against in writing)
Let me have your statement in writing; I
Listen—(implies careful attention)
The whole class will listen to you.
3. Infectious—(refers to a disease that spreads
through air or water)
e
shall not accept your verbal assurance.
8. Presume—(to believe what we think to be
true)
I presume he is an honest man.
t
Cholera is an infectious disease. Assume—(in matters that ought to be true)
Contagious—(a disease that spreads by phy- I assume my father will send me money
sical contact) in time.
Small-pox is a contagious disease. 9. Possible—(not contrary to natural conditions
4. Idle—(inactive or without work through or reason)
circumstances) If we drive a little faster, it is possible we
He has been sitting idle for several may reach before sunset.
months now. Probable—(what may happen)
Lazy—(inactive by habit or temperament) It is probable that the examination may
He is too lazy to finish his work in time. be postponed.

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SYNONYMS | 237

10. Praise—(refers to one’s actions) ● The post of the accountant has fallen
● We must praise his efforts. vacant.
Admire—(refers to one’s qualities or posses- Empty—(where there is nothing)
sions) ● The room is empty.
● We must admire his courage. 18. Assent—(relates to matters of judgment)
11. Prohibit—(legal or official restriction) ● The President has given his assent to the
● Drinking is prohibited here. bill.
Forbid—(in personal or private matters) Consent—(relates to matters of conduct)
● My father forbids me to leave today. ● My father has given his consent to my
proposal.
12. Recollect—(call to mind through some efforts)
19. Allow—(denotes a negative action and means

ww
● Can you recollect what he said ? abstain from refusal)
Remember—(call to mind with very little or ● I can’t allow you to go there
no efforts)
Permit—(denotes a positive action and means

w ● I remember we met last month.

.Ea
13. Regret—(unhappiness over what one has
done or left undone)
● To my great regret, I have suspended him.
to give a decided assent)
● My parents have permitted me to join the
Navy.

syE
20. Abstain—(from a thing)
Sorrow—(refers to some loss or evil) ● You must abstain from hard drinks.
● His wife’s death has plunged him into Refrain—(from an action)

ngi
deep sorrow. ● You are refrained from taking any further
14. Say—(to assert; to declare) action.
● I say I have not done it. 21. Avenge—(just punishment on evil-doers)
Speak—(to express in the ordinary way)
● He speaks very fast. nee ● I shall avenge my father’s death upon the
murderer.
Tell—(to inform; to narrate)
● He will tell you the whole story. rin
Revenge—(to inflict pain or injury out of
resentment or grudge)

15. See—(without any effort)

● We see greenery all around us. 22.
this insult.
g.n
● I will certainly revenge myself on him for

Admit—(to acknowledge or accept)

Look—(with effort or intention)
● Please look at me.
Watch—(to observe closely)
● I admit my fault.
e
Confess—(to acknowledge responsibility or
guilt)
● He confessed his involvement in the
t
● You must watch his movements care-
fully. crime.
16. Scenery—(landscape) 23. Anger—(sudden feeling of displeasure)
● Every visitor admires the scenery of ● He showed much anger at his irresponsi-
Kashmir. ble behaviour.
Scene—(Place or spot of some action or Resentment—(a lasting feeling of displea-
occurrence) sure)
● He was present at the scene of accident. ● He bears resentment against me for a
cause not known to me.
17. Vacant—(refers to a thing or situation which
is at present free or unoccupied but which was 24. Answer—(a question is answered)
previously filled) ● Answer any five questions.

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238 | L.W.C.E.

Reply—(a letter or a charge is replied) Daring—(courage with rashness)

● You have to reply these charges within a ● He showed much daring in jumping into
week. the flooded river.
25. Attain—(to get by exertion or labour) 30. Battle—(a single contest between two oppo-
● He has attained proficiency in English. sing armies)
Acquire—(to have some hold permanently) ● The battle of Haldighati was fought bet-
ween Maharana Pratap and the Mughals.
● He has acquired one more house.
War—(a series of contests between two opp-
26. Ancient—(opposed to modern) osing armies)
● This is an ancient fort. ● The First World War started in 1914.
Old—(opposed to young or new) Fight—(a combat between a small number of

ww
● He deals in old books. persons)
27. Ability—(power to do something physical or ● There was a fierce fight between the
intellectual) police and the dacoits.

w ● He has remarkable ability to guide you in

tain)
this field.

.Ea
Capacity—(power to achieve, hold or con-
31. Begin—(used on all occasions)
● Let us begin the match.
Commence—(used only in official and for-
mal language)

syE
1. He has the capacity to consume one full
bottle of whisky.
2. This hall has a seating capacity for two
● The University examinations commence
on April 15.

ngi
Start—(implies an idea of an actual physical
hundred people. motion)
28. Astonishment—(extreme surprise) ● Now the match starts.
● I was astonished to see a crowd of people
standing before my gate.
Surprise—(due to something new or unex- nee
32. Beautiful—(implies certain degree of deli-
cacy, not applicable to men)
● She is a very beautiful girl.
pected)
● I was surprised to find my father waiting
rin
Hadsome—(is used for men)

g.n
● He is a handsome young man.
for me in my room.
Wonder—(surprise mixed with admiration) 33. Cutom—(generally refers to the repeated
action of many persons, a community, a
● I wondered at her great skill in dancing.
29. Bravery—(physical)
● He showed much bravery in challenging
the dacoits.
society, a race, etc.)

custom in India.
e
● Community feast after death is a bad

Habit—(is applicable when we are speaking

t
of just one person)
Courage—(born of reason and reflection)
● He is in the habit of reading late in the
● He showed much courage in refusing to
night.
pay any hush money.
34. Cite—(is used for things or persons)
Valour—(highest quality of courage)
● I can cite the authority of Tagore on this
● Maharana Pratap was the very model of
point.
bravery.
Quote—(is used for things only)
Boldness—(short-lived courage for an occa-
sion) ● I quote a passage from Milton.
● He exhibited much boldness in facing the 35. Compulsion—(is physical)
critical situation. ● I have to work here under compulsion.

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SYNONYMS | 239

Obligation—(is moral) ● I forcefully deny my participation in this

● I am under obligation to vote for him. criminal act.
36. Confer—(conferring is an act of authority) Refuse—(refers to matters of wish or request)
● The Chancellor will confer the Degrees. ● I refuse to accept your request.
Bestow—(bestowing is an act of generosity 44. Doubt—(to doubt a fact or a statement)
or charity) ● I doubt his version of the incident.
● I bestow an old-age pension on you. Suspect—(to suspect is to be inclined to think
37. Crime—(an offence against the law) a thing untrue)
● Smuggling is a crime. ● I suspect his honesty.
Vice—(an offence against morals) 45. Discover—(to find out a thing or country that
existed before)

ww
● Smoking is a vice.
● Columbus discovered America.
Sin—(an offence against the law of God or
religious law) Invent—(to create what did not exist before)

w
38.
● Illicit love is a sin.

.Ea
Ceiling—(the inner side of a roof)
● The colour of our ceiling is white.
Roof—(the entire covering of a room or
46.
● Wright Brothers invented the aeroplane.
Drown—(refers to persons)
● A man drowned in the river.
Sink—(refers to things)
house)
syE
● The roof is leaking. 47.
● A boat sank in the river.
Desire—(is used of that which is near at hand

ngi
39. Character—(mental or moral nature) or in thought)
● He is a man of high character. ● I have a keen desire to attend my friend’s
marriage.

nee
Conduct—(one’s actions)
Wish—(is used of that which is remote)
● His conduct is praiseworthy.
● I wish I could set up a large factory.
40. Contentment—(a state of mind in which one
does not wish for more)
● Contentment is the basis of happiness.
absent)
rin
Want—(is used of that which is lacking or

Satisfaction—(fulfilment of one’s expecta-

tions)
g.n
● The crops have dried up for want of rains.
Need—(is used of that which is both lacking
and necessary)

41.
● The achievement of my son has given me
full satisfaction.
Cool—(denotes a pleasant sensation)
● A cool breeze is blowing.
e
● I urgently need a good dictionary.
Require—(demand or ask for in words)
● I require your personal help. t
48. Envy—(feeling uneasy at others’good for-
Cold—(denotes an unpleasant sensation) tune)
● The weather is very cold. ● It is a common weakness to envy the
42. Defend—(refers to present danger) good fortune of others.
● I can well defend myself against this Jealousy—(Suspicious of rivalry, lack of
charge. trust)
Protect—(refers to approaching danger) ● He languishes under jealousy against all
● We should have a strong army to protect his friends.
our country against any attack. 49. Enough—(relates to the quantity which one
43. Deny—(refers to matters of fact or knowle- wishes to have)
dge) ● This amount is enough for your purpose.

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240 | L.W.C.E.

Sufficient—(relates to the use that is to be 55. Grateful—(one who remains indebted for the
made of anything) kindness of a benefactor)
● There is sufficient milk for four cups of ● I am grateful to my uncle for many favo-
tea. urs.
50. Event—(an important happening) Thankful—(one who cherishes the memory
● Marriage is an important event in the life of the favours shown by one’s benefactor)
of every person. ● I shall always remain thankful to all my
Incident—(an ordinary happening) friends for their encouragement.
● We forget many small incidents of life. 56. Hope—(is used when what we anticipate is
very likely to happen)
Accident—(an unexpected serious occur-
rence) ● He has every hope of passing in the first
division.
● Several persons were killed in the acci-

ww51.
dent.
Excuse—(is used with reference to trifling
Expect—(is use when what we anticipate is
good but not very certain. It refers to future)
● He expects to get some timely help from

w
matters)
his uncle.
● His illness is just an excuse for doing no
work.
.Ea
Forgive—(is used with reference to offences)
57. Watch—(to observe closely)
● You must watch his conduct very closely.
Witness—(is used of persons or events as

syE
● Please forgive me for this mistake.
Pardon—(is used with reference to simpler
offences)
evidences)
● My friend is an eye-witness of the whole
incident.

52.
● I beg your pardon for not bringing your
book today.
Famous—(is used in a good sense) ngi 58. Sight—(faculty of vision ; anything seen)
● It was indeed a horrible sight.
● The Taj is a famous monument.
Notorious—(is used in a bad sense) nee Scenery—(the view of landscape)
● The scenery of Kashmir is highly colour-
ful.
● A notorious dacoit has been killed.
Renowned—(is used for a high and dignified
rin
Scene—(landscape, a place where an event or
accident takes place)

53.
kind of reputation)
● Dr. Tagore was a renowned poet.
Freedom—(implies absence of restraint at
fought.
g.n
● That is the scene where the battle was

59. Trade—(it is business on either small or

the present moment)
● Everybody wants freedom.
Liberty—(implies freedom from previous
restraint; undue freedom)
large scale)

line.
e
● The trade of cotton cloth is on the dec-

Commerce—(it is always on a large scale,

t
specially between countries)
1. The convict was set at liberty.
● India’s commerce with African countries
2. Too much liberty is bad.
is steadily increasing.
54. Falsehood—(something said or done with or 60. Libel—(unfavourable or dishonourable obser-
without the idea of deceiving a man) vations or defamation in written or printed
● He was guilty of falsehood when he said form)
that he had completed all his work. ● I am suing this newspaper for libel against
Lie—(speaking untrue words with the inten- me.
tion of deceiving others) Slander—(spreading defamation orally)
● He was certainly telling a lie when he ● He has been slandering me for no reason
said that he was the owner of the factory. or rhyme.

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SYNONYMS | 241

61. Place—(to put a thing somewhere) Steal—(to take away secretly)

● Please place this chair in the lawn. ● Here thieves may steal away even in day
Keep—(to put something for a long time) time.
● I keep my books in my study room. 64. Reverence—(deep respect, religious devo-
tion)
62. Redress—(relief or compensation as a matter
● The Archbishop was held in high revere-
of right or justice)
nce.
● The injured worker must get due redress Respect—(honour, high opinion)
from the factory.
● We all give him due respect for his schol-
Relief—(implies kindness or generosity) arship.
● Immediate relief should be provided to 65. Illegal—(deliberately against law)
the people in flood-affected areas. ● Smuggling of contraband articles is an

ww63. Rob—(to take away by force)

● The dacoits robbed the whole family on
illegal act.
Unlawful—(not in conformity with law)

w the point of gun.

.Ea
● Don’t do anything unlawful.

syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
e t

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21 Homonyms
Homonyms and Paronyms Excess—(superabundance; more than due)
Some words are so alike to each other in their ● Excess of everything is bad.

wwspellings, Pronunciation or meanings that it

becomes difficult to understand and use them
correctly. There is very little difference in their
3. Accept—(take)
● Please accept my application.

w
spellings and pronunciation (though their mean- Except—(leaving out)
ings are very different) so that one feels confused ● Every student except Ram was present.

.Ea
in understanding and using them correctly. Such
words are called Homonyms or Paronyms.
4. Adapt—(suit ; accustomed to)
● He has now learnt to adapt himself to the

syE
The words which are similar in pronuncia-
tion, but different in spellings and meanings are
called Homonyms, as Site, cite, Sight. All these
three words have the same pronunciation, but their
local conditions.
Adept—(expert ; skilful)
● She is adept in painting.
spellings and meanings are different. Site means
the ‘situation’ of some building, Cite means ‘to
ngi Adopt—(take up)
● I have adopted my brother’s son.

nee
quote’, and ‘Sight means ‘a view’. Errors are
often committed in the correct use of such words. 5. Affect—(to pretend, to act upon)
These words are called Homonyms. ● This does not affect me.
Paronyms are those words which are derived
from the same root word, and therefore they look
alike, but in course of time their meanings have rin
Effect—(as verb it means accomplish, or
carry into practice; as noun it means result)
become very different. For example, a root word
is ‘art’. From this root word have been derived
three words—artistic, artificial, and artful. g.n
● What is the effect of this medicine ?
6. Addition—(putting more adding)
Artistic means ‘full of beautiful art’; Artificial
means ‘unnatural’; and Artful means ‘cunning’.
The correct use of such words is also very
difficult.
e
● This is in addition to your share.
Edition—(a number of books printed at one
time)
● This is the first edition of my book.
t
We give below the lists of popular Homo-
7. Alter—(change)
nyms and Paronyms with their meanings and use.
● I can’t alter my programme.
Homonyms
Altar—(place of offering in a temple or
1. Accede—(agree) church)
● He did not accede to my request.
● Put your offerings on the altar.
Exceed—(surpass ; to be greater than)
● The precis should not exceed 150 words. 8. Allusion—(indirect reference)
2. Access—(approach ; reach ; admittance) ● Make the allusion clear.
● I have no approach to the Managing Illusion—(a deceptive appearance)
Director. ● The world is an illusion.

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HOMONYMS | 243

9. Apposite—(proper ; suitable) 18. Berth—(sleeping place in a train)

● He made some very apposite observa- ● I have booked two berths.
tions on our system of education in his Birth—(coming to life)
speech.
● Today is my son’s birth-day.
Opposite—(standing in front of or contrary
to) 19. Bare—(uncovered)
● Our school is opposite the church. ● Don’t go bare-footed.
10. Assent—(agreement ; concurrence) Bear—(as verb, to carry or to tolerate)
● I have already given my assent to your ● I cannot bear this humiliation any longer.
proposal. Beer—(a kind of drink)
Ascent—(going up) ● He drank a glass of beer.

ww ● The hill has a sharp ascent.

11. Antic—(odd ; strange)
● This is an antic piece of art.
20. Beach—(shore)
● Let us go for a walk on the beach.
Beech—(a kind of tree)

w Antique—(ancient; old-fashioned)

.Ea
● The church has an antique magnificence.
12. Ail—(to be ill)
● Beech tree grows on the Himalayas.
21. Brake—(lever; an instrument to stop a wheel)
● The brakes of my scooter are loose.

Ale—(a drink) syE

● He has been ailing for over a week.

● He drinks country ale.

Break—(to make apart)
● Don’t break the stick.
22. Bough—(a branch of a tree)
13. All together—(in a body)
● They came all together. ngi ● The monkey sits on the bough of a tree.
Bow—(bend a contrivance to shoot arrows)
Altogether—(completely)
● This is altogether a lie. nee ● He came with a bow and arrows.
23. Baron—(a Norman noble ; a landlord)
14. All ready—(all things or persons are ready)
● We are now all ready to go. rin
● His father was a baron.
Barren—(not fertile ; unfruitful.)
Already—(before this time)
● I have already returned his book. g.n
● This is a barren tract of land.
24. Bridal—(pertaining to marriage; adjective
15. Ark—(covered floating vessel)
● Noah saved himself and his tribe in an
ark.
Arc—(a part of a circle)
from bride)

e
● There is the bridal chamber.
Bridle—(reins used to drive a horse)
● Hold the bridle tight in your hand.
t
● The moon is in the shape of an arc. 25. Calendar—(chart showing the months and
days of the year)
16. Amiable—(lovable)
● This is a beautiful calendar.
● She is a girl of amiable nature.
Calender—(as verb, to press or give finish to
Amicable—(friendly) a piece of cloth)
● Let us come to an amicable settlement. ● Please calender my shirt.
17. Bale—(package of goods) 26. Cannon—(a big gun)
● I have taken delivery of a bale of clothes. ● Cannon-balls were fired.
Bail—(security) Canon—(principles)
● The suspect has been released on bail. ● These are the canons of taxation.

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244 | L.W.C.E.

27. Canvas—(a kind of rough cloth) 34. Chord—(a string of a musical instrument)
● The tent is made of white canvas. ● Tight the chords of your guitar.
Canvass—(to solicit votes) Cord—(a thin rope)
● I shall not canvass for any political party. ● Hang the shirt on the cord.
28. Casual—(accidental or occasional) 35. Career—(profession)
● I had a casual meeting with him. ● He has made remarkable progress in his
Causal—(relating to cause) career.
● There is no causal connection between Carrier—(one that carries)
one’s poverty and level of intelligence. ● Place the bedding on the carrier.
29. Cast—(as a verbs to throw) 36. Course—(way, line of action)

ww
● I shall cast away my old pair of shoes. ● I shall follow this course of action.
Caste—(community) Coarse—(rough)
● Character does not depend upon caste. ● Poor men wear coarse clothes.

w
30. Censer—(a vessel in which incense is burnt
in a temple)

.Ea
● A censer was placed on the altar.
Censor—(an official examiner of plays, films
37. Collision—(clashing; dashing together, acci-
dent)
● There was a serious collision between a
car and a scooter.
etc)
syE
● Every film has to be passed by the cen-
Collusion—(secret agreement for an evil
purpose)
● He is working in collusion with the

ngi
sor.
Censure—(disapprove ; criticise adversely) smugglers.
● The court censured him for his bad cha- 38. Corpse—(dead body)
racter.
31. Cite—(quote) nee ● The corpse has been sent for postmortem.
Corps—(pronounced as ‘kore’, a body of

rin
● I can cite a parallel stanza. troops)
Site—(local position) ● He belongs to the Gorkha corps.
● This is an ideal site for building a house.
Sight—(view ; scene) ● He is lying in coma.
g.n
39. Coma—(state of senselessness)

● It was a horrible sight.

32. Cession—(noun from the verb ‘cede’ which
means ‘to yield’)
● India cannot make cession of even an
e
Comma—(a mark of punctuation)
● Put a comma after the first clause.
40. Complacent—(pleased, self-satisfied)
● He is complacent by nature.
t
inch of land of Kashmir to Pakistan.
Complaisant—(polite ; obliging)
Session—(the time when a court or a public
● She is a gentle girl of complaisant nature.
body sits)
● Hearing of the case will continue in the 41. Complement—(that which completes)
evening session. ● This verb must take a complement after
33. Check—(prevent, test) it.
● Please check my bill. Compliment—(salute ; regards)
Cheque—(a written order for money to a ● I offer my sincere compliments to you.
bank) 42. Conscious—(aware)
● I shall pay you by cheque. ● I am fully conscious of my responsibility.

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HOMONYMS | 245

Conscientious—(honest; careful; scrupulous) 50. Deference—(respect)

● He is a very conscientious person. ● I say this in due deference to his scholar-
Consensus—(agreement of opinion) ship.
● Public consensus should be invited on Difference—(dissimilarity)
this issue. ● There is no difference between man to
43. Council—(an assembly) man.
● He was a member of the Legislative 51. Descent—(coming down, slope)
Council. ● Go slow on the descent.
Counsel—(advice) Dissent—(as verb, to ‘differ’; as noun, ‘dis-
● He gave me a very sane counsel. agreement’)
44. Credible—(believable) ● I have given my note of dissent.

ww ● His story is not credible.

Creditable—(worthy of praise)
● He did a creditable service.
52. Disease—(malady or illness)
● He suffers from a simple disease.

w
45. Cease—(stop, discontinue)

.Ea
● He ceases to be a Government counsel.
Seize—(catch ; hold tightly)
Decease—(death)
● His sons quarrelled over his property
after his decease.
53. Dye—(as verb, ‘to colour’ ; as noun, ‘colour’)

syE
● He seized the first opportunity.
Siege—(state of being surrounded)
● The fort lay in siege for many days.
● Dye my turban in deep green.
Die—(expire)
● He is going to die soon.
46. Current—(a stream)
● The current in the river was very swift.ngi 54. Duel—(a fight between two)
● There was a duel between the two com-
Currant—(dried grapes)
● Currants are very nutritious. nee batants.
Dual—(double)
47. Capital—(centre of administration, money
invested in a business)
rin
● This machine serves a dual purpose.
55. Dose—(the quantity of medicine taken at a

g.n
● New Delhi is the Capital of India. time)
Capitol—(Roman temple of Jupiter) ● Don’t take a very heavy dose of this
● Caesar was murdered in the Capitol. medicine.
48. Defy—(challenge)
You can’t defy my orders.
Deify—(to worship as a God)
Doze—(sleep)
● He dozed in the class. e
56. Draught—(the quantity of liquid drunk at a
t
● The sage stands deified in our country-
time)
side.
● There is not even a draught of water in
49. Desert—(as noun, a waste tract of sandy
land) the jug.
● There is little rain in a desert. Drought—(want of rain)
Deserts—(what one deserves) ● There is fear of famine on account of
drought.
● Do whatever you like; you will get just
your deserts. 57. Eminent—(distinguished)
Dessert—(fruit served after dinner) ● Many eminent personalities were there.
● There must be a course desserts after Imminent—(impending ; approaching)
dinner. ● There is imminent danger of war.

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246 | L.W.C.E.

58. Eligible—(fit to be chosen) 68. Goal—(aim)

● He is fully eligible for the post. ● I have come to achieve my goal.
Illegible—(indistinct ; that which cannot be Gaol—(prison ; jail)
read) ● The convict has been sent to the gaol.
● His handwriting is illegible. 69. Gild—(to apply a thin covering of gold)
59. Elusive—(baffling, escaping from grasp) ● Ornaments are gilded here.
● He gave some elusive replies. Guild—(society of men belonging to a parti-
Illusive—(deceptive) cular profession)
● The glamour of wealth is only illusive. ● I have joined the guild of artisans.
60. Fain—(gladly) 70. Hail—(frozen rain)

ww
● I would fain go to the valley of flowers. ● There was a hail storm.
Feign—(pretend) Hale—(healthy)
● He is in the habit of feigning. ● I am hale and hearty.

w
61. Fair—(a show, temporary market)

.Ea
● This fair is held every week.
Fare—(food, passage money)
71. Hoard—(a store)
● He has a hoard of rice.
Horde—(a gang)

syE
● I have already paid the fare.
62. Feat—(an exploit, skill)
● It was a feat of real physical skill.
● A horde of robbers was seen in the
valley.
72. Hart—(a male deer)
Feet—(the plural of foot)
● Her feet are so soft. ngi ● Don’t shoot the hart.
Heart—(an organ of the body)
63. Forego—(go before)
● This is a foregone conclusion. nee ● His heart beat is normal.
73. Ingenious—(clever)
● He is a very ingenious statesman.
Forgo—(abstain from)
● I shall forgo my claim in your favour.
rin
Ingenuous—(frank and simple)

g.n
64. Felicity—(happiness) ● I like her for her ingenuous nature.
● Real felicity comes from contentment. 74. Incite—(to provoke to anger)
Facility—(ease, opportunity) ● Don’t incite him, please.
● We shall give you every facility.
65. Foul—(dirty ; unfair)
● He was playing a foul game.
e
Insight—(a clear perception)
● He is a man of deep insight.
75. Jealous—(envious of another’s advantages)
t
Fowl—(a bird) ● I am not jealous of you.
● Many people eat the meat of fowls. Zealous—(enthusiastic)
66. Gage—(security ; pledge) ● He is so zealous about the Olympic
● I throw my ring as a gage. games.
Gaze—(to look attentively) 76. Lightening—(making lighter, reducing)
● His gaze was offensive. ● He has appealed to the High Court for
67. Gait—(manner of walking) lightening the sentence.
● Her gait is so graceful. Lightning—(electric discharge or flash in
Gate—(large door) clouds)
● Please lock the gate. ● There was fierce lightning and thundur.

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HOMONYMS | 247

77. Loath—(unwilling) 87. Marshal—(a military officer)

● I would loath do it. ● The Marshal will inspect the parade
Loathe—(to dislike greatly) today.
● I loathe him for his untidy habits. Martial—(warlike)
78. Loose—(adjective, slack or relaxed) ● He is skilled in all martial exercises.
● My shirt is very loose. 88. Oar—(is used for rowing a boat)
Lose—(to have no more, miss) ● Move both the oars together.
● I don’t want to lose this chance. Ore—(the mineral from which metal can be
extracted)
79. Mead—(meadow)
● Here is a stock of iron ore.
● Goats were grazing in the mead.
89. Ordinance—(a rule made by the Govern-

ww Meed—(reward)
● Contentment is the meed of honesty.
80. Metal—(iron, brass, copper, etc.)
ment)
● The Governor has issued an ordinance.

w ● No metal is used in making this chain.

.Ea
Mettle—(spirit, courage)
● This is the test of your mettle.
Ordnance—(a gun factory)
● There is a famous ordnance depot.
90. Persecute—(to harass or oppress)
● You cannot persecute any poor or weak

syE
81. Monetary—(relating to money)
● We cannot go against our monetary
system.
man now.
Prosecute—(to bring before a court, to pursue)
● The police prosecuted the suspects.
Monitary—(warning)
● I resent his monitary advice. ngi 91. Physic—(medicine)
● No physic can cure a spiritual malady.
82. Moat—(ditch around a castle)
● It is not easy to cross the moat. nee Physique—(body health)
● He enjoys good physique.
Mote—(a dust particle)
● A mote fell into my eyes.
rin
92. Prescribe—(to give directions, to fix a course
of studies)
83. Maize—(a rough grain)
● The bread is made of maize.
g.n
● The doctor will prescribe some tonic for
you.

e
Maze—(labyrinth) Proscribe—(to prohibit)
● We passed through a maze of rooms.
84. Minor—(underage, lesser)
● He is still a minor.
Miner—(One who works in a mine)
● The Government is going to proscribe the
publication of this book.
93. Practice—(noun, use)
● I am out of practice these days.
t
● The life of a miner is very hard. Practise—(verb, to put in use)
85. Meter—(measuring instrument) ● I practise law.
● Your meter is defective. 94. Precede—(go before)
Metre—(of the verse) ● One precedes two.
● The metre of this poem is difficult. Proceed—(to go on)
86. Main—(chief) ● You can proceed further with your argu-
● Speak on the main point. ments.
Mane—(long hair on an animal’s neck) 95. Pray—(offer prayer to God, entreat)
● My horse’s mane are long and golden. ● Let us pray to God.

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248 | L.W.C.E.

Prey—(hunt and kill ; game) Rout—(put to flight)

● One should not prey upon animals. ● The robbers were soon put to rout.
96. Principal—(chief) 106. Spacious—(having enough room or space)
● He is the principal Secretary. ● We have a spacious building.
Principle—(a rule) Specious—(outwardly pleasing or attractive)
● I cannot go against my principles. ● They have made specious decorations.
97. Prophecy—(noun, something foretold) 107. Stationary—(fixed)
● No prophecy can be wholly true. ● The sun is stationary.
Prophesy—(verb, to foretell) Stationery—(writing material)
● I prophesy that he will lose the case. ● He deals in stationery.

ww
98. Proffer—(offer) 108. Straight—(opposed to curved)
● I have no proposal to proffer at the
● Draw a straight line.
moment.
Strait—(narrow)

w
99.
Prefer—(like more)
● I prefer loose trousers to the tight ones.

.Ea
Pair—(two of a thing)
● I have a pair of dogs.
109.
● The ship has to pass through a strait.
Sore—(painful)
● I have a sore wound.

100.
syE
Pare—(to trim ; to part)
● Pare your finger nails.
Plane—(level, to smoothen) 110.
Soar—(to fly high)
● The eagle soars very high.
Story—(a tale)
● He would plane the ground for you.
Plain—(simple ; easy) ngi ● Tell me a story.
Storey—(floor of a building)

101.
● It is a plain story.
Quite—(altogether) nee ● We live on the second storey of the build-
ing.
● This is quite wrong.
Quiet—(silent)
111.
court)
rin
Suit—(set of clothes, an action in a law

102.
● Keep quiet in the class.
Rein—(bridle, to drive and control the horse)
● Pull the reins of the horse. g.n
● He has filed a suit against me.
Suite—(retinue, a set of rooms)

103.
Reign—(rule)
● The king reigns in Nepal.
Rite—(ceremony)
112. Serge—(a kind of cloth)
e
● There are four suites in this Guest House.

● The suit is made of blue serge.

Surge—(move as in waves)
t
● This is a very old religious rite.
Write—(compose) ● The sea is rising in high surge.
● We write an essay. 113. Shear—(to clip the wool of sheep)
104. Rest—(peace ; respite) ● We shear the sheep in summer.
● We can have full rest here. Sheer—(downright)
Wrest—(snatch by force) ● This is sheer madness.
● Who can wrest my sword from my hand ? 114. Team—(a party of players)
105. Route—(course) ● We have a good football team.
● There is no direct route from here to Teem—(to abound in ; to be full of)
Kanpur. ● The locality teems with mosquitos.

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HOMONYMS | 249

115. Umpire—(a referee) Voracity—(greediness)

● The umpire is absolutely impartial. ● He has insatiable voracity for gold.
Empire—(dominion) 119. Vale—(valley)
● The British Empire has still a Queen. ● There is a cottage in the vale.
116. Vain—(useless ; proud) Wail—(to weep)
● All your efforts are going vain. ● The child is wailing.
Vein—(a blood vessel) 120. Waive—(forgo)
● The injection was given in the vein. ● I cannot waive any condition.
117. Vane—(weather-cock) Wave—(water currents in seas or rivers)
● Fix the vane on the front wall. ● High waves are rising in the sea.

ww Wane—(to decrease)
● The moon is on the wane.
118. Veracity—(truthfulness)
121. Yolk—(the yellow portion of the egg)
● The yolk of the egg is nutritious.
Yoke—(bondage ; wooden structure put on a

w ● I cannot testify the veracity of his state-

ment.
.Ea
bullock’s neck)
● They work under the yoke of slavery.

syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
e t

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22 Paronyms
1. Alternate—(being or coming by turns) Artful—(cunning, clever)
● I go to the hospital every alternate day. ● He is too artful to be trusted.

ww Alternative—(one of the two courses or

things between which there is a choice)
● There is alternative choice between Hindi
Artificial—(is opposed to natural)
● Her behaviour is very artificial.

w
7. Appropriateness—(suitability)
and English in the course.
● The appropriateness of this building for

.Ea
2. Acceptance—(the act of accepting a thing)
● I have already given my acceptance of the
terms.
school purposes is excellent.
Appropriation—(making one’s own)

thing) syE
Acceptation—(the interpretation put on some-
8.
● His appropriation of this building is ille-
gal.
Affecting—(moving, touching, pathetic)
‘Renaissance’.
3. Accession—(means actual coming to; so ngi
● This is the correct acceptation of the term
● The scene of departure of the bride was
very affecting.
accession to the throne i.e., becoming sove-
reign)
● Richard II’s accession to the throne was
nee Affectation—(false display, forced imitation)
● Her affectation of the Western culture
was so ridiculous.
splendidly celebrated.
Access—(means the possibility of coming to)
9.
rin
Beside—(by the side of, close to)
● My house is beside the church.
● I have no access to the President.
4. Admission—(being admitted) g.n
Besides—(moreover, in addition to)
● He has much cash besides gold.
● All admissions are closed.
Admittance—(letting in)
● Admittance is restricted here.
5. Artist—(one who deals with a fine art)
10.
e
Barbarian—(of the primitives)
● This ritual is barbarian.
Barbaric—(is used in a favourable sense and
means simple or rough)
t
● She is a great artist. ● Akbar’s court had barbaric splendour.
Artiste—(a performer in singing, dancing, Barbarous—(is used in an unfavourable sense
etc.) and means cruel, inhuman)
● She is a stage artiste. ● Tamburlaine was a barbarous conqueror.
Artisan—(one who practises some handi- 11. Barbarism—(rude or uncivilized condition)
craft) ● There was barbarism in most countries
● This is a locality of artisans. upto the 10th century.
6. Artistic—(beautiful or having aesthetic Barbarity—(cruelty)
appeal) ● This kind of murder is an act of pure
● He has built a very artistic house. barbarity.

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PARONYMS | 251

12. Beneficial—(useful, advantageous) Continual—(implies that there are occasional

● Regular exercise is beneficial to health. breaks in continuity)
Beneficent—(kind, generous) ● There is continual rain through July and
● The owner of our factory is very benefi- August every year.
cent. 20. Continuance—(duration, or time of remain-
13. Confident—(to be sure, certain) ing in action)
● I am confident of my success. ● I shall complete all formalities during the
continuance of my service.
Confidant—(one who is entrusted with a
secret) Continuation—(prolongation or resumption)
● My confidant will never betray me. ● I am writing this in continuation of my
14. Completeness—(perfection) former report.

ww ● No completeness is possible in a work of

art.
Completion—(ending)
21. Corporal—(of human body, physical)
● Corporal punishment should not be given
to young children.

w ● My educational career is coming to a

.Ea
completion.
15. Ceremonious—(particular in observing
forms; implies formalities over-done) 22.
Corporeal—(of the nature of body, material)
● Saints do not seek any corporeal plea-
sures.
Childish—(used in a bad sense and means

syE
● He was more ceremonious than sincere.
Ceremonial—(relating to ceremony and rites)
● A ceremonial parade was held in his hon-
silly, trifling)
● His actions were childish.

ngi
Child-like—(used in a good sense and means
our. as simple and innocent as a child)
16. Contemptible—(deserving contempt) ● I love him for his child-like innocence.
● His habits are contemptible.
Contemptuous—(hateful, disdainful, expres-
sing contempt) nee
23. Complacent—(pleased ; well-satisfied)
● The poor workers are generally compla-

rin
cent by nature.
● He is contemptuous of the poor.
Complaisant—(polite; obliging)
17. Comprehensive—(extensive, including all
the aspects)
● He has given a very comprehensive
account of the case.
24.
on) g.n
● She is a complaisant lady.
Dependent—(is an adjective meaning relying

Comprehensible—(capable of being under-

stood)
● His poetry is not comprehensible to the
common reader.
e
● I am still dependent upon my father.
Dependant—(is a noun meaning one who
depends on others)
● My servant is my dependant.
t
18. Considerable—(much, moderately large) 25. Dependence—(reliance; living at another’s
● He has given you considerable help. cost)
● Your dependence on your father at this
Considerate—(thoughtful, regardful of
others’ interests) age is not good.
● Our employer is very considerate to the Dependency—(subject country)
needs of all workers. ● India was once a dependency of Britain.
19. Continuous—(implies that continuity is 26. Disinterested—(unselfish; free from preju-
absolute and uninterrupted) dice and personal motive)
● There has been continuous rain since the ● I have assessed this case in a most dis-
morning. interested way.

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252 | L.W.C.E.

Uninterested—(indifferent; lacking in Efficacious—(means sure to have the desired

interest) effect)
● I am absolutely uninterested in his affairs. ● This medicine is quite efficacious in this
27. Distinctness—(clearness) disease.)
● There is remarkable distinctness in his 34. Envelope—(a noun meaning a letter-cover)
arguments. ● Put the letter in the envelope.
Distinction—(honour) Envelop—(a verb meaning to cover. surround
● He has completed his tenure of service or warp)
with distinction. ● The hills were enveloped in a thick veil
28. Divers—(several or sundry) of mist.
● Divers suggestions were given by diffe- 35. Egotist—(one who has the habit of talking a
rent speakers. lot about oneself, selfconceited)

ww Diverse—(markedly different or unlike)

● The views of the opposition parties were
● An egotist is always a conceited fellow.
Egoist—(one who believes that self-interest

w markedly diverse from our views. is the foundation of morality, who believes in
29. Deliverance—(rescue, freedom) systematic selfishness)

.Ea
● Religion leads to man’s deliverance from
the bondage of sin.
● I shall have no dealings with an egoist
like him.

syE
Delivery—(style of speech, handing over of 36. Especial—(means to an exceptional degree)
letters or goods) ● Mahatma Gandhi had an especial sense of
● The delivery of his speech was remark- honesty and integrity.

ngi
able. Special—(means for one purpose and no
30. Device—(noun, a plan) other)
● The latest device has been used in the ● He is coming for this special purpose
manufacture of this machine.
Devise—(verb, to plan) nee
37.
only.
Elemental—(pertaining to the elements)
● One cannot fight with elemental forces.
● Let us devise some other way to get out
of this muddle.
rin
Elementary—(rudimentary ; introductory)

g.n
31. Decided—(definite) ● His knowledge of Physics is still elemen-
● This is my decided answer to you. tary.
Decisive—(that which ends a discussion or 38. Estimate—(approximate valuation of a thing)

32.
controversy)
● We have now taken a decisive step to
solve this problem.
Enviable—(means arousing envy)
ment.
e
● Let us first make an estimate of invest-

Estimation—(opinion ; judgment)
● I hold him in high estimation.
t
● His achievement is really enviable.
39. Exposure—(being exposed to air, cold, etc.)
Envious—(means feeling envy)
● He has developed cold and fever on
● Don’t be envious of the progress of
account of exposure.
others.
Exposition—(explanation)
33. Effective—(means having a high degree of
‘effect’) ● Give a full exposition of the problem.
● The medicine was very effective. 40. Economic—(associated with economy)
Effectual—(applies to action, and means not ● This is our Government’s Economic
falling short of the desired effect) Policy.
● The step taken by him proved quite effec- Economical—(careful in expenditure)
tual. ● He is very economical in his habits.

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PARONYMS | 253

41. Funeral—(a burial procession or ceremony) 50. Historic—(Famous or likely to become fam-
● His funeral was held at Shanti Ghat. ous in history)
Funereal—(solemn or sad, dismal, gloomy) ● January 26 is a historic day.
● Why do you keep a funereal face ? Historical—(pertaining to history)
42. Fatal—(deadly) ● Red Fort is a historical building.
● Cancer is a fatal disease. 51. Imaginary—(fancied, unreal)
Fatalist—(one who believes in fate) ● He lives in an imaginary world.
● A fatalist depends upon God’s will. Imaginative—(given to imagining, contemp-
lative)
Fateful—(important ; producing important
results) ● A poet is an imaginative person.
● It was the most fateful day of my life. 52. Industrious—(diligent, laborious)

ww43. Fastal—(pertaining to a feast or a holiday)

● Let us enjoy in fastal mood today.
Festive—(joyous, gay, mirthful)
● An industrious person must get success.
Industrial—(relating to industry or com-
merce)

w ● He is festive by nature.

.Ea
44. Forceful—(possessing force)
● This was his most forceful argument.
● Kanpur is an industrial city.
53. Intelligent—(wise, sensible)
● She is quite intelligent.
Intelligible—(clear and understandable)

syE
Forcible—(done by force or compulsion)
● Good work cannot be done under forcible
circumstances.
● His lecture was not intelligible to an
average student.
54. Judicial—(pertaining to legal justice, or to a
45. Godly—(pious)
● My grandmother is a very godly lady.
God-like—(resembling God) ngi judge)
● We should not interfere with judicial
● Many sages have God-like lustre in their
eyes.
46. Graceful—(handsome, refined)
nee proceedings.
Judicious—(prudent; wise)
● His advice is very judicious.
● Her manners are very graceful.
Gracious—(merciful) growth)
rin
55. Luxuriant—(used to express richness in

● He is a very gracious old gentleman.

47. Human—(belonging to mankind) g.n
● She has a luxuriant growth of hair.
Luxurious—(implies luxury or fashion)
● It is only a human weakness.
Humane—(kind ; merciful)
● He is always humane in his dealings with
his workers.
56. Lovable—(worthy of love)
e
● He lives in a very luxurious way.

● All her habits and manners are lovable.

Lovely—(exciting love, charming)
t
48. Healthy—(means enjoying good health) ● She is a lovely girl.
● He is quite healthy at this age.
57. Limit—(boundary, last degree)
Healthful—(means preserving or promoting
health) ● Don’t try me to the limit of my patience.
● Regularity is a very healthful habit. Limitation—(restriction or inability)
49. Honorary—(holding office without any re- ● I have my own limitations.
muneration or pay) 58. Momentous—(very important)
● He is working in an honorary capacity. ● I have taken a momentous decision.
Honourable—(worthy of honour) Momentary—(lasting only for a moment,
● Many saints are really honourable per- short-lived)
sons. ● His anger is only momentary.

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254 | L.W.C.E.

59. Memorable—(worth remembering) 67. Politic—(wise, prudent, sagacious)

● This is a memorable quotation. ● The measures taken by our Prime
Memorial—(statue, festival, etc. serving to Minister are really politic.
commemorate) Political—(pertaining to politics)
● A memorial statue has been installed in ● It is a serious political problem.
his honour. 68. Proportional—(in due proportion)
60. Negligent—(one who is careless in particular
● Let us come to a proportional distribution
things)
of the property.
● Don’t be negligent about your dress.
Proportionate—(equal, corresponding in
Neglectful—(one who is careless in general)
degree or amount)
● You should not be so neglectful.
● Your wages are proportionate to your
Negligible—(something so small or unimpor-
labour.

ww tant that it may be disregarded)

● His income is still so negligible.
61. Observance—(strict and attentive perfor-
69. Prophecy—(noun, a forecast or prediction)
● His prophecy came out true.
Prophesy—(verb, to foretell)

w mance)
● I am very particular in the observance of

.Ea
my regular habits.
Observation—(notice ; remark)
● I cannot prophesy what may happen.
70. Reverend—(means deserving reverence and
is applied to persons only)

syE
● His observation was neither just nor ● The Archbishop is a reverend scholar.
balanced. Reverent—(means showing reverence and is
62. Official—(as a noun means an officer, as an applied to both persons and things)

ngi
adjective means pertaining to an office) We should be reverent to every religion.
● He has come on official duty. 71. Respectable—(deserving respect)
Officious—(too forward in offering unwanted ● He is a respectable teacher.
service)
● He was very officious to me.
63. Prudent—(wise, intelligent) nee Respectful—(showing respect)
● One should be respectful to one’s tea-
chers.
● He is a very prudent person.
Prudential—(those ideas or motives which rin
Respective—(relating to particular persons or
things)
lead a man to prudent action)
● All his actions are prudential.
64. Provident—(thrifty ; showing foresight)
72. Righteous—(just)
g.n
● They did their respective duties faithfully.

● One should be provident in both thought

and action.
Providential—(divine, strikingly opportune)
● He had a providential escape.
e
● A judge ought to be a righteous person.
Rightful—(having a just and legal claim)
● This is my rightful property.
73. Regretful—(full of regret or sorrow) t
● He is regretful for his hasty action.
65. Practical—(opposed to theoretical)
● He was put to practical test. Regrettable—(causing regret)
Practicable—(capable of being performed) ● He acted in a regrettable way.
● This is not a practicable solution. 74. Servitude—(state of slavery)
66. Pitiable—(arousing pity) ● One cannot act freely in servitude.
● Her condition is pitiable. Servility—(means spirit of servitude)
Pitiful—(feeling pity) ● His attitude is one of servility.
● My grandfather is very pitiful. 75. Social—(relating to society)
Piteous—(means either exciting pity or ● This is a social obligation.
showing it) Sociable—(fond of mixing in society)
● Her cries were piteous. ● He is a sociable person.

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PARONYMS | 255

76. Sensible—(having sense or consistent with Temporal—(as opposed to spiritual)

reason) ● One should value spiritual gains more
● He is a sensible person. than temporal gains.
Sensitive—(one who is easily affected, 83. Transient—(of short duration)
touchy) ● Man’s life is transient.
● One should not be too sensitive. Transitory—(speedily vanishing)
Sensual—(used in a bad sense and means ● Material possessions are transitory.
voluptuous, carnal) 84. Unmoral—(applied to a person who is non-
● A sensual person is a person of weak moral ; one who has no idea of morals)
character. ● A child is an unmoral being.
Sensuous—(used in a good sense for one Immoral—(applied to a person or thing
who has a keen appreciation of the beautiful which is depraved and evil.)

ww relating to all senses)

● Keats was a sensuous poet.
77. Speciality—(the state or quality of being
85.
● Don’t do anything immora.
Union—(act of uniting, an organization)

w
● He is a member of the Indian Trade
special) Union.

.Ea
● What is the speciality in your machine ?
Specialty—(special pursuit or skill)
● His specialty is landscape painting.
Unison—(agreement of sounds)
● The hymns were sung by all in unison.

syE
78. Signification—(meaning)
● What is the signification of the term 86.
Unity—(oneness)
● There is strength in unity.
Vocation—(chief occupation or calling)
‘Renaissance’ ?
Significance—(importance, value)
ngi
● This is not a matter of any significance to
● Tailoring is his vocation.
Avocation—(diversion from usual occupa-
tion, hobby)
me.
79. Spiritual—(pertaining to soul or spirit) nee
87.
● Painting is my avocation.
Virtual—(real ; in effect, though not in form)

rin
● I believe in high spiritual values. ● He is in a state of virtual madness.
Spirituous—(alcoholic) Virtuous—(blameless, possessing moral

g.n
● One should avoid spirituous drinks. goodness)
80. Tolerable—(applied to things and conditions ● My mother is a very virtuous lady.
that are bearable) 88. Willing—(ready, having no reluctance)
● His behaviour is not tolerable.
Tolerant—(usually applied to a person who
is liberal and who will tolerate any opinion
different from his own) 89.
● I am willing to go.
e
Wilful—(deliberate, conscious)
● His negligence is wilful.
Wait—(often intransitive in use)
t
● My father is very tolerant. ● I shall wait for you.
81. Temperance—(moderation, sobriety) Await—(always transitive in use)
● One should exercise temperance in every- ● He was eagerly awaited.
thing. 90. Womanly—(used in a good sense and means
Temperament—(disposition, mental charac- affectionate and modest)
ter of an individual) ● She has womanly gentleness.
● She is a lady of sweet temperament. Womanish—(used in a bad sense and means
82. Temporary—(lasting for a short time) weak and cowardly)
● This is a temporary post. ● He is womanish in his behaviour.

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The Same Word Used as

23 Different Parts of Speech

ww There are many words in the English Lan-

guage which, in the same form, can be used as
different Parts of Speech. For example, take the
Bare—
Adjective—He came with bare head.

w
word Look. When ‘Look’ is used in the sense of

.Ea
View or apearance, it is a Noun. When it is used
in the sense of seeing, it is a Verb. We give below
some popular words that can be used as different
Verb—Bare your arm before me.
Adverb—He came bareheaded.
Bottle—
Noun—He has broken the bottle.
Parts of Speech.
Air—
syE
Noun—Let us walk in fresh air.
Verb—They do not bottle the drinks with
proper care.
Bell—
Verb—All woollen clothes should be timely
aired. ngi Noun—The bell is ringing.
Verb—Who can bell the cat ?

nee
Age— Brave—
Noun—What is your age ? Noun—We all respect the brave.
Verb—My father is aging very fast. Adjective—Indian soldiers are brave.
Arm—
Noun—He was wounded in his arm.
Book—
rin
Noun—I am reading a book.
Verb—We should arm our forces with the
latest weapons.
g.n
Verb—Please book my luggage by the pass-
enger train.

e
Break— Bite—
Noun—There is no break in his service.
Verb—Don’t break the law.
Better—
Noun—I always respect my betters.
Noun—I haven’t had a bite since the morn-
ing.
Verb—The dog may bite you.
Close—
t
Adjective—This is certainly a better sugges- Noun—The meeting is soon coming to a
tion. close.
Verb—We must first try to better our econo- Adjective—We should discuss it only among
mic condition. close friends.
Boil— Verb—Please close the gate.
Noun—The boil in his arm is bleeding. Calm—
Verb—Please boil the soup. Noun—You should maintain your calm of
Back— mind.
Noun—He can carry heavy load on his back. Adjective—The atmosphere is calm and quiet.
Verb—I will never back a wrong cause. Verb—Please try to calm down the mob.

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THE SAME WORD USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH | 257

Count— Daily—
Noun—Please keep count of the runs. Noun—‘The Hindustan Times’ is an impor-
Verb—He is counting the runs. tant daily.
Cold— Adjective—This is a part of his daily progra-
Noun—I am suffering from cold. mme.
Adjective—The morning is very cold. Empty—
Court— Adjective—The box is empty.
Noun—The courts are closed today. Verb—Please empty the drum.
Verb—They are courting arrest. Earth—
Call— Noun—The earth moves round the sun.
Noun—There is a call for you. Verb—Let us earth our hostility for ever.
Elder—

wwCut—
Verb—He will call upon you.

Noun—He received a deep cut in the arm.

Noun—You must respect your elders.
Adjective—He is my elder brother.

w Verb—Don’t cut your programme.

Catch—

.Ea
Noun—It was a beautiful catch.
Verb—You cannot catch me.
Fast—
Noun—I am observing a fast today.
Adjective—He is my fast friend.
Verb—He has been fasting for a week.
Cane—
syE
Noun—Here is a beautiful cane.
Verb—He was caned publicly.
Adverb—He ran very fast.
Final—
Noun—Our team is playing in the finals.
Chair—
Noun—Please bring a chair. ngi Adjective—This chance is final.
Free—
Verb—The speaker chaired the session.
Cover—
Noun—Please put the cover upon the jar.
nee Adjective—We are citizens of a free country.
Verb—Let us free ourselves from the age-old
customs.
Verb—Please cover your head properly in
this cold weather.
Fill—
rin
Noun—We have eaten to our fill.
Deep—
Noun—They are fishing in the deep. Fix— g.n
Verb—Please fill the jar with water.

Adjective—It is a very deep river.

Adverb—They have gone deep into the water.
Drive—
Noun—I am going out for a drive.
Noun—He is in a fix.
e
Verb—Please fix up your programme at an
early date.
Face—
t
Verb—He drives the car very fast.
Date— Noun—Turn your face to the left.
Noun—What is the date of your birth ? Verb—He faced the situation boldly.
Verb—The Christian era dates with the birth Fool—
of Christ. Noun—He is a great fool.
Desire— Verb—You cannot fool me like this.
Noun—He has a great desire to be a doctor. Floor—
Verb—He desires to pass in the first division. Noun—They sat on the floor before my
Doubt— office.
Noun—I have no doubt about his honesty. Verb—Dara Singh floored down his oppo-
Verb—He doubts my sincerity. nent in two minutes.

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258 | L.W.C.E.

Fish— Little—
Noun—They have caught a large fish. Noun—I shall be satisfied with a little.
Verb—You cannot fish in this part of the Adjective—Here is a little gift for you.
river. Adverb—The river is a little deeper here.
Fell— Like—
Adjective—Cancer is really a fell disease. Noun—I shall never find the like of him
Verb—He fell into the well. again.
Gun— Adjective—They are all men of like interests.
Noun—This is my gun. Verb—I would like to have a cup of tea.
Verb—The police gunned down the abscon- Light—
der. Noun—There is sufficient light in the room.
Help—

ww
Adjective—I don’t appreciate his light talks.
Noun—He gave me a very timely help. Verb—Please light the candle.
Verb—Will you not help me out ? Love—

w
Hand—
Noun—He raised his hand.

cher. .Ea
Verb—Please hand over the book to the tea-
Noun—I have great love for my country.
Adjective—This is a love poem.
Verb—Every mother loves her child.
Laugh—
Humble—

syE
Noun—We should help the humble and poor.
Adjective—He is a very humble pupil. Mud—
Noun—We had a hearty laugh at him.
Verb—Don’t laugh at the poor.

Verb—He is out to humble me in public.

Head— ngi Noun—There is so much of mud here in the
rains.
Noun—He wears a white cap on his head.
Verb—He heads the list of the successful
candidates. nee
More—
Adjective—He lives in a mud house.

Noun—I don’t want any more.

Ill—
Noun—I have done you no ill.
chances.
rin
Adjective—They will have many more

Adjective—She is ill.
Idle—
Man—
Noun—He is a brave man.g.n
Adverb—He is more intelligent.

Adjective—He is an idle fellow.

Verb—Don’t idle away your time like this.
Know—
Master— e
Verb—The ship is manned by trained sailors.

Noun—He is the master of the ship. t

Noun—I am in the know of everything. Adjective—We are drawing a master plan.
Verb—Do you know him ? Verb—I have mastered the whole lesson.
Kind— Move—
Adjective—He is a kind man. Noun—The army is on the move.
Noun—Here is another kind of the rose. Verb—Let us now move to the next room.
Less— Make—
Noun—He cannot be satisfied with less. Noun—What is the make of your watch ?
Adjective—He pays less attention to his Verb—Don’t make a noise here.
studies than to games. Need—
Adverb—This plot of land is less fertile than Noun—Your need is greater than mine.
the next one. Verb—He needs a pen immediately.

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THE SAME WORD USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH | 259

Nurse— Sound—
Noun—She is a trained nurse. Noun—I hear a sound outside.
Verb—Please nurse the baby carefully. Adjective—He gave very sound arguments in
Number— his defence.
Noun—Please mark the number on the par- Verb—Please sound the horn.
cel. Spring—
Verb—Please number the articles serially. Noun—Flowers grow in abundance in spring.
Open— Adjective—They are bathing in the spring
Adjective—I have received an open letter. water.
Verb—Please open the door. Verb—The monkey springs from roof to
Poor— roof.
Stone—

ww
Noun—We must help the poor.
Adjective—She is a poor woman. Noun—Don’t roll down the heavy stone.
Past— Adjective—He broke through the stone walls.

w Noun—We know very little of his past.

Adjective—He is a past master in all these
matters.
.Ea
Adverb—He is now past working age.
Verb—The witch was stoned to death.
Stand—
Noun—I cannot change my stand.
Verb—Stand in a line, please.
Pocket—

syE
Noun—My pocket is empty.
Verb—He cannot pocket this insult.
Stay—
Noun—I shall have a long stay in the country
now.
Right—
Noun—This is my own right.
ngi Verb—Will you stay here tonight ?
Adjective—The court has passed stay orders.

nee
Adjective—He is the right man. Second—
Verb—Can you now right the wrong done to Adjective—He is my second son.
me ?
Verb—Will anyone second my proposal ?
Adverb—He drove the car right against me.
Round—
rin
Adverb—He came second in the race.
School—

g.n
Noun—The Principal is on a round.
Adjective—He dug a round hole. Noun—This is a public school.
Verb—The police has rounded up all the Verb—He has been very properly schooled.
pick-pockets.
Adverb—I could not bring him round to
agree with me.
Preposition—The train goes round the city.
Set— e
Adjective—We are school fellows.

Adjective—I shall follow my set programme.

Verb—The sun sets in the west.
t
Reach—
Noun—This is beyond my reach. Spear—
Verb—I will reach home before sunset. Noun—I have a long spear.
Run— Verb—The hunter speared down the boar.
Noun—He made fifty runs. Spoil—
Verb—He will run the 5000 meter race. Noun—The thieves have divided up the
Slow— spoils.
Adjective—He is a slow writer. Verb—Don’t spoil your child like this.
Verb—The train slowed down at the outer Skin—
signal. Noun—Her skin is oily.
Adverb—He works very slow. Verb—The child could not skin the banana.

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260 | L.W.C.E.

Silence— Water—
Noun—There was perfect silence in the class. Noun—Please bring me a glass of water.
Verb—Nobody can silence me. Verb—The gardner is watering the plants.
Table— Adjective—Lotus is a water plant.
Noun—This is our dining table. Work—
Verb—The draft resolution has been tabled Noun—I have no work today.
for discussion. Verb—He doesn’t work here.
Touch—
Wait—
Noun—Even a touch has a memory.
Noun—They lay in wait for the victim.
Verb—You cannot touch me.
Verb—I waited for you yesterday.
Turn—
Walk—

ww
Noun—Take a turn to the left at the next
crossing. Noun—I go to the park every morning for a
Verb—I hope he will turn up in time. walk.

w
Well— Verb—Let us walk down to the station.
Noun—There is no water in the well. Want—

.Ea
Adjective—He is quite well now.
Adverb—It was well done.
Noun—There is no want of water in the
town.
Wrong—

syE
Noun—I have done you no wrong.
Adjective—He is following a wrong policy.
Verb—I want to purchase a car.
Weekly—
Noun—“Sunday Times” is a good weekly.
Verb—He has certainly wronged me.
Watch—
ngi Adjective—They are working on weekly
wages.
Noun—I always keep a watch in my pocket.
Keep a watch on the children.
Adjective—Where is the watch-dog ? nee
Wear—
Noun—We have a large stock of winter
wears.
Verb—He is watching for an opportunity.

rin
Verb—He wears a blue coat.

g.n
e t

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24 One-Word Substitution
There are many words in English which have a very comprehensive meaning. A single word can
convey the sense of many words. The use of such words is considered to be good from the stylistic

ww
point of view. These words add to the depth, brevity, clarity, aptness and effectiveness of the language.
For example, if we say, “This is a book published after the death of its author”, or “This is a child born
after the death of his father”, we can express this complete idea by the word “Posthumous”. We give
below a list of popular words of this kind.

w 1. A person who believes in the total abolition of war.

.Ea
2. A person who is fond of fighting.
3. A person who believes in the existence of God.
Pacifist
Bellicose
Theist

syE
4. A person who does not believe in the existence of God.
5. A person who renounces the world and devotes himself to a strictly devout
life, torturing the body for the good of the soul.
Atheist

Ascetic

ngi
6. A person with whom money or gain is the most important consideration.
7. A person who is very fond of sensuous enjoyments.
Materialist
Epicure

9. A man who is womanish in his habits.

10. A man who amuses himself by love-making.
nee
8. A person who is indifferent to pleasure and pain. Stoic
Effeminate
Philanderer
11. One who is very selective in one’s taste and choice.
12. One who does not know reading and writing. rin Fastidious
Illiterate
13. One who is very simple and who easily believes whatever is told.
14. One with long experience in any field. g.nCredulous
Veteran
15. Consent of all.
16. A book or a work of art whose author is not known.
17. One who entirely depends on another.
e
Unanimous
Anonymous
Parasite t
18. One who takes up arms against the government. Rebel
19. Goods sent from one country to another for trade. Export
20. Goods received by one country from another for trade. Import
21. To import goods illegally without payment of customs duty. Smuggle
22. Murder of one’s own self. Suicide
23. Murder or murderer of man. Homicide
24. Murder or murderer of a king. Regicide
25. Murder or murderer of an infant. Infanticide
26. Murder or murderer of one’s own mother. Matricide
27. Murder or murderer of one’s own father. Patricide

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262 | L.W.C.E.

28. Murder or murderer of one’s own brother. Fratricide

29. A disease which spreads through air and water. Infectious
30. A disease which spreads by physical touch or contact. Contagious
31. A person who is unable to pay his debts or honour his commitments. Insolvent
32. Persons living at the same time. Contemporaries
33. One who does not care for art and literature, and whose interests are only
material. Philistine
34. Items of business for consideration at a meeting. Agenda
35. A diplomatic representative of one country in another. Ambassador
36. Nations engaged in war. Belligerent
37. The period of gradual recovery of health after illness. Convalescence

ww 38.
39.
The worship of idols or images.
To turn out of society.
Idolatry
Ostracize

w
40.
41.
42.
43.
A remedy for all kinds of diseases or troubles.
A scene of wild noise and disorder.

.Ea
Two countries or states whose frontiers touch.
A thing which can be easily broken.
Panacea
Pandemonium
Contiguous
Brittle
44.
45. syE
A plane figure with eight sides and angles.
A plane figure with five sides and angles.
Octagon
Pentagon

ngi
46. A plane figure with six sides and angles. Hexagon
47. Succession of rulers belonging to one family. Dynasty
48. A person, plant or animal who is below the usual size. Dwarf
49.
50.
An elderly unmarried woman.
Undue favour shown to one’s own relatives. nee Spinster
Nepotism
51.
52.
A person who compiles a dictionary.
One who does a thing for pleasure and not as a profession.
rin Lexicographer
Amateur
53.
54.
One who is very particular or overscrupulous about small details.
One who is a breaker of things of art and literature, or who
g.n Meticulous

55.
56.
57.
opposes established institutions.
One who assumes a character or title not his own to deceive others.
Speaking irreverently about God or sacred things.
The act of violating the sanctity of the church or any religious institution.
e Iconoclast
Impostor
Blaspheme
Sacrilege
t
58. One who depends on and believes in fate. Fatalist
59. One who is filled with excessive and mistaken enthusiasm in religious
matters. Fanatic or Bigot
60. One who wishes to destroy all established governments, law and order. Anarchist
61. A lady’s umbrella. Parasol
62. A lady’s purse. Raticule
63. The passage of soul after death from one body to the other. Transmigration
64. Medical examination of the dead body. Post-mortem
65. Deviation or departure from common rule or standard or what is normal. Anomaly
66. A person chosen by quarrelling parties to settle their differences. Arbitrator, arbiter

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ONE-WORD SUBSTITUTION | 263

67. A soldier who fights for the sake of money. Mercenary

68. One who loves one’s country. Patriot
69. A person who looks to the bright side of things. Optimist
70. A person who looks to the dark side of things. Pessimist
71. A child whose parents are dead. Orphan
72. Science of the influence of the stars on human affairs. Astrology
73. Science of heavenly bodies such as the sun, moon, stars and planets. Astronomy
74. The study of coins. Numismatics
75. Collector of stamps. Philatelist
76. A place where dead bodies are kept before post-mortem. Mortuary
77. Animals which feed on herbs. Herbivorous

ww 78.
79.
The man who does not eat meat.
The man who can eat meat preparations.
Vegetarian
Non-vegetarian

w
80.
81.
82.
83.
The man who can eat human flesh.

.Ea
One who eats too much.
A speech delivered without any preparation.
Something said or done at once without preparation.
Cannibal
Glutton
Extempore
Impromptu
84.
85. syE
A speech or a poem recited at the beginning of a play.
A speech or a poem recited at the end of a play.
Prologue
Epilogue
86.
87.
Speaking aloud while alone.

ngi
A play or a dramatic performance in verse, with music, dance and
Soliloquy

nee
fine costumes. Masque
88. Morning prayer in the church. Matin
89. Evening prayer in the church. Vesper
90.
91.
Bells rung in the church in the evening.
A person who believes only in spiritual things. rin
Curfew
Spiritualist
92.
93.
An office for which no salary is paid.
An office for which high salary is paid for little or no work g.n
Honorary

94.
95.
96.
or responsibility.
Persons working in the same department.
A government by one person.
A government by a small group of powerful persons.
e
Sinecure
Colleagues
Autocracy
Oligarchy
t
97. A government by a rich and powerful class. Plutocracy
98. A government by the nobles. Aristocracy
99. A government by the officials. Bureaucracy
100. A government by the churchmen. Theocracy
101. A government by the people, of the people, and for the people. Democracy
102. Rule by mob. Mobocracy
103. The skill and policy of a country’s statesmen and politicians. Diplomacy
104. A game or battle in which no party gains victory. Drawn
105. Voluntary renouncement of the throne by a king. Abdication
106. Animals which live in water. Aquatic

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264 | L.W.C.E.

107. Animals which live both on land and in sea. Amphibian

108. Animals which live in flocks. Gregarious
109. One who can use either hand with ease in writing or working. Ambidextrous
110. Things which contain elements of the same nature. Homogeneous
111. Things which contain elements of opposite nature. Heterogeneous
112. One who is well-versed in any subject, a critical judge of any art,
particularly fine arts. Connoisseur
113. One who knows many languages. Linguist
114. Science of the nature and growth of words and language. Philology
115. A style in which a writer makes a display of his knowledge and learning. Pedantic
116. An imaginary name assumed by an author. Pseudonym

ww117. A child born after the death of its father, or a book published after the death
of its author. Posthumous

w
118.
119.
120.
121.
A style full of superfluous words containing a small thought.

.Ea
Repetition of a writing, word for word.
A roundabout way of expression.
A word or custom which is no longer in use.
Verbose
Verbatim
Circumlocution
Obsolete
122.
123. syE
That which can be interpreted in any way.
Matter written by hand.
Ambiguous
Manuscript
124.

ngi
The practice of borrowing words and ideas from other authors and using
them as one’s own ; literary theft. Plagiarism

nee
125. The science which deals with derivation of words. Etymology
126. Dramatic performance with dumb show. Pantomime
127. The life-history of a man written by himself. Autobiography
128.
129.
The life-history of a man written by someone else.
The science of animal life.
rin Biography
Zoology
130.
131.
The science of vegetable life.
The science of earth’s history and rocks.
g.n Botany
Geology
132.
133.
134.
135.
The state of being unmarried (of a man).
The state of being unmarried (of a girl).
The state of being married.
The practice of marrying only one at a time.
eBachelorhood
Maidenhood
Matrimony
Monogamy t
136. The custom of having two wives or two husbands at a time. Bigamy
137. The custom of having more than two wives at the same time. Polygamy
138. The custom of having more than two husbands at the same time. Polyandry
139. Allowance due to a wife on legal separation from her husband. Alimony
140. A woman whose husband is dead. Widow
141. A man whose wife is dead. Widower
142. Yearly return of the date of an event. Anniversary
143. That which happens once in a year. Annual
144. That which happens once in two years. Biennial
145. Present every where (God). Omnipresent

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ONE-WORD SUBSTITUTION | 265

146. All-powerful, without end or limit (God). Omnipotent

147. All-knowing; knowing everything (God). Omniscient
148. That which can be seen through. Transparent
149. That which cannot be seen through. Opaque
150. A lover of mankind. Philanthropist
151. A hater of mankind. Misanthrope
152. A lover of womankind. Philogynist
153. A hater of womankind. Misogynist
154. He who works for the welfare of women. Feminist
155. A lover of one’s ownself. Egoist
156. A lover of others. Altruist

ww157.
158.
A person who regards the whole world as his country.
One who dies for a noble cause.
Cosmopolitan
Martyr

w
159.
160.
161.
162.
One who acts only for money.

.Ea
Words which are inscribed on the grave.
A truth which is often repeated.
Fit to be chosen ; qualified.
Mercenary
Epitaph
Truism
Eligible
163.
164. syE
A sound that cannot be heard.
A person who cannot be easily approached.
Inaudible
Inaccessible
165.
166.
Incapable of being corrected.
Incapable of being understood.
ngi Incorrigible
Unintelligible

nee
167. Incapable of being wounded. Invulnerable
168. Incapable of being imitated. Inimitable
169. Incapable of being avoided. Inevitable
170.
171.
Incapable of being read.
Incapable of being practised. rin Illegible
Impracticable
172.
173.
Incapable of being repaired.
A decision upon which one cannot go back. g.n
Irreparable
Irrevocable
174.
175.
176.
An effect which has a reference to the past.
A person who leaves his own country and goes to live in another.
A person who comes to one country from another in order to settle there.
e
Retrospective
Emigrant
Immigrant t
177. Movement from one country to another. Migration
178. One who lives in a country without citizenship. Alien
179. One who commits the first act of attack, offence or hostility. Aggressor
180. An established principle of practical wisdom. Maxim
181. One who travels from place to place, particularly a preacher. Itinerant
182. One who can speak two languages. Bilingual
183. One who leads others in any field. Pioneer
184. One who does not take any intoxicating drinks. Teetotaller
185. One who suffers from nervous disorder. Neurotic
186. The place for luggage at a railway station. Cloakroom

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266 | L.W.C.E.

187. The place for corpses to be buried. Cemetery

188. The place for corpses to be burnt. Crematory
189. The place for books. Library
190. The place for monks. Monastery
191. The place for keeping historical curios and relics. Museum
192. The place where young plants are grown. Nursery
193. A garden of fruits. Orchard
194. The place where artists work. Studio
195. The place for clothes and garments to be kept. Wardrobe
196. The place where animals, reptiles, and birds, etc. are kept. Zoo
197. A medicine to cure the effect of poison. Antidote

ww198.
199.
A person unable to pay his debts.
List of books and other articles.
Bankrupt
Catalogue

w
200.
201.
202.
203.
Persons living at the same time.

.Ea
That which is fit to be eaten.
A trade or act prohibited by law.
One who walks in sleep.
Contemporary
Edible
Illicit
Somnambulist
204.
205. syE
One who talks in sleep.
That which cannot be explained.
Somniloquist
Inexplicable
206.
207.
That without which one can’t do.
That which cannot be cured.
ngi Indispensable
Incurable

nee
208. That which can’t be believed. Incredible
209. That which never fails. Infallible
210. That which catches fire easily. Inflammable
211.
212.
The medicine that kills insects.
A medicine that induces sleep. rin
Insecticide
Narcotic
213.
214.
Property inherited from father and ancestors.
That which cannot be compared. g.n
Patrimony
Incomparable
215.
216.
That which cannot be defeated.
That which cannot be seen.
e
Invincible
Invisible
t

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25 Idioms
We give below a list of Popular Idioms 12. At one’s fingers’ ends—To have full and
1. An apple of discord—Cause of quarrel ready knowledge
● The Himalayan range is an apple of ● A lawyer should have all the sections of

ww discord between India and China.

2. An apple of one’s eye—Very dear
the Act at his fingers’ ends.
13. An axe to grind—Some personal motive

w ● Her only son is the apple of her eye. ● He flatters you so much ; perhaps he has
3. To add fuel to the fire—To aggravate some some axe to grind.

.Ea
situation or matter
● His abusive language added fuel to the
14. To beat about the bush—To stray from the
main point
fire.

syE
4. A bed of roses—An easy and comfortable
situation
● A good student never beats about the bush
in answering his questions.
15. To bear the brunt of—To endure the cala-
● The post of the Prime Minister is not a
bed of roses.
5. Adam’s ale—Pure water ngi mity or difficult situation
● Maharana Pratap bore the brunt of the
Mughal invasions bravely.
● In the dry districts people have to content
themselves with Adam’s ale. nee
16. To bring to light—To disclose
● The Enquiry Commission has brought

rin
6. To add insult to injury—To harm as well as many startling facts to light.
humiliate 17. At sixes and sevens—In disorder
● He has added insult to injury by writing

g.n
● My young son has thrown my books at
this letter. sixes and sevens.
7. At daggers drawn—On inimical terms 18. At the eleventh hour—At the last moment
● At one time Russia and America were at
daggers drawn.
8. Against the rainy day—Precaution for emer-
gency
eleventh hour.
e
● He reached the examination hall at the

19. At one’s beck and call—At one’s command

● I want my servants to be at my beck and
t
● You must save something every month call.
against the rainy day. 20. At one’s wits’ end—To be confused
9. At a loss—To be confused ● At the sudden appearance of the police the
● He was at a loss to understand what to do suspect was at his wits’ end.
against so much of opposition.
21. To bear the palm—To be victorious
10. At logger heads—Terms of hostility
● Our team bore the palm in the final match.
● He is at logger heads with his own bro-
ther. 22. Bosom friend—Intimate friend
11. At an arm’s length—To keep danger or evil ● Mohan is my bosom friend.
at a distance 23. Bag and baggage—With full luggage
● Keep such rascals at an arm’s length. ● He has left Agra bag and baggage.

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24. To bury the hatchet—To end old enmity 37. Between the devil and the deep sea—To fall
● Let us now bury the hatchet for ever and between two great difficulties
live like friends. ● I have fallen between the devil and the
25. By leaps and bounds—Very rapidly deep sea; if I go to office, I lose the
examination; if I don’t, my employer feels
● India is progressing by leaps and bounds. annoyed.
26. To be in bad books of—Out of favour 38. To blow one’s own trumpet—To praise
● He is in bad books of his teachers. one’s ownself
27. To be in good books of—To be in kind fav- ● I hate those persons who blow their own
our trumpet.
● He is in good books of his teachers. 39. Bone of contention—The cause of quarrel
28. To be in bad odour of—To be out of favour ● Kashmir is the bone of contention bet-

ww ● A dishonest servant is always in bad

odour of his master.
ween India and Pakistan.
40. By fits and starts—Something done irregu-
larly

w
29. To be in good odour of—To be in good
favour

.Ea
● An honest servant is always in good odour
of his master.
● You can never finish the work in time if
you proceed by fits and starts.
41. Black sheep—An undesirable person

syE
30. Bolt from the blue—A sudden calamity
● The news of his father’s death came as a
bolt from the blue.
● Many police officers proved black sheep
in the Movement of 1942.
42. By hook or by crook—By any means fair or
31. Bad blood—Enmity
● These two brothers have bad blood ngi foul
● Some people are very clever in achieving
their goal by hook or by crook.
between them.
32. Blue blood—To belong to an aristocratic
family nee
43. To be hand and glove with—Intimate
friends
● Lord Byron, the famous poet, was very
proud of his blue blood. with each other.
rin
● Ramesh and Mohan are hand and glove

33. To be born with a silver spoon in one’s

mouth—To be born in a rich family
g.n
44. Child’s play—A very easy task
● It is not a child’s play to get first division.
● Jawaharlal Nehru was born with a silver
spoon in his mouth.
34. To burn the candle at both ends—To waste
one’s money or energy racklessly
e
45. To count chickens before they are hatched
—To anticipate profit before hand
● Do not make your plans so ambitious
because it is no use counting chickens
before they are hatched.
t
● If you go on burning the candle at both
ends, you will soon come to repentance. 46. To cut the Gordian knot—To solve a very
difficult problem
35. Birds of the same feather—Persons of the
same nature and taste ● The national leaders cut the Gordian knot
● All the employees of this office are birds by abolishing the native states.
of the same feather. 47. Cock and bull story—A fantastic story
36. Between Scylla and Charybdis—Between ● The tale of his adventures is nothing but a
two great dangers cock and bull story.
● I am between Scylla and Charybdis; if I 48. Cat and dog life—Quarrelsome life
tell the truth my friend goes to the jail; if I ● Mohan and his wife live a cat and dog
do not, I betray my employer. life.

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IDIOMS | 269

49. To call a spade a spade—To talk bluntly ● When Gandhiji appeared in his first case,
● Dr. Johnson never hesitated in calling a he cut a sorry figure in the court.
spade a spade. 63. To curry favour—To win favour by flattery
50. Cry for the moon—An unattainable ambi- ● He has risen so high by currying favour of
tion the Chairman of the factory.
● His hope of getting the Nobel Prize is a 64. To cast a slur—To bring disgrace
cry for the moon. ● Your actions will cast a slur on the good
51. Cry over spilt milk—To repent in vain after name of your family.
loss 65. A bull in a china shop—Heedless destroyer
● Be comforted, my friend, it is no use Nadir Shah proved a bull in a china shop.
crying over spilt milk.
66. To put the cart before the horse—To do

ww52. A close shave—A narrow escape

● I had a close shave in a car accident.
53. Crocodile tears—False show of grief
something in a wrong way
● Instead of calling the mechanic to the
work-shop, he took the whole machine to

w ● He shed crocodile tears on the death of his

.Ea
step-mother.
54. Cold reception—No hearty welcome
● The English cricket team was given a cold
67.
him. It was like putting the cart before the
horse.
To die in harness—To die while on duty
● Slaves die in harness.

syE
reception in India.
55. To be caught red-handed—To be caught
68. Drop in the ocean—Very insignificant
amount
● All your knowledge of science is only a

ngi
while committing a crime
● The thief was caught red-handed. drop in the ocean.
56. Capital punishment—Death penalty 69. A dark horse—A person suddenly coming
● Capital punishment has been revived in
many countries. nee into prominence
● Mohan came out as a dark horse after the
election.
57. Corporal punishment—Bodily punishment
● Corporal punishment should not be given
70.
rin
Drawn battle or Drawn match—A battle or
match in which no party wins
to young children.
58. To carry coals to New Castle—Unnecessary
and useless work
Calcutta yesterday.
g.n
● The drawn cricket match was replayed in

● To export silk to China is like carrying

coals to New Castle.
59. To call names—To abuse
71.

72.
e
Double dealing—Deceitful actions
● His double dealings are now exposed to
the public.
To give the devil his due—Even the wicked t
Calling names is a bad habit. should be given the praise due to him
60. To cut one’s coat according to one’s cloth ● In spite of all his wickedness, he has
—To live within one’s own means helped you; the devil should be given his
● It is always wise to cut one’s coat accord- due.
ing to one’s cloth. 73. Dog in the manger—A selfish person
61. Chip of the old block—The son resembling ● He would rather keep his books locked
the father than give them to you, because he is more
● Ram is a drunkard like his father. He is a or less a dog in the manger.
chip of the old block. 74. Sword of Damocles—An imminent danger
62. To cut a sorry figure—To make a poor ● The aggressive policy of China is a sword
impression of Damocles hanging over India.

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270 | L.W.C.E.

75. To dance attendance upon—To flatter 87. To eat one’s word—To break one’s promise
Officers in the present day want their Whatever may happen, I shall not eat my
subordinates to dance attendance upon word.
them. 88. To see eye to eye—To agree
76. On the horns of a dilemma—To face a I do not see eye to eye with him on this
difficult situation between two problems. issue.
The new import policy has put many 89. To take an exception to—To object to some-
industries on the horns of a dilemma; they thing
can neither run these industries nor close
I take serious exception to this type of
them down.
remark.
77. To play ducks and drakes—To waste
money 90. Enough and to spare—Plentiful

ww He is a rackless fellow playing ducks and

drakes with his ancestral property.
Even the poorest man in America has
enough and to spare.
78. A double-edged sword—Capable of causing 91. To make both ends meet—To live within

w harm to the other as to one’s ownself

.Ea
He has cheated many people by the help
of his son, but this may prove a double-
edged sword one day.
one’s income with difficulty
A school teacher hardly makes both ends
meet.
92. Elixir of life—Nectar of life

syE
79. A dog’s life—Very miserable life Contentment is the elixir of life.
People dwelling in the slums of great 93. Foul play—Treachery

ngi
cities live a dog’s life. I suspect foul play in the dealings of this
80. A blessing in disguise—Something intrinsi- clever man.
cally good but having a bad appearance 94. Fool’s paradise—Foolish ambition
His last year’s failure was a blessing in
disguise, because this year he has secured
first division.
nee I pity the man; he is living in a fool’s
paradise.

81. To end in smoke—To end in nothing

The Summit Conference has ended in
prosperous days
rin
95. Fair weather friend—Selfish friends of

smoke.
82. Eye wash—Ineffective remedy
ted me in my hard days.
g.n
As he was a fair-weather friend, he deser-

96. From hand to mouth—Bare existence

The revised pay-scale of the teachers is a
mere eye wash.
83. Every inch—Completely
Mohan is every inch a gentleman.
from hand to mouth.
97. Fair play—Just dealing
e
The labouring class people in India live

t
I expect nothing but fair play from you.
84. Over head and ears—Beyond one’s capacity 98. Fall flat—To produce no effect
He is over head and ears in debt. The repeated warnings of the Government
85. Easy money—Bribe have fallen flat on the militants.
No officer who accepts easy money can 99. Follow suit—To follow the example
sleep in peace. Gandhiji laid his life in the service of the
86. Hush-money—Bribe given for concealing poor; let us also follow suit.
secrets 100. To fish in troubled waters—To take advant-
He has given hush-money to the publisher age of the difficulties of others
of the daily newspaper for withholding the During epidemics many doctors fish in
publication of this scandal. troubled waters.

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IDIOMS | 271

101. To fan the flame—To aggravate The teacher gave a piece of his mind to
By writing this letter you will only be the mischievous boy.
fanning the flame. 115. To face the music—To face opposition
102. To show white feather—To betray cawar- Every new teacher has to face the music
dice on the first day in the class.
Maharana Pratap never showed the white 116. To give up the ghost—To die
feather. The poor beggar gave up the ghost last
103. To fight to the finish—To fight to the end night.
The Rajputs were pledged to fight to the 117. To get rid of—To escape from
finish.
I am trying my best to get rid of my quar-
104. To fly into a passion—To be enraged
rel some neighbour at the earliest.

ww
Weak men easily fly into a passion.
118. To get the better of—To overcome
105. To make a fortune—To grow rich
He made a fortune in America. At last he got the better of his adversary.

w
106. To wear a long face—To look gloomy

occasion.
.Ea
Do not wear a long face on this happy

107. Fair and square—Honest

119. To go to the dogs—To be ruined
This factory is gradually going to the dogs
under the new management.
120. To gird up the loins—To be well prepared

ings.
syE
One must be fair and square in one’s deal-

108. To kill the fatted calf for—To arrange a

for some trying task
Let us all gird up the loins to eradicate the
evil of untouchability from India.
lavish reception for some body
ngi
Queen Elizabeth killed the fatted calf for
121. To grease the palm—To tip or bribe a per-
son

nee
the Commonwealth Prime Ministers’ You will find easy access to the Governor
meet.
if you grease the palm of his peon.
109. To play the fool—To act foolishly
122. A snake in the grass—Some hidden enemy
He played the fool in the hands of his
clever friends.
rin
I could never expect that he would prove a
snake in the grass.
110. From pillar to post—From one extreme to
another
Every young man has to run from pillar to
123. For good—For ever
g.n
He has left Calcutta for good.
post in search of a job.
111. From the bottom of one’s heart—Very
sincerely
The beggar thanked me from the bottom
e
124. To hold one’s ground—To stand firm
The Rajputs held their ground to the end.
125. A golden opportunity—Very favourable t
opportunity or chance
of his heart. You should not miss this golden opportu-
112. To throw down the gauntlet—To give nity.
challenge 126. To give vent to—To express one’s thoughts
Mohan has thrown down the gauntlet to or feelings
Ramesh. Every individual is freely allowed to give
113. Gift of the gab—The skill of oratory vent to his feelings.
Dr. Radhakrishnan possessed a divine gift 127. An hair-breadth escape—Very narrow
of the gab. escape
114. To give a piece of one’s mind—To scold a I had an hair-breadth escape last evening
person from a car accident.

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272 | L.W.C.E.

128. Harp on the same string—To keep on 142. To take to one’s heels—To run away
talking on the same topic ● As soon as the thief saw the police, he
● Why do you unnecessarily harp on the took to his heels.
same string ? 143. To pick holes in—To find fault with
129. Hang over one’s head—Under danger ● It is a bad habit always to try to pick holes
● Ever since the death of her husband, in others.
troubles have been hanging over her head. 144. To bring home—To explain
130. To hang in balance—To remain undecided ● Gandhiji brought home the fact that the
● I am hanging in balance whether I should heart of India lay in her villages.
accept this offer or not. 145. Hot water—Troubles
131. To hang by a thread—Critical condition ● You will fall in hot water if you displease

ww ● The life of a cancer patient hangs by a

thread.
132. Heart and soul—In all sincerity
him.
146. Hue and cry—Noise and confusion
● When fire broke out in the village, there

w ● He is devoted to his studies heart and

soul.

.Ea
133. Hard and fast—Definite
● There is no hard and fast rule for getting
was much hue and cry.
147. To break the ice—To break silence by
speaking first

syE
● The President broke the ice in the condo-
happiness in life. lence meeting with a short speech.
134. To hit below the belt—To take advantage 148. Ill blood—Enmity
by unfair means
● A Rajput warrior never hits below the
belt. ngi ● There is no ill blood between Ram and
Mohan.
149. A man of iron—A strong man
135. To hit the nail on the head—To act in the
right way
● A good lawyer always hits the nail on the nee ● Sardar Ballabh Bhai Patel was a man of
iron.
head in his arguments.
136. Hard nut to crack—A difficult problem to
rin
150. In cold blood—Very cruelly
● The dacoits killed the old man in cold
solve
● The problem of unemployment is a hard
nut to crack.
blood.
g.n
151. In black and white—In writing
137. Hold water—To prove sound
● Your argument does not hold water in this
case.
138. Hold good—Valid ; applicable
white.
e
● The agreement must be made in black and

152. In the teeth of—Against strong opposition

● The Finance Bill was passed in the teeth
t
● The rule no longer holds good. of strong opposition.
139. A Himalayan blunder—A serious mistake 153. In full swing—In full glory
● We committed a Himalayan blunder in ● The Kumbh Fair is in full swing these
trusting the assurances of America. days.
140. To make head or tail of—To understand 154. In the twinkling of an eye—In a moment, in
● The audience could make no head or tail no time
of his learned lecture on mysticism. ● The flash of lightning disappears in the
141. Heart to heart—Very frankly twinkling of an eye.
● Let us have a heart to heart talk on this 155. In a nut shell—In brief
complicated issue. ● Please report the whole case in a nut shell.

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IDIOMS | 273

156. In one’s teens—Before attaining the age of 171. Kith and kin—Close relations
twenty ● Who will not help his kith and kin ?
● My eldest son is still in his teens. 172. To knock against—To collide with
157. In a fix—In a difficult mental state ● The truck knocked against the running
● I am in a fix; I do not know what to do in train.
this situation. 173. To keep up appearances—To keep one’s
158. In the nick of time—Just in time prestige
● I reached the station in the nick of time. ● He is somehow keeping up appearances in
159. In embryo—Immature, in the making his old age.
● My scheme of setting up a silk factory is 174. To keep an eye—To watch
still in embryo. ● The police keeps an eye on the vaga-

ww160. Intents and purposes—For all practical

purposes
● He is the manging Director for all intents
bonds.
175. To keep at bay—To keep the enemy at a
distance

w and purposes.

.Ea
161. Inns and outs—All details and secrets
● I know all the inns and outs of this
● It is not easy to keep the rebels at bay.
176. To keep the wolf from the door—To avoid
starvation

syE
business. ● He has to work day and night to keep the
162. In vogue—Popular wolf from the door.
● Animal sacrifice is no longer in vogue in 177. To keep an open table—To entertain all

ngi
India. comers
163. In the same boat—In the same condition ● He is very generous and always keeps an
open table.

nee
● Both these friends are sailing in the same
boat. 178. The knock down price—Auction-price
164. In no time—In a very short time ● You will have to pay one fourth of the

rin
● I can solve his question in no time. knock down price just now.
179. To laugh in one’s sleeves—To laugh secre-
165. Jack of all trades—A person knowing a
tly
little of many things
● Ramesh is a Jack of all trades.
166. Juda’s kiss—False show of love g.n
● The lawyers laughed in their sleeves at the
ignorance of the judge.

● Who knows that his love is merely Juda’s

kiss ?
167. To hold one’s jaw—To stop talking
e
180. To win laurels—To win honours
● Our athletes won laurels in the Olympic
games.
181. To lose the day—To be defeated
t
● Kindly hold your jaw; it is enough.
● Our team lost the day.
168. In the jaws of—In the grip of
182. To lick the dust—To accept defeat
● The patient is in the jaws of death.
● Be sure, you will have to lick the dust in
169. To kill two birds with one stone—To serve
the end.
two purposes at one time
● If you hold the meeting at Nainital in 183. Leap in the dark—Uncertainty about out-
come
summer, you will be killing two birds
with one stone. ● Marriage is a leap in the dark.
170. To kiss the dust—To be humiliated 184. To lay hands on—To seize
● In the wrestling bouts the boastful ● How can the government lay hands on my
wrestler had to kiss the dust. private property ?

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274 | L.W.C.E.

185. Lapped in luxury—Brought up in luxury 200. To leave one in the lurch—To leave one in
● The princes are lapped in luxury. difficulties
186. To lead by the nose—To wield undue influ- ● My faithful friend, Mohan, will never
ence leave me in the lurch.
● She leads her husband by the nose. 201. Long and short—Brief substance
187. To lie in wait—To keep waiting for the ● Let me know the long and short of his
victim speech.
● The robbers were lying in wait for the 202. To leave no stone unturned—To make all
belated travellers. possible efforts
188. To turn over a new leaf—To start a new ● I shall leave no stone unturned to help
way of life you.

ww ● He has turned a new leaf at sixty.

189. To throw light on—To explain
● The President threw light on the terms of
203. To let by-gones be by-gones—To forget old
things
● Let us start anew and let by-gones be by-

w agreement.

.Ea
190. To wash dirty linen in public—To expose
private affairs in public
● There is no wisdom in washing dirty linen
gones.
204. Man of parts—Talented man
● I can certify that he is a man of parts.
205. Mare’s nest—Illusory discovery
in public.
syE
191. A man of letters—A learned man
● The report of the discovery of gold-mines
proved to be a mare’s nest.
206. Move heaven and earth—To make every
● Dr. Radhakrishnan was a man of letters.
192. A red letter day—A historic day
ngi possible effort
● He moved heaven and earth to find a job

nee
● The 15th of August 1947 is a red letter but it was all in vain.
day in the history of India. 207. To make a clean breast of—To confess
193. A white lie—Clear falsehood ● The dacoits made a clean breast of their
● He is telling a white lie.
194. To look down upon—To hate a person rin
crimes before Vinoba Bhave.
208. To make a mountain of a mole-hill—To
● The rich should not look down upon the
poor.
exaggerate small things
g.n
● You are unnecessarily making a moun-

e
195. On one’s last legs—At the last stage of life tain of a mole-hill and quarrelling.
● The patient is on his last legs.
196. To lead to the altar—To marry
● I took the vow of life-long sincerity when
I led her to the altar.
209. To make after—To pursue or chase
● The police made after the thief and caught
him.
210. By fair or foul means—By any means
t
possible right or wrong
197. Loaves and fishes—Material gains ● He is very tactful and will succeed by fair
● Do not fall from your ideals for loaves or foul means.
and fishes. 211. To make up one’s mind—To determine
198. To pull one’s leg—To befool a person ● He has made up his mind to appear at the
● Prevent them from pulling the leg of the examination this year.
old man. 212. To make much ado about nothing— T o
199. Lion’s share—The biggest share make much of little things
● The leader of the gang got the lion’s share ● You will only complicate the matter if
of the booty. you make much ado about nothing.

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IDIOMS | 275

213. To throw mud at—To scandalise 227. No love lost—Having no love

● Why do you throw mud at your collea- ● There is no love lost between them.
gues ? 228. Neither chick nor child—No child
214. Upto the mark—Upto standard ● The unfortunate old man has neither chick
● Your answers are not upto the mark. nor child.
215. To make one’s mark—To achieve distinc- 229. To strain every nerve—To make every
tion possible effort
● India made its mark at the SAARC Sum- ● He will surely strain every nerve to get his
mit meet. work done.
216. Milk of human kindness—Human com- 230. To feather one’s own nest—To serve one’s
passion own purpose

ww ● The heart of Gandhiji overflowed with the

milk of human kindness.
217. To make amends—To compensate
● Many a so-called social worker merely
feathers his own nest.
231. Open secret—Known to all

w ● You will have to make amends for caus-

.Ea
ing so much harm to me.
218. To meet half-way—To be prepared for com-
promise
● This is now an open secret.
232. Order of the day—Some popular thing of
the age

syE
● Gandhiji was always prepared to meet his
adversaries half-way.
● Armament race is the order of the day.
233. On the wrong side of—One’s age being
more than

ngi
219. To join the majority—To die
● He is on the wrong side of fifty.
● The poor beggar has joined the majority.
234. Out of sorts—Indisposed
220. To make out—To understand
● I can hardly make out any meaning in
your speech. nee ● I am out of sorts today.
235. Old head on young shoulders—One over-
221. Man in the street—Common man
● The life of the man in the street is very rin
intelligent and experienced for one’s age
● My young son reads books of philosophy
hard.
222. To nip in the bud—To destroy in the very
shoulders.
g.n
with interest; he has an old head on young

236. To oil someone’s hands—To bribe

beginning
● All his hopes have been nipped in the bud.
223. Null and void—Rendered invalid
● The court has declared these laws null and
e
● Oiling the hands of officials is an offence.
237. To pay one back in one’s own coin—Tit for
tat t
● You have deceived Mohan and, therefore,
void. take care that you may have to pay back
224. Nook and corner—At every place in your own coin.
● The police searched for the thief in every 238. To put the saddle on the right horse—To
nook and corner. blame the really guilty person
225. To set at naught—To ruin ● By arresting Mohan the police have put
● All my plans have been set at naught on the saddle on the right horse.
the death of my father. 239. To put one’s shoulder to the wheel—To do
226. Narrow circumstances—Hard days, poverty one’s work with one’s own efforts
● He is living in narrow circumstances these ● God helps those who put their shoulders
days. to the wheel.

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276 | L.W.C.E.

240. Pros and cons—Points for and against/good 253. Pin prick—Small troubles
or bad ● You should not lose your patience at such
● Let us consider all the pros and cons of pin pricks.
the whole affair before we advance fur- 254. To play a second fiddle—To take a sub-
ther. ordinate position
241. To poke one’s nose into—To interfere with ● It is strange that your Principal plays the
the affairs of others
second fiddle to the Manager.
● It is not wise to poke one’s nose into the
255. To play a double game—To act dubiously
affairs of others.
● Take care, he is playing a double game
242. To pour oil on troubled waters—To pacify
with you.
the anger of others
● He poured oil on troubled waters by his 256. To play fast and loose—To be unfaithful

ww gentle and honest replies.

243. Pandora’s Box—A source of evil powers
● You can never prosper if you play fast and
loose with your own men.

w ● Greed opens Pandora’s box. 257. To play truant—To run away from the class
244. To play one’s cards well—To play an inte- ● He is in the habit of playing truant from
lligent role
.Ea
● A good statesman always plays his cards
the class.
258. To play one false—To deceive
well.

syE
245. To poison one’s ears against—To set a
person against another
● You should not have played me false.
259. Past master—An expert
● He is past master in acting on the stage.
● He has poisoned the ears of my employer
against me.
ngi 260. To put a spoke in one’s wheel—To stand in
the way of one’s progress
246. To set price on one’s head—To offer
reward for killing or helping in the arrest of a
criminal nee ● My own brother is putting a spoke in my
wheel.

rin
261. Pell mell—In confusion
● The government have set a price of
50,000/- on the head of the rebel leader. ● People ran pell mell at the first tremor of

g.n
the earthquake.
247. Part and parcel—An essential part
262. To pull the wire—To exercise secret influ-
● A good laboratory is the part and parcel of ence
the equipment of a scientist.
248. To pester with—To be troubled with
● We are pestered with mosquitoes here.
249. To take pains—To work hard
Pakistan’s activities.
263. Point blank—Clearly
e
● America is pulling the wire behind

t
● He has refused point blank to help me.
● Nothing can be gained without taking 264. Petticoat-Government—The undue influ-
pains. ence of women
250. To put up with—To tolerate ● There is petticoat government in most
● I cannot put up with this insult. social organizations in France.
251. To pull to pieces—To criticise adversely 265. To put to the sword—To kill
● He has pulled my proposal to pieces. ● Nadirshah put even children to the sword.
252. To put pen to paper—To begin writing 266. Rank and file—Lower middle class people
● I put my pen to paper at the first stroke of ● The learned speeches of the great orator
the bell. cannot be appreciated by the rank and file.

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IDIOMS | 277

267. To rain cats and dogs—To rain heavily 281. Slip of the pen—A small unintentional mis-
● It is raining cats and dogs. take in writing
268. To rise to the occasion—To come to help at ● Please excuse me for this slip of the pen.
the hour of need 282. Slip of the tongue—A slight mistake in
● My brother is there to rise to the occasion speaking
to help me. ● Do not give so much importance to his
269. To run short—Not proving sufficient, short- slip of the tongue.
age of something 283. Square meal—Full meal
● I am running short of money these days. ● Many people can hardly arrange even a
square meal.
270. A rolling stone—A man not sticking to his
job 284. To save one’s skin—To escape safely
● I have somehow saved my skin from the

ww ● He will not prosper because he is a rolling

stone.
271. Right-hand man—A very helpful person
scandal.
285. To roll up one’s sleeves—To be prepared

w
for contest
● My manager is my right-hand man.
● When Mohan gave him the challenge, he
secret meaning
.Ea
272. To read between the lines—To discover

● It is a simple statement; why do you read

rolled up his sleeves.
286. To give the cold shoulder—To discourage a

syE
person
between the lines ? ● I went to him for help, but he gave me the
273. A broken reed—An unreliable person cold shoulder.

ngi
● Every body knows that he is a broken 287. At a stone’s throw—At a little distance
reed; don’t depend on him. ● My house is at a stone’s throw from here.
274. Without rhyme or reason—Without any 288. To stand on one’s own legs—To become
justification
● He has been criticising me without rhyme
or reason. nee independent
● Now you are old enough to stand on your
own legs.
275. To go to rack and ruin—To be completely
ruined
rin
289. Summer friends—Friends of prosperity
● All my summer friends have deserted me
● His business has gone to rack and ruin.
276. To rub shoulders with—To come in close
in my adverse days.
g.n
290. To screw up one’s courage—To gather

e
contact with courage
● I have rubbed shoulders with great scho-
lars.
277. To hold the scales even—To be impartial
● A judge must hold the scales even.
● Do not be so disheartened; screw up your
courage.
291. To see the light—To be born
● His father died before he saw the light.
t
278. To scratch one’s head—To be perplexed
● When I saw the Mathematics paper, I just 292. Seal of love—Kiss
scratched my head. ● The mother bade him farewell by
279. Storm in a tea-cup—Much hue and cry over imprinting a seal of love on his forehead.
a little matter 293. The sheet of anchor—The place of protec-
● You have unnecessarily raised storm in a tion or shelter
tea-cup over this little matter. ● Her employer proved to be the sheet of
280. Stand in good-stead—To be of great service anchor to her.
● Your upright character will always stand 294. A thick-skinned person—Insensitive person
in good stead. ● He is a very thick-skinned person.

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278 | L.W.C.E.

295. Through thick and thin—Through all diffi- 310. White elephant—A very expensive thing
culties ● A European wife is a white elephant for
● She faithfully stood with her husband an Indian.
through thick and thin. 311. Wolf in sheep’s clothing—A deceitful man
296. To take into one’s head—To think or to ● I don’t trust him; he is a wolf in sheep’s
believe clothing.
● Somehow he has taken into his head that 312. Wash one’s hands of—To be free from
he is the most intelligent boy. ● I have washed my hands of her affairs.
297. A tool in the hands of—Under the authority 313. Much cry and little wool—Disappointing
of another result
● Pakistan is merely a tool in the hands of ● After five years of studies abroad, he got a
America. small post. It was much cry and little

ww298. To take the bull by the horns—To face

danger with courage
● Be bold and take the bull by the horns.
wool.
314. To bring to book—To punish

w
● The offender should be brought to book.
299. To take time by the forelock—To do one’s 315. To show a clean pair of heels—To run away
work in time

.Ea
● You will never fail if you take time by the
forelock.
● The thief showed a clean pair of heels to
the police.

blood or character
syE
300. True to one’s salt—To be faithful to one’s

● The Rajputs were always true to their salt.

316. To add a new feather in one’s cap— T o
acquire a new honour or distinction
● His election to the Parliament has added a

301. To turn the tables—To change the situation

completely ngi new feather in his cap.
317. To take a leaf out of another man’s book—
To imitate another person
● In the last few minutes our captain turned
the tables in our favour.
302. Tooth and nail—Contending with all force nee ● He has no originality of thought; he is
only taking a leaf out of another man’s
book.
● We shall oppose this move tooth and nail.
303. To turn a deaf ear—To pay no attention rin
318. Maiden speech—First speech
● His maiden speech was quite a success.
● My friend turned a deaf ear to my advice.
304. Tall talk—Boasting g.n
319. Nine days’ wonder—A short-lived glory
● The glory of Hitler was a nine days’ won-
● He always indulges in tall talks.
305. To turn one’s coat—To change one’s party
● He is an opportunist and has so often
turned his coat.
der.

follies e
320. To sow wild oats—Indulgence in youthful

● It is the duty of the warden to see that his t

students do not sow wild oats.
306. Under a cloud—Under suspicious condition
321. To pocket an insult—To bear insult
● He is working under a cloud.
● The nationalists had to pocket much in-
307. Under the rose—Secretly sult during their fight for independence.
● He is making love with her under the rose. 322. A red rag to a bull—Something that irritates
308. Under one’s nose—In the presence of ● The fiery slogans against the police proved
● He accepted bribe under the nose of his to be a red rag to a bull.
senior officer. 323. Under the thumb of—Under the authority
309. Wild goose chase—Useless efforts of someone
● His efforts to marry the princess have ● The manager is under the thumb of the
proved a wild goose chase. proprietor.

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IDIOMS | 279

324. To get wind of—To know the secret 335. To make up—To make up the loss
● Somehow the police got the wind of the ● I shall make up your loss.
conspiracy. 336. Run down—Reduced in health
325. To go a wool gathering—To grow lunatic
● He is very much run down these days.
● His wits have gone a wool gathering.
326. Over head and ears—Very deeply 337. A tower of strength—Chief support
● He is in debt over head and ears. ● Pt. Nehru was the tower of strength of the
327. In the air—Spread as a rumour Congress Party.
● This news is very much in the air. 338. Hold the fort—To stand firm on one’s posi-
328. Out of the wood—Out of difficulties tion
● At last he came out of the wood. ● He held the fort against all odds.

ww329. A royal road—An easy and popular way

● There is no royal road to success.
330. To think lightly—Not to be serious about a
339. To go back on—To withdraw
● You should not go back on your word.
340. Behind the scene—Secretly

w thing
● Please don’t think lightly of my scheme.

.Ea
331. To fight shy of—To be hesitant
● Face the problem boldly and don’t fight
● He is the governing power behind the
scene.
341. Once for all—Finally

syE
shy of the situation.
332. In the melting pot—In a confused state
● The whole affair is in the melting pot.
● My reply is final once for all.
342. On and on—To continue
● He went on and on with his scheme.
333. By and large—On the whole
● He is by and large a gentleman. ngi 343. Come true—To prove true
● His warning has come true.
334. Come across—Meet by chance
● Please give him my message if you come
across him. nee
344. Put an end to—To finish
● He has put an end to his foolish schemes.

rin
g.n
e t

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26 Idiomatic Phrases
Idiomatic Phrases ● He writes articles for the newspapers as a
free lance.
(Noun Phrases)

ww 1. Cold war—(Intense ideological or tactical

struggle)
13. Iron will—(A man of strong will)
● A good statesman should be a man of iron
will.

w ● There should be no cold war between

neighbouring countries.

.Ea
2. Dutch courage—(Temporary
roused under the effect of liquor)
boldness
14. Fair sex—(Woman)
● This is the privilege of the fair sex.
15. A big gun—(An important person)
● He is a big gun.

syE
● His dutch courage will soon pass off.
3. Fair play—(Honest dealings)
● There is no fraud; it is a fair play.
Adjective Phrases
16. With open arms—(Warm welcome)
4. A fancy price—(Very high price)
● His painting will fetch a fancy price. ngi ● My friend received me with open arms.
17. Without reserve—(Freely)
5. A gala day—(A day of rejoicings)
● His birthday is a gala day for him. nee ● We accept your terms without reserve.
18. Beside himself—(Highly disturbed)
● His heavy loss in business has thrown him
6. The ins and outs—(Complete knowledge)
● Nobody can know the ins and outs of their
beside himself.
rin
19. On the alert—(Cautious)

g.n
secret service.
● The border areas should always be kept
7. Red tapism—(Official formalities)
on the alert.
● Many projects are long held up on
account of red tapism.
8. Sharp practice—(Cunning practice at law)
● No lawyer can get success by resorting to
sharp practice.
date. e
20. Out of date—(Out of use or fashion)
● Tight trousers have now become out of

21. Up-to-date—(Latest; to the present day) t

● He is up-to-date in his knowledge of poli-
9. A wet blanket—(A discouraging person or tical developments.
thing)
22. In high spirits—(Very happy)
● Too much seriousness acts as a wet
● He is in high spirits today because of his
blanket to cheerfulness.
grand success.
10. Hand and glove—(Very intimate)
23. Out of spirits—(Sad and dejected)
● I am hand and glove with my friend.
● He is out of spirits today because of his
11. Forty winks—(A short nap in day–time) failure in the examination.
● I have forty winks every day after lunch. 24. Like wild fire—(Rapidly)
12. A free lance—(An independent journalist or ● The news of his murder spread like wild
politician) fire.

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IDIOMATIC PHRASES | 281

25. Out of gear—(In bad condition) 42. Under the wing—(Under someone’s protec-
● His business has gone out of gear these tion)
days. ● This port is under the wing of America.
26. At sea—(Confused) 43. In hot water—(In a difficult situation)
● I am at sea these days on account of all ● The journalist has fallen in hot water due
these problems coming together. to his wrong reporting of Parliamentary
27. To the letter—(Fully and exactly) proceedings.
● I have carried out his orders to the letter. Adverb Phrases
28. In the dark—(Ignorant, out of knowledge) 44. By degrees—(Slowly)
● Don’t keep your father in the dark. ● He is recovering from his heavy debts by
29. At the first flush—(At the first sight) degrees.

ww ● You cannot appreciate this painting at the

first flush.
45. At times—(Sometimes)
● At times he behaves like a fool.

w
30. In the ascendant—(Rising state)
● His stars are in the ascendant these days.

.Ea
31. In hand—(under control)
● Now the law and order situation is in
46. Once for all—(Finally)
● You must take a decision once for all.
47. At random—(Without any system)
● He gave me some suggestions at random
hand.
syE
32. In the air—(Spread all around)
● The fear of an attack is in the air.
which I could not accept.
48. Of late—(Recently)

33. Out of the question—(Impossible)

● His success in business is out of the ngi ● Of late he has not seen me.
49. At best—(At the most)

nee
● At best I can introduce you to him.
question.
50. Out and out—(Fully)
34. At a pinch—(In a hard situation)
● He is out and out a gentleman.
● No friend of yours will come to your help
at a pinch.
rin
51. Off and on—(Occasionally)

g.n
35. Ill at ease—(Worried) ● Off and on he comes and stays with me.
● He is ill at ease on account of his father’s 52. Now and then—(Sometimes)
illness. ● Now and then he comes here.
36. On his last legs—(At the last stage)
● His grandfather is on his last legs.
37. Head or tail—(Any meaning or Sense)
e
53. Far and wide—(Over a large area)
● His fame has spread far and wide.
54. Before long—(Very soon)
t
● We could make no head or tail of his long
● We are shifting to our new house before
speech.
long.
38. With one voice—(Unanimously)
55. At a stretch—(Continuously)
● His proposal was accepted with one voice.
● I can drive my car for six hours at a
39. For good—(For ever) stretch.
● He has left Delhi for good. 56. At the outset—(In the beginning)
40. On the cards—(Going to occur very soon) ● You must work very hard at the outset of
● Now the elections are on the cards. your career.
41. All the rage—(Very popular) 57. At large—(Run away)
● Pop music is all the rage these days. ● The convict is still at large.

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282 | L.W.C.E.

58. At length—(in full detail) 73. In accordance with—(In keeping with)

● You should discuss your plan with me at ● I have enclosed all the documents in
length. accordance with the advertisement.
59. Of course—(Certainly) 74. In proportion to—(According to)
● Of course he will never betray you. ● The workers are not paid in proportion to
60. Time and again—(Repeatedly) their work.
● Please don’t come to me for help time and 75. For want of—(For shortage of)
again. ● I could not start my business for want of
61. By and by—(By slow degrees) money.
● By and by he will adjust himself to the 76. In lieu of—(In place of)
climatic conditions of this country. ● You can write an essay in lieu of trans-

ww62. Few and far between—(Few and at long

distances)
● In the desert the villages are few and far
lation.
77. At the instance of—(At someone’s sugges-
tion)

w between.

.Ea
63. First and foremost—(First and most impor-
tant)
● Our first and foremost duty is to serve our
● I applied for this post at the instance of
my father.
78. In spite of—(Even after something)

syE
● He failed in spite of hard labour.
country. 79. On account of—(Due to)
64. For long—(For a long time) ● I could not go to office on account of
● War cannot go for long.
65. Over and above—(In addition to)
ngi heavy rains.
80. In view of—(Owing to)

nee
● Over and above he is very hard-working. ● In view of some disturbances in the city,
the market was kept closed.
66. To and fro—(Backwards and forwards)
81. With a view to—(With the purpose of)

rin
● He was pacing in the room to and fro.
● He has moved to Bombay with a view to
67. Through and through—(Completely) setting up a factory there.
● He is through and through a rogue.
68. By all means—(In all possible ways) g.n
82. In the wake of—(Immediately after)
● The market has been closed in the wake of
● I will certainly help you by all means.
Prepositional Phrases
69. For the sake of—(In favour of)
some disturbances.

e
83. In a state of—(In a condition of)
● He is lying in a state of coma. t
84. By virtue of—(Owing to)
● A patriot would die for the sake of his
country. ● He secured first position by virtue of hard
70. In response to—(In compliance to) labour.
● The public contributed liberally in res- 85. In search of—(Looking for)
ponse to an appeal by the Prime Minister. ● He has come here in search of some job.
71. In regard to—(Relating to) 86. On the point of—(At the brink of)
● The students met the Principal in regard to ● His factory is on the point of closure.
many of their problems. 87. In order to—(With the purpose of)
72. In addition to—(over and above) ● He has appealed to the court in order to
● We get gratuity in addition to our pension. get some relief.

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IDIOMATIC PHRASES | 283

88. In the act of—(While engaged in) 105. Cast down—(Disappointed)

● He was caught in the act of cutting the ● He feels much cast down owing to his
road. failure.
89. In the midst of—(Amidst) 106. Cast away—(Throw away)
● He works in the midst of great difficulties. ● He has cast away his old shoes.
90. At the top of—(At the highest point) 107. Come across—(Meet by chance)
● He shouted at the top of his voice. ● I came across my former boss yesterday.
91. In consideration of—(In view of) 108. Come about—(Happen/Take place)
● I pardon you in consideration of your long ● The change came about suddenly.
service. 109. Cry down—(To denounce)
92. By the way—(Incidentally, by any chance)

ww ● By the way, are you Ram Mohan Roy ?

Verbal Phrases
● Many people are in the habit of crying
down their friends.
110. Call names—(Abuse)

w
93. Account for—(Being the cause of)

.Ea
● His cunningness accounts for his fall.
94. Bear out—(Support, to be a witness)
● He is in the habit of calling names.
111. Deal in—(Engaged in business)
● He deals in silk.

her.
syE
● You will bear me out that I wanted to help

95. Bear with—(Tolerate)

112. Deal with—(Act with)
● How will you deal with the rogues ?

ngi
113. Do away with—(Finish/End)
● Please bear with me for some time more.
● He has done away with all bad habits.
96. Break off—(Stop)

nee
114. Fall out—(Quarrel)
● He suddenly broke off in the middle of his
speech. ● These two brothers have fallen out.
97. Break into—(Enter by force) 115. Get out of—(To be free from)
● The thieves broke into my shop last night.
98. Bring about—(Produce/cause) rin
● Try to get out of all your debts.
116. Get through—(To Pass)
● These measures will bring about pros-
perity in the country. g.n
● He will easily get through the examina-
tion.
99. Bring in—(Earn)
● He brings in five thousand rupees a
month.
100. Bring out—(Reveal)
117. Get up—(Rise)
e
● He gets up very early in the morning.
118. Give away—(Distribute) t
● The Principal gave away the prizes.
● The enquiry will bring out many startling
facts. 119. Give up—(Leave out)
101. Bring up—(To rear up) ● I shall give up my claim.
● He has a large family to bring up. 120. Go through—(Check up)
102. Call on—(To meet a person) ● Please go through my essay.
● I shall call on you tomorrow morning. 121. Go in for—(In favour of/Purchase)
103. Call in—(Ask to come) ● I shall go in for a new car.
● Please call in my Secretary. 122. Hold up—(Stop/close down)
104. Carry out—(To act according to) ● The traffic has been held up by the agita-
● I cannot carry out your orders. tors.

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284 | L.W.C.E.

123. Hold over—(Postpone) 140. Set aside—(Turn down)

● Let us hold over this matter for the next ● The court has set aside the orders of the
meeting. Chairman.
124. Knock down—(Thrown down/Run over) 141. Set up—(Establish)
● He was knocked down by a car. ● He has set up a cement factory.
125. Keep up—(Maintain) 142. Set off (out)—(Go on a journey)
● He is creditably keeping up his reputation. ● He set off for America last night.
126. Lay down—(Sacrifice) 143. Strike off—(Reject)
● Many patriots would willingly lay down
● The teacher can strike off your name.
their life for their country.
127. Lay by—(To save for future) 144. Take after—(To look like/Resemble)

ww ● One should always lay by something for ● The girl strikingly takes after her mother.
the rainy day. 145. Tell upon—(To cast had effect)
128. Look after—(Take care of) ● Smoking tells upon everyone’s health.

w ● A mother looks after her children with

.Ea
selfless devotion.
129. Look forward to—(Hope/Eagerly wait for)
● We look forward to meeting you very
146. Turn up—(Arrive/Appear)
● He turned up at the last stroke of the bell.
147. Work out—(Calculate)
soon.
130. Look into—(Examine)
syE
● We shall look into your case very care-
● We should first work out the total expen-
diture on this project.
148. Wear out—(Tired/Become old)
fully.
131. Make out—(To understand / Infer) ngi ● The shoes of my young son wear out very
soon.

nee
● I could not make out anything from his 149. To see eye to eye—(To agree)
letter. ● I cannot see eye to eye with you on this
132. Pass through—(Facing/Going through) issue.
● India is passing through a difficult stage.
133. Pull up—(Scold) rin
150. To give way—(To yield/To break down)
● The roof suddenly gave way under the
● The teacher pulled up the naughty boy.
134. Put out—(Extinguish)
heavy rains.
g.n
151. To bring home—(To explain/Clarify)
● Don’t put out the lamp, please.
135. Put off—(Postpone)
● The meeting has been put off for tomor-
row.
e
● The central idea of the poem was brought
home to the students by the teacher.
152. To take to heart—(To feel deeply)
● She has taken her insult to heart.
t
136. Put up with—(Bear/Tolerate) 153. To beggar description—(Beyond descrip-
● It is very difficult to put up with a foolish tion)
friend. ● Cleopatra’s beauty beggard description.
137. Run down—(To be weak) 154. To lose ground—(To be weak)
● He is very much run down owing to his ● Small political parties soon come to lose
long illness. ground.
138. See through—(Discover the secret) 155. To gain ground—(To become strong/Gain-
● I can see through all his designs. ing strength)
139. See off—(Bid Farewell) ● The Republic Party is slowly gaining
● We shall see him off at the airport. ground.

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IDIOMATIC PHRASES | 285

156. To play false—(To cheat) ● There should be a separate fund for the
● One should not play false with friends. wear and tear of machinery.
157. To hold good—(To be applicable) 171. All in all—(Most important)
● This rule does not hold good any longer. ● My uncle is all in all in my family.
158. To come to grief—(To suffer/To be sad) 172. Black and white—(In writing)
● If you don’t mend yourself, you will come ● Let us make an agreement in black and
to grief. white.
159. To make a mark—(To get recognition) 173. Hard and fast—(Definite)
● He has made a mark in the field of pain- ● There can be no hard and fast rule for
ting. good conduct.
174. Slow and steady—(Slow but regular)
Idiomatic Phrases in Pairs

ww
● The slow and steady wins the race.
160. Fits and starts—(Irregularly) 175. Null and void—(out of force)
● He does his work by fits and starts. ● This provision has been declared null and

w
161. Heart and soul—(Very sincerely)

.Ea
● I am devoted to my work heart and soul.
162. Intents and purposes—(In every sense / In
reality)
176. Head
much
void by the court.
and shoulders—(To a high degree/
above)
● He is head and shoulders above his

boss.
syE
● He is to all intents and purposes my real

163. Kith and kin—(Close relations)

friends in intelligence.
177. Bread and butter—(Daily food)
● There is no provision even for bread and

ngi
● I am really grateful to my kith and kin.
164. Leaps and bounds—(Very rapidly)
butter in his family.
178. Fair and square—(Fair and honest)

nee
● I believe in fair and square dealings.
● His business is developing by leaps and
179. Rhyme and reason—(Some reason/ground)
bounds.
● He is hostile to me without any rhyme or

rin
165. Odds and ends—(All kinds of trivial things) reason.
● He filled his bag with odds and ends and 180. Cats and dogs—(Heavy rain)
ran away.
166. Part and parcel—(Inseparable part)
● Kashmir is part and parcel of India. g.n
● It is raining cats and dogs.
181. Rank and file—(Common people)

e
● You can never win against the wishes of
167. Rack and ruin—(Complete destruction)

owing to his rackless habits.

168. Time and tide—(Time and opportunity)
rank and file.
● His family has gone to rack and ruin 182. Root and branch—(Completely)
● Let us do away with this evil custom root
and branch.
t
● Don’t miss this chance, for time and tide 183. Long and short—(Substance)
wait for nobody. ● Let me know the long and short of the
169. Tooth and nail—(With full force) whole episode.
● Let us fight casteism tooth and nail. 184. Then and there—(Promptly)
170. Wear and tear—(Depreciation) ● He made the payment then and there.

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Distinction between
27 Similar Expressions
ww Distinction between Similar
Expressions
Some Idiomatic Expressions look alike, but
11. Shoot a man—(to kill a man by a gun–shot)
Shoot at a man—(to fire a gun–shot towards
someone)

w
they are actually not so. There is a great difference 12. To search somebody—(to take search of

.Ea
in their meanings. We give below a list of such
similar expressions that are in common use :
someone)
To search for somebody—(to be in search of
some person)

syE
1. At no time—(never) 13. Believe a man—(to have faith in what one
In no time—(promptly) says)
2. In an hour—(by the end of one hour) Believe in a man—(to have faith in the

ngi
honesty of some person)
Within an hour—(before the end of one
hour) 14. Meet a man—(to meet someones in the nor-
mal course)

nee
3. Work in hand—(the work in which one is
Meet with a man—(to meet someone by
engaged)
chance)
Work on hand—(the remaining part of the
15. The Chairman and Director—(Only one
work)
4. Go to sea—(to go to sea in search of a job)
rin
man who is both the Chairman and Director)
The Chairman and the Director—(Two
Go to the sea—(to go on a [sea] voyage)
5. Go to school—(to go to school for study)
g.n
men–One Chairman, the other Director)
16. English—(English Language)
Go to the school—(to go to a school for some
work—not for study)
6. Go to market—(to go to market to purchase
something)
e
The English—(English People)
17. Who is he ?—(Who is that man ?, i.e. What is
his name ?)
What is he ?—(What is he by profession)
t
Go to the market—(to go to market for plea-
Which is he ?—(Which one is he amongst
sure or some other work)
them ?)
7. Go to office—(to go to office to work there)
18. The eldest son—(the first born)
Go to the office—(to go to office for some
other work) The oldest son—(the eldest of the living
8. Work hard—(to work industriously) sons)
Work hardly—(to work very little) 19. Well—(in good health)
9. Come late—(late in reaching) Well off—(financially sound)
Come lately—(come only a little while ago) 20. Reach by Sunday—(reach upto Sunday)
10. Go direct—(go straight) Reach before Sunday—(reach before Sun-
Go directly—(go just now) day comes)

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DISTINCTION BETWEEN SIMILAR EXPRESSIONS | 287

21. Live on grass—(live by eating grass) 27. Come soon—(come early)

Live in grass—(live under grass) Come quickly—(come by fast means)
22. Take heart—(to collect courage) 28. In respect of—(in view of some quality)
Take to heart—(to feel in the depth of heart) With respect to—(in reference to something)
23. At a loss—(unable to decide what to do) 29. To have business—(regarding some work)
In a loss—(to go in loss) To have a business—(regarding some busi-
24. Look sick—(to appear ill) ness matter)
Look sickly—(to look weak as if sick) 30. Hand in hand—(together)
25. Find easy—(easy to do) Hand to hand—(face to face)
Find easily—(to discover easily) 31. To call—(to summon somebody)
26. Tell briefly—(to tell in brief)

ww Tell shortly—(to tell soon)

To give a call—(to give a general call to
people for something)

w .Ea
syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
e t

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28 Proverbs
We give below a list of Popular Proverbs with 12. Might is right.
their meanings within brackets. ● (Physical force wins.)

ww IMPORTANT PROVERBS
1. A bad man is better than a bad name.
13. Rome was not built in a day.
● (Great projects cannot be completed in a
hurry.)

w
● (Ill–reputation is worse than ill–deeds.)
14. Distance lends enchantment to the view.
2. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.

.Ea
● (A small but sure gain is better than a
doubtful double gain.)
● (Things appear more beautiful from a dis-
tance.)
15. An old dog learns no new tricks.

syE
3. A burnt child dreads the fire.
● (A person who has had a shock once acts
very cautiously.)
● (Old men cannot learn anything new.)
16. Where there is a will there is a way.
● (A man of strong will is bound to find a
4. A bad workman quarrels with his tools.
● (An inefficient man blames others for his
ngi way out.)
17. Strike while the iron is hot.

nee
inefficiency.) ● (Don’t miss a favourable chance.)
5. A drowning man will catch at a straw.
18. If the sky falls we shall catch larks.
● (Even a small help is good enough in a

rin
● (One should not put impossible condi-
critical position.)
tions for acting.)
6. A figure among cyphers. 19. As you sow, so shall you reap.
● (A man of little acquisitions is held high
in a company of fools.)
g.n
● (One gets returns according to one’s
deeds.)
7. A guilty conscience needs no accuser.
● (A guilty soul accuses itself.)
8. A prophet is not honoured in his own country.
● (The talents of a man are not often reco-
e
20. To kill two birds with one stone.
● (To gain two things by one act.)
21. Self-praise is no recommendation.
● (Self–praise has no value.)
t
gnized by his own people.) 22. While in Rome, do as the Romans do.
9. A little knowledge is a dangerous thing. ● (One should adjust oneself to local condi-
● (Incomplete knowledge of anything may tions.)
cause harm.) 23. It is hard to live in Rome and fight with the
Pope.
10. Penny wise and pound foolish.
● (One should not quarrel with one’s own
● (It is foolish to save small things and fellow–workers or with the boss.)
waste huge ones.) 24. He who digs a pit for others falls into it him-
11. Save life save all. self.
● (Life is more important than anything ● (One falls into one’s own trap laid for
else.) others.)

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PROVERBS | 289

25. It is no use crying over spilt milk. 41. Christmas comes once a year.
● (There is no gain weeping over a lost ● (Every day is not a festival.)
opportunity.) 42. Half a loaf is better than no bread.
26. Many hands make the burden light. ● (A little gain is better than no gain.)
● (Collective efforts make a task easy.) 43. All covet, all lose.
27. All that glitters is not gold. ● (Too much greed gains nothing.)
● (All things that are good in appearance 44. All’s well that ends well.
are not always really good.) ● (Final result is the most important thing.)
28. Coming events cast their shadows before. 45. God’s mill grinds slow but sure.
● (Present conditions point to future ● (Moral justice prevails in the end.)
events.) 46. From a bad paymaster get what you can.

ww29. A good face needs no paint.

● (Good things/deeds cannot be concealed.)
30. Care kills the cat.
● (Accept whatever is offered in a bad
bargain.)
47. Birds of the same feather flock together.

w ● (Worry and tension are highly injurious.)

.Ea
31. At length the fox turns monk.
● (One trying to look innocent after a long
● (Men of like nature come together.)
48. Better a tooth out than always aching.
● (Do away with a painful thing, however
precious.)

syE
career of crimes.)
32. Cut your coat according to your cloth.
● (Limit your expenditure within your
49. Even walls have ears.
● (There are listeners all around.)
50. Death’s day is doom’s day.
income.)
33. Do good and forget.
ngi ● (Nothing remains after death.)
51. Diamond cuts diamond.

nee
● (Forget the favour you have done to
● (A conflict between two equal oppo-
others.)
nents.)
34. Everybody’s business is nobody’s business.
52. Every sable cloud has a silver lining.
● (Collective responsibility is nobody’s res-
ponsibility.)
rin
● (There is a ray of hope amidst all despon-
dency.)
35. An empty mind is a devil’s workshop.
● (Evil thoughts dwell in a vacant mind.)
g.n
53. Deep rivers move in silent majesty, shallow
brooks are noisy.

e
36. Everything looks pale to the jaundiced eye. ● (Shallow men are boastful ; men of depth
● (To see everything with a prejudiced
mind.)
37. Barking dogs seldom bite.
● (A boastful person rarely acts.)
are sober.)
54. Haste makes waste.
● (Haste spoils a good thing.)
55. Act in haste, repent at leisure.
t
● (A hasty action leads to long repentance.)
38. A rolling stone gathers no mass. 56. Kindness is lost upon an ungrateful man.
● (An unsettled life gains nothing.) ● (An ungrateful man does not respond to
39. “Errors like straws over the surface flow, goodness.)
One who is in search of truth must dive 57. Pride goes before a fall.
below.” ● (A proud man always falls.)
● (Errors are easy to detect, while truth is 58. Prevention is better than cure.
difficult to find.) ● (It is better to take preventive measures
40. An empty vessel makes much noise. than to seek remedy when the disease has
● (A shallow man is usually very boastful.) come.)

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290 | L.W.C.E.

59. Little grief is loud, great griefs are silent. 75. A nod to the wise and a rod to the foolish.
● (Shallow grief is vocal ; deeper grief is ● (A little suggestion is enough for an inte-
silent.) lligent person, but a fool takes no hint.)
60. To have an old head on young shoulders. 76. A low-born man feels proud of his honours.
● (One more precocious than one’s age.) ● (A man of low–breeding would go off his
61. Those who live in glass houses should not head if he is placed in high position.)
throw stones. 77. Prosperity finds friends; adversity tries them.
● (Those who have their own weakness ● (Many friends come in days of prosperity,
should not blame others.) but the sincerity of friendship is tested
62. To swallow the whole ox and be choked with only in days of adversity.)
the tail. 78. An unhappy man’s cart is sure to tumble.
● (A great sinner pretending to be afraid of

ww small sins.)
63. He gives thrice who gives in a trice.
● (Problems multiply in days of adversity.)
79. Adversity is the touchstone of friendship.
● (Sincerity of friendship can be tested only

w ● (Immediate action is the best action.)

64. Money makes the mare go.

.Ea
● (Money dictates all terms.)
65. Necessity knows no law.
in days of adversity.)
80. Fortune favours the brave.
● (He who acts with courage gets success.)
81. The wearer knows where the shoe pinches.

ments.)
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● (All values break down in critical mo-

66. The nearer the church the farther from God.

● (Only the sufferer knows how painful is
the suffering.)
82. Give an inch and he will take an ell.
● (Just being near the church does not make
one holy.) ngi ● (If you give one a little, he would demand
more.)
67. It takes two to make a quarrel.
● (One–sided action serves no purpose.)
68. There is no rose without a thorn. nee
83. A good name is better than riches.
● (Reputation is more precious than riches/
wealth.)
● (Every good thing has some kind of draw-
back in it.)
rin
84. Too many cooks spoil the broth.
● (Too many advisers harm the cause.)
69. Out of the frying pan into the fire.
● (Going from a smaller danger to a bigger
g.n
85. Welcome or not, I am still your guest.
● (One cannot be a forced guest.)

e
one.)
86. You cannot sell the cow and have the milk
70. A lie has no legs.
● (Falsehood cannot stand long.)
71. Hunger is the best sauce.
● (A hungry man finds everything deli-
too.
● (One can not take double advantage.)
87. Heads I win, tails you lose.
● (A clever man would like to gain from
t
cious.)
both sides.)
72. All your geese are swans.
88. Time is a great healer.
● (One likes one’s own things better than
those of others.) ● (All griefs heal up in course of time.)
73. Charity begins at home. 89. It is no use casting pearls before swine.
● (Service must begin from home, and then ● (An underserving man cannot appreciate
extended to others.) good things.)
74. See which way the wind blows. 90. A blind man is no judge of colours.
● (Let us wait and watch what turn the ● (A fool cannot appreciate anything, how-
events take.) ever good it may be.)

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PROVERBS | 291

91. An open door will tempt a saint. 101. An ass is an ass though laiden with gold.
● (It is difficult to resist an easy tempta- ● (A fool remains a fool, however you may
tion.) favour him.)
92. Hope lasts with life. 102. As the crow is, so the eggs shall be.
● (Man lives by hope to the last moment.) ● (As the father, so the children.)
93. I talk of chaff; he hears of cheese. 103. Close sits my shirt, but closer my skin.
● (A confused man has no understanding.) ● (One’s own men are always more helpful
94. Practice makes a man perfect. than strangers.)
● (Practice adds to the efficiency of man.) 104. The cowl does not make a monk.
95. First deserve, then desire. ● (Outer appearance is no test of a man’s
real character.)
● (An undeserving man should not expect

ww
105. His bread is buttered on both sides.
much.)
96. There are men and men. ● (He has all the advantages.)
● (All men are not equal.) 106. Necessity is the mother of invention.

w
97. Handsome is that handsome does.

.Ea
● (A man is good if his work is good.)
98. Blood is thicker than water.
● (Family bonds are very strong.)
● (Necessity finds a way out.)
107. A friend in need is a friend indeed.
● (A sincere friend is one that comes to
help in times of need.)
99. Ill got ill spent.
syE
● (Money earned by unfair means goes
108. Face is not the index of the heart.
● (Faces are deceptive.)
109. Excess of everything is bad.

ngi
waste.)
100. A wise foe is better than a foolish friend. ● (Nothing should be carried to an excess.)
● (A foolish man is more dangerous even if 110. Time and tide wait for nobody.
he is a friend.)
nee ● (Favourable times do not wait long.)

rin
g.n
e t

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Expansion :
29 Paragraph-Writing

ww There are many Maxims, Sayings, Proverbs,

and Quotations in the English language, which
appear to be very small but are really packed full
easy but their practical application in the conduct
of life is very difficult. Anybody can preach, but
very few can practise what they preach. A mere

w
of meaning. They carry very deep meaning. Each

.Ea
one of them can be expanded into a full essay or a
long paragraph. They are highly epigrammatic and
aphoristic. They can be explained and expanded to
theoretical preaching makes no real impact on the
people. This is why great saints and sages first
practised in their own life and conduct what they
sought to preach. Their life and conduct were

syE
the length of a paragraph. This type of exercise is
called Expansion or Paragraph writing. This
type of exercise gives a very useful training
practical lessons in the highest values of life. Lord
Christ was a living example of human love and
compassion. Mahatma Gandhi was an apostle of
truth and non-violence. Thus one practical

ngi
towards the art of composition.
We give below a few examples of Expansion example is better than a hundred theoretical pre-
or Paragraph writing. cepts.

(1) Honesty Is The Best Policy

Honesty is indeed the best policy, provided nee (3) Virtue is its own Reward
Virtue is not a commercial commodity which

rin
can be sold or purchased. Virtue is complete in
we understand and interpret the terms ‘policy’ and
itself; it has no ulterior or external object to gain;
‘honesty’ correctly. Policy here does not mean a
it is its own reward. The practitioner of virtue

g.n
certain kind of tact or strategy : it here means
feels a sense of gratification, a kind of happiness
conduct of life. Similary, honesty here does not
and bliss which far transcends the pleasure that
mean merely honest dealings in money matters or
one can derive from material possessions or
business. Honesty is to be interpreted in its widest
sense, honesty in word, thought and action. Here
honesty is equivalent to truth in its widest and
fullest sense. Therefore, the proverb prescribes
truthful, noble and conscientious conduct of life in
e
practical success in life. The practitioner of virtue
does not enjoy prosperity; he may even fail to
achieve much success in life, but for all that he
does not feel depressed or frustrated. He follows
t
the principle of selfless and detached ‘Karma’ as
all spheres, private and public. One must follow
preached by Lord Krishna in the Gita. He would
the path of truth, virtue and nobility in all
constantly keep in his mind the doctrine of
situations of life. One should conduct oneself in
disinterested doing of duty : Do thy duty, reward
life in such a way that one may not fight shy in
is not thy concern. Virtue is its own reward.
facing God in the other world. A noble and
virtuous man is God’s best creation, God’s own (4) Handsome is that Handsome Does
image.
Ordinarily a person is considered to be
(2) Example is better than Precept
handsome if he has physical beauty and grace. But
Even a devil can quote scriptures, but only an this is a very superficial and deceptive concept of
angel can follow them. It is easy to preach but beauty. Physical beauty is a very short-lived and
difficult to practise. Theoretical preaching is very transitory phenomenon. No physical thing can

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EXPANSION : PARAGRAPH-WRITING | 293

ever last against the ravages of time. So says the sword or the military force are short-lived,
Shakespeare : while those of the pen or the intellect are
Since brass, nor stone, nor earth, nor permanent and universal. The empires conquered
boundless sea, by Alexander, Caesar, Genghiskhan, Tamerlane,
Napoleon have all crumbled into dust and wiped
But sad mortality o’ersways their power, off, but the intellectual and ideological empires
How with this rage shall beauty hold its plea built by great thinkers and writers like Manu,
Whose action is no stronger than a flower ? Plato, Socrates, Shakespeare, Tulsi, Goethe, Karl
Wherein lies, then, permanent human beauty? Marx, Gandhi are permanent possessions and
It lies in one’s good and noble deeds. We live in rocks of shelter and succour to all mankind. The
deeds, not in years. We can immortalize ourselves great truths of life that poets, thinkers, philoso-
by doing good deeds. Physical charm is momen- phers and mystics reveal to mankind inspire,
tary, but the fragrance of good deeds is permanent. animate, elevate and sustain mankind for all time

wwWe shall be admired, honoured and remembered if

we are morally handsome, and not if we are only
physically handsome. It is our good deeds that add
to come, while the conquests of the sword hardly
outlive the conqueror’s short lifespan. The pen is,
therefore, certainly mightier than the sword.

w
to our personality, that enhance our grace and
charm, that ennoble us and make us really hand-
some.
.Ea
(5) Knowledge is Power
(7) The World is too much with us
Wordsworth rightly says that “the world is
too much with us” and “getting and spending we
lay waste our lives.” Indeed, man has become too

syE
At the source and root of all power there is
knowledge. Even physical and military power is
lame without knowledge. It is knowledge that
materialistic. He is so much engrossed in the
materialistic pursuits that he has completely
forgotten the higher moral, spiritual and emotional
rules the world. A man of knowledge possesses
immense power. Behind all modern armaments
and military manoeuvres there is scientific ngi values. He has become deaf to the “still small
voice of conscience.” He deceives, cheats, betrays,
and falls to any low level for the sake of material
knowledge. Nature is an inexhaustible source of
power. Nature reveals all her sources of power to
a man of knowledge. It is the scientist, the man of nee
gains. He has lost all peace of mind and remains
in constant strain and stress. He has become
morally bankrupt and spiritually degenerated.
knowledge, who can harness the mighty forces of
nature and press them to human service. Also, no
rin
There is no joy in his life, no contentment in his
heart. If man wants to save himself, he must draw
a balance between his material gains and moral

g.n
man can be a good statesman without knowledge.
A good statesman should have full knowledge not values.
only of his own country but also of the whole (8) Where ignorance is bliss, it is folly
world, of all international problems and develop-
ments. And, finally, the highest form of knowle-
dge is the knowledge of the self. Know thyself :
this is the key of all spiritual and mystical
experiences. He who has known himself has
to be wise
e
The forbidden fruit of knowledge sometimes
becomes the cause of great distress and anguish.
There are many situations in which lack of
t
known the universe. Who can, then, be more knowledge or ignorance is a great blessing. It
powerful than a man of knowledge ? Indeed, would be a great folly to probe deep and acquire
knowledge is power. knowledge into such situations. There are many
things and many situations which are beyond the
(6) The Pen is Mightier than the Sword control of man. Any attempt to acquire knowledge
The ‘pen’ in this proverbial sentence sym- about such things and situations would only bring
bolises intellectual power and the ‘sword’ stands sorrow. The future is unknown to us. It is
for physical power. The proposition, then, is shrouded in a thick veil of mystery. But if we
which is superior and stronger between intellect- could know the future, this knowledge would only
ual power and physical power ? Obviously, add to our misery. Children are so happy because
intellectual power is far more potent and lasting they have blessed ignorance : they don’t run after
than physical power. The conquests and gains of knowledge. Solomon says, “He that increaseth

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294 | L.W.C.E.

knowledge increaseth sorrow.” Surely then, where (11) Sweet are the uses of adversity
ignorance is bliss, it is folly to be wise.
Normally adversity is a dreaded thing. No-
(9) Peace hath her victories no less body wants to fall in the grip of adversity.
renowned than war Everybody wants to live in joy, peace, plenty and
prosperity. But a closer analysis would reveal that
Ordinarily heroes of war are universally adversity has its own advantages. In the first
praised and honoured. War is recognized as the place, it is a test of man’s courage, patience,
greatest heroic exploit and victory in war as a endurance and valour. It is a test of his faith,
mark of national honour and triumph. But truly confidence and will-power. It is equally a test of
speaking, it is not always so, at least not in the loyalty and sincerity of friends, colleagues,
modern warfare. Wars involve incalculable human and members of the family. It is rightly said :
prosperity finds friends, adversity tries them. One
suffering and destruction. And even then, the
can truly understand and evaluate himself as well

wwachievements of war are very short lived. One war

leads to another war. We fight war to prepare for
another war. This vicious series goes on. The only
as others only in periods of adversity. He who can
pass through adversity with a cool and balanced
mind will ultimately be successful in the world.

w
antidote for war is peace. The achievements of
peace are far more lasting and renowned than

.Ea
those of war. Art, culture, philosophy, literature,
trade, commerce and such other beneficial things
He who has not known adversity has not known
the world.
(12) Man is the architect of his own
destiny

syE
flourish only during peace time. The promoters of
peace such as Christ, Buddha, Mahavira, Ashok,
Gandhi are the real benefactors and saviours of
It is often believed that man is a toy in the
hands of destiny. Our destiny is marked out for us
at the time of our birth. Man has no role to play in
mankind. They are far more renowned than the
heroes of war.
ngi the determination of his fate or destiny. This is a
very fatalistic and pessimistic approach to life. It
(10) A thing of beauty is a joy for ever
nee
persuades man to be passive and inactive and
leave everything in the hands of the powers above.
An object of beauty is a source of perennial This approach is very wrong. The truth is that man

rin
joy. It may be any object of beauty from a tiny is himself the architect of his own destiny. He is
flower to the music of spheres, but it gives joy to the maker of his own fate. It is man’s own efforts,
every human heart. The pretty face of a maiden, his own deeds that determine the course of his life.
the sweet smile of a child, the prismatic colours of
the rainbow, the blossoms of spring, the songs of g.n
A bold man, a man of faith, a man of determina-
tion, a man of hope and vision would never accept
this philosophy of life. He would certainly mark
birds, the murmuring music of rivers and the
sportive glee of the fountain have the power to
charm every human heart. Equally powerful is the
appeal of a work of art, be it a painting, a work of
e
out and determine his own destiny. Napoleon used
to say that he carved out his destiny with his
sword.
(13) Coming events cast their shadows
t
sculpture or architecture, a song, a dance perfor-
mance, or a musical concert. Great works of before
literature—the plays of Shakespeare or Kalidas, Future is always shrouded in a thick veil of
the epics of Homer, Milton or Tulsi, the poetry of mystery. Man cannot know what is going to
Spenser, Keats or Tagore, the stories and novels of happen in future. Yet if we closely understand and
Maupassant, Dickens or Prem Chand are perennial analyse the present, we can form some ideas as to
sources of aesthetic pleasure. Therefore Keats what the future is going to be. There is a logical
rightly says : link between the present and the future. There is
always a kind of background for all future events.
“A thing of beauty is a joy for ever :
We can judge the character and personality of a
Its loveliness increases; it will never pass into man by analysing his childhood. Clouds begin
nothingness.” togather in the sky before it rains. Situations of

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EXPANSION : PARAGRAPH-WRITING | 295

distrust, tension and animosity begin to develop He works in a detached spirit without any near or
before a war breaks out. We can anticipate a distant aim in view. He overcomes all temptations,
man’s future success or failure by assessing his desires and weaknesses that flesh is heir to. But
present. This is so because coming events cast there is one thing that the greatest and noblest of
their shadows before. men have not been able to overcome, and that is
the desire to fame. Even the greatest and noblest
(14) Every sable cloud has a silver of men have this weakness. They desire to be
lining recognized for their services and be remembered
Every situation of life has a blending of good for long. History bears testimony to the fact that
and evil. There is nothing absolutely bad as there even the greatest martyrs desired to have fame in
is nothing absolutely good. Even the worst and their life-time and after. It is only the supermen
darkest situation of life has some element of like Christ, Buddha, Mahavira, Gandhi who can
goodness in it. Our sorrows and sufferings purify overcome this temptation.

wwour soul. Adversity makes us bold, couragious and

adventurous. Our failures pave the way for our
success. Fever purges our entire physical system.
(17) Discretion is the better part of
valour

w
And death holds out a promise for a new life.
There is indeed a silver lining behind every sable

.Ea
cloud. What we need to have is a deep insight and
clear vision to see everything rightly. We should
not be disheartened when adverse situations come.
Courage and bravery are admirable qualities.
One who dares nothing, gains nothing. A coward
can do nothing; he can achieve nothing. But
courage and bravery should be exercised with
discretion and wisdom. Thoughtless and indiscreet

syE
We should go by faith, by hope, by vision, and
then we shall find a silver lining behind every
sable cloud.
display of bravery may do more harm than good.
There are certain situations in which patience and
forbearance would do better than valour.
(15) It is never too late to mend
Human life is a tale of errors and follies. ngi Sometimes it may be advisable to keep away from
the path of danger or challenge. If a huge flood
wave comes rising against you, or if you find
Nobody is infallible. We all commit errors and
mistakes out of ignorance or inexperience. Man
learns by experience, and in the process of nee
yourself in the midst of flames, or if you are
confronted unarmed with a wounded tiger, or if
you are ambushed by a gang of communal
acquiring experience man often stumbles and falls
down. An intelligent and aspiring man would
rin
fanatics, your discretion should prompt you to run
away from the spot and save yourself. Discretion

g.n
learn from his mistakes and failings. Every should be the watchword of the brave. We should
mistake is a lesson, a living sermon. All errors and remember Milton’s words : “Fools rush in where
mistakes should be corrected. No mistake should angels fear to tread.”
be repeated a second time. It is never too late to
mend. This is the surest way of getting success
and happiness in life. If we just keep on brooding
over our mistakes without trying to mend them,
we shall make our life miserable. No stage is too
e
(18) The child is father of the man
The personality and character of a man is not
a freak of nature. There is always a regular pattern
and consistent growth in the formation of man’s
t
late to rectify one’s mistakes and come to the right character. The seed of one’s character and
path. personality is laid in one’s infancy. There is then a
consistent growth from infancy to childhood, from
(16) Fame is the last infirmity of the childhood to youth, and from youth to age. As the
noble mind child is today, the man would be tomorrow. What
Milton says in his famous elegy Lycidas : a man is going to be can be well guessed from his
childhood. The child is the man himself on a
“Fame is the spur that the clear spirit doth
miniature scale, having all the potentialities of
raise,
future growth. History bears testimony to the fact
That last infirmity of the noble mind.” that all great men showed signs of their greatness
A noble man does his duty and serves man- in their formative years in childhood. The growth
kind without any expectation of reward or gain. and evolution of their personality could well be

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296 | L.W.C.E.

discerned from the very beginning of their lives. (21) To travel hopefully is better
Therefore utmost attention should be paid to a than to arrive
child in his formative years. It is this great truth
that Wordsworth enshrines in the famous line : Man lives by hope. Hope is the sustaining
“The child is father of the man.” force. Human life is a long journey from hope to
hope. When one hope breaks, the next hope
(19) If Winter comes, can Spring allures man and prompts him to keep on the
be far behind ? journey. Thus from hope to hope man travels until
There is always a regular cyclic order in the end of the journey comes in death. Further, life
nature. Sunrise and sunset, day and night, winter is a prolonged struggle, a persistent endeavour to
and summer, autumn and spring, growth and achieve some ideal, some cherished goal. The
decay regularly follow each other. So is there a efforts made towards achieving this goal are more
regular cyclic order in human life and fortunes. pleasure-giving than the goal itself. As soon as the

wwJoy and sorrow, rise and fall, success and failure,

fortune and misfortune, birth and death successi-
vely follow each other. There cannot be a perma-
goal is achieved, its charm vanishes. The journey
towards the moon was more thrilling than the
landing on the moon. As soon as man put his foot

w
nent winter, as there cannot be a permanent

.Ea
spring; so in life there cannot be a permanent
period of misfortunes as there cannot be a perma-
nent period of fortune. So man should have faith
on the surface of the moon, he found it a barren
land of rocks and dust. Immediately the charm
was broken. Surely, then, to travel hopefully is
better than to arrive.

syE
in the moral order of God. No period of depres-
sion and misfortune, of failure and frustration, of
sorrow and suffering can ever be a permanent
(22) The old order changeth yielding
place to the new
phase of life. This embodies a philosophy of
sterling faith, hope and optimism. This is the ngi Change is the law of nature. Everything dead
or alive, animate or inanimate is changing

nee
message of Shelley, the revolutionary idealist, in continuously. Even the stars, the planets, the earth,
this famous line quoted from his “Ode to the West the oceans and mountains and the uncontrollable
Wind.” forces of nature are constantly changing. In the

(20) Politics is the last refuge of the

scoundrel rin
living world of men, animals and plants things
change even more fast and perceptibly. The old
order must change and give place to the new. This
The word “politics” has today become
synonymous with “treachery” or “opportunism”. It g.n
is the process of evolution and progress. Old
cultures and civilizations, old customs and man-
has degenerated into a foul profession. It has been
grossly commercialized. Everything is fair in
politics. Changing the party, crossing the floor,
changing the colour of the cap, politicizing the
national problems and calamities, raising the
e
ners, old systems and institutions, old thoughts
and beliefs have changed and gone and given
place to the new ones. Ancient kingdoms and
empires have gone. Ancient palaces and monu- t
ments, forts and castles, temples and churches
governments today and pulling them down
have all gone. The old generation is gradually
tomorrow have become commonplace things in
political life today. The result is that honest and dying out and new generation is coming up. The
noble people try to keep away from politics. The new generation must replace the old one. This is
scoundrels often use politics as an umbrella to the natural process of change, evolution and
protect themselves from the arm of law. But it progress.
would be equally wrong to suggest that all (23) More things are wrought by
politicians are scoundrels. There are many who prayer than the world dreams of
are honest, noble, selfless, honourable and really
dedicated to the service of the motherland. But a When all human efforts fail, man takes to
big majority of them are really bad and they have prayer. And very often prayers bring miraculous
brought infamy to the whole class. results. But the condition is that the prayer should

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EXPANSION : PARAGRAPH-WRITING | 297

be sincere and genuine. It must come from the Exercise

depth of the heart, not merely from the lips.
Expand into a paragraph the central idea
Sincere prayer has a spiritual force in it. What
contained in the following statements :
comes from the soul of man goes to the Divine
spirit. In such a situation things happen so 1. All the world’s a stage.
miraculously that human reasoning fails to explain 2. East is east, west is west.
or analyse them. Many such events are recorded in 3. All that glitters is not gold.
history. It is a well known historical fact that the 4. Rome was not built in a day.
Mughal Emperor Babur saved the life of his 5. A little knowledge is a dangerous thing.
young prince Jahangir from imminent death by 6. Well begun is half done.
prayer. These are great mysteries beyond the 7. Brevity is the soul of wit.
understanding of man. Therefore it is rightly said 8. To err is human, to forgive divine.
that more things are wrought by prayer than the
9. Birds of a feather flock together.

wwworld dreams of.

(24) There’s a divinity that shapes
our ends
10. Art lies in concealing art.
11. Prosperity finds friends, adversity tries
them.

w Man was created in the image of God. God

.Ea
endowed man with great talents and faculties—
physical, intellectual, moral and spiritual. He gave
12. A rolling stone gathers no moss.
13. Neither a borrower nor a lender be.
14. Fools rush in where angels fear to tread.
15. The proper study of mankind is man.

syE
man full freedom to choose whatever course of
16. Lives of great men all remind us, we can
life he thought fit for himself, to do whatever he make our lives sublime.
liked, to accept or reject whatever his conscience 17. Poets are the unacknowledged legislators of

ngi
chose. But God kept to himself, in his own hands, the world.
the ultimate end. The final destiny of man rests 18. Heard melodies are sweet, but those unheard
with God. Man can work; he can make persistent are sweeter.
efforts; he can endeavour to the end, but the final
outcome of all his efforts would depend upon the
will of God. God is the Supreme Power without nee
19. Our sweetest songs are those that tell of
saddest thought.
20. Money is a good servant but a bad master.
whose will and sanction nothing can happen.
Man’s success or failure, his rise or fall, his
rin
21. Fortune favours the brave.
22. United we stand, divided we fall.
happiness or unhappiness, his triumph or defeat
depend upon God’s will. Surely, it is divinity that
shapes our ends. g.n
23. They never die who fall in a noble cause.
24. What can war but endless wars still breed.
25. Where there is sorrow, there is holy ground.

e t

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30 Spellings
Writing of correct spellings is the most Rule 3—If a Suffix is to be added to words end-
difficult part of learning the English Language. A ing in single consonant l, the consonant l

wwvery great difficulty specially arises when a Prefix

or a Suffix is to be added to a word. Another
equally great difficulty arises in the correct use of
i.e. or ei; an or on ; ea or ia. Many more problems
is doubled. As—
Control — controlled / controller
Travel — travelled / traveller

w
of the same nature also arise. There are some

.Ea
rules governing their correct use, though there are
many exceptions to them. We give below the
Rules of using correct Prefixes and Suffixes with
Signal — signalled
Distil — distilled, distiller
Quarrel — quarrelled
illutrations :

syE
Rule 1—Words of one syllable ending in single
vowel + single consonant
Rule 4—If a Suffix beginning with a Vowel is to
be added to words ending in silent e, the
e is dropped. As—
If a Suffix beginning with a Vowel is to
be added to a word of one syllable
ngi
ending in a s i n g l e V o w e l + single
Hope — hoping
Move — moving

nee
Live — living
consonant, the last consonant of the Drive — driving
base word is doubled. As—
Like — liking

rin
Sit — sitting
Beg — begging / begged Rule 5—But if a Suffix beginning with a con-
sonant is to be added to words ending in

g.n
Run — running silent e, the e is not dropped. As—
Beg — beggar Hope — hopeful
Rob — robbed / robbing
Pat — patted / patting
Plot — plotted / plotting
Knit — knitted
Engage — engagement
Procure — procurement
Hate — hateful
Retire — retirement
e t
Rule 2—If a Suffix is to be added to a word of
more than one syllable ending in a single Rule 6—If a Suffix beginning with a, o, u is to be
Vowel + single consonant, the last added to words ending in ce or ge, the
consonant of the base word is doubled, silent e at the end of the base word is not
provided that the last consonant is dropped. This is done for the sake of
stressed. As— retaining the original pronunciation of ce
Submit — submitting / submitted (as s, not k) and ge (as j, not g). As—
Occur — occurring / occurred Notice — noticeable
Permit — permitted Replace — replaceable
Begin — beginning Courage — courageous
Debar — debarred Change — changeable

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SPELLINGS | 299

Rule 7—If a Suffix is to be added to words Note—But these are correct—Efficient, ancient,
ending in y preceded by a consonant, y is sufficient.
changed into i. But if the suffix ing is to Neither, either, their, height.
be added, y is not changed into i. As—
Note—Remember that the Rule regarding the use
Happy — happily of ei or ie is applicable only in the words
Beauty — beautiful pronounced as bee (with e stressed), and
Mercy — merciful not other words as listed under the Note
above.
Duty — dutiful
But : Exercise
Marry — marrying (a) Add ei or ie to the following—
Carry — carrying Conc . . t ; hyg . . ne ; glac . . r ; ach . . ve
; ch . . f ; rel . . f ; perc . . ve ; gr . . ve ;

wwNote—
Try
Ply
— trying
— plying
rec . . pt ; retr . . ve ; pr . . st ; s . . ze ;
bel . . f ; dec . . ve ; conc . . t ; n . . gh ;
y . . ld ; br . . f ; n . . ce ; forf . . t ; l . .

w (1) If there is a Vowel before the last y in the

.Ea
base word, the y is not changed. As—
Pray — prayed
ge ; surf . . t ; f . . gn.
(b) Add full to the following—
Duty, beauty, skill, change, bounty, plenty,
awe, care, grace.
Play — played

syE
(2) The following are the exceptions to this
rule :
(c) Add ed or ing to the following—
Commit, put, get, sit, pin, sin, hit, give,

ngi
live, move, prove, remove, run, spin, pit,
Beauteous, piteous, bounteous, plenteous, dig, split, can, ride, fly, try, cry, deny, spy.
shyly, shyness, dryness, slyly, slyness.
Ans :

nee
Rule 8—If the Suffix full is to be added to the
words ending in ll, one l both from the (a) Conceit; hygiene; glacier; achieve; chief;
base word and the suffix is dropped. relief; perceive; grieve; receipt; retrieve;
priest; seize; belief; deceive; conceit;

rin
As—
neigh; yield; brief; niece; forfeit; liege;
Skill + full = skilful surfeit; feign.
Will + full = wilful
Notice—Full + fill = fulfil is also correct.
g.n
(b) Dutiful; beautiful; skilful; changeful;
bountiful; plentiful; awful;
graceful.
careful;
Rule 9—In case of doubt whether ei or ie will be
correct in the spellings of a word,
remember that after c is used ei, and after
other letters is used ie. As—
e
(c) Committed; putting; getting; sitting; pin-
ned; sinned; hitting; giving; living; mov-
ing; proving; removing; running; spinn-
ing; pitted; digging; splitting; canned;
t
Conceive, receive, perceive, deceive. riding; flying; trying; crying; denying;
Thief, belief, relief. spying.

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31 Punctuation and Capitals

Punctuation Marks have a great importance in Note—
every language. Punctuation mark make the mean- (a) Full Stop marks may not be used after

wwing and sense of the writer clear and precise.

Wrong punctuation marks can distort the meaning
and cause confusion in the mind of the reader.
every letter in very popular abbrevia-
tions. As—
UNESCO, UNO, WHO

w
Sometimes they can completely change the entire
meaning. Therefore we give below all the impor-

.Ea
tant punctuation marks and explain how and
where they are to be used.
(b) Full Stop marks are not used after Mr &
Mrs also.
(c) 1st, 2nd, 3 rd, 4th, etc. also don’t take
Full Stop marks after them.

syE
The following are the important punctuation
marks used in the English Language—
(1) Full Stop ( . )
(2) Comma ( , )
It is the smallest pause, and is used in the
(2) Comma ( , )
(3) Colon ( : ) ngi following conditions—
Rule 1—To separate a series of words of the same

nee
part of speech from each other. But the
(4) Semicolon ( ; )
number of such words in the same series
(5) Mark of Interrogation ( ? ) should not be less than three. Before the
(6) Mark of Exclamation ( ! ) last word in the series conjunction ‘and’
(7) Dash ( — )
rin
is added, and before the ‘and’ a comma
may or may not be used. As—

g.n
(8) Parentheses brackets ( )
(i) I have seen Bombay, Calcutta, Madras
(9) Inverted commas or Quotation Marks “ ”
and Bangalore.
(10) Hyphen ( - )
(11) Apostrophe ( ’ )
(1) Full Stop ( . )
Rule 1—It is used at the end of every complete
e
(a comma can also be used before ‘and’)
(ii) There are in this zoo all kinds of birds,
animals, reptiles, and monkeys.
(The comma before and can be removed
t
Assertive or Imperative sentence. It is also.)
not used at the end of Interrogative or Rule 2—To separate pairs of words used in the
Exclamatory sentences. (After these same series. As—
sentences Interrogative or Exclamatory
marks are used.) (i) They sell here books and magazines,
note-books and diaries, greeting cards
Rule 2—A Full Stop is also used after every letter and picture-books.
of an Abbreviation. As—
(ii) High and low, rich and poor, proud and
M.L.A. ; M.P. ; D.S.O. ; S.T. Kukreja humble, all assemble here.
Full stops are also used in such shortened Rule 3—To separate two or more than two
expressions as—etc., e.g., i.e., Ibid., op. Adverb or Adjective phrases coming
cit. after each other. As—

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PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS | 301

(i) Then, after waiting for more than an (iii) Let us not, I pray you, part like this.
hour, we saw him coming out. (iv) Your behaviour, in my opinion, is not
(ii) Thereupon, at last, he broke down. courteous.
Rule 4—To separate small co-ordinate clauses in Rule 10—In place of a word left out in a sentence,
a compound sentence. As— specially a verb (left out as understood).
(i) He came, he saw, he conquered. As—
(ii) The weather was pleasant, the wind was (i) He received a medal; I, a prize.
calm, the hills all round were green.
(ii) You went to Calcutta; he, to Bombay.
(iii) Storms may blow and clouds may burst,
but I must go. (iii) He secured first division; you, second.
(No Comma is used when two co–ordi- Rule 11—To separate an Adverbial clause from
nate clauses are connected with a co– the Principal clause. But if the Adverbial

ww ordinate conjunction)
Rule 5—To mark a Nominative of Address or
Vocative Subject. As—
clause comes after the Principal clause,
no comma is used. As—
(i) If you go to office, please submit my

w (i) Ram, what are you doing ?

.Ea
(ii) Milton, thou should’st be living at this
hour !
(iii) What will you do now, my friend ?
application.
(ii) When I was at Kanpur, I met your father.
(iii) Inform me when you come back.

syE
Rule 12—A comma is placed between the name
Rule 6—To separate a Nominative Absolute. of a person and his Degrees or Titles. If
As— there are several Degrees, a comma is
(i) This done, we shall proceed further. placed after each Degree. As—
(ii) The weather being pleasant, we proposed
to go on a picnic. ngi B.K. Acharya, M.A., Ph.D., D. Litt.
Mrs. Sarojini Naidu, Governor of Uttar
(iii) Having reached there, he addressed a
public meeting.
Rule 7—To separate a Noun and its Phrase in nee Pradesh.
Rule 13—A comma is also used between a long
Subject and its Verb. As—
Apposition. A comma is placed on both
the sides of such Nouns or Phrases. As—
rin
(i) All that he said before he set sail, was
long remembered by all.
(i) Nelson, the great wrestler, has won.
(ii) Milton, the great poet, was blind.
(iii) Mahatma Gandhi, the Father of the g.n
(ii) Whatever he spoke from the pulpit on the
Christmas day, turned out to be true.
Nation, is worshipped as an apostle.
Rule 8—On both the sides of a phrase that can be
developed into a sentence, and which is
not merely a qualifying phrase. As—
e
Rule 14—To separate a Noun Clause from the
Verb of the principal clause, if the Noun
clause comes immediately before the
Principal Verb. As—
t
(i) Gandhi, having acquired the degree of (i) Whatever is, is right.
Bar-at-Law, returned to India. (ii) Whoever comes, is welcome.
(ii) Our team, having won the series, retur-
(iii) That he is a rogue, no one could believe.
ned last month.
Rule 9—On both the sides of some typical words, Rule 15—To separate a Direct quotation from
phrases or clauses used within a sentence. the rest of the sentence. As—
As— (i) He said, “I am a sailor.”
(i) He, however, did not return before sun- (ii) “What will you do”, he asked, “if I with-
set. draw my help ?”
(ii) He is, after all, your brother and you (iii) “Go home”, said my father, “and help
must help him. your brother.”

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302 | L.W.C.E.

(3) Colon ( : or :— ) (ii) The bell rang; the students assembled for
prayer; the Principal addressed them; the
After Full Stop the next complete pause is day’s work was resumed.
expressed by colon. The colon is written as (: ) or
(:–). It is used in the following cases : (5) Mark of Interrogation ( ? )
Rule 1—Before writing a Quotation. As— Mark of Interrogation is used at the end of an
Bacon says : “Reading maketh a full Interrogative sentence in the Direct Interrogative
man, writing an exact man, speaking a form. As—
ready man.” (i) Are you going home ?
Rule 2—Before drawing a list of some articles or (ii) Do you know him ?
giving examples. As—
(iii) Why do you want to meet him ?
(i) The principal cities of India are : Delhi,
Bombay, Madras, Calcutta, Bangalore, But in Indirect Narration the Interrogative

ww etc.
(ii) Pencils, pens, rubbers, paper, ink : these
are the articles sold here.
sentence is converted into an Assertive sentence,
and therefore a Full Stop is used in place of Mark
of Interrogation.

w
Rule 3—Before gramatically independent but

.Ea
closely connected sentences. As—
He can never deceive anyone : he is an
absolutely honest man.
(i) He asked me whether I was going home.
(ii) He asked me why I wanted to meet him.
(6) Mark of Exclamation ( ! )

syE
(4) Semicolon ( ; )
Semicolon is used in the following cases—
Mark of Exclamation is used at the end of an
Exclamatory sentence, or after an Interjection or

ngi
any word or phrase suggestive of some sudden
Rule 1—Between the clauses of a compound sen- feeling.
tence when these clauses can be conver- (i) Alas ! he is ruined.
ted into complete independent sentences.
(i) He is the strongest candidate; even his
rivals admit this fact. nee (ii) What a terrible sight it was !
(iii) May you live long !
(ii) This is the best book available here; all
good students read this book. rin
(7) Dash ( — )

g.n
Dash is used in the following cases—
Rule 2—To separate Co–ordinate clauses in a Rule 1—In case of sudden stoppage or change of
compound sentence when they are con- thought or feeling—
nected by a conjunction, and when
commas have also been used in them.
As—
(i) He was a brave, respectable person; and
he was loved and admired by all.
e
If I were born in those exciting times—
but what is the use of such broodings ?
Rule 2—To collect scattered or stray thoughts—
Houses, cottages, farm-houses, cattle-
t
sheds, grain-stocks—all were damaged in
(ii) The event was thrilling, exciting and the floods.
momentous; and everyone watched it
with bated breath. (8) Parentheses (brackets)
Rule 3—A Semicolon is also used between the Parenthetic words, phrases and clauses are
co–ordinate clauses of a compound written within brackets. They keep the Paren-
sentence, which are not joined by any
theses separate from the main sentence. The
conjunction and which have their sepa-
rate subjects. As— Parentheses have no grammatical connection with
the main sentence. As—
(i) The train halted; the passengers rushed
forward; the vendors and hawkers had He gained from Heaven (it was all he wished)
their good sale. a friend. (Gray)

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PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS | 303

(9) Inverted Commas ( “ —— ” ) The bell is ringing.

Inverted commas are used to mark out the Have you done your work ?
exact words of a speaker or a quotation. Double (2) Every new line of a poem begins with a
Inverted commas are used at the beginning and capital letter.
end of a statement or a quotation using exact My heart leaps up when I behold
words. If there is a quotation within a quotation,
the internal quotation is closed within Single A rainbow in the sky :
Inverted commas, and the whole sentence or So was it when my life began,
quotation within Double Inverted commas. As— So is it now when I am a man.
He said, “I have consulted several literary (3) All Proper Nouns or Adjectives formed
reference books, but I have not been able to by Proper Nouns begin with a capital
understand the correct meaning of ‘Child letter. All Surnames also begin with
is father of the man’.”

ww (10) Hyphen ( - )
The mark of Hyphen is smaller than the dash,
capital letters. If a name has two or more
parts, all parts begin with a capital letter.
New Delhi; Bombay; John Keats;

w
and it is used to make compound words. As—

.Ea
Father-in-law; man-of-war; passer-by.
It is also used to connect the first part of a
word written at the end of a line, the second part
Sir Walter Raleigh; Dr. R.B. Mazumdar;
INDIAN CULTURE, NEPALI
(4) Every letter of an Abbreviation is capital.

next line. As—

syE
of which is carried over to the beginning of the

He said that he was going to rusti-

U.N.O. ; U.S.A. ; N.A.T.O. ;
M.A. ; M.B.B.S.
(5) All Nouns and Pronouns used for God
cate the naughty boy.
(11) Apostrophe ( ’ ) ngi begin with capital letters.
God; Lord; the Almighty;

Rule 1—Apostrophe is used to make a Possessive

Case. As— nee God and His moral order;
God has thousands at His command.
Ram’s house, Mohan’s book, Girls’ School.
Rule 2—Sometimes some words are shortened by rin
(6) Pronoun I and Interjection O are always
witten in capital form.

g.n
This is all that I can do for you.
dropping out some letters from their
spellings, and in place of those letters an O ! for a beaker of vintage.
Apostrophe is used. As—
(i) He didn’t go. (i.e. did not)
(ii) I’ve ne’er seen him. (i.e. I have never
seen him.)
Exercise
e
(1) Punctuate the following sentences—
1. A student should be sincere devoted indus-
trious and well behaved.
t
Rule 3—To write O’clock &It is 5 O’clock. 2. Sir I can do this easily.
Rule 4—To make Plurals of Letters and Figures. 3. As Caesar loved me I weep for him as he
(i) 2’s , 5’s . was fortunate I rejoice at it as he was
(ii) He has not cut his t’s . valiant I honour him but as he was ambi-
tious I slew him.
(iii) His m’s are not readable.
4. All that I am all that I hope to be I owe to
Use of Capital Letters my uncle.
Capital Letters: Capital Letters are used in 5. Shakespeare the great dramatist was an
the following cases— Englishman.
(1) The first letter of the first word of a 6. A statesman should be cool patient far-
sentence is written with a capital letter. sighted and selfless.

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304 | L.W.C.E.

7. Some are born great some achieve great- struggle for tell me now do you sincerely
ness and some have greatness thrust upon desire to be rid of this golden touch
them. (2) On december 13 1939 three british ships
8. Even a fool before he speaks appears wise. ajax exeter and achilles under comman-
9. The student finding his notebooks gutted in der henry harwood fought the german
fire cried I am ruined. battleship admiral graf spee in the atlantic
two of the british ships had 6 inch guns
10. He therefore came down and talked to the
and one had 8 inch guns while the enemy
stranger.
ship had six 11 inch guns.
11. When you come next time please bring my
book. (3) emotion is a state of the mind many
ordinary words like anger fear happiness
12. Alas he has drowned sorrow etc describe different kinds of
13. Who is there let me know who will help emotions one can study human emotions

ww you
14. The teacher stood in the class and said
Iwill teach you Milton today.
in several ways for instance one can
group different emotions according to
their characteristics most emotions may

w
15. What a horrible accident it was

.Ea
16. I believe moreover that he will not come
for I know him so well.
17. The following is the list of books I need
be grouped into two major groups those
that produce a feeling of pleasantness in
the individual and others that produce the
feeling of unpleasantness.

syE
18. He came he stayed with me he dined with
me and yet he did not appear to be friendly.
19. Japan the land of the rising sun is highly
(4) Love describes a variety of behaviour like
experience of parent child affection
protective reaction friendship attachment
between men and women or attachment
industrialized.
20. This is Rams house though he does not live
here. ngi to places or things or events in other
words love is an impulse or an instinct

nee
and is not learnt through experience
21. The President said My countrymen let us (5) At one end of the road there was a small
celebrate our Republic Day with all gaiety. market from where our maid servant
22. I have visited many countries England
America Canada Japan and China.
rin
brought us a basketful of mangoes
cashews and of course fish which was the
main diet of the people there at the other

g.n
23. In fact there was nothing for me to do and
so I sat idle. end there was a factory which used not
manual labour but all kinds of machinery
24. My friends however having finished their

e
to roast and pack cashews in air tight tins
work came to visit me in the night.

t
so came an industry in the village.
25. He is a cruel thoughtless and haughty man.
Solution of the Above Passages
Exercise
(1) “You are wiser now than you were then,
(2) Punctuate the following passages, using King Midas !” said the stranger looking
capital letters where necessary— seriously at him. “Your own heart, I per-
(1) You are wiser now than you were then ceive, has not been entirely changed from
king midas said the stranger looking the flesh to gold. Were it so, your case
seriously at him your heart i perceive has would, indeed, be desperate. But you
not been entirely changed from the flesh appear to be still capable of understanding
to gold were it so your case would indeed that the commonest things such as lie
be desperate but you appear to be still within everybody’s grasp are more valu-
capable of understanding that the com- able than the riches which so many
monest things such as lie within every- mortals sigh and struggle for. Tell me
bodys grasp are more valuable than the now, do you sincerely desire to be rid of
riches which so many mortals sigh and this Golden Touch ?”

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PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS | 305

(2) On December 13, 1939, three British (4) Love describes a variety of behaviour
ships—‘Ajax’, ‘Exeter’ and ‘Achilles’— like experience of parent-child affection,
under Commander Henry Harwood fought protective reaction, friendship, attachment
the German battleship ‘Admiral Graf between men and women, or attachment
Spee’ in the Atlantic. Two of the British to places or things or events. In other
ships had 6-inch guns and one had 8-inch
words, love is an impulse or an instinct,
guns, while the enemy ship had six 11-
inch guns. and is not learnt through experience.
(3) Emotion is a state of the mind. Many (5) At one end of the road there was a small
ordinary words like anger, fear, happi- market from where our maid-servant
ness, sorrow, etc., describe different kinds brought us a basketful of mangoes,
of emotions. One can study human cashews and, of course, fish which was
emotions in several ways. For instance, the main diet of the people there. At the

ww one can group different emotions accord-

ing to their characteristics. Most emotions
may be grouped into two major groups—
other end, there was a factory which used
not manual labour, but all kinds of
machinery to roast and pack cashews in

w those that produce a feeling of pleasant-

ness in the individual, and others that

.Ea
produce the feeling of unpleasantness.
air-tight tins. So came an industry in the
village !

syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
e t

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32 Figures of Speech
Figures of Speech Or
“A figure of speech is a departure from the “A Metaphor is a condensed form of Simile in

wwordinary form of expression, or the ordinary

course of ideas, in order to produce a greater
effect.” (Wren)
which comparison between two different objects
is shown without the use of such words as like, as
or so.”

w In other words, Figures of Speech make the

.Ea
use of words typically suggestive and artistic, and
make the style strikingly effective, beautiful and
ornamental. The Figures of Speech are an essen-
In other words, Simile and Metaphor are
Figures of the same category. Metaphor is only a
condensed form of Simile. Metaphor does not
need the use of such comparative words as like,

syE
tial part of the poetic style of writing. For poetry
they are indispensable. They impart a peculiar
brilliance and charm to poetry. The following are
as, s o. Therefore, a metaphor can be expanded
into a Simile, and a Simile can be condensed into
a metaphor. As—
the main Figures of Speech used in English.
1. Simile : ngi 1. Camel is the ship of the desert.
2. Gandhiji was the guiding star of the des-
“In a Simile a comparison is made between
two objects of different kinds which have, how- nee tiny of India.
3. Shivaji was the lion of the Peshwa dyna-
sty.

rin
ever, at least one point in common.”
In this figure two different objects, possessing 4. Life is a tale told by an idiot,
at least one common point between them, are

g.n
Full of sound and fury ……
brought to comparison. Two similar objects are
(Shakespeare)
not compared under this Figure.
5. Her only son is the lamp of her life.
It should also be remembered that the point of
similarity in Simile is expressed by the words like,
so, as. For example :
1. She is as lovely as a rose.
3. Personification :
e
“In Personification inanimate objects and
abstract notions are spoken of as having life and
t
2. Rana Pratap was brave like a lion. intelligence.” (Wren)
3. O my love’s like a red, red rose, Under this Figure, inanimate objects are
That’s newly sprung in June. bestowed with human feelings and sensitivities.
(Ben Jonson) As—
4. Thy soul was like a star, and dwelt apart; 1. There Honour comes a pilgrim grey.
(Gray)
Thou hadst a voice whose sound was like
the sea. (Wordsworth) 2. Death lays his icy hand on kings.
2. Metaphor: 3. A lie has no legs.
“A Metaphor is an implied (or condensed) 4. Opportunity knocks at the door but once.
Simile.” (Wren) 5. Nature bemoaned the death of the bride.

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FIGURES OF SPEECH | 307

4. Hyperbole : 1. His honour rooted in dishonour stood.

“In Hyperbole a statement is made emphatic 2. Thus idly busy rolls their world away.
by over statement.” (Wren) 3. Sweet bitter tears flowed from her eyes.
Under this Figure a statement is exaggerated 4. Aching joys and dizzy raptures filled my
or overstated to an incredible degree. This is done heart.
for the sake of emphasis. As—
5. Let us not dread the kind cruelty of the
1. Rivers of blood flowed on the battlefield. surgeon’s knife.
2. Floods of tears flowed down her cheeks.
3. He can devour mountains of food and 8. Alliteration :
drink rivers of whisky. “Alliteration consists in the repetition of the
4. All the perfumes of Arabia cannot sweeten same sound or syllable at the beginning of two or
this little hand. (Shakespeare) more words.” (Nesfield)

ww5. Onomatopoeia :
“This is the name given to that artifice of
language by which the sound of words is made to
This produces a kind of musical effect. As—
1. Ruin seize thee, ruthless king ! (Gray)
2. A load of learning lumbering in his

w
suggest or echo the sense.”

.Ea
(Nesfield)
Under this Figure, the sound of words is made
to suggest the meaning or sense. As—
1. The snakes are hissing and the bees are
head. (Pope)
3. A reeling road, a rolling road, that ram-
bles round the shire.
(G.K. Chesterton)
buzzing.
syE
2. The murmurous haunt of flies on sum-
mer eves. (Keats)
4. How high his Honour holds his haughty
head !
5. The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew,
3. The beetle wheels his droning flight.
(Gray) ngi The furrow followed free.” (Coleridge)
9. Irony :
4. Cannons to the right of them,
Cannons to the left of them,
Cannons in front of them
nee “Irony is a mode of speech in which the real
meaning is exactly the opposite of that which is

rin
literally conveyed.” (Wren)
Vollied and thundered. (Tennyson) Under this Figure, the real meaning or sense
6. Apostrophe : of a statement is just the opposite of what is
“An Apostrophe is a direct address to the
dead, to the absent or to a personified object or g.n
spoken literally in words. As—
1. Here under leave of Brutus and the rest
idea.” (Wren)
Under this Figure a dead or absent person, or
an abstract idea is addressed to as if physically
present before the speaker. As—
e
( For Brutus is an honourable man :
So are they all, all honourable men. )
Come I to speak in Caesar’s funeral.
(Shakespeare)
t
1. O death ! where is thy sting ?
2. Yet Brutus says he was ambitious,
2. Milton ! thou should’st be living at this
hour. (Wordsworth) And Brutus is an honourable man.
3. O solitude ! where are thy charms ? (Shakespeare)
7. Oxymoron : 10. Pun :
“Oxymoron is a special form of antithesis “This consists in a play on the various mean-
whereby two contradictory qualities are predicted ings of a word, and is seldom used except as a
at once of the same thing.” (Wren) joke.” (Nesfield)
Under this Figure, two opposite or contra- Under this Figure, humour is sought to be
dictory qualities of the same thing are stated at the produced by play on different meanings of a word.
same time. As— As—

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308 | L.W.C.E.

1. Is life worth living ? That depends upon Under this Figure, two opposite or contra-
the liver. dictory ideas are expressed in the same sentence.
2. An ambassador is a man who lies abroad This is meant to give emphasis. As—
for the good of his country. 1. To err is human, to forgive divine.
11. Metonymy : 2. Man proposes, God disposes.
3. God made the country, man made the
“In Metonymy an object is designated by the
town.
name of something which is generally associated
with it.” (Wren) 4. Many are called, but few are chosen.
‘Metonymy’ is a Greek word made of two 14. Transferred Epithet :
words—Meta + Onoma. ‘Meta’ means ‘after’, “In this figure an epithet is transferred from
and ‘Onoma’ means ‘name’. Under this Figure, a its proper word to another that is closely
thing is not called by its own name, but by some

wwquality or attribute associated with it. For instance,

‘sword’ may be used for the ‘soldier’, or ‘pen’
for the ‘writer’. As—
associated with it in the sentence.” (Wren)
Under this Figure, an adjective or an epithet is
transferred and applied to an associated object in

w 1. The pen (author) is mightier than the

.Ea
sword (the soldier).
2. Sceptre and crown (i.e. kings).
Must tumble down ;
place of the object proper. As—
1. He passed a sleepless night.
2. The ploughman homeward plods his weary
way. (Gray)

syE
And in the dust be equal made
With the poor crooked scythe and spade.
3. He received a mortal wound.
4. I cannot live on dishonourable bread.
Exercise

ngi
(i.e. peasants).
3. The bar (lawyers) and the bench (judges) Name the Figures of Speech used in the
are complementary to each other. following sentences :
4. He won the laurels (i.e. reward).
5. Please address the chair (i.e. chairman). nee 1. Life is a dream.
2. Revenge is a kind of wild justice.
12. Synecdoche :
“In Synecdoche a part is used to designate the
trees.
rin
3. The righteous shall flourish as the palm

g.n
4. Ye are the salt of the earth.
whole or the whole to designate a part.” (Wren)
5. Suspicions among thoughts are like bats
In other words, a part is used for the whole,
among birds; they fly best by night.
and the whole is used for the part. As—
1. Give us this day our daily bread (i.e.
food).
2. I have many mouths (i.e. persons) to feed.
steps I climb.
e
6. O World ! O Life ! O Time ! On whose last

7. O Wind ! If winter comes, can spring be far

behind ?
t
3. England (i.e. the team of England) have
won. 8. The press is the fourth estate.
4. A fleet of twenty sails (i.e. ships) passed 9. Words are like leaves; and where they most
by our coast. abound,
5. The best brains (i.e. scholars) have Much fruit of sense beneath is rarely found.
assembled here. 10. Life is as tedious as a twice-told tale.
13. Antithesis : 11. Why, man, if the river were dry, I am able
to fill it with tears.
“In Antithesis a striking opposition or con-
trast of words or sentiments is made in the same 12. I loved Ophelia; forty thousand brothers
sentence. It is employed to secure emphasis.” Could not with all their quantity of love
(Wren) Make up the sum.

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FIGURES OF SPEECH | 309

13. If speech is silver, silence is gold. (4) Metaphor;

14. Truth is ever on the scaffold (5) Simile;
Wrong is ever on the throne, (6) Apostrophe;
15. Give every man thy ear, (7) Apostrophe;
But few thy tongue. (8) Metonymy;
16. O death ! where is thy sting ? (9) Simile;
17. O judgment ! thou art fled to brutish beasts. (10) Simile;
18. The House is adjourned. (11) Hyperbole;
19. Youth is full of pleasure, (12) Hyperbole;
Age is full of care. (13) Antithesis;
20. Sweet art the uses of adversity. (14) Antithesis;

ww 21. The cup that cheers but not inebriates.

22. He is a cruelly kind guardian.
(15)
(16)
Antithesis (and also Metonymy);
Apostrophe;

w
23. Our loss is their gain.

.Ea
24. He held his haughty head high.
25. With short shrill shrieks the bat flits by.
26. We are loyal to the crown.
(17)
(18)
(19)
(20)
Apostrophe;
Metonymy;
Antithesis;
Oxymoron;

syE
27. Grief sighed and Honour shed tears.
28. Lady, we are your guests tonight.
(21)
(22)
Metonymy;
Oxymoron;
29. Run, run, you are brave indeed.
30. Soft, soft, he lies in the church.
ngi (23)
(24)
Antithesis;
Alliteration;
Answers
nee
(25) Alliteration;
(1) Metaphor ; (26) Metonymy;
(2) Metaphor; (27) Personification;
(3) Simile; (28)
rin
Irony; (29) Irony; (30) Pun.

g.n
e t

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33 Foreign Words and Phrases

Some foreign words, phrases and expressions 9. Alumni—(old students of a college or Uni-
borrowed from Greek, Latin, French, German and versity)

ww
other European Languages, have come to be ● The annual dinner of the alumni of our
popularly used in English. Some of them have University is held in March every year.
become quite current in the English Language.
They are more particularly used in the fields of 10. Ante meridiem—(a. m.; before noon)

w
Law, Medicine and Science. Some of the technical

.Ea
words and phrases have become indispensable.
Otherwise too, their use exhibits the writer’s or
speaker’s wide knowledge, scholarship and
● The train arrives at 7 a. m. (ante meri-
diem)
11. A posteriori—(inductive logic, drawing
inference from effect to cause)

syE
advanced general awakening. These foreign words
and expressions also add to the beauty, depth and
variety of the style. Therefore, students would do
● I have come to a posteriori conclusion
that he is guilty.
12. A priori—(deductive logic, arguing from

ngi
well to understand these foreign expressions and
use them correctly and carefully. cause to effect)
1. Ab initio—(From the very beginning) ● He is trying to come to a priori conclu-
● All the proceedings were wrong ab initio.
2. Ad hoc—(specially for some purpose, for the
time being)
nee sion in a wrong way.
13. Bean geste—(generosity, magnanimity)
● World peace depends upon bean geste on
● An ad hoc committee has been constitu-
ted to enquire into this matter. rin
the part of the great powers of the world.
14. Bonafide—(in good faith, genuine character)
3. Ad interim—(in the mean time)
● You will soon be promoted but you can g.n
● He is a bonafide student of this college.
15. Bourgeoisie—(middle class people)
hold this office ad interim.
4. Ad infinitum—(to infinity)
● You can go on dividing ten by three ad
infinitum.
social upheavals.
16. Cafe—(Coffee-house)
e
● The bourgeoisie class suffers most in all

● This is the most expensive cafe in the

t
5. Ad libitum—(at liberty, at pleasure)
● We shall sit after dinner and talk about town.
our experiences at libitum. 17. Carte blanche—(full freedom of action)
6. Ad nauseam—(to a disgusting point) ● My son has all powers carte blanche in
● He dragged on his speech at nauseam. so far as our business is concerned.
7. Alma mater—(mother institution, one’s own 18. Chauffeur—(Car-driver)
college or University) ● Our chauffeur knows all the roads and
● I am proud of my alma mater. markets of Bombay.
8. Alter ego—(bosom friend, one’s second self) 19. Cortege—(train of attendants, procession)
● I have absolute faith in him. He is my ● The king always moves out with a splen-
alter ego. did cortege following him.

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FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES | 311

20. Crescendo—(slowly rising upwards) 34. Functus officio—(out of office, superannua-

● They raised slogans in a crescendo. ted)
21. De facto—(in fact, really speaking) ● My father is functus officio Chairman of
this factory.
● The General Manager is the de facto
Managing Director of the Mills. 35. Genre—(kind)
22. Dei Gratia—(by God’s grace) ● An essay is a distinct genre of prose
literature.
● He was dei gratia saved from drowning.
36. Ibid—(in the same book or chapter)
23. Denouement—(catastrophe, final solution or
ending of a play or a story) ● Write Ibid if you quote from the same
book again.
● The denouement of this story is very
striking. 37. Id est (i.e.)—(that is to say)

ww24. De profundis—(cry from the depth of sorrow

in the heart)
● The last soliloquy of Dr. Faustus is de
● He is an itinerant singer, i.e., he goes sing-
ing from place to place.
38. Il penseroso—(a pensive or melancholy per-

w profundis of his heart.

.Ea
25. Divide at impera—(divide and rule)
● The Britishers adopted the policy of
son)
● A lonely brooding person tends to become
il penseroso.
39. In extenso—(at full length)

syE
divide at impera during their rule in
India. ● Explain all the allusions in extenso.
26. Dramatis personae—(list of dramatic 40. Infra dig—(below one’s dignity)

ngi
characters in a play) ● A patriot would find it infra dig to beg
● Every Shakespearean play has dramatis for mercy.
personae at the beginning of the play. 41. In memoriam—(in the memory of)
27. En bloc—(in a group, all in a body)
● The workers came out en bloc shouting nee ● The Taj was built in memoriam of Queen
Mumtajmahal.

rin
slogans. 42. Inter alia—(among other things)
28. En masse—(in a large number, all together) ● In awarding scholarships we must consi-
● They have gone on leave en masse.
29. El dorado—(a golden city) student.
g.n
der inter alia the previous record of each

43. Inter se—(between two parties, among them-

● India was considered el dorado for centu-
ries.
30. En route—(on the way)
● We shall halt at Bombay en route to
selves)
e
● We cannot ignore the inter se agreement
between the two parties. t
44. In toto—(completely)
Poona.
● I agree with you in toto.
31. Ex gratia—(as a mark of grace or mercy)
● An ex gratia payment was made to all 45. Ipso facto—(by that fact itself)
those who were injured in the accident. ● This agreement would ipso facto cancel
32. Ex officio—(by virtue of office) the earlier one.
● The Governor is ex officio Chancellor of 46. Juro divino—(by divine right or law)
the University. ● The medieval kings ruled juro divino.
33. Ex parte—(one-sided) 47. Jus divinum—(Divine Law)
● An ex parte judgment was announced by ● The Bible is the compendium of all jus
the court. divinum.

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312 | L.W.C.E.

48. Laissez-faire—(Government policy of free 64. Proletarian—(belonging to the lowest social

trade) order)
● Laissez-faire may lead to unhealthy ● In a democratic country the proletarian
competition. is as important as the aristocrat.
49. Lingua franca—(national language) 65. Quo jure—(on what charge)
● We must take pride in our lingua franca. ● Quo jure have you suspended him ?
50. Literati—(learned men, scholars) 66. Savoir faire—(talent to see the right and just
at once)
● Milton could be appreciated only by the
● He has remarkable savoir faire for his
literati.
age.
51. Literateur—(literary men)
67. Status quo—(the same position)
● Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru was not only a ● The court has ordered that status quo be

ww statesman but also a literateur.

52. Mademoiselle—(an unmarried girl, a maiden)
● Joan of Arc was a graceful mademoiselle.
maintained.
68. Sine die—(indefinitely)

w
● The University has been closed sine die.
53. Mala fide—(in bad faith, not good) 69. Sub judice—(under consideration of the

.Ea
● The intentions of the opposite party were
mala fide.
court)
● We can’t take any action, for the matter is
54. Mon cher—(My dear)

syE
● Mon cher son, be sincere to your duty.
55. Monsieur—(Mr.)
sub judice.
70. Summum bonum—(highest good)
● Contentment is the summum bonum of
● Monsieur Louis was a historian.
56. Nonpareil—(Unparalleled, incomparable) ngi life.
71. Ultima Thule—(farthest limit, last limit)
● Treasure hunt was the ultima Thule of
● Miranda was nonpareil in beauty.
57. Nota bene—(N. B., note well) nee their quest.
72. Ultra vires—(against law, against authority)
● Nota bene (N.B.) : All questions are com-
pulsory.
rin
● The orders of the Vice-Chancellor have
been declared ultra vires by the High
Court.

g.n
58. Par excellence—(of high excellence, unique)
● His performance was par excellence. 73. Versus—(against)
● The case is between the State Government
59. Parole—(released on leave on one’s own
word, specially applied to prisoners)
● The convict has been left on parole.
60. Post meridiem—(p. m., after noon)
● We have our tea at 4 p. m.
74. Via media—(middle course)
e
versus the Central Government.

● There is no via media between hard

labour and success. t
75. Vice versa—(in opposite ways, in reverse
61. Post mortem—(medical examination of the order)
dead body)
● Change these sentences from active to
● The post mortem report reveals that the passive and vice versa.
deceased had been poisoned.
76. Vox populi vox dei—(Voice of the people is
62. Prima facie—(on the first impression, obvi- the voice of God)
ously) ● Never go against public opinion, for vox
● Prima facie there is no case against him. populi vox dei.
63. Pro forma—(in formal way) 77. Viva voce—(oral test)
● He has invited us only pro forma, for we ● The viva voce test is going to be held
have no personal relations. tomorrow.

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The Courtesy Words :

34
“Please”
Please and “Thank
“Please” You
“Thank You”
ww The most popular courtesy words used in
everyday life in the English Language are ‘Please’
2. Please leave me alone.
3. Please bring me a glass of water.

w
and ‘Thank You’. Their proper use would show
the writer’s or speaker’s sense of courtesy,

.Ea
gratitude, culture and refinement. They add to the
pleasure and sweetness of life. They make social
4. Please call the peon.
Rule 3—If the Request is in Interrogative form,
‘Please’ is used in the middle of the
sentence. As—

syE
life easy and smooth.
1. Will you please close the door ?
The words of A.G. Gardiner are worth quot-
2. Will you please stop talking ?
ing in this connection : ‘Please’ and ‘Thank You’

ngi
are the small change with which we pay our way 3. Are you please willing to help me ?
as social beings. They are the little courtesies by 4. Will you please give me your telephone
which we keep the machine of life oiled and number ?
running smooth.”
We give below the rules relating to their
correct use in life.
nee
Rule 4—If a reply is to be given to an Enquiry, a
Request or a Suggestion, and if the reply

rin
is Affirmative, we use Please ; but if the
Use of ‘Please’ reply is Negative, we should not use
Please. For a Negative reply we say ‘No,

g.n
Rule 1—‘Please’ is used at the end of a sentence
of request or prayer. As— thanks’, and for the Affirmative reply we
say ‘yes, please.’
1. Help me, please.
2. Would you lend me your pen for a
minute, please.
3. Come here, please.
4. Have your seat, please.
e
It should also be remembered that in
Affirmative reply, we should say ‘Yes,
please’, not ‘Please, yes.’ Similarly in
Negative reply, we should say ‘No, t
thanks’, not ‘Thanks, no.’ As—
In all these sentences ‘Please’ has been
1. Are you going to dine with me tomor-
used at the end of the sentence. This is
the correct way. It is wrong to begin a row?
sentence with ‘Please’. It is wrong to say Yes, please.
“Please help me”, or “Please have your 2. Will you have another cup of tea ?
seat.” Yes, please. (or, No, thanks / thank you.)
Rule 2—If the Request is in the form of an 3. Will your brother need my help ?
Imperative sentence (suggesting order),
‘Please’ is used at the beginning of the Yes, please. (No, thank you.)
sentence. As— 4. Are you staying with me ?
1. Please close the door. Yes, please. (or, No, thanks / thank you.)

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314 | L.W.C.E.

Use of ‘Thanks’ 5. How is your father now ? Much better,

………
Rule 1—“Thanks”, “Thank you”, or “Thank
you very much” are used to express 6. ……… pay my respects to your father.
one’s obligation for a favour done to 7. Will you ……… send me the particulars of
oneself. These expressions are also used your son ?
to express obligation when one’s re- 8. We can do without your help ………
quest, proposal, or suggestion is accep-
9. ……… for the honour you have given me.
ted by some person. As—
10. Put the book on the table ………
1. You helped me a lot. Thank you very
much. Hints— (1) please; (2) Please; (3) Thanks /
Thank you; (4) please; (5) thank you;
2. You gave me a very timely advice. Thank
(6) Please; (7) please; (8) Thank you;
you.
(9) Thanks; (10) please.

ww 3. Thanks for giving me your pen.

4. Will you have another cup of tea ?
Yes, thank you.
Exercise
Reply the following questions in the Affirma-

w 5. I thank you for accepting my request.

.Ea
6. Thanks for your suggestion.
Rule 2—Whether your reply to a request, pro-
tive o r the Negative, as indicated, using “Yes”
or “No”, with either “please” or “thank you”—
1. Are you quite well now ?
(Affirmative reply)

syE
posal, or suggestion is Affirmative or
Negative, ‘Thanks’ or ‘Thank you’ are
used in both cases. For the Affirmative
2. Do you need any other book ?
(Negative reply)

ngi
reply we should say ‘Yes, thank you’, 3. Does your uncle need my advice ?
and for the Negative ‘No, thank you.’ (Affirmative reply)
We should never say or write ‘Thank
4. Is your father still ill ? (Negative reply)
you, yes’ or ‘Thank you, no.’
Rule 3—If one does some favour to you, or does
some little act for you even without your nee 5. Shall I bring tea for you ?
(Affirmative reply)
request, you must say ‘Thanks’ or
‘Thank you’. For example—
rin
6. Are you quite comfortable here ?
(Affirmative reply)
1. If your pen is left on the table, and your
peon brings it to you, you must say
‘Thanks’ or ‘Thank you’.
from the Post-Office ?
g.n
7. Would you like me to bring your letters

2. If a paper slips down from your table, and

someone talking to you puts it back, you
must at once say ‘Thanks’ or ‘Thank
you’.
e(Affirmative reply)
8. Shall I bring more milk for you ?

9. Would you need my help now ?

(Negative reply)
t
Exercise (Negative reply)
Fill in the blanks in the following sentences 10. Do you still need a house ?
with either “Please” or “Thank you” : (Negative reply)
1. Will you switch off the light ……… ? Hints—(1) Yes, thank you / thanks; (2) No, thank
2. ……… keep off the grass. you; (3) Yes, please; (4) No, thanks; (5)
Yes, thank you; (6) Yes, thank you; (7)
3. ……… for helping me so timely. Yes, thank you; (8) No, thank you ; (9)
4. Could you show me the way ……… ? No, thank you; (10) No, thanks.

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35 Greetings and Salutation

Greetings and Salutations Farewell—‘Farewell’, in the same way, is no
According to English culture Greetings and formal form of salutation. However, it is usually

wwSalutations are offered in different ways at used informally on parting.

different hours of the day and night. There is no Cheerio or so long—These are the slang
such difference in the modes of salutation in forms of Goodbye. These are used amongst very

w
Indian culture. But in English culture there are intimate and informal friends on parting.
different ways of offering Greetings and Saluta- Hullo / Hello / Hallo—These expressions are

.Ea
tions in the morning, noon, evening, and night.
We discuss them in detail below—
used amongst very inti-mate friends and collea-
gues on meeting. They should not be used in
greeting one’s seniors or elderly people, or less

syE
Good Morning—We say Good Morning in
the morning upto noon both on meeting or parting. intimate persons.
Good Afternoon— Good Afternoon is They are also used to draw the attention of
someone, or to express surprise or curiosity. As—

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offered both on meeting or parting from mid–day
to a little before evening. Hallo, what are you doing there ?
Good Evening—Good Evening is offered Hello, what is that !
from evening to midnight only on meeting, not on
parting. (On parting we should say Good Night.)
Good Night—Good Night is offered on the
nee Salutations in Letters
Salutation is a very important part of any
following four occasions—
(a) On retiring to bed for the night. rin
letter, whether the letter is Personal, Official or a
Business letter. Different kinds of Salutations are
(b) On parting from someone in the evening.
(c) On parting from colleagues or work–
in detail below :
g.n
used in different kinds of letters. We discuss them

e
mates, at the end of the day’s work, whe- (1) In personal letters, for members of the
ther the hour of parting is late afternoon
or early evening.
(d) As a greeting, in the evening, to someone
we casually meet in the street but do not
family, we write—My Dear Father, M y D ear
Mother, M y Dear Brother / Sister / Son /
Daughter, etc. The expression My dear suggests
very deep intimacy, love and affection. Against it,
Dear (without My) suggests a little less closeness
t
stop to speak to.
Good bye—Good bye is used between and affection. Therefore we can use either M y
family–members, friends and personal visitors on dear or only Dear to other relations according to
parting from each other, e.g. as one leaves home our intimacy with them. For example, we can
to go to work, on parting from close friends or write either My dear uncle or Dear uncle, depen-
relations after a visit, on seeing off friends and ding upon our closeness and affection for the
relations going on a journey, etc. uncle concerned.
Good Day—‘Good Day’, really speaking, is (2) The mode of Salutation to our friends and
no proper form of salutation. However, it has associates depends upon the level of our intimacy
come to be used informally on parting from with them. Broadly speaking, there can be the
friends at any hour in day time. following three categories :

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316 | L.W.C.E.

(a) My dear Mohan—For very intimate (3) For persons distantly related, or only
friends. officially concerned we should write Dear Sir (for
(b) Dear Mohan—For slightly less intimate men) and Dear Madam (for women).
than under (a) friends. (4) Teachers and officers should be addressed
(c) Dear Mr. Mohan—For very little inti- as Sir or Dear Sir.
mate friends. (5) In pure English culture expressions like
It is not proper to show too much intimacy Honoured Sir or Respected Sir are not correct
with persons senior or superior to you. Therefore addresses. They are only Indianisms that should
they should always be addressed as Dear Mr / be avoided. Respected Father or Respected
Shri. Mother are also Indianisms.

ww
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36 Dates and Time

There is a lot of confusion regarding the Let us now consider how to speak out these
writing and speaking of Dates, Years, and Time dates—

wwin English. We give below the correct method of

writing and telling them.
Dates—Dates can be written in the following
Written Spoken
25 October the twenty-fifth of October
October 25 October twenty-five or twenty-fifth

w
four ways :
(1) 25 October,
(2) October 25,
.Ea
October 25th October the twenty-fifth
25. 10. 93 Twenty-five, ten, ninety-three.
Years—There is no difference in the method

syE
(3) October 25th, of writing the years, but there is a difference in
speaking them out. In this connection the follow-
(4) 25. 10. 93 . ing points should be kept in mind—
(a) All these four methods are correct, but pre-

ngi
(1) The whole centuries upto 1900 should be read/
ference should be given to the First method. spoken as follows :
(b) For dates below ten (i.e., 1 to 9) the second 1600 = Sixteen hundred (not one thousand
method should be avoided as far as possible.
(c) The third method is good for all dates, but it nee six hundred)
1700 = Seventeen hundred (not one thou-
sand seven hundred)
should be given second preference after the
First method.
rin
Similarly, Eighteen hundred, Nineteen hun-
dred, etc.
(d) There can be much confusion in the use
of the Fourth method, therefore it should not
be used very frequently. There is a great
thousands. As— g.n
(2) But years 2000 or above should be spoken in

difference in the English system and the

American system in the use of the Fourth
method. In the English system the three
numerical figures serially stand for day–
e
2000 = Two thousand (not twenty hundred)
2500 = Two thousand five hundred (not
twenty-five hundred)
(3) If figures from 1 to 9 are to be added after
t
month–year, and in the American system for hundreds, the word hundred must be read /
month–day–year. This difference in the spoken. As—
English and American systems can lead to 1705 = Seventeen hundred and five (not
serious error in the interpretation of the date, seventeen five)
month, and year. For example, 8. 10. 1995 in 1809 = Eighteen hundred and nine (not
the English system would mean 8 October, eighteen nine)
1995, but in the American system it would 1903 = Nineteen hundred and three (not
mean 10 August, 1995. Thus the same date nineteen three)
would have two connotations. This kind of (4) If figures from 10 and above are to be added
confusion should be avoided by avoiding the after hundreds, the word hundred is not
fourth method of writing the dates. read / spoken

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318 | L.W.C.E.

1735 = Seventeen thirty-five (not seventeen (3) Minutes up to thirty are referred to as
hundred thirty-five) ‘past that hour’, and minutes thirty
1853 = Eighteen fifty-three (not eighteen onwards are referred to as ‘to the next
hundred fifty-three) hour’.
1914 = Nineteen fourteen (not nineteen Thus :
hundred and fourteen) 2·15 = Quarter past two
Time—Time is written/spoken in two ways : 3·30 = Half past three
(1) By figures, as—
3·45 = Quarter to four (next hour)
8.35; 9.25; 11.40
(4) With complete hour we use O’clock ; but
This method is popularly used in T i m e–
if the reference is to hours and minutes,
tables and official notices. In this method,
we do not use O’clock. For example, 9
the numerical figure before the Full–stop
O’clock, 4 O’clock, five O’clock, ten

ww
denotes Hours, and the figure after the Full–
O’clock, etc. are correct. But 4.25 O’clock
Stop denotes Minutes. They are read/spoken
or three twenty O’clock are wrong.
as—Eight thirty–five ; Nine twenty–five ;
Eleven forty, etc. (5) The period from 12 O’clock at mid–night

w
(2) In conversational form :

.Ea
(1) In conversational form words past and to
are popularly used. ‘Past’ means ‘so
many minutes after a certain hour’, and
to 12 O’clock at noon is called ‘a.m.’,
while the period from 12 O’clock at noon
to 12 O’clock at mid–night is called ‘p.m.’
In conversation, however, a.m. and p.m.

syE
‘to’ means ‘so many minutes before the
next hour’. In both these expressions
minutes are placed before Past or to, and
are not often used. In their place we often
use morning, noon, after noon, evening,
night, etc. For example, we say ten

ngi
hour after them. Further, in this method O’clock in the morning, 4·30 in the after
the minutes up to thirty are expressed in noon, six thirty (or half past six) in the
relation to the preceding hour (as so evening, ten forty at night, etc. Twelve at
many minutes p a s t that hour), and
minutes thirty onwards are expressed in
relation to the next hour (as so many nee midnight is called 12 O’clock at night,
and twelve O’clock in the day is called 12
at noon.
minutes to that hour, i.e. short of the next
hour). Thus ‘Twelve past one’ means
rin
Keeping all the above–noted points in mind,
we give below a Table showing : How to write

g.n
‘twelve minutes over one O’clock’. In the Time in figures, How to read the Time–figures,
same way, ‘fourteen minutes past eleven’ and how to speak them in conversation :
means ‘fourteen minutes over eleven
Time in Conversational
O’clock’. Against it, ‘seven minutes to
three’ means ‘seven minutes short of three
O’clock.’ Also, if before ‘past’ or ‘to’
five, ten, twenty, or twenty–five minutes
are to be used, the word ‘minute’ remains
figures
10·00
11·05
How to read

Ten O’clock
Eleven five
e Form
Ten O’clock
Five minutes past t
eleven
silent or understood ( i.e. it is not
spoken), but with other numbers the word 11·15 Eleven fifteen Quarter past eleven
‘minute’ is read or spoken out. Thus, we 12·30 Twelve thirty Half past twelve
shall say ‘ten past five’ or ‘ten to five’, 2·20 Two twenty Twenty past two
but ‘twelve minutes past five’ or ‘twelve
5·45 Five forty-five Quarter to six
minutes to five’.
(2) ‘Fifteen minutes past’ is called ‘Quarter 10·58 Ten fifty-eight Two minutes to
past’ and ‘Fifteen minutes to’ is called eleven
‘Quarter to’. In the same way, ‘thirty 11·45 Eleven forty-five Quarter to twelve
minutes past’ is called ‘Half past’, and 12·00 Twelve O’clock Twelve O’clock
‘Forty–five minutes to’ is called ‘Quarter (at noon / at night
to’.

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DATES AND TIME | 319

Exercise 1400, 1700, 1808, 1907, 1914, 1939, 2005,

1. How will you read aloud the following 20025
dates ? 3. How will you express in conversation the
August 15, January 5, 12 October, 20 Novem- following points of time ?
ber, March 5th, April 2nd, June 23, July 1,
December 25th. 8·15; 9·05; 11·30; 11·45; 2·30; 4·28; 5·55;
8·0; 10·0; 12·0; 8·30 a. m.; 4·05 p. m.; 12·00
2. How will you read aloud the following
years ? day, 12·00 night; 6 p. m.; 9·30 p. m.

ww
w .Ea
syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
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37 Comprehension
Comprehension is a very important exercise be derived from the central Idea of the Passage.
to acquire proficiency in any language. Compre- Also remember that you can often get some hint
hension means ‘to understand fully’. Under com- about the title from the First or the Last sentence

wwprehension an unseen passage in Prose or Poetry is

given, and certain questions based on the given
passage are asked. The answers to these questions
of the passage.
Also, some words, phrases and expressions in
the passage are underlined or written in Italics and

w
would reveal how far the student has been able to
understand or comprehend the given passage. A

.Ea
question on comprehension is asked in every
examination. Therefore every student must have a
good practice in comprehension.
you are asked to give their meanings. No student
would know the meanings of all such words and
phrases. But you should not be afraid of such
questions. If you have understood the central idea

syE
of the passage, you can easily explain the under-
No rules can indeed be framed for compre- lined words and phrases by common sense
hension, but certain suggestions can of course be keeping the central idea and the context in mind.
given for the same. First, the given passage should The meanings of the underlined portions should
slowly and carefully be read over at least three
times. Thereafter the central idea of the passage
should be marked out. If you read over the ngi be given in your own simple language.
We are giving below 15 passages in Prose and

nee
Poetry for practice in comprehension. Some of
passage once again, keeping the central idea in these Passages have been fully solved, and others
mind, you would easily be able to guess the have been left for the student to solve. The
correct meanings of most of the difficult words

rin
passages left for the student have been provided
and expressions. After that the given questions with their central ideas and meanings of some
should be carefully studied, comprehended and difficult words and phrases. It is hoped the student
answered.
While answering the questions on the given
passage, it must be kept in mind that the answers g.n
should be able to attempt the comprehension of
such passages without much difficulty with these
Hints given under each passage.
must be derived from the passage itself. No
answer should be there outside the meaning and
thought of the passage. You should not add your
own thought, view or opinion in answering any of
the following passages :
1. (Solved)
e
Answer the questions given under each of

t
the questions. You do not have the right of expres- Never was a time when there was more need
sing your own agreement or disagreement with the for hard thinking than in the present hour. We see
thought of the passage. It should also be remem- on all sides a seething mass of turbulent life. We
bered that your answers must be in full sentences are faced with a situation produced, if we can
—not merely in phrases, expressions, or ‘yes’ or imagine it, by a combination of varied move-
‘No’. ments which the European nations passed through
Sometimes you are required to give the during the last few centuries. The intellectual
Summary or Central Idea of the passage. The renaissance, the industrial revolution, the political
Summary or Central Idea should be about one– struggle for freedom and democracy, and the
third of the given passage. religious reformation, which the Western nations
If you are required to suggest a suitable Title faced individually and at different periods, India
to the given Passage, remember that the title must has to meet simultaneously, each magnified on

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COMPREHENSION | 321

account of the large area and population Ans. 5.

concerned. While great changes are taking place Side — Noun—Come to my right side.
in every walk of life, political and industrial,
cultural and social, there is a good deal of loose Verb—He will side with you.
and muddled thinking. The country seems to be Face — Noun—She came with a smil-
marching forth into the unknown. ing face.
Q. 1. Give a suitable title to the above passage. Verb—We have to face many
Q. 2. Give the central idea of the above pass- problems.
age.
Struggle — Noun—The struggle is very
Q. 3. Why is there need for hard work in hard.
India today ?
Q. 4. Explain the words and phrases in bold Verb—He has to struggle hard
for some time more.

ww
letters in your own words.
Q. 5. Use the following words both as nouns Change — Noun—There is no change in
and verbs : my programme.

w
side; face; struggle; change; place. Verb—You will have to change
Answers your programme.

.Ea
Ans. 1. A suitable title to the above passage
would be : “A Time for Work.”
Place — Noun—The place is neat and
clean.

syE
Ans. 2. Dr. Radhakrishnan says that there is a
great need for hard work and constructive thinking
in India today. We have to solve a large variety of
Verb— Place the chair in the
room.

political, economic and social problems all at the

same time. The problems we face today have
become unusually enormous on account of India’s ngi 2. (Solved)
Youth is the best gift of the gods, says an old
vast area and huge population. The solution of
these problems demands hard labour on the part of
each one of us. nee
“Upanishad”. Let us rejoice in it while we have
it. It is the great formative period of our life,
brief but powerful. We are then able to face the

rin
world with feelings pure and with ambitions
Ans. 3. India is passing through a phase of
unworldly. The bounds of our friendship, sym-
great many changes today. She has to solve a large
pathy and fellow-feeling are not then set. We can

g.n
variety of national problems. She has also to com-
push them as widely as we like until they encom-
pete with Western countries which are advancing
pass all that is worth knowing amongst our
fast. Hence there is a need for hard work in India
fellows. It is good to find a friend in a student
today.
Ans. 4. Seething mass of turbulent life—
ever increasing and fast changing flux of life.
Combination of varied movements—
e
born in a community widely removed from our
own. To know him and through him to understand
the feelings, hopes and even the prejudices that
make him so dissimilar to us, is often a great
t
combined force of many and varied changes and experience. In acquiring it we discover the human
movements. elements lying underneath all that on casual
Intellectual renaissance—awakening of new examination seemed so different and unintelli-
thoughts, concepts and ideologies. gible. Through the mists of religious controversies
Magnified ………Concerned—the problems and political antipathies, we discover points of
become enormous on account of the vast area and contact and fellowship, untouched by the infec-
huge population of the country. tion of religious or social prejudices so powerful
Loose and muddled thinking—inconsistent at a later age. Where religion divides, the common
and confused thinking and planning. possession of youth and its generous instincts may
unite, with its miraculous power of rooting itself
Marching forth into the unknown—India deep in the affections of our companions.
advancing towards an unknown and uncertain
future. —Dr. M. R. Jayakar.

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322 | L.W.C.E.

Q. 1. Give a suitable title to the above passage. time, the beginning of a new journey which will
Q. 2. Give the central idea of the above test the toughness of your mental and moral
fibre, the efficiency of your university training.
passage.
The new experiences, the new problems and the
Q. 3. Why is youth called the golden period of new situation will demand from you the exercise
one’s life ? of qualities for whose fostering the university
Q. 4. Explain the words and phrases i n bold functions. The future will give the powers and
letters in the above passage. responsibilities to you. The historic role of large
Q. 5. Make verbs from the following words : educated classes, in the building up of a new India
cannot be over-estimated. If a leader is one who
Sympathy; human; infection; deep;
knows where he is going, who has a firm grasp of
pure.
the insights and intuitions which have made our
Answers civilization so enduring, and who can harness

ww Ans. 1. The proper title to the passage would

be : “Glory of Youth.”
Ans. 2. Dr. Jayakar says that youth is the
them to every aspect of life, it is only the
universities that can train men for leadership. The
universities are more than institutions for higher
learning and professional training; they are called

w
formative period in one’s life. A man remains

.Ea
untouched by social, religious and political biases
and prejudices during the period of youth. He can
establish better contacts with the people of other
upon to educate the younger generation, form its
character and create a new type of intellectual
leader. —Dr. Radhakrishnan.
Q. 1. Give a suitable title to the above passage.

syE
countries and nationalities. Thus while age
divides, youth unites. Youth promates goodwill, Q. 2. Give the central idea of the above
sympathy and cooperation. passage
Q. 3. What is the role of young students in the

ngi
Ans. 3. Youth is the formative period of one’s
life. It is the period of hopes, enthusiasm and national life ?
energy. One’s career is formed in youth. Therefore Q. 4. Explain the words and phrases i n bold
it is called the golden period.
Ans. 4. Formative period …… life—the
period in which one’s character and career are nee letters in the above passage.
Q. 5. Use the following words both a s nouns
and verbs :
formed.
Are not yet set—are not yet formed or fixed.
rin
End; sense; demand; exercise; grasp;
term; harness.
They encompass all—they include all.
Casual examination—a passing scrutiny or
Answers
g.n
Ans. 1. A suitable title to the above passage
review.
Untouched b y……prejudices—not tainted
or coloured by any kind of prejudice, dislike or ill-
will.
e
would be : “Role of Universities.”
Ans. 2. Dr. Radhakrishnan says that univer-
sities play a very vital role in the life of the
individual and national life. Universities supply a t
Ans. 5. Formation of verbs— regular stream of educated and responsible gene-
Sympathy — sympathise ration of young men. The future of India has to be
shaped by such young men. Our universities must
Human — humanise rise and come up to meet this national demand.
Infection — infect Ans. 3. As soon as a student comes out of the
Deep — deepen university he is called upon to play his role in the
Pure — purify national life. He has to play the role of a highly
enlightened, responsible and conscientious citizen.
3. (Solved) Young students must rise to meet the call of the
Graduation is only a milestone in life’s nation.
journey. It does not mark the end of the education Ans. 4. Only a milestone—only one stage in
road. In a very real sense, it is the commencement the journey of life.

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COMPREHENSION | 323

Commencement time : beginning. down the smaller. For we know enough of science
Toughness ……fibre : intellectual and moral to realize that there is no such thing as perfect rest
power. or repose in this visible universe of ours. If,
therefore, material progress does not clash with
For whose fostering : for whose growth. moral progress, it must necessarily advance the
Historic role : important duty. latter. (Mahatma Gandhi)
Insights and intuitions : deep understanding and Q. 1. Give a suitable title to the above passage.
moral spirit. Q. 2. Write the summary of the above passage
Who can harness : who can control. in about one-third of its length.
Ans. 5. Q. 3. What is the relationship between real and
End : Noun—This is the end of the economic progress ?
problem. Q. 4. Explain the words and phrases in bold

ww Sense
Verb—The problem ends here.
: Noun—There is no sense in
what you say.
letters in the above passage.
Answers
Ans. 1. Title : “Economic Vs. Real P r o-

w Verb—I sense a foul play.

.Ea
Demand : Noun—The demand of food-
grains is rising.
Verb—I demand no help from
gress”.
Ans. 2. Gandhiji refers to the relationship
between economic progres and real progress.
Economic progress means material advancement.
you.
syE
Exercise : Noun—This is a difficult exer-
cise.
Real progress is moral and spiritual progress.
These two are opposed to each other. This
problem has a wider application and must be
Verb—He should exercise all
his powers. ngi studied in its wider perspectives.
Ans. 3. Gandhiji says that economic progress
does not promote real progress. On the contrary
Grasp : Noun—The situation is under
my grasp.
Verb—Grasp the opportunity nee
economic progress hinders real progress.

to,
Ans. 4. Clash with—opposed to, run counter

Train
when it comes.
: Noun—The train is late. spiritual faculty. rin
Permanent element is us—our moral and

Verb—The universities must

train the youth to grow into
good citizens. g.n
Wider proposition—wider meaning.
This visible universe—the material world
Harness : Noun—He died in harness.
Verb—We must harness our
natural resources.
before us.
5. e
Our constitution is named democracy,
because it is in the hands not of the few but of the
t
4. (Solved) many. But our laws secure equal justice for all in
Does economic progress clash with real their private disputes and our public opinion
progress ? By economic progress, I take it, we welcomes and honours talents in every branch
mean material advancement without limit, and by of achievement. And as we give free play to all
real progress we mean moral progress, which in our public life, so we carry the same spirit into
again is the same thing as progress of the our daily relation with one another. We have no
permanent element in us. The subject may black looks or angry words for our neighbour if
therefore be stated thus : Does not moral progress he enjoys himself in his own way and we abstain
increase in the same proportion as material from the little acts of churlishness which, though
progress ? I know that this is a wider proposition they leave no mark, yet cause annoyance to those
than the one before us. But I venture to think that who note them. Open and friendly in our private
we always mean the wider one even when we lay intercourse, in our public acts we keep strictly

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324 | L.W.C.E.

within the control of law. We acknowledge the Q. 2. What, according to the author, is the test
restraint of reverence, we are obedient to whom- of a man’s university education in life ?
so-ever is set in authority, and to the laws, more Q. 3. What are the duties and responsibilities of
specially to those which offer protection to the young graduates ?
oppressed and to those unwritten ordinances
whose transgression brings admitted shame. Q. 4. What i s the advice of the author to the
young graduates ?
Q. 1. Give a suitable title to the above passage.
Q. 5. Explain the portions in bold letters.
Q. 2. Give the summary of the above passage.
Q. 3. Explain the portions in bold letters in the
Hints
above passage. Idea—A convocation address. Appeal to the
graduates to realize their duties and responsibi-
Q. 4. “Our laws secure equal justice for all.” lities. A vast field of action lies before them. They
This is a social virtue. Find out from the

ww
should carry out their duties sincerely and
passage some other social virtues which devotedly.
democracy produces.
The first milestone—the first important
Hints
w
stage.
Idea—Principles of democratic way of life. Arduous journey—hard courbe of life.

.Ea
The citizen of democracy is free in his personal
and private life, but he is bound by laws in public
life. He respects law and authority.
Making ……… patience—demanding much
sacrifice and patience from man.

syE
Secure equal justice—guarantee equality
and justice to all; Tal-ents……achievement—
honour the talented man in every field of life and
Less showy……work—social service which
does not have much pomp and show but which is
very valuable.

ngi
Rule of enlightened conscience—rule of
career; Black ………words—discouragement and upright moral conduct and spiritual values.
jealousy; Little …… churlishness—little acts of Loyalty………convictions—faith in religion

nee
anger and jealousy; Unwritten Ordinances— and other social systems and human values
moral laws; Transgression—disobedience. inherited from the past.
6. 7.
To you who have received your degrees this
afternoon will go forth the congratulations and rin
The basic faith of those who believe in
democracy is that the common man has enough
good wishes of every one of us. Do not, however,
forget the significance of this function. Today you
have reached the first milestone of your long and g.n
goodwill and common-sense to govern well, that
given freedom and power, men will educate one

e
another, will introduce better ways of life and
arduous journey in life, not always pleasant and

t
habits of friendly co-operation, and will in the
very often making large demands upon human long run create a new society which will give the
patience. The responsibilities of public life, poli- best possible opportunity of good life to all. A
tical contests, social injustice and inequities and believer in democracy has faith in human nature,
economic conflicts between competing interests in the goodwill and political ability of the
will claim the attention of some of you. To others common man.
may fall the less showy but more beneficent But uneducated people with no experience of
work of social service. Whatever the sphere of life self-government are quite incapable of suddenly
you may be called upon to play your part in, the making a success of democracy. All history shows
eyes of your university will always be upon you. that stable democracy is a slow growth, that the
You can add to her pride or put her to shame by people must have a long experience of self-
your conduct and action. In the end, in the midst government and responsibility in many walks of
of the conflicts that you will have to face, let the life, only then can they learn those qualities of
rule of enlightened conscience and loyalty to tolerance, of common-sense, of co-operation and
your convictions guide your path. of judgement which are essential in the citizens of
Q. 1. Give a suitable title to the above passage. a democracy.

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COMPREHENSION | 325

Q. 1. Give a suitable title to the above passage. Q. 2. Give the substance of the above passage
Q. 2. Explain the portions in bold letters in the in one-third of its original length.
above passage. Q. 3. What impression do you form about the
character of Pt. Nehru from the above
Q. 3. Answer briefly the following questions in passage ?
your own words—
Q . 4. Explain the phrases and sentences in
(I) What is the basic faith of those who bold letters above.
believe in democracy ?
Hints
(II) What qualities are essential for the
citizen of a democracy? Idea—Pt. Nehru’s wife Kamla had fallen
seriously ill when he was in prison. Authorities
Hints sent proposals to him that he could be released
Idea—Democracy is built on the faith of from jail if he promised not to take part in politics.

wwgoodness and proficiency in the common man, the

common citizen of a democracy must be cons-
cious of his civic rights and duties. Uneducated
Pt. Nehru gave no such assurance. He knew that
Kamla herself would not feel happy if he did any
such thing.

w
citizens with no experience of civic life cannot
make democracy a success.

.Ea
Basic faith—primary conception, faith at the
starting point.
Intermediaries—agents of the authorities
Informal—verbal.
Pledges—oaths of serving the country.
Cause—relating to independence.

rnment.
syE
Self-government—democratic form of gove-

Stable democracy—strong and lasting demo-

Conceit—vanity.
Predicament—embarrassing position.
Dilemma—difficult situation
cracy.
8.
ngi Undertaking—promise, assurance.
9.
Suggestion came to me through various
intermediaries that if I could give an assurance,
even an informal assurance, to keep away from nee Freedom has assuredly given us a new status
and new opportunities. But it is also implied that
we should discard selfishness, laziness and all
politics for the rest of my term, I would be
released to attend on Kamla. Politics was far
enough from my thoughts just then, and the rin
narrowness of outlook. Our freedom suggests
toil and the creation of new values for old ones.

g.n
We should so discipline ourselves as to be able to
politics I had seen during my eleven days outside discharge our new responsibilities satisfactorily. If
had disgusted me, but to give an assurance and there is any one thing that needs to be stressed

e
to be disloyal t o m y pledges, to the cause, t o more than any other in the new set-up, it is that we

t
colleagues, t o my self, it was an impossible should put into action our full capacity, each one
condition whatever happened. To do so meant of us, in productive effort—each one of us in his
inflicting a moral injury on the roots of my own sphere, however humble work, unceasing
being, on almost everything I held sacred. I was work, should now be our watch word. Work is
told that Kamla’s condition was becoming worse wealth and service is happiness. Nothing else is.
and worse, and my presence by her side might The greatest crime in India today is idleness. If we
make all the difference between life and death. root out idleness, all our difficulties including
Was my personal conceit and pride greater than even conflicts will gradually disappear. Whether a
my desire to give her this chance ? It might have constable or a high official of the State, whether as
been a terrible predicament for me, but fortunately businessman or industrialist, artisan or farmer or
that dilemma did not face me in that way at least. peasant, each one of us should discharge his
Knowing that Kamla herself would strongly obligation to the state and make a contribution to
disapprove of my giving any undertaking and if the welfare of the country. Honest work is the
I did anything of the kind, it would shock her and sheet-anchor to which we should cling if we want
harm her, I felt morally enlightened. to be saved from danger or difficulty. It is the
Q. 1. Give a suitable title to the above passage. fundamental law of progress.

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326 | L.W.C.E.

Q. 1. Give a suitable title to the above passage. Q. 3. Explain the portions in bold letters.
Q. 2. Summarise the above passage in about Q. 4. Expand the idea contained in “Hate the
sixty-five words. sin and not the sinner.”
Q. 3. What duties and responsibilities have Hints
been bestowed on us by freedom ? Idea—Here is an explanation of the true spirit
Q. 4. Explain the portions in bold letters. of Ahimsa. Ahimsa prescribes love and respect for
Hints every human being irrespective of his actions. We
should hate the sin but not the sinner. To hate any
Idea—Freedom has bestowed new duties and individual would be to hate the divine spark which
responsibilities on us. We have to work hard with dwells within everyone of us.
all our capacity for the preservation of our
freedom. Work is the basic condition for securing Approbation—approval, admiration.
progress, prosperity and security. Disapprobation—disapproval, condemnation.

ww New status—new position of trust and res-

ponsibility.
Precept—moral principle
Tantamount to—equal to

w
Discard—give up, do away with. Tarred with the same brush—The charac-
Unceasing work—regular habit of working ters of all human beings are painted by the same
hard.
.Ea
Root out—eliminate, drive out.
brush of God, and hence there is no difference
between one individual and the other.

handicraft.
syE
Artisan—One engaged in some kind of

Sheet-anchor—sheltering place.
To slight—to hate and condemn.
Those d i v i n e powers—moral and spiritual
powers within every individual.
Cling—attached to.
10. ngi Comprehension (contd)
Poetry Passages
Man and his deeds are two distinct things.
Whereas a good deed should call forth appro-
bation and a wicked deed, disapprobation, the nee 11. (Solved)
The world is too much with us; late and soon,
doer of the deet whether good or wicked, always
deserves respect or pity as the case may be. ‘Hate
rin
Getting and spending, we lay waste our powers :
Little do we see in nature that is ours;

g.n
the sin and not the sinner’ is a precept which,
though easy enough to understand, is rarely We have given our hearts away, a sordid boon !
practised, and that is why the poison of hatred This sea that bares her bosom to the moon;
spreads in the world.
This form of Ahimsa is the basis of search for
truth. I am realising every day that the search is
vain unless it is founded on Ahimsa as the basis. It
e
The winds that will be howling at all hours
And are up-gather’d now like sleeping flowers;
For this, for everything, we are out of tune : t
is quite proper to resist and attack a system but It moves us not—Great God ! I’d rather be
to resist and attack its author is tantamount to A Pagan suckled in a creed outworn :
resisting and attacking oneself. For we are all
tarred with the same brush, and the children of So might I, standing on this pleasant lea,
one and the same creator and as such the divine Have glimpses that would make me less forlorn;
powers within us are infinite. To slight a single Have sight of Proteus rising from the sea;
human being is to slight those divine powers and Or hear old Triton blow his wreathed horn.
thus to harm not only that being but with him the
whole world. —W. Wordsworth
Q. 1. Give a suitable title to the above passage. Q. 1. Give a suitable title to the above poem.
Q. 2. Summarise Mahatma Gandhi’s views on Q. 2. Write the substance of the above poem.
Ahimsa as given in the above passage. Q. 3. Why are we drifting away from Nature ?

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COMPREHENSION | 327

Q. 4. Explain the expressions in bold letters in But O for the touch of a vanish’d hand,
the above poem. And the sound of a voice that is still !
Answers Break, break, break,
Ans. 1. The title of the poem is : “The World At the foot of thy crags, O sea !
Is Too Much with Us.” But the tender grace of a day that is dead
Ans. 2. The poet criticises the material civili- Will never come back to me.
zation of the industrial age. Man is so engrossed in
economic activities that he can hardly find time to —Lord Tennyson
perceive the beauty of Nature. He sees no beauty Q. 1. Give a suitable title to the above poem.
in the sea heaving in moon-lit night or in the soft Q. 2. Write the substance of the above poem.
fragrant breezes blowing in the morning. The poet Q. 3 . How d o the fisherman’s boy a n d t h e
wants to love and worship Nature as the abode of sailor’s lad express their joy ?

wwgods and goddesses and for that he is prepared

even to renounce Christanity and become a
Heathen devotee.
Q. 4. Explain the expressions in bold letters in
the above poem.
Answers
w Ans. 3. We are drifting away from nature
because we have no time to see her beauty. We are

.Ea
so engrossed in earning and spending money that
we can hardly find time to appreciate how
beautiful the different forms of nature are. Our
Ans. 1. The suitable title is “Break, Break,
Break”.
Ans. 2. Tennyson mourns the death of his

for nature.
syE
love for material possessions has dried up our love

Ans. 4. The world……us—We are so badly

dear friend Hallam. The waves of the ocean
dashing against the shores resemble the beatings
of the poet’s heart. He cannot, however, express
his sad feelings adequately, even as the fisher boy
engrossed in economic and material pursuits.
A sordid boon—material gains at the cost of ngi
or the sailor lad could express their glee. The ships
go and return but his dear departed friend will

nee
enjoyment of the beauty of nature make a bad never return to him.
bargain. Ans. 3. The fisherman’s boy can freely
Howling at all hours—blowing hard all express his joy by playing with his sister and
through day and might.
Suckled in a creed outworn—turning in
rin
shouting with glee. The sailor’s lad expresses his
joy by singing freely from his boat. .
devotion to a lost and archaic religious creed now
called Heathenism.
Make me less forlorn—having the sense of
grey stony shore of the sea.
g.n
Ans. 4. Thy cold grey stones—The cold and

Their haven……hill—the safe projection of

being less lonely in the company of Heathen gods
and goddesses in different forms of Nature.
12. (Solved)
anchored;
e
the hill over the bay under which the ships are

A voice that is still—the voice of a dear

friend that has been silenced for ever by death.
t
Break, break, break,
The touch……hand—The tender touch of
On thy cold gray stones, O Sea !
the hand of a dear friend whom death has snatched
And I would that my tongue could utter away.
The thoughts that arise in me. The tender grace of a day—The tender-
O well for the fisherman’s boy, hearted and graceful friend who has gone for ever.
That he shouts with his sister at play ! 13. (Solved)
O well for the sailor lad, Happy the man, whose wish and care
That he sings in his boat on the bay ! A few paternal acres bound,
And the stately ships go on Content to breathe his native air
To their haven under the hill; In his own ground.

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328 | L.W.C.E.

Whose herds with milk, whose fields with Hours……away—who lives peacefully and
bread, contentedly from hour to hour, day to day, and
Whose flocks supply him with attire ; year to year.
Whose trees in summer yield him shade, unlamented……die—Let there be no mour-
ners to mourn his death.
In winter fire.
Blest, who can unconcernedly find 14.
Hours, days, and years slide soft away I lay in sorrow, deep distressed :
In health of body, peace of mind, My grief a proud man heard,
His looks were cold, he gave me gold
Quiet by day,
But not a kindly word.
Sound sleep by night; study and ease
My sorrow passed,—I paid him back
Together mix’d; sweet recreation,

ww And innocence, which most does please

With meditation.
The gold he gave to me.
Then stood erect and spoke my thanks,
And blessed his charity.

w
Thus let me live unseen, unknown; I lay in want, in grief and pain,
Thus unlamented let me die;

.Ea
A poor man passed my way.
Steal from the world, and not a stone He bound my head, he gave me bread,
Tell where I lie. —A Pope He watched me night and day.
Q. 1.
Q. 2.
Q. 3.
syE
Give a suitable title to the above poem.
Give the central idea of the above poem.
What is the last wish of the poet ?
How shall I pay him back again,
For all he did to me ?
Oh, gold is great but greater far
Q. 4. Who, according to the poet, is a happy
man ? ngi Is heavenly sympathy.
Q. 1. Give a suitable title to the above poem.
Q. 5. Explain the portions in bold letters in the
above poem.
Answers nee
Q. 2. Give the central idea of the above poem.
Q. 3. What is more precious than gold and
why ?
Ans. 1. Title “The Quiet Life.”
rin
Q. 4. What do you learn from the poem ?
Hints
g.n
Ans. 2. The poet admires the blessings of
quiet and contented life. Happy is the man who Idea—A word of sympathy is more precious
contentedly lives in his small paternal house, than Gold. Gold can be paid back, but there can be
reaping his fields, milking his cattle and fleecing
his sheep. He enjoys peace of mind, purity of
feelings and joy of life. This is the poet’s ideal of
happy life from which he does not want to deviate
even after death.
e
no compensation for an act or word of real
sympathy. Human sympathy is priceless.
Deep distressed—in great pain.
Stood erect—without any obligation because
t
Ans. 3. The peot’s last wish is that he should gold had been paid back.
be buried after his death as quietly and uncere- Watched me—nursed and helped me.
moniously as he lived in his life. Heavenly sympathy—human sympathy
Ans. 4. The man who is simple, innocent and which is a heavenly blessing.
contented is happy. Such a man enjoys peace of
mind, good health and sound sleep.
15.
Gird on thy sword, O man, thy strength
Ans. 5. A few……bound—who contentedly
endue,
lives on the small farm left to him by his ances-
tors. In fair desire thy earth-born joy renew.
Flocks supply…………attire—whose sheep Live thou thy life beneath the making sun,
supply enough wool for their warm clothes. Till Beauty, Truth, and Love in thee are one.

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COMPREHENSION | 329

Through thousand ages hath thy childhood Young men and women must gather courage and
run ! hope and fight on their way through all problems
On timeless ruin hath thy glory been; and difficulties. They should never feel depressed
or dejected. One should also cultivate the higher
From the forgotten night of loves foredone,
values of life. One should embody in his life the
Thou risest in the dawn of hopes unseen. highest ideals of Truth, Beauty and Love.
Higher and higher shall thy thoughts aspire, gird on thy sword—keep yourself in readi-
Unto the stars of heaven, and pass away, ness to fight the battle of life with courage and
And earth renew the buds of the desire boldness.
In fleeting blooms of everlasting day. Strength endue—collect all your strength.
Thy work with beauty crown, thy life with The making sun—the fostering sun; every-
love; thing matures and ripens in the sun.
Thy mind with truth uplift to God above !

ww For whom all is, from whom was all begun,

In whom all Beauty, Truth, and Love are
Timeless ruin—ruins coming down from
times immemorial.
Dawn of hope—new beginning of hopes and

w
one. —Robert Bridges
aspirations.
Q. 1. Give a suitable title to the above poem.

.Ea
Q. 2. Give the central idea of the above poem.
Q. 3. What is the poet’s message in the above
Buds of the desire—flowers of desires and
ambitions.
Fleeting blooms—fast vanishing desires and

syE
poem ?
aspirations.
Q. 4. Explain the expressions in bold letters in
the above poem. Crown—decorate with.
Hints
Idea—The poet appeals to the people
always to keep ready for more and more work. ngi Uplift—raise.
From whom……begun—everything ensued
from God.

nee
rin
g.n
e t

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38 Precis-Writing
Importance of Precis—Precis is important “Be faithful to the original in presenting
not merely for understanding a certain language ideas, as well as the tone or the mood of the

wwand writing in it. It is equally important in day-to-

day activities and duties in personal life and
official obligations. Today the important states-
passage. The aim (of precis-writing) is to absorb
mentally the gist of the original passage, and then
to re-express the meaning in one’s own way. Then

w
men, businessmen, and officers are so busy that the passage must, as it were, be distilled in the
they do not have time to study and comprehend alembic of the mind. It is this process which

.Ea
long write-ups, notings, representations and
speeches. Therefore their Personal Secretaries
place before them the precis of all such docu-
distinguishes a good precis from one which is
poor and mechanical. It involves concentration,
judgment, retention of ideas, wide vocabulary and

syE
ments, which they can easily understand and
dispose of. Therefore there is always a question on
Precis-writing in English in every important
originality of expression.”
Length of the Precis—The Precis should be
about one–third of the given passage. In most
competitive examination. A student must, there-
fore, have good practice in Precis-writing.
What is Precis ? ngi Question–Papers the number of words in the
passage is given at the end, and therefore the
Precis should contain approximately one–third of
Precis (pronounced as ‘presee’) is a French
word. Its nearest equivalent in English is Precise, nee
the words in the passage. A margin of ten percent
more or less is permissible, but for every word
above or below this limit marks are deducted. This
which means ‘to shorten’. In other words, Precis
means to express the central thought of a given
passage / document as briefly as possible. There is rin
is why in higher competitive examinations a
graph–paper is provided for writing the Precis, so
a difference also between Precis and Summary or
Central Idea. In Summary every remark, observa-
g.n
that the examiner can know the number of words
used in the Precis at a glance. Therefore this rule
regarding the length of the Precis should be

e
tion or thought has to be summarized irrespective carefully observed.

t
of whether it is important or not. Even repititions
have to be summarized over again. It is not Title of the Precis—The title of the Precis
obligatory in a Summary even to arrange the must be given, even if it is not asked. The hint for
thoughts systematically. But in Precis thoughts the title can be found in the central idea of the
have to be arranged logically and systematically. passage. In fact, the title is the central idea of the
A Summary can be loose, jerky, repetitive or central idea—the Precis of the Precis. It should
formless, but these short-comings are unpardon- also be remembered that every word of the title
able in a Precis. The Central Idea is also different (except Articles, Prepositions and Conjunctions)
from a Precis in as much as it is very short. should begin with a capital letter.
Precis as a work of art—Precis is a more Use of Third Person—Precis should always
logical, consistent, complete, and artistically be written in the Third Person, even if the
finished work of art. But the Precis–writer has no Original passage is in the First Person or Dialogue
right to express his own view, point or opinion in form.
the Precis. In point of thought he has to stick Things to b e avoided in the Precis—The
faithfully to the original Passage. Therefore a following things should be avoided in writing the
Precis–writer is exhorted thus : Precis :

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PRECIS-WRITING | 331

(a) Your own views and opinions should not It is also necessary that the sentences in the
come in the Precis. Precis should not be disconnected or disjointed.
For this it is necessary that the sentences be
(b) Repititions should not be allowed to connected by proper and appropriate connective
come. words and phrases. The more popular connectives
(c) As far as possible, examples and illustra- are these :
tions should not be used. Thus; therefore; consequently; accordingly;
(d) Quotations and anecdotes should also be thereupon; as a result; because of this; besides;
avoided. moreover; apart from; in addition to; in the end;
finally; under these circumstances; on the con-
(e) The use of Similes, Metaphors and other trary, etc.
literary artifices should be avoided.
With all these aids, the final draft should be
(f) Nothing irrelevant or out–of–context drawn and written out in the Answer-book or on

ww matter should be allowed to come in.

Language—The language of the Precis
should be simple, straight forward, accurate and
the graph–paper provided for this purpose.
Finally the Title of the Precis must be given.

w
We give below ten passages for Precis–
precise. This is very necessary because every writing. The first five of them have been solved as

.Ea
word in the Precis is counted. Every inaccurate,
superfluous or wrong word in the Precis is pena-
lised.
models. Below the remaining five passages their
central ideas and meanings of difficult words have
been given for the help of the student. It should be

How to Write a Precis

syE
Precis–writing is not an easy task. It requires
remembered that the central idea has been given
for help—it is not the Precis of the Passage.

long and sustained practice. To begin with, the

given passage should slowly and carefully be read
over at least two times. It is natural that a studentngi Model Precis Exercises
1. (Solved)
will not be able to understand the meaning of
every word or phrase in the passage. But this
should not discourage him. First of all, the main nee Make a Precis of the following passage in
about one-third of its length and give a suitable
topic with which the passage deals should be
located. The main topics can be, for example—
title to it :—

rin
Democracy is the most difficult of all forms

g.n
Education, Literature, Society, Politics, History, of government and yet it is one to which most
Civic or Social Life, Patriotism, some Scientific nations now aspire. This is because it seems to
Discovery or Invention, etc. Having located the most people to be the form of government which
main topic, attempt should be made to find out the
specific aspect of the main topic with which the
passage deals. Having done so, the passage should
be read over a third time, and this time the main
ideas in the passage should be underlined. The
e
provides the best hope of making a world in which
privileges, good fortune or the accidents of history
will no longer determine the spheres of oppor-
tunity. In this the human spirit will develop best.
A successful democratic system requires a number
t
meanings of difficult words and phrases should be of pre-conditions, most of them difficult in them-
guessed in the light of the specific topic and the selves to establish. It requires the active coopera-
context by common sense. The portions under- tion of the community for the common good. It
lined as above should then be logically arranged requires institutions which can ensure that those
and a rough draft of the Precis should be prepared. who obey the law will not become the victims of
This draft should be revised, corrected and those who do not. It requires a mutual respect and
polished and the number of words in the draft shared pride in the objectives and traditions of the
should be increased or decreased as per the community as a whole. It requires the absence
number of words in the given passage. Repeti- of any form of discrimination based on race,
tions, vague or obscure words, examples and illus- sex, belief or opinion. It requires especially from
trations, use of literary artifices should judiciously those who have power and influence, restraint
be avoided. and patience. (170 Words)

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332 | L.W.C.E.

Solution To know one’s own business and to mind

Title : Spirit of Democracy nothing else, that is the way to carry on the work
of life. This sounds like a common saying, yet few
Democracy is the most difficult, yet the most really acknowledge it, even in principle. It is not
sought after form of government. It promises to often that even the first step—that of knowing
provide equal opportunities and privileges to all what one’s business is—is honestly taken; it must
for the best development of human spirit. But for be allowed that with many there are intellectual as
this the pre-condition is that all people are law- well as moral difficulties in the way of this first
abiding, mutually respectful and tolerant, proud of step. The easier method of getting rid of the
their traditions and free from all kinds of pre- intellectual difficulty is for a man to ask himself
judices and discrimination. (58 Words) what is not his business; and many a kindly person
2. (Solved) may be surprised to find that he has been in the
Make a Precis of the following passage in habit of considering it a virtue to waste time,

wwabout one-third of its length and give it a suit-

able title:—
Your mental attitude is a great determining
thought, feeling, and other means of interests
which truly are no business of his at all. He may
have to confess that he has been constantly wast-
ing sympathy on sorrows and evils which he

w
influence in your daily life. Begin the day with an
expectant and energetic mental attitude towards

.Ea
your work and it will elevate and enhance all your
activities. The spirit in which you regard the world
and your fellow-men will be reflected back to you.
cannot remove or alleviate. Sympathy which does
not mean action of some sort is not much of a
virtue in any man; while in those human beings
who habitually indulge in sympathy for its own

syE
When you are in the right mental attitude many
things will seem to conspire and co-operate to
advance your work and interests. Primarily it is
sake, it is apt to become a hateful and vicious
cowardice. (202 Words)

your mental attitude that makes the day happy and

productive, or the contrary. You can demonstrate
ngi
the truth of this today by looking only for the best,
Solution
Title : Know Your Business
A man’s first duty is to know his business and
to be intelligently optimistic, and to have con-
fidence in the eternal supremacy of God. Make
more positive resolutions regarding the things you nee
act honestly and faithfully in his own sphere.
Many a good-intentioned person unknowingly
wastes much of his time, energy and emotional
ought to do and bring every possible reinforce-
ment to bear upon such resolutions. Assert in
rin
sensibility in ideological and passive sympathy for
many sorts of human sufferings which he can
vigorous tones the thoughts you wish to establish
as unconscious habits of your life, remembering
always that while it is a great thing to conceive a g.n
neither remove nor alleviate. This kind of sym-
pathy is not only useless but thoughtless and
meaningless also. Habitual indulgence in this kind
great idea, it is still greater to put it into execu-
tion.
Solution
Title : Value of Mental Attitude
(180 Words)
4. (Solved) e
of sympathy is imbecile and cowardly.
(73 Words)

Make a Precis of the following passage in

t
One’s mental attitude plays a very important about one-third of its length and give it a suit-
role in one’s life and career. One’s attitude must able title :—
be healthy, active and reasonably optimistic. One I take it that the whole object of education is,
must begin the day with a happy, energetic and in the first place, to train the faculties of the young
hopeful resolution with a firm faith in God’s in such a manner as to give their possessors the
moral order and divine justice. This attitude will best chance of being happy and useful in their
change the entire complexion of life and make one generation; and, in the second place, to furnish
more active, assertive and successful. (62 Words) them with the most important portions of that
3. (Solved) immense capitalized experience of the human race
Make a Precis of the following passage in which we call knowledge of various kinds. I am
about one-third of its length and give it a suit- using the term knowledge in its widest possible
able title :— sense; and the question is, what subjects to select

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PRECIS-WRITING | 333

by training and discipline, in which the objet I 5. (Solved)

have just defined may be best attained. Make a Precis of the following passage in
I must call attention further to this fact, that about one-third of its length and give it a suit-
all the subjects of our thoughts—all feelings and able title :—
propositions (leaving aside our sensations as the Some of the things which Science has given
mere materials and occassions of thinking and us have certainly helped to make our lives
feeling), all our mental furniture—may be classi- happier. Science has helped us to get rid of many
fied under one of two heads—as either within the sicknesses of the body. That is a great thing. It is
province of the intellect, something that can be put difficult to be happy if your body is full of pain.
into propositions and affirmed or denied; or as Scientists have made many discoveries which
within the province of feeling, or that which, have helped to make painless, and to remove the
before the name was defined, was called the causes of pain and sickness. By making it possible
aesthetic side of our nature, and which can neither to cure terrible diseases—such as malaria, small-

wwbe proved nor disproved, but only felt and known.

According to the classification which I have
put before you, then, the subjects of all knowledge
pox, plague, pneumonia and tuberculosis—Sci-
ence has made longer the life of the average man.
Science is helping man to produce much more

w
are divisible into two groups, matters of science

.Ea
and matters of art; for all things with which the
reasoning faculty alone is occupied, come under
the province of science; and in the broadest sense,
food from the earth. By this, it is helping to get rid
of famine and to prevent sickness caused by not
having enough food to eat. It has also made possi-
ble the sending of quick relief to places where

syE
and not in the narrow and technical sense in which
we are now accustomed to use the word art, all
things feelable, all things which stir our emotions,
come under the term of art, in the sense of the
there is shortage of food and medicines, with the
help of motor-lorries, railway trains, ships and
aeroplanes. That is also very good, and many lives

ngi
are saved in such ways.
subject-matter of the aesthetic faculty. So that we There are also many discoveries of Science
are shut up to this—that the business of education which have definitely brought unhappiness into

nee
is, in the first place, to provide the young with the the world. But that is not because the discoveries
means and the habit of observation; and, secondly are bad, but because men are using them badly.
to supply the subject-matter of knowledge either For example, consider the discovery of gun-
in the shape of science or of art, or both com-
bined.
Solution
(354 Words)
rin
powder and of other explosives, each more
powerful than the previous one discovered. In
ancient times men could wound and kill each
Title : Object of Education
g.n
other only if they were near enough to strike each
other with stones, arrows, spears or swords. Even

e
Broadly speaking, education aims to achieve in battles, the armies on both sides usually

t
two objectives—first, to train the student in such a consisted of a few thousand men, so the number
way as to make his life happy and useful, and wounded and killed was not very large. In most
secondly to provide him with knowledge of vari- wars the peasants went on cultivating their fields
ous kinds. The knowledge imparted by education peacefully, even when the armies were fighting a
embodies the immense experience acquired by the few miles away. But the invention of fire-arms
human race through ages. This knowledge, again, and high explosives caused a great change. A
can be classified under two heads—one, relating modern machine-gun, or quick-firing gun, worked
to the intellect or reasonning, the other relating to by a single man, can wound and kill hundreds of
the sphere of feeling. The first belongs to the people in a few minutes. One modern bomb can
category of science and the second to that of arts. kill hundreds of thousands of people immediately
Science deals with the objects that can be if it was dropped on a big city.
rationally explained and objectively proved or The scientists who invented these terrible
disproved. Art deals with matters relating to weapons are not wicked men who enjoy killing.
feelings and emotions. True education combines They are people with kind hearts, but they are
the two categories into one. more clever, and they earn their living by dis-
(122 Words) covering new things. (385 Words)

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Solution been set up since independence but no definite

education policy has been evolved. Education has
Title : Blessings and Curses of Science remained the same lifeless, mechanical and
Science is both a blessing and a curse. While useless process which has done more harm than
it has given us many things which have made life good to our growing generations. It has failed to
better and happier, it has also given terrible mould their character.
instruments of destruction. Science has discovered
Vocabulary :
and invented many things to alleviate pain and
cure terrible diseases. These discoveries have Distressing : painful.
enabled man to live a longer and healthier life. Dabbling : playing with.
Science has also helped man in increasing New-fangled : far-fetched.
food production and other necessary things of life Rest at that : remain at the same stage.
and sending them quickly to distant places of
Drive : dashing spirit; the spirit to go

wwshortage or natural calamities. But, on the other

hand, science has also discovered and invented
many things which have been used as instruments Initiative
forward.
: courage and confidence; spirit
to act.

w
of large-scale destruction of life and property. But
it is not the scientists but we who are responsible Dynamic : active and energetic.

tions.
.Ea
for this misuse of scientific discoveries and inven-

Precis—Exercises for Practice

(129 Words)
Radical : basic and revolutionary.
Lamentably : regrettably.

syE
Conspicuous : lacking, wanting.
(6) Grapple : to fight with.
Make a Precis of the following passage and Bane : curse.
give it a suitable title. The Precis should be
about one-third of the length of the passage :—
Education in our country today has become ngi (7)
Make a Precis of the following passage in
entirely meaningless, even harmful. It is distres-
sing to find that during all these years of our
Independence we have been merely dabbling in nee
about one-third of its length and give it a suit-
able title—
To picture to ourselves something of the
schemes and projects, in new-fangled ideas mostly
borrowed from the West; merely setting up
rin
wider life that unity would open to men, is a very
attractive speculation. Life will certainly go with a

g.n
Commission after Commission at the cost of lakhs stronger pulse; it will breathe a deeper breath,
of rupees, and let the matter rest at that. The drive, because it will have dispelled and conquered a
the initiative, the dynamic vision necessary for hundred infections of the body and mind that now
radical reforms in the sphere of education are
lamentably conspicuous by their absence. We
have allowed matters to drift aimlessly, instead of
settling down to grapple with momentous issues.
The result has been disastrous. A lifeless, mecha-
e
reduce it to invalidism and squalor. We have
already laid stress on the vast elimination of
drudgery from human life through the creation of
a new race of slaves—the machines. This and the
disappearance of the war and the smoothing out of
t
nical system of teaching in overcrowded schools endless restraints and contentions by juster social
and colleges imposed by far from competent and economic arrangements, will lift the burden of
teachers on students whose only interest is to get toilsome work and routine work that has been the
through the examinations, has been the bane of price of human security since the dawn of the first
our education. We have completely forgotten the civilization from the shoulders of our children.
simple yet vital truth that the aim of education is This does not mean that they will cease to work,
first to build up character in the widest sense, and but they will cease to do irksome work under
then to impart knowledge. (172 Words) pressure and will work freely, planning, making,
creating according to their gifts and instincts.
Aids They will fight nature no longer as dull conscripts
Central Idea—Education in our country is of the pick and plough, but for a splendid con-
meaningless. Commission after commission has quest. Only the spiritlessness of our present

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PRECIS-WRITING | 335

depression blinds us to the clear intimations of our suffices that he understands you, and even his
reason that in the course of a few generations quite listening gives strength and renewed cour-
every little country town could become an Athens, age.
every human being could be gentle in breeding Blessed is the man or woman into whose life
and healthy in body and mind, the whole solid has come the beauty and power of such a
earth man’s mine and its uttermost regions his friendship. Prize it well. Do all in your power to
playground. (244 Words) keep such a friendship unbroken. Avoid the break,
Aids for when it comes it cannot be mended and the
Central Idea—World unity will bring many jarring note mars the harmony. It is not alone a
great advantages. Life will become happier and question of forgiveness that may be full and
more secure on account of the elimination of fear complete. It is the hurt in the heart that will not
of war and mental tension. With the introduction readily heal and the confidence that will not fully
of machinery man will be relieved of the drudgery come back. (241 Words)

wwof monotonous and hard physical labour. The

constant pressure of depression and discontent
will be lifted and the whole world will become
Aids
Central Idea—True friendship is a precious
thing but very rare. Friendship is not the same

w
man’s own home.
Vocabulary :

.Ea
Speculation : vision; dream.
Pulse : zest for life.
thing as a casual acquaintance or a chancemeeting.
A true friend is one who fully understands and
appreciates your strong as well as weak points and
who stands by you through all phases of life
Invalidism
Squalor syE
: ailment, disease.
: drudgery.
whether dark or bright. True friendship should
never be hurt or broken for thereafter it can never
be restored to its normal glamour.
Elimination : withdrawal, ending.
Race of slave : machines will serve as a new
generation of slaves. ngi Vocabulary :
China : utensils made of China clay.

nee
Designated : called; termed.
Contentions : conflicts. Temptations : weaknesses.
Cease : stop.
Suffices : is sufficient.

rin
Instincts : natural inclination.
Prize : value, place high.
Breeding : upbringing.
Mended : repaired.
(8)
Make a Precis of the following passage and
Jarring
(9) g.n
: unpleasant.

e
give it a suitable title :—

t
Broken friendship, like china, may be re- Make a Precis of the following passage and
paired, but the break will always show. Friendship suggest a suitable title for it :—
is a precious thing—too precious a treasure to be For better or for worse, we are living in a
carelessy broken or thrown away. The world society which is based physically on Western
handles the word “friend” lightly; its real, true, science and technology. This has inescapable
deeper meaning is forgotten, and the acquaintance consequences for the scientist. Initially he was an
of an hour or the chancecomer is designated by accidental force in the unfolding of human
the term which in itself bears a wealth of meaning. destiny. This he can no longer be. As Neils Bohr
Your friend is the one who appreciates your faults has said, scientists must become conscious of the
as well as your virtues; who understands and fact that they are not merely observers, but also
sympathises with your defeats and victories, your actors on the stage of life. The everyday world is
aims and ideas, your joys and temptations, your crowding upon us; science is only a means to an
hopes and disappointments, as no one else does or end, and not an end in itself. Science is not
can. It is your friend to whom you turn for enough. Chemistry is not enough. Scientists must
counsel, for comfort, for praise; he may not be as live and even chemists must eat. Modern societies
learned as some or as wise as others, but it are preoccupied with efforts to improve their

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336 | L.W.C.E.

material conditions and they are doing this under friends on the ground that you are virtuous and
such intense competition that the less efficient will want virtuous company, you are no nearer to true
either fall behind or go to the wall. The means friendship than if you choose them for commercial
which are used depend on the application of reasons. Besides, who are you that you should be
scientific knowledge. Only scientists have the setting a price upon your friendship ? It is enough
necessary training for establishing and using the for any man that he has the divine power of
technologies required to exploit recent major making friends, and he must leave it to that power
discoveries and those likely to arise in the future. to determine who his friends shall be. For, though
It is clear that they will be brought more and more you may choose the virtuous to be your friends,
into technology, and thus into industry, the vehicle they may not choose you; indeed, friendship
by which mankind exploits science for his own cannot grow where there is any calculated choice.
ends. It is certain that modern society will be It comes like sleep, when you are not thinking
forced to deploy its scientists in a manner about it; and you should be grateful, without any

wwconducive to fulfilling its objectives.Moreover,

since the scientist is a part of society, he will be
impelled to respond to the needs of the times and
assume a wider role. (258 Words)
misgiving, when it comes.
So no man who knows what friendship is ever
gave up a friend because he turns out to be

w Aids

.Ea
Central Idea—Scientists have to play a vital
role in society. They cannot shake off their
disreputable. His only reason for giving up a
friend is that he has ceased to care for him; and,
when that happens he should reproach himself for
this moral poverty of affection, not the friend for
having proved unworthy. For it is inhuman

syE
obligations and responsibility to mankind. They
cannot remain passive spectators. The scientific presumption to say of any woman, when you have
discoveries and inventions must be applied to the fallen out of love with her, that she is unworthy of
promotion of human welfare. your love. In friendship and in love we are always
Vocabulary :
Inescapable : from which escape is not possi- ngi humble, because we see that a free gift has been
given to us : and to lose that humility because we
have lost friendship or love is to take a pride in

Initially
Unfolding
ble.
: in the beginning.
: opening. nee
what should shame us.
Aids
(308 Words)

rin
Central Idea—True friendship is not gover-
Crowding : collectively depending.
ned by any personal gain on either side. Friend-
Preoccupied : engaged. ship grows unconsciously and automatically. A
Go to the wall : lost, forgotten.
Vehicle
Exploits
: means.
: uses. g.n
virtuous man seeking to make friendship with
another virtuous man is wrong logic. Friendship
cannot grow on such calculations. Friendship is a
Ends
Deploy
Conducive
: objective, purpose.
: use.
: useful, beneficial.
(10)
natural and divine as love.
Vocabulary :
Commercial
e
divine gift and it must be accepted as such. It is as

t
reasons : material gains.
Make a Precis of the following passage and
give it a suitable title :— Divine power : heavenly boon.
Friendship is above reason, for, though you Calculated
find virtues in a friend, he was your friend before choice : choosing a friend through such
you found them. It is a gift that we offer because logic.
we must; to give it as the reward of virtue would Misgiving : doubt or fear.
be to set a price upon it and those who do that Disreputable : dishonourable.
have no friendship to give. If you choose your Reproach : blame.

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39 Paraphrasing
What is Paraphrasing ? agreement or disagreement with the thought of the
The word ‘Paraphrase’ is made of two Greek given passage.
words—Para, which means ‘alongside of’ or In a way, therefore, paraphrase is a kind of
‘parallel to’, and Phrasis, which means ‘wording’ translation, but it is not a translation from one

wwor ‘stating’. Therefore ‘Paraphrasing’ means exp-

ressing the full meaning of a given poem or a
prose passage in simple language parallel to the
language to another, but from one style and dic-
tion to another style and diction in the same
language.

w
language of the given extract.

.Ea
According to J. C. Nesfield, “Paraphrasing is
rendering of a given extract from one form of
wording to another.”
Some Hints for Paraphrasing
No definite rules can be framed for paraphras-
ing, but some practical suggestions can, of course,
be given. The following are these suggestions :

syE
Wren and Martin similarly hold that “Para-
phrase is restatement of the sense of the passage in
other words. It is the reproduction in one’s own
(1) Read the given poem or prose extract
slowly and carefully at least two times
and try to understand its central idea.

written in another idiom or style.”

It would be clear from the above noted defi- ngi
natural idiom or style of the full sense of a passage (2) Thus, keeping the central idea in mind,
read the given poem once or twice again
and try to grasp the meaning line by line.
nitions that in paraphrasing there should be no
change in the idea or thought-content of the given
extract. The change should be only in the langu- nee Also, try to guess the meanings of
difficult words and phrases in the light of
the central idea and the context.
age, diction and style.
Difference between Paraphrase and rin
(3) Thereafter, underline the archaic or diffi-
cult words and expressions, as well as the
Precis
Paraphrase and Precis are two different g.n
similes, metaphors and other Figures of
Speech, if any. Also underline the literary
or mythological references and allusions.
exercises. In Precis one is required to give the
central thought and main points systematically
arranged in about one-third of the given passage.
In paraphrase there is no condition of length nor is
one required to rearrange the thoughts of the
e
All these have to be stated in easy and
simple language in the paraphrase.
(4) The construction of sentences in poetry is
different from that in prose. Therefore all
poetical constructions and inversions
t
original extract. One is required only to restate the should be changed into simple normal
thoughts in simple language line by line or prose-order. For example, see the follow-
sentence by sentence in the same order. The ing line written in verse :
paraphrase is, therefore, almost of the same length
“A man severe he was, and stern to view;
as the original passage. Sometimes the paraphrase
I knew him well.” (Goldsmith)
is even longer because the difficult or obscure
words, references or allusions occurring in the Its prose-order would be :
original extract have to be briefly explained and “I knew him well that he was a severe
stated in the paraphrase. But it should be kept in man, with a stern expression.”
mind that there should be no change in the idea or (5) As has been said above, the difficult and
thought-content in the paraphrase. Also, you are archaic words and phrases should be
not allowed to express your own opinion or your changed into simple ones. This does not,

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338 | L.W.C.E.

however, mean that every difficult word Life ! we’ve been long together
must necessarily be changed. The inten- Through pleasant and through cloudy
tion of paraphrasing is to simplify and weather.
clarify the meaning and not essentially to ’Tis hard to part when friends are dear
change the words.
Perhaps it will cost a sigh, a tear;
(6) The given poem or passage should be
paraphrased line to line or sentence to Then steal away, give little warning,
sentence. Therefore the paraphrase is Choose thine own time :
almost of the same length as the original. Say not good night ;
Sometimes the paraphrase may even be a but in some brighter clime,
little longer than the given extract, Bid me good morning. (Barbauld)
because difficult words or references
have to be briefly explained in it. Paraphrase

ww (7) Paraphrase can be done either in the

direct or indirect form of speech accord-
ing to the given extract.
I do not know what life is, but one thing that I
know for certain is that one day we shall have to
part company with each other. I must admit that it

w
is still a mystery to me as to when and in what
(8) In a poem articles, prepositions, conjunc-
way and at what place, I came to have life. I am
tions, etc. are often left out. They should

.Ea
be suitably added in the paraphrase. The
Rhetorical, Exclamatory or Interrogative
sentences occurring in the poem should
fully conscious of the fact that life and I have been
good companions for a long time and remained
constant through all favourable and unfavourable

(9) syE
be converted into simple sentences.
Neither take away nor add any idea or
opinion of your own in the paraphrase.
situations. It is very painful to part company with
life, specially when there are many dear friends
around. Parting from life would certainly draw a

Examples
(1) ngi sigh of grief from the heart and a tear from the
eye. Life would certainly part at its own time. Let
life part quietly without a warning, but I only
Lives of great men all remind us
We can make our lives sublime,
And, departing, leave behind us
nee
earnestly wish that life should not say a permanent
good night to me, but it should rather greet me
with a good morning in heaven where the departed
Foot-prints on the sands of time.
Foot-prints that perhaps another
souls meet.

rin
(3)
Sailing o’er life’s solemn main,
A forlorn and shipwrecked brother,
Seeing, shall take heart again. g.n
Breathes there the man, with soul so dead,
Who never to himself hath said,
“This is my own, may native land ?”

Paraphrase
(H.W. Longfellow)

The lives of all great men remind us that we

e
Whose heart hath ne’er within him burn’d.
As home his foot steps he hath turn’d
From wandering on a foreign strand ? t
can also make our lives noble and sublime. Before If such there breathe, go, mark him well;
leaving this world on death, we can also leave For him no minstrel raptures swell;
some deep impressions of our noble deeds on the High though his titles, proud his name,
shore of time which may encourage and inspire an
Boundless his wealth as wish can claim :
unfortunate fellow traveller who may have failed
in the journey of life and felt forsaken and Despite those titles, power and pelf,
deserted by all in his despair and loneliness. The wretch, concentrated all in self,
(2) Living, shall forfeit fair renown,
Life ! I know not what thou art. And doubly dying, shall go down
But know that, thou and I must part. To the vile dust, from whence he sprung,
And when, or how, or where we met Unwept, unhonoured, and unsung.
I own to me’s a secret yet. (Sir Walter Scott)

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PARAPHRASING | 339

Paraphrase quarrel as far as possible, but once you enter, fight

There cannot be a man who is spiritually so out with all your force so that your opponent may
dead that his heart does not feel a kind of thrill never dare to offend you again. Listen to
when he puts his foot on the shore of his everybody but speak to the selected ones only.
fatherland after a long stay in foreign lands, and Listen to the advice of everybody but act
who does not say with pride that this is his own according to your own judgment. Always wear
dear country. If such an unpatriotic man exists decent dress, but within the capacity of your
anywhere, go and note his career carefully. You purse; your dress should be decent but not too
will find that no poet would sing any song in his guady, for a man is well judged by his dress.
praise, however high his position may be, or, (5)
however dignified his name. He may also be Let me not hurt, by selfish deed
possessing as much wealth as he could desire. But Or thoughtless word, the heart of foe or
in spite of all his high titles, powerful position and friend;

wwwealth, the miserable man, all absorbed in

himself, will get no fame or recognition in his
lifetime. And he will die a double death : his body
Nor would I pass, unseeing, worthy need,
Or sin by silence when I should defend.

w
will return to the dust from where it came and his However meagre be my worldly wealth,
name and memory will be forgotten for ever in Let me give something that shall aid my

.Ea
oblivion. None will weep for him, none will
honour his memory, and no poet will ever write a
song in his praise.
kind—
A word of courage, or a thought of health,

syE
(4)
Give thy thoughts no tongue,
Nor any unproportion’d thought his act.
Dropp’d as I pass for troubled hearts to find.
Let me to-night look back across the span
’Twixt dawn and dark, and to my conscience

Be thou familiar, but by no means vulgar.

The friends thou hast, and their adoption ngi say—
Because of some good act to beast or man,
The world is better that I lived today.
tried,
Grapple them to thy soul with hoops of steel;
But do not dull thy palm with entertainment nee Paraphrase
I would not hurt by any selfish action of mine

rin
Of each new-hatched, unfledged comrade. or even by an unkind word the heart of any
Beware person, whether friend or foe (enemy). Nor would
I pass unconcerned by any person who may be in

g.n
Of entrance to a quarrel; but, being in,
genuine need of some help from me. I would also
Bear it, that the opposer may beware of thee.
not hold my tongue when any needy person
Give every man thine ear, but few thy voice:
deserves my defence. I would certainly give
Take each man’s censure, but reserve thy
judgment.
Costly thy habit as thy purse can buy,
But not express’d in fancy; rich, not gaudy :
For the apparel oft proclaims the man.
e
something or the other to a fellow human being in
his hour of need, however poor my own resources
may be. If nothing else, I would at least speak a
word of courage, comfort or good cheer to a man
t
languishing in pain. Every day would I survey my
(Shakespeare) deeds from morning to evening and satisfy my
Paraphrase conscience that I did at least one good act to help
Here is an advice of a father to a son : Never and comfort a man or a beast. Every day of my
speak out your personal thoughts by your tongue, life I must do something to make the world
nor act in haste in compliance to a casual thought. happier.
Be friendly to all but never too intimate. Whatever Exercise
friends you have, judge their sincerity, and once Paraphrase the following poems :
you find them sincere and loyal to you, bind them
to your heart with chains of steel. But do not (1)
waste your money in entertaining every casual or If you are sighing for a lofty work,
time-serving acquaintance. Avoid entering into a If great ambitions dominate your mind,

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340 | L.W.C.E.

Just watch yourself and see you do not shirk (3)

The common little ways of being kind. Out of the night that covers me,
If you are dreaming of a future goal, Black as the pit from pole to pole,
When crowned with glory men shall own I thank whatever gods may be
your power, For my unconquerable soul.
Be careful that you let no struggling soul In the fell clutch of circumstance
Go by unaided in the present hour. I have not winced nor cried aloud.
If you would help to make the wrong things
Under the bludgeonings of chance
right,
Begin at home, there lies a lifetime’s toil : My head is bloody, but unbowed.
Weed your own garden fair for all men’s Beyond this place of wrath and tears
sight, Looms but the horror of the shade,

ww Before you plan to till another’s soil.

Hints
[Here is a poet’s advice to a man who is
And yet the menace of the years
Finds, and shall find me, unafraid.
It matters not how strait the gate,

w
desirous of doing something good and memorable.

.Ea
One should never overlook or neglect small acts
of kindness to the humble and needy. One’s own
family is the most important starting point towards
How charged with punishments the scroll,
I am the master of my fate :
I am the captain of my soul.
(W. E. Henley)
this goal.

syE
Meanings—Sighing—Keenly desirous;
shirk—overlook; unaided—without giving help;
Hints
[This poem is entitled “Invictus” which
means ‘unconquered’. Human soul is unconquered.

ngi
weed—clean .
It remains steadfast against all strokes of
(2) misfortune and sufferings of life. Even death
Children we are all

nee
cannot conquer it.
Of one great Father, in whatever clime Meanings:—Fell clutch—cruel grip.
Nature or chance hath cast the seeds of life—
bludgeonings of chance—heavy blows of

rin
All tongues, all colours : neither after death
fate and chance; winced—trembled; shade—
Shall we be sorted into languages
death; menace of the years—Whatever other
And tints, white, black and tawny, Greek and
Goth,
Northmen, and offspring of hot Africa;
g.n
threats the coming years may bring; straight the
gate—narrow gate of death; scroll—record of
good and evil deeds maintained in heaven.]
The All-father, He in whom we live and move,
He the indifferent judge of all, regards,
Nations, and hues, and dialects alike;
According to their works shall they be judged,
When even-handed justice in the scale
(4)
e
I was not ever thus, nor prayed that thou
Shouldst lead me on; t
I loved to choose and see my path, but now
Their good and evil weighs. (R. Southey) Lead Thou me on,
Hints I loved the garish day, and, spite of fears,
[Here is the poet’s appeal not to make any Pride ruled my will; remember not past years.
difference from man to man on the basis of So long Thy power hath blest me, sure it still
nationality, colour or creed. There is no such Will lead me on,
distinction in the eye of God. God judges us all by O’er moor and fen, o’er crag and torrent, till
our good or evil deeds only.
The night is gone,
Meanings : Clime—Climate; sorted—
classified; tawny—brown; offspring—children; And with morn those angel faces smile,
hues—colours; dialects—languages; even-han- Which I have loved long since, and lost
ded—perfect, impartial.] awhile. (J. H. Newman)

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PARAPHRASING | 341

Hints What wealth the show to me had brought;

[This is an extract from a poem entitled “Lead For oft, when on my couch I lie
Kindly Light”. It is a hymn, a prayer to God to In vacant or in pensive mood,
light his way and lead him on in the difficult They flash upon that inward eye
journey of life. Which is the bliss of solitude;
Meanings—Path—journey of life; And then my heart with pleasure fills,
garish day—glamorous time; moor and And dances with the daffodils.
fen—hard and thorny path in the journey of life; (William Wordsworth)
Crag and torrent—hills and rivers; angel Hints
faces—The loving faces of those dear ones who
[This extract is taken from the poem entitled
died earlier and may be waiting for me in heaven.]
“Daffodils”. Here is a beautiful description of a
(5) vast tract of daffodils dancing in the soft breeze.

ww Just for a handful of silver he left us,

Just for a riband to stick in his coat—
Found the one gift of which fortune bereft us,
The daffodils filled the poet’s mind and heart with
a great treasure of beauty and joy.
Meanings : Out-did—surpassed;

w Lost all the others she lets us devote;

.Ea
They, with the gold to give, doled him out
silver,
So much was theirs who so little allowed;
glee—cheerfulness; jocund—gay;
pensive—melancholy;
inward eye—imagination;
solitude—loneliness.]

syE
How all our copper had gone for his service !
Rags—were they purple, his heart had been
proud !
(7)
The world is too much with us; late and soon,
Getting and spending, we lay waste our
We that had loved him so, followed him,
honoured him
ngi powers.
Little we see in Nature that is ours;

nee
Lived in his mild and magnificent eye, We have given our hearts away, a sordid
Learned his great language, caught his clear boon!
accents, This Sea that bares her bosom to the moon;
Made him our pattern to live and to die !
(Robert Browning)
wers, rin
The winds that will be howling at all hours,
And are up-gathered now like sleeping flo-
Hints
[This extract is from a poem entitled “The
Lost Leader.” The Lost Leader is the great poet g.n
For this, for everything, we are out of tune;
It moves us not—Great God ! I’d rather be
Wordsworth. He is called a lost Leader because he
had deserted the democratic party and joined the
Royalists on receiving a pension from the King.
Meanings— Handful of silver—a small lorn;
e
A Pagan suckled in a creed outworn;
So might I, standing on this pleasant lea,
Have glimpses that would make me less for-
t
pension (in the shape of silver coins); riband— Have sight of Proteus rising from the sea;
medal; bereft—deprived of; doled him—gave Or hear old Triton blow his wreathed horn.
him only silver, not gold; copper—hard earned (William Wordsworth)
little money; mild and magnificent eye— Hints
affectionate and dignified care; pattern—model.] [This is an extract from the poem entitled
(6) “The World is too much with us.” In the pursuit of
The waves beside them danced, but they money and material possessions we have ceazed
to appreciate the beauty of Nature. In order to
Out-did the sparkling waves in glee :—
come closer to Nature the poet is ready to
A Poet could not but be gay renounce Christianity and accept Paganism where-
In such a jocund company ! in all forms of nature are worshipped as different
I gazed—and gazed—but little thought gods.

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342 | L.W.C.E.

Meanings—Sordid boon—a hard bargain; They are so unacquainted with man,

up-gathered—hushed up Pagan—follower of an Their tameness is shocking to me.
old non-Christian religion; outworn—archaic, (W. Cowper)
dead; less forlorn ; less lonely; Proteus—Sea-
god; Triton—god of woods.] Hints
(8) [This is an extract from the poem entitled
“The Solitude of Alexander Selkirk”. Selkirk was
But the Taj, the tale still telling, left all alone on an uninhabited island. He
Stands in Agra city great, languished to hear any human voice. He feels
White and shining, all excelling awfully frustrated in the dead solitude of the
In its beauty and its state. island. He is completely out of humanity’s reach.
There they lie, the loving hearted Meanings : Monarch—King; survey—see
’Neath its marble side by side, around me; fowl and the brute—birds and

ww Those in life so long-time parted

Death no longer can divide.
For though pressed from many quarters
animals; alarms—troubles and problems of
life; dwell—live; indifference—non-recognition ]
(10)

w True love steadfast still abides,

Is not quenched by many waters,

.Ea
Even death’s relentless tides.
All true love is never failing
Beside the ungathered rice he lay,
His sickle in his hand;
His breast was bare, his matted hair
Was buried in the sand.

syE
Howsoe’er men faithless be,
But o’er everything prevailing
Lives to all eternity. (Mary Dobson)
Again, in the mist and shadow of sleep,
He saw his native land.
Wide through the landscape of his dreams
Hints
[This extract is from Mary Dobson’s poem
entitled “The Taj Mahal”. The Taj is an ngi The lordly Niger flowed;
Beneath the palm-trees, on the plain
immortal symbol of love. The Moghul Emperor
Shahjahan and his beloved Queen Mumtaj are
sleeping in eternal sleep in this tomb. Life had nee Once more a king he strode;
And heard the tinkling caravans
Descend the mountain road.
parted them, but Death has united them for ever.
Meanings—All excelling—best of all; stead-
rin
He saw once more his dark-eyed queen
Among her children stand :
fast—constant; abides—remains; relentless
tides—Ocean of Eternity.]
(9) g.n
They clasped his neck, they kissed his cheeks,
They held him by the hand—

I am monarch of all I survery;

My right there is none to dispute;
From the centre all round to the sea,
e
A tear burst from the sleeper’s lids;
And fell into the sands. (H. W. Longfellow)
Hints
[This is an extract from the poem entitled t
I am lord of the fowl and the brute. “The Slave’s Dream.” A Negro Chieftain was
O solitude ! where are the charms taken captive as a slave. He was forced to work as
That sages have seen in thy face ? a slave on a farm in America. There he remem-
Better dwell in the midst of alarms, bered his family and his native land and langui-
shed to go back to them. He saw them in a dream
Than reign in this horrible place. and in the joy and excitement of the dream he
I am out of humanity’s reach, passed away.
I must finish my journey alone, Meanings : Ungathered—reaped but not
Never hear the sweet music of speech; collected and bound; matted hair—knotted and
I start at the sound of my own. twined hair; Niger—river; strode—rode on the
The beasts that roam over the plain, horse; Caravans—rows of camels; held him—
My form with indifference see; caught him; clasped—embraced.

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40 Report-Writing
How to Write Reports injured. Rail traffic suspended. Rescue
operations on.
Just as no definite rules can be laid down for
Precis-Writing, Comprehension or Paraphrasing, (7) In official Reporting, an officer has to send
his Report to a senior officer or to the Gov-

ww
there can be no definite rules for Report-Writing.
But certain suggestions can, of course, be given ernment. This Report is always impersonal.
for writing impressive Reports. These suggestions The designation of the officer (only desig-
should be carefully followed like Rules. The nation, not name) to whom the Report is

w
following are these suggestions :

.Ea
(1) Report-Writing is a sort of essay writing, and
therefore a report must be written in one’s
own language and style effectively and beauti-
being sent should be written at the top. The
officer who is sending the Report should give
his name and designation at the bottom of the
Report. There is no salutation at the begin-

syE
ning and no subscription (such as ‘Yours
fully.
Sincerely’, ‘Faithfully’, etc.) at the end of the
(2) Reports must be written Point-wise in diffe- Report. The officer sending the Report must
rent paragraphs. No two major points should put his signature with date at the end of the
be written in the same paragraph.
(3) The central idea of the whole Report must be
written in the first sentence of the Report. ngi Report.
Examples
(4) A Report must be factual, based on definite
facts. There is no place for imagination or
emotionalism in a Report. One can, however,
nee
1. Supposing you are a Reporter for The Times
of India. Write a report from Tokyo on the
recent earthquake in Japan.
give one’s impressions or findings in the last
paragraph of the Report. rin
Report
Devastating Earthquake in Japan, 2872
(5) A Report must be written in the third person,
past tense, unless otherwise directed in the
Question-Paper. If one has to give one’s own g.n
killed, thousands missing, thousands of
houses collapsed, train tracks and roads
cracked, all traffic suspended.
impressions in the last paragraph, one can
write in the Present or Future Tense in the
First Person.
(6) If a Report has to be written for a Newspaper,
Tokyo, 17 January
e
A fierce earthquake occurred in central and
western Japan this morning. Its intensity on the
Rector Scale was measured as 8·5. Its centre was
t
a detailed Descriptive Heading must be given about 200 Kilometers from Tokyo in the Pacific
to it. The heading should be so detailed and Oceans about 20 kilometres deep. The cities of
factual that if a reader reads only the heading, Kove, Ossaca and Quetto were worst affected.
and not the full Report, he should be able to Thousands of houses collapsed within minutes.
understand the central idea of the whole According to an official report 2872 persons have
Report. Therefore there is no harm even if the been killed and about 5000 are missing. Rail
heading becomes a little too long. For tracks and roads have been completely damaged.
example, the heading of the Report on a train- All communication means have been completely
accident can be the following one : disrupted. Rescue parties and medical teams are
Headlong collision between an Express being rushed. The building of the Indian Embassy
Train and a Goods Train near Bombay. at Kove is safe. No Indian has been killed.
Ten passengers killed, dozens others Messages of sympathy on this national calamity

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344 | L.W.C.E.

and proposals for aid are coming from many six and twelve years at the confluence of the
countries of the world, including India. Ganga, Yamuna and the invisible river Saraswati.
This earthquake is believed to be the worst Preparations on a very large scale were made for
and most devastating one that has occurred in the maintenance of law and order and for provi-
Japan in this century. It has also disproved Japan’s ding basic amenities to the pilgrims estimated at
claim that it has developed the technology of more than 25 lakhs. The whole Mela area was
building earthquake–proof houses in the country. divided into three broad sectors. The most
No scientific or technical advancement can ever important of them was the proper Mela area. The
stand against the indomitable forces of nature. other two sectors included the city of Allahabad
2. In your capacity as the Governor of Jammu and the Railway Station. Police and security
and Kashmir write a Report to the Home forces in large numbers were mobilized from all
Minister on the damage done to life and over the State and stationed at Allahabad. In
property by the cold wave, fierce snowfall addition to the normal civil and traffic police,

ww and landslides in the State.

The Home Minister,

Report
sixty-five P.A.C. companies were posted there.
They included Women Police Force, comman-
does, dog squads and secret police contingents.

w
Govt. of India, New Delhi.

.Ea
The State of Jammu and Kashmir is facing an
unprecedented rage of cold wave, snowfall and
landslides. The State is in the grip of incessant
The first holy bath festivity was held on the
Makar Sankranti Day (14 January). More than 10
lakh pilgrims were expected to take the holy dip
on this day, but contrary to expectations only
about three lakh pilgrims turned up on that day.

syE
rains, hail storms and flood. Practically all the
rivers, lakes and water-falls have frozen into solid
ice. At many places the temperature has sunk
The second holy dip day fell on 30 January, Moni
Amavasya. On this day also, contrary to expecta-
tions, only about four lakh pilgrims took the holy
down to –60° celcius. It is feared to be the worst
natural calamity of its type of this century.
According to official records about 250 persons ngi bath. The third holy bath day fell on Basant
Panchmi, 4 Feb, 1995. On this day about 20 lakh
pilgrims assembled to take the holy bath. It was
have been killed and 400 stranded or buried in the
snow. About 600 vehicles, including 37 buses and
39 motorcycles have been half buried and nee
the day of trial for the administration and the
police. However the day passed off peacefully. No
untoward incident of any kind occurred. This
stranded in the snow. The 2·8 kilometer long
Jawahar Tunnel has been blocked with heavy
walls of snow at both ends and about 240 people rin
speaks highly of the foresightedness and compe-
tence of our administration and the police.

have been stranded within it. Rescue operations

have been started. About 133 bodies have been
Exercise
g.n
Write short reports in about 150 words
each on the following topics :
taken out so far. After four days’ ceaseless efforts
against all indomitable forces of nature all the 240
persons engulfed in the tunnel have been rescued.
In all about 2600 persons have so far been rescued
and saved by our forces. Food material, food
e
1. The outbreak of plague in Gujarat.
2. The recent earthquake that occurred in Maha-
rashtra.
3. An assessment of Literacy Campaign in your
t
packets and medicines are being air-dropped in District.
the worst affectd areas. 4. The law and order situation in Kashmir.
Central aid is urgently needed. A high-power 5. The law and order situation in your District.
committee to assess the extent of damage and aid 6. Any international game or sports meet that
to the state is most urgently solicited. you have seen.
(Sd. Govrnor) 7. The repeated occurrences of floods in your
3. Prepare a short write-up (report) on Ardh District.
Kumbh Mela held at Allahabad. 8. Assembly elections in your State.
The last Ardh Kumbh Mela of the present 9. Parliamentary elections in your constituency.
century at Allahabad began from 14 January, 10. The Flag Hoisting ceremony on the Republic
1995. This great holy gala festival is held every Day in your University.

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41 Messages
It often happens that you go to meet a person at his residence or in his office but he is not available
there. Or, sometimes you want to talk to a person on the telephone, but he is not available on the phone.
What is to be done in that case ? In that case you can write down the purpose of your visit, mentioning

wwsome important points in brief, on a piece of paper or memo-slip and hand it over to some responsible
person available there, to be delivered to the person you wanted to meet or talk to. This brief written
statement is called a ‘Message’. In case of a telephonic call, you can verbally give your message to the

w
person available on the phone.
Writing a message briefly and effectively is in itself an art. There are certain rules or practices

following :
.Ea
which should be followed to make the message effectively brief, beautiful and purposeful. They are the

(1) It is not necessary to write the full address of the writer or the receiver of the Message.

syE
(2) Only the name of the writer and the receiver should be written.
(3) The name of the receiver of the Message should be written at the top, and that of the writer at

ngi
the end of the Message.
(4) The date and time of writing the Message must be written at the top.
(5) A brief salutation must be written before writing the Message.

nee
(6) The Message must be brief, but no important point should be left out.
(7) The Message can be written in the Present, Past or the Future tense as the Message may
require.

rin
(8) No matter should be added from your side or any opinion given in the Message.
(9) In order to make the Message brief, short forms of words, phrases and abbreviations can be

g.n
used, as haven’t (for have not), U.N. (for the United Nations), U.S. (for United States of
America), Tel. (for Telephone).

‘money urgently needed,’ ‘not well’.

Format of the Message e
(10) If the sense is not distorted, half sentenses can be used, such as ‘no help yet’, ‘returning soon’,

Though there is no prescribed format for the Messages, the following format can be used :
t
Day and Date

Time

Receiver’s Name

Salutation

Message

Writer’s Name & Signature

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346 | L.W.C.E.

Model 1
Based on a Telephonic Talk
There is a telephonic talk between Rahul and Nandini. Nandini is just leaving for Delhi, and will
not be able to meet Santosh that day. Therefore she leaves a message for Santosh on the basis of the
following conversation between her and Rahul. Write the message.
Nandini : Hello !
Rahul : Could I speak to Mr. Santosh. I am Rahul at this end.
Nandini : I am sorry, Mr. Rahul. Mr. Santosh is not in the office at the moment.
Rahul : Oh, I have a very urgent message to give to him.
Nandini : Please, Mr. Rahul, give the message to me. I will write a note and leave it on his table
for his immediate attention. Is there anything serious ?

ww
Rahul : Yes, his father has a severe heart-attack. He has been admitted into the I.C.U. unit
Number 2, Safdarganj Hospital, New Delhi. His condition is very serious. Santosh must
immediately reach the Hospital. He must have some money with him. His mother is
already there, but she is all alone.

w
Nandini : I am just writing a note and leave it on his table. I’ll also try to get him on the phone.
Rahul
.Ea
: Thanks, Miss Nandini.
Message

Friday, 23rd Dec., 2011

11:30 a.m.
syE Very Urgent

Dear Mr. Santosh,

ngi
Your friend Rahul telephoned to inform you that your father has got a severe heart-stroke. He has

nee
been admitted to Safdarganj Hospital, I.C.U. No. 2. You must immediately reach the Hospital. Your
mother is alone there. Arrange to take some money with you.
Nandini.
Model 2
Again Based on a Telephonic Talk rin
g.n
There is a telephonic talk between Sharad and Kamini. Kamini is just ready to go to the Head
Office and is not likely to return before 5 p.m. There is a telephonic call for his colleague Devendra, but

e
he has not yet come to the office. Kamini receives the call and notes down the message to be conveyed
to Devendra as soon as possible. Therefore she leaves a message to this effect on Devendra’s table for
his immediate attention when he reaches the office.
Kamini : Hello ! t
Sharad : I am Sharad, wanting to speak to Devendra, please.
Kamini : I am Kamini, his colleague, speaking, Devendra has not yet come to the office. If there
is any message for him, please let me know it. I’ll arrange to pass on the message to him
as soon as possible.
Sharad : Yes, there is an emergency. Devendra’s parents have met with a serious accident. They
were going by their bike to attend some function. Their bike jumped off at a speed-
breaker and they fell down. Both of them have sustained serious fractures. Both of them
have been rushed to the Emergency ward at S.N. Hospital, Agra. He must reach there
immediately. He must inform his brothers also and ask them too to reach there.
Kamini : Yes, Mr. Sharad, I have noted your message. I’ll accordingly write a note to him which
he will receive as soon as he reaches here. Thanks for the care you have taken.
Sharad : Thank you, Madam.

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MESSAGES | 347

Message
For Immediate Attention
Monday, 25 Dec., 2011
10:15 a.m.
Dear Devendra,
There is an emergency call for you. Your friend Sharad has conveyed an emergency message for
you through the phone. Your parents, while going by their bike, have met with an accident. Both of
them have sustained fractures, and they have been rushed to the Emergency Ward, at S. N. Hospital.
You must reach there immediately and inform your brothers too.
Kamini.
Model 3
Based on a Telephonic Talk

ww Bharat and Bhushan are colleagues in the sales Department of a Company. Bharat is getting ready
to go to the field. Bhushan is likely to come to the office in the afternoon. But before Bharat leaves the

w
office, he receives a telephonic call for Bhushan. Bharat notes down the contents of the call and
accordingly leaves a written message on Bhushan’s table for his immediate attention.
Bharat
.Ea: Hello !
Bhushan’s Mother : I believe you are Bharat, speaking from the office. Where is Bhushan ? I am

syE
his mother at this end.
Bharat : Mother, Bhushan will reach here by the afternoon. I am also leaving the office
within fifteen minutes. If there is any message for Bhushan, please let me
know. I’ll leave the message on his table for his immediate attention.
Mother
ngi
: Yes, Bharat, convey the message to him that his sister with her two children is
reaching New Delhi Station from Bangalore by Shatabdi Express. The train

nee
reaches New Delhi at 6 O’clock in the evening. He must receive her at the
station at platform No. 2. She is in first class A.C. Coach, No. P-6. He should
confirm that the train is running on time. His sister has a heavy luggage and her

Bharat
two children.

rin
: Yes, Mother, don’t worry. I’ll leave an urgent message for him at his table. He
will receive it as soon as he reaches here.
Mother : So good of you, Bharat. My blessings !
Message g.n
Tuesday, 3rd Jan., 2012
11:30 a.m.
Urgent Message
e t
Dear Bhushan,
Your mother telephoned to me at 11:30 a.m. She has directed you to receive your sister and her two
children at New Delhi Railway Station at 6 O’clock in the evening at platform No. 2. She is travelling
by Shatabdi Express from Bengaluru. She has boarded first-class A.C. Coach No. P–6. She has heavy
luggage in addition to her two children. You must confirm the arrival time of the train and reach in
time.
Model 4
Based on a Personal Visit
You are Rohitash. You go to meet your uncle to discuss with him your future course of studies. But
your uncle is out of station and will be back by tomorrow morning. Therefore, you leave a message
with your aunt regarding the purpose of your visit. Write your message in detail.

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348 | L.W.C.E.

Message
Friday, 4 Dec., 2011
11:30 a.m.
Respected Uncle,
I came to discuss with you my further course of studies. You know, uncle, that I have passed 10 + 2
exam. of the C.B.S.E. Board with Science and Maths and secured 80% marks. Now I have three options
before me to pursue my studies further. First, I can try for my admission to Engineering and
Technological Course. Secondly, I can try for my admission to computer course leading to M.C.A.
Thirdly, I can go in for B.B.A. leading to M.B.A. I am unable to decide. Kindly consider my three
options carefully and give me your valuable advice. I’ll meet you again next week.
Rohitash.

ww Model 5
Based on a Personal Visit
You are Rashmi. Your marriage comes off next month. You want to make some purchases for that

w
purpose. For this you want to go to market with your friend named Namita. You go to Namita’s house,

.Ea
but she is not at home. She has gone to her college. Namita’s mother asks you to leave a message for
Namita, which she would deliver to her when she comes back from the college. Write your message.
Message
Friday, 15 Nov., 2011
1:30 p.m. syE
Dear Namita,

ngi
I came to meet you at your house but you had gone to college. I wanted to meet you with a purpose.
You know that my marriage comes off next month. Therefore, I want to make some purchases with

nee
you. I know you have a very refined and sophisticated taste. Your choice is excellent. I want to
purchase a few saries, a few suits and, of course, some latest items of cosmetics. Your advice and
choices would be of immense value to me. I’ll come on Sunday. Please keep yourself free in the
afternoon on Sunday.
Rashmi.
rin
Exercises for Practice
g.n
1. Read the following telephonic conversation and write the relevant Message based on it :
Rajiv Mehrotra : Hello !
e
Sandeep Mahajan : I am Sandeep Mahajan, representing Messrs Mahajan and Sons. I
wanted to talk to your Managing Director.
Rajiv Mehrotra : Our Managing Director, Mr. Pradeep Kohli, is out of station. Could I be
t
of any service to you ? I am Rajiv Mehrotra, his Secretary.
Sandeep Mahajan : Thanks a lot. We are wholesale dealers in all brands of Refrigerators.
But we have had no trade dealings with your company. I wanted to talk
to your M.D. in this connection.
Rajeev Mehrotra : Our M.D. will be back tonight and will remain in the office tomorrow all
the time. You can come any time.
Sandeep Mahajan : Kindly fix up my meeting at 2 O’clock tomorrow.
Rajeev Mehrotra : By chance I am also going out today. I shall not be able to meet the
M.D. However, I’ll leave a message for him and you can come
tomorrow at 2 O’clock.
Sandeep Mahajan : Thank you so much for this favour.

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MESSAGES | 349

2. Read the following telephonic conversation between Ramendra and Ashoka. Write a
message based on this conversations.
Ramendra Hello !
:
Ashoka Yes, Ashoka on this side. Can I know who I am talking to ?
:
Ramendra I am Ramendra, Mr. Bajpai’s nephew. I want to talk to uncle Bajpai.
:
Ashoka Mr. Bajpai is not in the office at this moment. He is expected to come back
:
within an hour.
Ramendra : I wanted to tell him that his younger son has developed high temperature. His
wife is getting very nervous. She wants that uncle should reach home
immediately. A doctor has to be called and the child cannot be left alone.
Ashoka : By chance, I have to leave office just now. Therefore I cannot meet Mr. Bajpai.
But I will leave a message to this effect on his table. He will reach home as soon

ww as he reads the message.

Ramendra : Yes, please do so. Thanks a lot.

w 3. Read the following telephonic conversation between Sita and Geeta. They plan to go to see

.Ea
a book-fair. They also want to take Seema with them. Write a relevant message to Seema
to this effect.
Sita : Hello !

Sita
syE
Geeta : Yes, Sita. I can recognize you by your voice.
: Do you know, Geeta, a very great Book-Fair is being held these days at the Pragati
Maidan ?

Sita ngi
Geeta : Yes, I know. Let us go to see it tomorrow.
: Yes, certainly. It would be fine if Pramila also goes with us.

Sita
nee
Geeta : But how can we inform her ? I tried her phone, but it is out of order.
: We can manage to inform her by sending a message to her through our peon.
Geeta : Yes, it is a good idea. Write to her that she should reach your home at 10 in the

Sita
morning. I shall also reach your home at the same hour.
: This is agreed. rin
g.n
4. Ramendra has received two appointment letters—One from the Birla Rayons situated in
Arunachal Pradesh, and the other from Volkart Brothers at Mumbai. The Birlas have offered

e
higher salary but Arunachal Pradesh is risky. The Volkart Brothers offer a slightly lower salary,
but Mumbai is a much better place to live in. Ramendra is in a fix, unable to decide which one
to join. He goes to seek the advice of his uncle, but the uncle is out of station for two days.
Ramendra decides to leave a message to his uncle, stating the causes of his dilemma and
t
seeking his advice. Draft the message on behalf of Ramendra.
5. You are Mahendra. Your friend Surendra has invited you to join his birth-day party in a nearby
town. You have already sent your acceptance. But at the last moment some unexpected
developments have prevented you from going there. You decide to send him your message,
stating the causes that have held you back and wishing him a very happy birthday and long life.
Draft the Message.
6. You are Mohini. You have already booked a ticket to fly from Delhi to England by Air India. At
the last minute the Air India flight is cancelled owing to some fault in its engine. All the
passengers of Air India are transferred to the British Airways. Therefore, you decide to send a
message to your father regarding this through your driver so that your father may not worry
about you. Draft the Message.

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42 Notices
The writing of Notices effectively and beautifully is an art in itself. The publication, propagation
and circulation of these Notices is an indispensable part of this art. These Notices are circulated for the
information and benefit of individuals, general public, commercial and industrial houses, educational

wwInstitutions, and different Government offices and their staff, and teachers and students. Authentic
information relating to Government notifications, functions, incidents and events, opening ceremonies,
holidays, and games and sports is publicised through them. New commercial and industrial develop-

w
ments are also brought to public notice through them. Therefore, Notices play a very important role in

.Ea
our day-to-day life. The Notices are either pasted on the Notice-Boards or published in the Newspapers.

Format of the Notices

syE
There is no definite or prescribed format for Notices. However the following format can be
adopted :

ngi
Name of the Institution/Dept./Organization/Office

NOTICE

Date nee
Descriptive Heading
rin
Full contents of the Notice
g.n
Signature
Name
e t
Designation of the Issuing officer & date

Essential Features of Notices :

Authentic Notices must have the following features, otherwise they would have no value or
relevance :
1. Notices must have at the top the name of the Department, Institution or Industrial unit which
publishes or circulates the particular notice. Often they are written on their printed letter pads.
2. Below them the word NOTICE must be written in broad capital letters in the centre.
3. Below it date should be written on the left hand side.
4. Then some beautiful and effective Heading should be written in the centre.

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NOTICES | 351

5. The Notice should be written thereafter. The notice should have all necessary details such as the
purpose of the Notice, important dates, duration of period, timings, venue and other conditions,
if any.
6. In the end, the name of the officer and his designation should be written. The Notice should then
be signed by the issuing officer with date.
Some important points that must be included in some typical types of Notices are give below :
Meetings Events
● Date ● Name/type of Event
● Time ● Date
● Venue ● Time
● Agenda ● Venue
Members Eligibility

ww
● ●
● Contact Numbers ● Contact Numbers
● Specific Instructions (if any) ● Specific Instructions (if any)

w
●
●
Tours and Exhibitions
Name
.Ea
Occasion and Purpose
●
●
Lost and Found
Article lost/found
Date

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● Venue ● Time (Approximate)
● Dates and Timings ● Place/Area where lost / found
● Means of Transport ● Identification of the article
●
●
●
Expenditure (estimated)
Duration
Contact Numbers ngi ●
●
Reward (if any)
Contact Numbers

● Specific Instructions (if any)

Call for Strike

nee Change of Name
● Name of Institution/Company/Deptt. (where call for
strike is given)
●
● rin
Present Name
Father’s Name
●
●
Personnel going on strike
Date/Duration of strike
●
●
New Name
g.n
Reason for change
●
●
●
●
Reason for going on strike
Demands
Justification
Promise for remaining non-violent and causing no
●
●
Address

e
Objection (if raised by any)
t
damage

Model 1
R. S. T. College, Raigarh
Notice
15-12-2011
Staff Meeting
An important meeting of the staff of the college will be held on December 17, 2011 in the college
Auditorium at 2 p.m. All the members of the Teaching Faculty are requested to attend the meeting. The
following is the agenda of the meeting :
(i) To pass the minutes of the previous meeting.

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352 | L.W.C.E.

(ii) To discuss and finalise the detailed programme of the Annual Sports of the college going to be
held in the first week of January, 2012.
(iii) Any other item with the permission of the chair.
R. S. Gaur
(Signature)
Staff Secretary
Model 2
Birla Spinning and Weaving Mills Ltd., Kanpur
Notice
24-10-2011
Grand Farewell to the Retiring Managing Director

ww As has already been decided by the Executive Committee of the Officers’ Club, a grand farewell
function to give a befitting Send-off to our Managing Director. Hon. R. S. Sodhi, is going to be held on
November 1, 2011 at the Club Premises at 2 p.m. All the members of the Officers’ Club are most

w
cordially invited to attend and grace the function. The members who want to speak on the occasion are

.Ea
requested to give their names to the undersigned by the 26th instt. The members are also expected to
bring their own garlands and bouquets to honour the Hon. Guest.
D. C. Pandit
(Signature)
General Manager
syE Model 3

ngi
Modern Public School, New Delhi
Notice
5-9-2011
nee
School Tour to Mumbai
As has already been decided, the School is arranging a tour from Delhi to Mumbai. Tentatively the

rin
Tour will start in the first week of October, 2011. The exact date depends upon the date of Reservation
(both sides) available in the Frontier Mail. The members of the staff and students who are interested in

g.n
joining the tour should give their names to the undersigned by the 10th instt. The tour would take about
five to six days and the estimated expenditure would come to about 2500/- per head. This would
include train fare and boarding and lodging in a good hotel. It would be an excellent educational tour to

e
the financial Capital of the Country. The tourists are advised to take light warm clothes with them. For
any other information the intrested persons can contact the undersigned personally or on his Mobile No.
9837653306.
R. K. Mehrotra
t
(Signature)
Principal

Model 4
Messrs Ramlal & Sons, Kanpur
Notice
5-1-2012
Handbag Lost. Reward to the Finder
While going from Sari Bazar to Lohamandi by my scooter between 4 and 5 in the evening of
January 4, 2012, I dropped my handbag somewhere on the way. It was a medium-size bag, gray in

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NOTICES | 353

colour, and closed with a chain. The bag contained many of my important letters, some account papers
and a bunch of keys. All these articles are of no use to anyone, but they are very important for me.
Anyone who may have found this bag is requested to inform me on my Mobile Number 9897357205.
The finder will be given a cash-reward of 1,000/-.
Shyam Manohar
(Signature)
Proprietor of the Firm

Model 5
Rajni Agrawal, Indira Nagar, Allahabad
Notice

ww15-3-2012
Change of Name

w Until now my name was Rajni Agrawal, daughter of Shri Padam Chand Agrawal, A-27, Indira
Nagar, Allahabad. But last month I was married into a Jain family. My husband’s name is Mr.

.Ea
Prabhakar Jain. Hence, according to Hindu Code of conduct and convention, my name has been
changed as Rajni Jain. Accordingly I am getting my name changed in all my educational certificates

syE
and Degrees and also in my Bank Accounts.
This is for general notification so that no one may have any objection or inconvenience on account
of this change in my name.
Rajni Agrawal
(Signature) ngi
Model 6
Workers’ Union nee
Ahmedabad Spinning and Weaving Mills,
Ahmedabad rin
15-1-2012
Notice
g.n
Notice for Indefinite Strike
e
This one month’s notice is hereby given to the Management of Ahmedabad Spinning and Weaving
Mills, Ahmedabad by the Workers’ Union that all the workers of class three and class four will go on an
t
indefinite strike with effect from the morning of February, 15, 2012, if their long pending grievances
are not removed to their entire satisfaction.
The workers have brought to the notice of the Management their grievances several times over the
period of the last two years, but the Management have taken no steps to remove their grievances. The
main demands of the workers are revision in their wages structure, payment of Annual Bonus, and
better provisions for their safety and welfare.
The Workers’ Union have been compelled to take this extreme step on account of the callous
indifference of the Management towards their genuine demands over such a long period.
Shiv Ram
(Signature)
President of the Workers’ Union

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354 | L.W.C.E.

Exercises
1. A Book-Fair is being held at the Pragati Maidan in New Delhi. Your College has decided to
visit the Fair in a group of interested teachers and students. In your capacity as the Principal of
D.A.V. College, Meerut, draft a Notice inviting the names of the teachers and students who are
willing to go to visit the Book-Fair.
2. You are Principal of the Science College, Allahabad. The students and teachers of the Botany
Department propose to go on an expedition to the Himalayas to collect rare plants and herbs.
Draft a Notice inviting the teachers and students who would like to join the expedition.
3. You are General Manager of a large limited Company. The Workers of the Company have
given a notice to go on an indefinite strike to pressurise the Management to accept their
demands. Draft a Notice inviting the senior officers of the Company to a meeting to consider

ww 4.
how to deal with the situation.
As the Registrar of a University, draft a Notice inviting Heads of all Departments to decide the

w
date for the commencement of the examinations and to draw the detailed schedule of dates and
examination centres.
5.
.Ea
The Paediatric doctors of Agra have decided to organize a Free Camp to check up all children
upto the age of ten. All kinds of clinical and pathological tests will be done by experts free of

syE
charge. As the Secretary of the Paediatricians Association, draft a public Notice giving full
details of date, venue, timings and other connected information to make the camp a great
success.
6.
ngi
Your original name is Ghure Lal. This name is very unaesthetic and has a nauseating
connotation. Therefore, you want to change your name, keeping in mind that your initials

nee
should not change. Draft a public Notice for publication in the Newspapers to announce this
change in your name.
7. You are R. K. Mehrotra. By chance you left your suit-case on the bus-stand and returned home

rin
by an auto-rickshaw. On reaching home, you realized the loss of the suit-case. Now draft a
Notice to be published in the Newspapers, detailing the colour, size and the type of the suit-

g.n
case and the main contents in it. Announce that any one who returned your suit-case, or
informed you about it on your telephone would be awarded 5000/- in cash.
8.

e
You are D. C. Rawat. Your small puppy has been missing for the last two days. Draft a Notice
to be published in the Newspapers, giving the details of its colour, breed, pet name, and any
other marks of its identification. Announce a reward of 2000/- to any one who brought back
your puppy or informed you about it on your telephone. t

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43 Diary-Writing
Diary-Writing is entirely a personal short Suddenly I woke up with a jerk and came to know
artistic piece of writing. It is not meant to be read that the engine of the bus had suddenly failed. It
by any one else. In the diary-entries the writer was a lonely place with bushes and thorny trees all

wwrecords some of his important and unforgettable

experiences, events, incidents, unexpected happy
or sad situations, or his experiences of success or
around. I came down from the bus and was
terribly frightened and shivering with cold. All the
passengers went away by different means or on

w
failure. They are recorded in one’s diary the same
day in a short and precise form. Since such impor-

.Ea
tant and unforgettable situations or incidents do
not happen in our life every day, diary-entries are
also not made every day. In course of time, these
foot. I was left all alone on that pitch dark night.
Suddenly I saw a man coming towards me on his
bicycle. I froze with fear. The man came and got
down from his bicycle by my side. He politely
addressed me as ‘sister’ and said that the place

to a certain extent. syE

entries take the form of the author’s autobiography

Some Common Rules of Diary-Entries

where I was standing was very dangerous. He
said, “Sister, if you could trust me, I would take
you to my home about two kilometers from there

Since Diary-Writing is entirely a personal

matter, there are no definite rules or any prescri- ngi by my bicycle, and in the morning I would get you
a bus to Agra.” He appeared to be a cultured,
polite and refined person. I had no option but to
bed format for writing the same. However, there
are certain points which every diary-writer must
keep in mind. These points are the following : nee
accept his offer. He took me to his home. It was a
one-room mud - house. After offering me a cup of
tea, he made me sleep in his only room, and
(1) First of all, Day and Date should be written.
(2) Below that the time of entry should be rin
himself slept in the open verandah outside. At
day-break, he came to my bed with a cup of tea
written.
(3) Thereafter some meaningful and artistic head-
ing for the incident or experience should be g.n
and woke me up. I saw in his eyes light of
brotherly love and sympathy. He offered me light
breakfast very affectionately, and then accom-
given.
(4) Then the incident or experience should be
recorded briefly but artistically and effecti-
vely.
e
panied me to the nearly bus-stop to get a bus to
Agra, I was so overwhelmed by his affection and
kindness that I could not ask even his name or
address. To me he was an Angel of a Man. t
Preeti Dube.
(5) In the end the writer should put his signature.
Model 2
Model 1 Diary-Entry
Diary-Entry Sunday, 20 Jan., 2012
Wednesday, 15 Jan., 2012 9:00 a.m.
8:30 p.m.
Knocking at the Door at Midnight
Angel of a Man Today I was all alone at home because my
I am a young girl of 19, a student of Rajasthan parents had gone out to attend a marriage. I
University, Jaipur. I was travelling by night-bus studied till 10 O’clock in the night and then bolted
from Jaipur to Agra. I was on a sleeper-berth. all the doors and windows very carefully, and

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356 | L.W.C.E.

retired to bed. It was my first chance to sleep all outside. This was the secret of the knocking at the
alone in my home. I felt frightened, but I slept. door. I laughed at my folly.
Around midnight I heard a knocking at the door. I Rashmi Agrawal.
wondered who could have knocked at the door at
that hour of the night. I did not move. Again there Exercises
was a knocking. I could not have the courage to Make Diary-Entries on the following topics—
ask who was knocking. He may be a robber or a
decoit wanting to enter into the house. I thought of 1. How I miss my mother !
calling the police, but I did not have the telephone 2. Faith in God’s justice.
number of the police-station. I also thought of 3. How I escaped being drowned !
calling some relation or friend by the phone, but I
had become so nervous that I forgot all telephone 4. My first day in the College.
numbers. I lay awoke, frozen with fear. The 5. When I topped in the I.A.S. examination.

wwknocking at the door continued the whole night. I

counted minute by minute until it was morning.
When I heard people walking on the road in front
of my door, I collected all my courage and opened
6. The day I retired from my service.
7. My encounter with a robber.

w
the door. Then I discovered that I had hung a bent

.Ea
iron bar on the hook of the door, and this bar was
beating against the door by the breeze blowing
8. How I was cheated by a friend !
9. When I won a Gold in the Olympics.
10. How my luck favoured me !

syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
e t

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44 Telegram
Telegram is a Government means of sending messages from one place to another speedily. In this
system messages are sent from one telegraph office to another telegraph office in a code language. The
receiving telegraph office deciphers the code language into normal language and sends the message to
the addressee through the postman. Since the telegraph office is a Government Department, it has a

wwprescribed form on which the telegram is sent. The rate of charges is also fixed by the Government. In
the telegram there is a fixed charge for every word in the message as well as in the address of the
addressee. Therefore, messages are sent through the telegram in as few words as possible. In the modern

w
age mobile phones, S.M.S., Fax, E.mail, etc. have become so popular that telegrams have become
largely outdated. Still thousands of telegrams are sent everyday. Very urgent messages such as Interview

.Ea
letters, Appointment letters, Intimations of serious ailments, births and deaths are sent by the telegram.

The Format of the Telegram Form

Name and Address

syE
Name
INDIAN POST AND TELEGRAPH

of the Addressee Address

ngi
Message : nee
rin
g.n
Senders’ Name :
Sender’s Name and Address
(Not to be telegraphed)
e t
Common Rules of Telegrams :
(1) Every word in the telegram is written in capital letters.
(2) In the message only important words are written, such as names, nouns, main verbs, adjectives,
etc.
(3) Articles, Prepositions, Adverbs, helping Verbs without which the message can be well under-
stood, should be avoided.
(4) Punctuation marks are not often used. In place of Mark of Fullstop (.), the word ‘Stop’ is
written and it is counted as one word.
(5) Numerals are avoided as far as possible. Unavoidable numerals are written in words. Timings
are also written in words, such as ‘8 a.m.’ should be written as ‘EIGHT MORN’.

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358 | L.W.C.E.

(6) If there are small squares drawn on the form, only one word should be written in one square.
(7) In the last column the full name and address of the sender should be written. This is not to be
telegraphed, and therefore there are no charges for it.
Model 1
You are Rajni Kant. You are posted as a lecturer in Bombay University, Mumbai. Your parents live
at Varanasi. Your mother has a serious heart-stroke. Her condition is serious. She has been admitted to
Gandhi Memorial Hospital. Your father sends you a telegram to come immediately. Draft the telegram
in the following form supplied by the Post and Telegraph Department.
INDIAN POST AND TELEGRAPH
Name and Address Name : RAJNIKANT
of the Addressee Address : ENGLISH LECTURER

ww Message :
BOMBAY UNIVERSITY
MUMBAI

wMOTHER
GANDHI
HAS

.Ea
HOSPITAL
HEART
COME
STROKE
FIRST
SERIOUS
MEANS
ADMITTED

syE
Sender’s Name : HARI SHANKAR
Sender’s Name and Address Shri Hari Shankar Gupta
(Not to be telegraphed)

ngi
2/30, Shankar Sadan, M. G. Road
Varanasi

nee
Model 2
You are Rama Shankar, Resident of 2/41, Gandhi Nagar, Chennai. Your brother, Hari Shankar, is
studying in Indira Gandhi University, Pune. He is a student of M.B.A. Final Semester. An interview

rin
letter has come for him. He is required to attend the interview for the post of Marketing Executive by
the Tata Industries, Tata Nagar, Bihar. Draft a telegram, directing your brother to attend the interview
on January 15, 2012 at 11 a.m. in the office of the Managing Director.
INDIAN POST AND TELEGRAPH g.n
Name and Address
of the Addressee
Name : HARI SHANKAR
Address : MBA FINAL
INDIRA GANDHI UNIVERSITY
PUNE
e t
Message :
YOUR INTERVIEW TATA INDUSTRIES TATA
NAGAR FIFTEEN JANUARY MARKETING EXECUTIVE
ATTEND INTERVIEW ELEVEN MORN MANAGING
DIRECTOR OFFICE

Sender’s Name : RAMA SHANKAR

Sender’s Name and Address Shri Rama Shankar
(Not to be telegraphed) 2/41, Gandhi Nagar, Chennai

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TELEGRAM | 359

Exercises
1. Draft a telegram to be sent by a father to his son that he has qualified in the written examination
for I.A.S. He should come home immediately and prepare for the Interview to be held early next
month.
2. Draft a telegram to be sent by a father to his son, informing him that he has been appointed as
an Engineer in Birla Cotton Mills, Pilani. He has to join within a week. He must come home
immediately.
3. Draft a telegram to be sent by a Junior Engineer to the Chief Engineer, P.W.D., Allahabad,
requesting him to extend his leave by four days because his father is still seriously ill.
4. Draft a telegram to be sent by Prem Shankar Agrawal to his brother Radhey Shyam Agrawal
informing him that their grandmother has expired. He must come by the earliest train available.

ww 5. You are Pramod Mahajan, General Manager, Paliwal Industries Ltd. Gorakhpur. Your Sales
Executive Rahul Jain has gone to Lucknow. Send a telegram to him to attend an urgent meeting

w
at Kanpur on 15th January, 2012 before returning to the Head Quarters.
6. You are Tara Chand Maheshwari. Your brother Chandra Bhan has been promoted as Marketing

.Ea
Executive, Tata Industries, Jamshedpur. He is required to report there immediately. Send a
telegram to your brother asking him to proceed to Jamshedpur immediately instead of returning
home.

syE
7. You are Prem Rajdhan, Manager, Human Resources and Recruitment, Reliance Petro Chemi-
cals, Mumbai. You have to call Rajesh Dixit telegraphically for interview on 10th January, 2012

ngi
at 10 a.m. in your office for the post of Sales Executive. Draft a telegram for the same.
8. You are Sanjaya Khurana, Managing Director, Hindustan Lamps Limited, Ludhiana. Your

nee
Marketing Executive, Mr. Harish Kumar, is on a tour over Rajasthan. You have called a very
urgent meeting of all the Marketing Executives on the 15th Jaunary, 2012 at 11:30 in your
office. Draft a telegram asking Mr. Harish Kumar to cut short his tour and return to attend the
meeting.
rin
g.n
e t

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45 Letter-Writing
Letter-Writing is an art. Therefore as in the cultivation of any other art, the letter-writer has also to
employ all his intellectual and emotional faculties to get perfection in the art of letter-writing. Letters
are the most important means for developing, promoting and strengthening family ties, social

wwrelationships and cordial contacts in industrial, trading and business circles. Letters also reveat the
writer’s cultural level, refinement and command over the language. Therefore it is essential to learn,
practise and acquire perfection in the art of writing letters to be successful in any field of life.

w Keeping all these points in view, we are giving below the accepted formats of all kinds of letters

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along with some models of all types. There are three main types of letters :
(i) Informal Letters or Personal Letters

syE
(ii) Formal Letters or Official Letters
(iii) Business Letters
The above noted Informat or Personal letters include letters amongst family-members, friends

ngi
and relations and letters of personal greetings, good-wishes, congratulations, invitations, sympathies
and condolences, etc.

nee
The Formal letters include administrative, official, and Government letters and applications.
Letters of social importance published in the Newspapers are also formal letters.
The Business letters include all types of letters relating to industry, trade, business, imports,
exports, etc.

rin
All these different types of letters have a set Format and also use some accepted or formal words,

g.n
phrases or even sentences. Therefore it is necessary to know the formats and formalities of all types of
letters. This will keep you in the front line of personal and social culture.

(1) Format of Personal Letters

There are eight main parts of the Personal Letter. They are :
(i) The Address of the Sender :
e
The sender of the letter must write his full Postal address together with his Telephone Number at
t
the top of the letter on the right hand side. This is necessary to enable the recipient of the letter to reply
to the letter by post or telephone.
(ii) The Date :
The writer must write the date of the letter below the address. The date can be written in the
following three ways :
5-6-2012
5th June, 2012
June 5, 2012
If the writer wishes he can write the day also along with the date in the following way,
Friday, 5th June, 2012.

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LETTER-WRITING | 361

Format of Informal or Personal Letter

(i) The Address of The Sender
(ii) The Date

(iii) The Saluation

(iv) The body of the letter (divided into Paragraphs)

(v) The Subscription

ww (vii) Enclosures (if any)

(viii) The name and address of the person
(vi) The Signature

w to whom the letter is sent.

.Ea
Note : A new fashion has been started these days to write the Subscription and Signature on the
left-hand side. Perhaps this has been done because this is more convenient to the typist. However,
both ways are correct.

(iii) The Salutation : syE

The Salutation written on the left-hand side is a very important part of the letter. It shows the

ngi
writer’s closeness to the person to whom the letter is written. Different categories of people are offered
salutation in different ways. The more common salutations are these :

nee
● To Father, Mother, Elder Brothers and Sister. Uncles, Aunts and other elderly relations—
My dear Father / Papa / Daddy / Uncle / Brother

rin
Dear Mother / Mummy / Aunt / Sister.
Respected Father / Mother / Uncle / Aunt, etc.

g.n
(This is, however, not accepted in Western culture)
● From Father, Mother and other elderly relations to their children or younger ones—

●
My dear son / daughter
Dear Raju / Renu
My dear daughter / sister Richa
Between Brothers, Sisters and Friends
e t
My dear brother / sister
My dear brother Saurabh
My dear sister Lahar
My dear Gaurav / My dear friend Gaurav
● To your senior colleagues, teachers or professional friends.
Sir, Dear Sir, Dear Sirs (Remember, we cannot write My Sir, My Dear Sir/Sirs)
(iv) Body of the Letter :
This is the main part of the letter. It contains the matter, message or contents of the letter. It can
have several paragraphs. It has three broad divisions—
● Opening sentence of the letter

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362 | L.W.C.E.

● The main matter or contents

● The closing paragraph or sentence
The following can be the common opening sentences of a letter :
● Thanks for your kind and affectionate letter received just now / last week / a couple of days
ago / on the 10th March.
● Many many thanks for your kind letter. I am sorry I could not reply to it earlier, as I was out of
station / owing to very heavy engagements / owing to pressure of studies / work.
● I was so glad/delighted / pleased to receive your letter. I was even more delighted to read its
contents.
● Received your long awaited / eagerly awaited letter only yesterday. You can’t realize what a
relief it gave to me.

ww ● I am sure you will be pleased to read the contents of this letter.

● I have not received any letter from you since long / for a long time. It is really very unkind and
thoughtless of you. Perhaps you don’t know how much I love you and care for you.

w ● I am sorry for not having replied to your kind letter so long / for such a long time. The delay

.Ea
was due to overwork / pressure of work / very heavy pressure of studies. But this does not
mean that I love you in any way less / remember you in any was less / care for you in any way
less.

syE
● I beg your pardon for this inordinate delay in replying to your letter. In fact, I was out of
station / I was not quite well / I was overbusy in connection with my sister’s marriage. This
slackness will not occur in future.

ngi
The following can be the closing sentences of the letter :
● With sweet remembrances and love.
● With best wishes / With best wishes and love.
● With heartiest love and blessings. nee
● Wishing your all the best.
● With regards to you and Mummy.
rin
● With warmest personal regards.
● With regards to your parents and love to the younger ones.
g.n
sisters.
● Hoping to receive an early reply from you / Expecting an early reply.
● Kindly reply by return of post.
e
● Kindly convey my regards to your parents and love and good wishes to younger brothers and

t
● Trusting this finds you in the best of health and happiness.

(v) Subscription :
At the end of the letter, on the right-hand side, subscription is written above the signature of the
writer of the letter. This is also an important part of the letter. Different types of subscriptions are
written for different persons to whom letters are written. The more common forms of subscription are
these :
● In letter to Father, Mother, Brothers, Sisters and other elderly family members—
Yours affectionately,
Affectionately yours,
Your affectionate son / daughter / nephew / niece, etc.

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LETTER-WRITING | 363

(But remember, we cannot write ‘your affectionately’ or ‘affectionately your’. Also we should not
add apostrophes (’s) in ‘Yours’)
● In letters from Father, Mother, Brothers, Sisters and other elderly members of the family to their
children or younger ones—
Yours affectionately,
Affectionately Yours,
Your affectionate father / mother / uncle / aunt, etc.
● In letters between Brothers and Sisters—
Your loving brother,
Your loving sister.
● In letters between friends—

ww Yours sincerely,
Sincerely yours,

●
w Yours very sincerely,

.Ea
Your loving friend.
In letters to senior Colleagues, Officers, Businessmen and Professionals—
Yours faithfully,
(vi) Signature : syE
ngi
Below the Subscription the writer should put his signature. The signature should be full and clear.
If the letter is typed, signature must be put below the typed name. If some photocopies of the letter are
to be sent, they should be properly signed.
(vii) Enclosures :
nee
If some Enclosures such as cheques, drafts, certificates, etc. are to be sent with the letter, they

rin
should be properly enclosed, and their list should be given on the left-hand side below the ‘Enclosures’.
(viii) Address of the Recipient :

g.n
The name and address of the recipient of the letter should also be written on the left-hand side.
(ix) P. S. :
e
Sometimes some important point is left out from the main body of the letter. This can be written
very briefly under P.S. (Postscript) on the left-hand side of the letter and signed. But it is not a good t
practice and should be avoided as far as possible.
(2) Format of Official Letters
Official letters have eleven main parts :
(i) The Address of the Sender :
If the letter is written on the printed letter-pad, it is not necessary to write the address again.
(ii) The Date :
Below the address, date of the letter should be written in the manner given under Personal letters.
(iii) Designation and Address of the recipient :
The writer must write the Reference Number of his letter, such as—Ref. No. 253/Misc/2011-12.

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364 | L.W.C.E.

Format of Formal or Official Letters

(i) The Address of the Sender

(With Telephone No., if any)
(ii) The Date
(iii) Designation and Address of the Recipient
(iv) Reference No.
(v) Subject
(vi) The Saluation
(vii) The Body of the Letter (divided into Paragraphs)
(vii) The Subscription

ww (ix) The Signature

(With Official Stamp)

w (x) Enclosures (if any)

(xi) Copies to be sent, if any

.Ea
Note : As in Personal and Business Letters, a new trend has been started to write the
Subscription and Signature on the left-hand side. However, both ways are correct.
(v) Subject :
syE
It is a very important point in Official letters, Under it, it is briefly written what is the letter about,

● Application for the Post of Electrical Engineer.

● Application for the Post of Lecturer in English.
ngi
or uner what reference the letter is being written. Here we give some common examples of the Subject.

● Regarding non-payment of Quarterly Premium.

nee
● Non-compliance of our letter No. CH/36-145, dated July 5, 2011.
● Your letter of Enquiry, dated Sept. 2, 2011.
● Non-receipt of Marks-sheet/Transfer orders/Budget allocation, etc.
rin
● Complaint regarding frequent failure of power supply.

● Settlement of Telephone Bills. g.n

(vi) Salutation :
e
In Official letters there is a fixed form of salutation to be written on the left-hand side.
● To a Senior Officer of one’s own or any other Department or to one’s teacher— t
Sir,
● To one’s equal or junior colleague—
Dear Sir,
● To the Head of any Department—
Sir,
(vii) Body of the Letter :
This is the most important part of the letter. It may have several paragraphs. The first paragraph
with which a letter begins is very important. Some common sentences with which an official letter can
begin are these :
● Respectfully I beg to submit that ………

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LETTER-WRITING | 365

● I have the honour to submit that ………

● With reference to your advertisement for the post of ……, I beg to offer my candidature for the
same.
● With reference to your advertistement in The Times of India, dated ……… I beg to apply for the
post of ………
(viii) The Subscription :
As in Personal letters, Subscription is written on the right-hand side above the signature. In official
letters or applications, the subscription is always written as:
Yours faithfully,
(ix) The Signature :

ww The signature below the Subscription must be complete and clear. The designation of the signing
authority must be written below the signature and official stamp must be affixed.

w
(x) Enclosures :

.Ea
Enclosures, if any, must be enclosed with the letter, and the list of the Enclosures must be given on
the left-hand side below this head.
(xi) The Copy :

syE
If Copies of the letter are to be sent to some other authorities, their list must be given as under :

ngi
Copy to :
(i) The District Magistrate for his information and necessary action.

nee
(ii) The Governor for favour of his information and necessary direction.
(iii) The Vice-Chancellor for favour of immediate action.
(3) Format of Business Letters
The Business Letters also have eleven main parts. They are :
rin
(i) The Address of the Sender :

g.n
If the letter is written on the printed Letter-head of the Firm. It is not necessary to write the address

already printed, they should all be written at the top on the right-hand side.
(ii) The Date :
e
of the sender again. The Telephone and Fax Numbers too, if available, should be written here. If not

The date of the letter must be written on the right-hand side below the address of the sender. The
t
method of writing the date is the same as explained under Personal letters.
(iii) Name and Address of the receiving Firm :
The name and address of the Firm or its officer concerned should be written on the left-hand side of
the letter. The home address of the officer should not be written.
Note—The Firms which are named after the names of some persons are addressed as Messrs, e.g.
Messrs Rajkishore & Sons, or Messrs Volkart Brothers. But the Firms which are named impersonally
are not addressed as Messrs, e.g. The Glove Travellers.
(iv) Reference Number :
The Reference No. of the letter must also be written, as No. 358/Orders/2010-11.

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366 | L.W.C.E.

Format of Business Letters

(i) The Address of the Sender
(with Telephone No., if any)
(ii) The Date
(iii) Designation and Address of the Recipient
(iv) Reference No.

(v) Subject
(vi) The Salutation
(vii) The Matter of the Letter (divided into Paragraphs)

ww (vii) The Subscription

(ix) The Signature

w (x) Enclosures (if any)

.Ea
(xi) Copies to be sent, if any
Note : As in Personal and Official Letters, a new trend has been started to write the Subscription

syE
and Signature on the left-hand side. However, both ways are correct.

(v) Subject :

ngi
It is a very important part of the Business Letter. It states in the minimum possible words the topic,
subject or reference under which the letter is being written. Some such common topics are these :
● Non-payment of outstanding bills.

nee
● Second reminder for immediate payment of pending bills.
● Non-execution/Non-compliance of our order No. 3512/Stab.2012, dated 10.6.2012.
● Your letter of Enquiry, dated 14.3.2012.
● Complaint regarding manufacturing defect in the T.V. supplied by you.
rin
● Settlement of Accounts.
● Non-payment of Quarterly interest. g.n
(vi) Salutation :
e
Salutation is written on the left-hand side of the letter. The wordings of salutation in Business
letters are fixed. They are : t
● For some officer of the Firm
Dear Sir
● For the firm
Dear Sirs
or
Gentlemen.
(vii) Body of the Letter :
This is the main part of the letter. It can have several paragraphs. The first sentence written in the
letter has great importance. Some common and popular sentences with which such letters can begin are
these :

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LETTER-WRITING | 367

● We draw your kind attention to our letter No.……, dated ……, and write to state that ………
● Kindly refer to your letter No………, and dated …………
● This is in response to your circular letter No ………, Dated …………
● This refers to your letter No ………, dated ………
● This is to bring to your kind notice that ………
● We write to invite your attention to …………
(viii) The Subscription :
The subscription is written on the right-hand side above the signature of the sender. In these letters
subscription can be written in one of the following ways :
Yours faithfully,

ww or
Yours truly,
or

w Faithfully yours,
(ix) The Signature :
.Ea
The letter should be properly and legibly signed. The designation of the signing authority and the

syE
stamp of the Firm must be affixed.
(x) Enclosures :

ngi
Enclosures, if any, such as cheques, drafts, R.R. etc. should be properly enclosed with the letter,
and their list must be given under Enclosures on the left-hand side.

nee
(xi) Copy :
If the Copies of the letter are to be sent to some other authorities, they must be listed on the left-
hand side as follows :
Copy to :
(i) The General Manager for his information and necessary action. rin
(ii) The Secretary for his kind information.
g.n
Some Model Letters
Personal Letters
e
(1) Letter from a son to his father, informing him of his preparations for the final examination
and asking him for some more money.
t
Room No. 41,
A. N. Jha Hostel
Allahabad University, Allahabad
January 10, 2012

Respected Papa/My dear Father,

I am sorry I could not write to you for such a long time. But there is nothing to worry about
me. I was only busy with my preparations for the final examination. My Practical examinations
finished only yesterday. You will be glad to know that I have done excellently well at the Practi-
cals.

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368 | L.W.C.E.

Our classes are going on in full swing these days. I am trying my best to finish my course in all
subjects well before the examinations. I go to consult my teachers as and when I need their help
and guidance. All my teachers are very kind and considerate to me. On the basis of my preparations
I feel confident that I would get a first class. The rest depends on my luck and your blessings.
Papa, I am running short of money these days. I have to settle the account of the Hostel. I have
also to buy a few books which I need very urgently. Would you be kind enough to send me rupees
five hundred more to meet these extra expenses ?
I very much remember Mummy and youndger brother and sister. Kindly convery my regards
to Mummy and love to Preeti and Rajat.
With regards to you,
Yours affectionately,

ww To
(Sd.) Ramendra

w Shri P. K. Dubey
3/25, Patel Nagar,
Lucknow
.Ea
syE
(2) Letter from the father to the son in reply to the above letter.
3/25, Patel Nagar,

ngi Lucknow
January 14, 2012
My dear Ramendra / My dear Son,

nee
Received your letter only yesterday. We are all very glad to learn that you have done so well at
the Practical examinations. Our best wishes and blessings are ever with you. Hard and sincere

rin
labour never goes waste. Luck also favours those who work hard. Keep on working in the same
spirit. You will certainly get a first class.

g.n
Your Mummy and Preeti and Rajat also remember you very much, but we didn’t write to your
because we didn’t want to disturb you in your studies. We are all eagerly looking forward to your
coming home after the exams.

e
As desired, I am enclosing herewith a Bank Draft for rupees five hundred. Don’t hesitate to
write if you need more money.
Your Mummy sends you her blessings, and Preeti and Rajat say ‘Hello’ to you.
t
With love and blessings,
Yours affectionately,
(Sd.) R. K. Dubey
To
Shri Ramendra Dubey,
Room No. 41,
A. N. Jha Hostel,
Allahabad University,
Allahabad

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LETTER-WRITING | 369

(3) Letter of Greeings to a friend on New Year’s Day

25, Saket
Lucknow
January 1, 2012

My dear friend Deepander,

Please accept my warmest greetings and felicitations on the New Year’s Day. May the New
Year bring you all the success, happiness, progress and prosperity you have ever aspired to
achieve! May God fulfil all your wishes, ambitions, dreams and aspirations in the New Year ! May
lock favour you in every walk of life and shower upon you the choicest boons and blessings every
day in the New Year.

ww With best wishes once again,

Yours sincerely,
(Sd.) Lalit Kumar Saxena

w To

.Ea
Shir Deepander Roy,

Kolkata
syE
2/46, Sarkar Enclave,

(4) Reply to the above letter of greetings

ngi 2/46, Sarkar Enclave,

Kolkata

nee
5th January, 2012
My dear Lalit,
I am really very grateful to you for your New Year Greetings. I highly value your sentiments

rin
expressed for me and reciprocate the same to you most sincerely and earnestly. I pray to God to
bless you with every boon and blessing man can ever aspire for. May you and your family progress
and prosper and enjoy the best of health and happiness every day and all days of the New Year !
Kindly remember me to your parents and convey my best regards to them.
Wishing you all the best once again, g.n
To
Shri Lalit Kumar Saxena
e
Yours affectionately,
(Sd.) Deepander Roy
t
25, Saket,
Lucknow

(5) Letter of Congratulations from one’s elder brother

18, Civil Lines,
Agra
June 5, 2012
My dear Rajesh,

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370 | L.W.C.E.

I was extremely delighted to find your Roll Number and name in the list of successful
candidates selected for admission to M. B.B.S. course in Uttar Pradesh. The result was published in
‘The Hindustan Times’ yeserday. I convey to you my heartiest congratulations and blessings for
your brilliant success.
I know your success is well deserved. This success has not come by chance. You laboured
very hard for it. Your sincere and hard labour have been justly rewarded. I just repeat what I have
told you so often that hard labour and sincere efforts never go waste. Remember this for yet more
brilliant success in the career of your life.
Now you have a long and brilliant career before you. Make all efforts sincerely and earnestly
in the pursuit of your studies and even thereafter to shine out with extra-brilliance in the medical
profession.
My best wishes are ever with you.

ww Yours affectionately,
(Sd.) R. K. Dewan

w
To
Shri Rajesh Kumar Dewan,

.Ea
25, Kacheri Road,
Aligarh

syE
(6) Reply to the above letter
25, Kacheri Road,
Aligarh

My dear brother, ngi 10th June, 2012

nee
I was so glad to receive your affectionate congratulatory letter. My success is largely due to
your encouragement and help. If you had not given me full financial support so liberally, I would
not have been able to devote myself to my studies without any kind of worry or botheration. I
assure you I shall pursue my studies with the same zeal and zest.

rin
I shall spare no pains to maintain my academic record and to imrpove it further. I shall never

g.n
betray your trust and confidence you have reposed in me.
Kindly convey my warmest regards to Bhabhiji and love to Raju and Lovely.
With my warm personal regards,

To
Shri R. K. Dewan
e
Yours affectionately,
(Sd.) Rajesh Kumar Dewan
t
18, Civil Lines,
Agra,

(7) Letter of Sympathy

2/42, Civil Lines
Lucknow
June 22, 2012
My dear Ravi,
I was so shocked to learn from your brother this morning that you have sustained a fracture on
the knee-cap of your right leg in a train derailment. I am told that plaster has been applied on the
injured leg. As a result you cannot move out from your bed. This is indeed a great ordeal, specially

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LETTER-WRITING | 371

for an active person like you. I express my heart-felt sympathies for you and I pray to God for your
early recovery. My parents join with me in sending their sympathies to you and wishing your a
very speedy recovery.
My dear friend, have courage and patience to put up with this situation with fortitude. Also
pray to God and have full faith in His justice and mercy, for anything could have happened in a
train accident like this. We must all be thankful to the Almighty for His mercy.
Kindly convery my regards to your parents.
With best wishes,
Yours sincerely,
Ramendra
To
Shri Ravi Shanker Mathur,

ww 37, Swaroop Nagar

Kanpur.

w
(8) Reply to the above

.Ea
37, Swaroop Nagar,
Kanpur
June 27, 2012

syE
My dear friend Ramendra,
I heartily thank you for your kind and affectionate letter. Letters of sympathy and good wishes
from my dear friends like you give so much of support and moral courage. By God’s mercy and

ngi
good wishes of my friends, my fracture is simple. Doctors hope that I shall recover completely in
about three months.

nee
However, confined to bed as I am, I feel very lonely and helpless. Time seems to creep very
slowly. Whenever you happen to come to this side, please do come to me and stay with me for a
day or two. Your company would give me much consolation and moral support.
Please convey my regards to your parents.
rin
g.n
Thanking you once again,
Yours sincerely,
Ravi
To
Shri Ramendra Singh Chauhan,
2/42, Civil Lines,
Lucknow
e t
(9) Letter of Condolences
3/9, H. A. L. Colony,
Bhopal
Nov. 23, 2011
My dear Rakesh,
I was deeply grieved to learn of your revered father’s sudden demise last week. One can easily
realise what an irreparable loss and void the death of one’s father causes in one’s life and family.
But God’s will is supreme, and one has to accept it with courage, fortitude and equanimity. I send

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372 | L.W.C.E.

you my beart-felt condolences and pray to God to give you strength enough to bear this great
family tragedy with courage and faith in God. I also pray to God to grant peace to the departed
soul. My parents join with me in sending their condolences to you and your family.
Sharing your grief,
Yours sincerely,
Trimohan
To
Shri Rakesh Kumar Jain
35, Ashok Nagar,
Gwalior
(10) Reply to the above
35, Ashok Nagar,

ww Gwalior
Nov. 27, 2011

w My dear Trimohan,
I received your letter of condolences yesterday. My father’s death was a terrible blow to the

.Ea
whole family, but there was no way out against God’s will. However, your letter gave me much
comfort and consolation. I must express my gratitude to you and your parents for the same.
Thanking you,

syE Yours sincerely,

Rakesh
To
Shri Trimohan Verma ngi
3/9, H. A. L. Colony,
Bhopal
nee
(11) Letter of Invitation
rin 2A/5, Shanti Kunj

g.n
Dehradun
5th September, 2011
My dear Rajan,
e
I am glad to inform you that the marriage of my elder brother has been fixed to be held on the
15th of October, 2011. Our formal letter of invitation will reach you in due course of time. But I am
writing this personal letter well in advance so that you may get sufficient time to take leave and
t
arrange for train reservation. I shall not accept amy excuse; you have got to come. I need not add
that your presence would add so much to my joy and happiness on this auspicious occasion.
I do hope you will give me the pleasure of your company.
With best wishes to you and personal regards to your parents.
Yours affectionately,
Shyam Sunder
To
Shri Rajendra Kumar Saxena
3/21 A, Indra Bhavan,
Chawk, Allahabad

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LETTER-WRITING | 373

(12) Affirmative reply to the above

3/21 A, Indra Bhavan,
Chawk, Allahabad
10th September, 2011
My dear Shyam,
I was so glad to receive your affectionate letter yesterday, I was delighted to learn that you
elder brother is getting married next month. I will certainly make it a point to attend his marriage
ceremony. I am going to apply for leave from my office very soon, and I believe there will be no
difficulty in getting my train reservation. I shall give you the details of my journey after getting my
reservation.
I need not say that I shall be intensely happy to be in your company for a couple of days. I’ll

ww certainly not miss this happy chance.

Kindly convey my warmest personal regards to your parents, and my heartiest congratulations
to your brother in advance.

w To
.Ea
Shri Shyam Sunder Sharma,
Yours affectionately,
Rajan

syE
2A/5, Shanti Kunj,
Dehradun
(13) Negative reply to the above
ngi 35, Alok Nagar

nee Tilak Road

Kanpur
12th September, 2011
My dear Shyam,
rin
I was so delighted to receive your affectionate letter. It gave me great pleasure to learn that the

g.n
marriage of your elder brother takes place on the 15th of October. I am grateful to you for
remembering me and inviting me so affectionately to attend this marriae ceremony. I should have
been extremely happy to attend this marriage and meet you on such a happpy occasion after such a

e
long time. But, as you know, I am preparing for Indian Administrative Services examination, and
by chance the said exams begin from the 10th of October. In fact, I have a Paper on the 15th
October itself. This prevents me from attending your brother’s marriage and sharing your joy and
happiness. I hope you will realize my difficulty and pardon me for my inability to have the pleasure
t
of your company. However, as soon as I am free from the exams, I’ll come to you and stay with
you for a couple of days.
Kindly convey my felicitatons, my congratulations, and my best wishes to your brother and his
bride. Also please convey my regards to your parents.
With best wishes,
Yours affectionately,
Rahul
To
Shri Shyam Sunder Sharma
2A/5, Shanti Kunj,
Dehradun

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374 | L.W.C.E.

Models of Matrimonial Letters, Invitations, Bio-Data

and Advertisements
(1) Model of Wedding Invitation
Mr. & Mrs. Madan Lal Ashish most cordially solicit the pleasure of your company on
the auspicious occasion of the marriage of their grand-daughter.

Pratibha
(Daughter of Mr. & Mrs. Shyam Lal Ashish)

With

ww Rajesh
(Son of Mr. & Mrs. Shyam Bihari Nagore)

w
On the 15 th of December, 2011 at Hotel Avadh, Lucknow, as per programme given below.
Your gracious presence would add immensely to the gaiety and grandeur of the ceremony.
R.S.V.P.
Kundan .Ea With best compliments from :
Rajvir Ashish, Pranav Ashish,
Preeti & Praphulla
2/37, Ashok Marg.
Lucknow
syE Divya Ashish
&
The whole Ashish family

ngi
PROGRAMME

Reception of Barat …………………… nee

Monday, December 15, 2011
7 p. m.
Dinner
Wedding
……………………
……………………
rin
8 p. m.
10 p. m.

Tuesday, December 16, 2011

g.n
e
Vida or Doli …………………… 7 a. m.

(2) Another Model of Wedding Invitation

Vennue
Hotel Avadh, Lucknow t
Manisha
(Granddaughter of Mr. & Mrs. S. K. Kohli
Daughter of Mr. and Mrs. R. S. Kohli)
Weds
Rajesh
(Grandson of Mr. & Mrs. P. K. Dhawan
Son of Mr. & Mrs. R. K. Dhawan)

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LETTER-WRITING | 375

On November 12, 2011 at Hotel Clarkes, AGRA

You are most cordially invited with your family to grace this happy and auspicious
occasion with your presence. We earnestly seek the favour of your blessings on the young
couple embarking on their life’s journey.
R.S.V.P. With best compliments from :
Sarvesh, Nalini Sushil K. & Savita Kohli
& Rajesh K. & Ragini Kohli
Saurabh
52, M. G. Road,
AGRA
PROGRAMME

ww Receptio of Barat
Monday, 12 th November, 2011
…………………… 7 p. m.

w Dinner
Wedding

Vida .Ea
……………………
……………………
Tuesday, 13th November, 2011
……………………
8 p. m.
10 p. m.

7 a. m.

syE Venue

ngi
Hotel Clarkes, AGRA
(3) Traditional Model of Wedding Invitation

( OM
nee
(

Dear ……………,
rin Dated …………

g.n
We feel immensely glad to write to you that by the grace of God and blessings and good
wishes of our near and dear ones like you, the marriage of our son, Sushant, has been fixed for the

e
24th of April, 2012 with Kumari Sukanta, daughter of Shrimati and Shriman Jagdambika Prasad of
Jaipur. You are most cordially and earnestly invited and requested to grace this happy and
auspicious occason with your gracious presence along with your family and shower your blessings
on the newly wedded couple. We earnestly feet that your presence would add immensely to the
t
glamour and gaiety of the cerenmony. We request you most emphatically to make it convenient to
join with us in our joy and happiness.
The detailed programme is given below.
R.S.V.P. Sincerely yours,
Dr. Naresh Pareek Ram Naresh Pareek
Dr. Brijesh Pareek (Mrs.) Shushma Pareek
Mrs. Sudha Pareek
Mrs. Chandra Pareek
2/25, Prashant Nagar,
M. G. Road, AJMER
Tel : 352798

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376 | L.W.C.E.

PROGRAMME
Tuesday, 24th April, 2012
Departure of Barat : by bus at 6 a. m. from our residence
Reception of Barat : at 8 p. m. at the Bride’s residence,
25, Subhash Nagar, Ajmer
Wednesday, 25th April, 2012
Vida : …………………………………… 6 a. m.
Thursday, 26 th April, 2012
Dinner : at our residence—5 p. m. onwards
(4) Matrimonial Advertisements : Models
1. Alliance invited for a ver attractive, fair-complexioned, Post-graduate, 25/158 cms. Agrawal girl of

ww high status family from a well-settled, vegetarian, teetotaller, professional boy from high status
family. Early and decent marriage. Please reply with full bio-data to Box 3587, Hindustan Times,

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New Delhi.
2. Compatible match well-settled in Civil/Professional services from highly educated and respectable

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family for a very beautiful, fair-complexioned, highly cultured, convent educated, M. A., M.B.A.
girl, 26 / 156 cms., of high status Jain family. Early decent marriage. Please reply to Box 3926.

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Times of India, New Delhi.
3. Wanted suitable match from industrialist, business family of high status with decent living for a
slim, sharp-featured, fair-complexioned, charming, convent-educated, 23/164 cms. girl. Only

Times, New Delhi.

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daughter of an industrialist, status Khatri family. Please correspond to Box 3468-CD. Hindustan

4. Correspondence invited from U. S. A.-based professional for beautiful, attractive, vegetarian,

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computer consultant, U. S. citizen, 25/162 cms. Panjabi girl. Please send full bio-data to Box 3652
CF, Nav Bharat Times, New Delhi.

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5. Matrimonial correspondene invited from USA-based professional for a divorcee Khatri girl,
34/158, looking much younger, charming, convent-educated, MS, American citizenship. Early
marriage. Box 1538, Times of India, New Delhi.

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6. Alliance invited for beautiful, fair, smart, 30/160 cms. Panjabi girl working in USA on H1 Visa as
an expert in Oriental Fashion Designing, $ 60,000 plus perks, from highly educated and very well

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placed boy in U. S. Caste no bar. Early marriage. Box 3518 CA Hindustan Times, New Delhi.
7. Alliance invited from charming, extermely beautiful, slim, smart, positive-thinking girl for well-
settled Punjabi widower, 35/75, handsome, fair-complexioned, having his own multinational
industrial establishment, income in millions. No demands, no bars. Issueless widows, divorcees t
also acceptale. Respond to Box 3568 OS, Times of India, New Delhi.
8. Reputed affluent Kayastha family seeks alliance for their only son, handsome, fair complexion, tall,
teetotaller, non-smoker. Girl should be very beautiful, cultured and refined. Girl’s merits only
consideration. No demands. Write to Box 5039 HT, Nav Bharat Times, New Delhi.
9. Renowned industrialist family, Bombay-based, invites correspondence for matrimonial alliance for
their only son, handsome, smart, dashing spirit, own income in seven figures, 30/176 cms. Parents
of equal status of a girl, smart, beautiful, convent-educated may correspond to Box 9735 HP,
Hindustan Times, New Delhi.
10. Beautiful, fair, slim, Doctor, Engineer, M. C. A., M. B. A. match for a Brahmin boy. 28/180, M.
Tech., employed in multinational firm, drawing salary in six figures. No demands. Girl’s merits
only consideration. Write to Box 7389 CA Hindustan Times, New Delhi.

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LETTER-WRITING | 377

Model Proforma for Bio-Data For Matrimonial Purposes

Name : Full name of Boy or Girl
Age and Date of Birth : ……………………………………………………………………
Personality :
Height In Centimeters.
Complexion Very fair / Fair / Wheatish / Dark.
Features For Girls—Beautiful, charming, attractive, graceful, refined,
sophisticated, sharp-featured.
For Boys—Handsom, Fair, Healthy, Impressive.
Culture and Temperament :

ww Nature For Girls—Gentle and submissive, tolerant and accommoda-

ting, adaptable to new conditions.
For Boys—Free and frank, bold and dashing, tolerant and

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accommodating.
For Girls—Highly refined and cultured, soft spoken, can move
and adjust in high society.
For Boys—Smart and well-dressed, cultured and Polished.
Temperament
syE For both boys and girls—Cool, cheerful, positive-thinking,
composed and peaceful.
Hobbies

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For Girls—Singing, dancing, knitting, embroidery, painting,
cooking, fashion-designing, interior decoration, car-driving, etc.
For Boys—Games, sports, horse-riding, travelling and sight-

Educational Qualification : nee

seeing, photography, gardening, etc.
Details of education, Degrees, Diplomas, Distinctions, Speciali-

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zation, Practical training, etc.
Occupation : Details of occupation/Profession, positions held in the past,
holding at present, and future prospects and aspirations. Present

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salary and nature of work. (This is applicable to both boys and
girls in jobs.)
Family Background : Family background
Father :
Mother :
Brothers :
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Sisters :
Uncles :
(a) Paternal :
(b) Maternal :
Preferences : Preferences, if any, in the choice of the bride or the bridegroom,
such as Professional or Business, Girl employed or housewife,
Doctor / Engineer / C. A. etc.
Standard of Marriage : Decent; simple but decent; no demands; no dowery; no avoidable
pomp or show.
Address for Correspondence : Full address with Telephone Number

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378 | L.W.C.E.

Business Letters
(1) Letter of Enquiry about some Goods
From
The Principal, Dated
Agra College, Agra, th
30 Sept., 2011
No. 357/Games/2011
To
M/s Davico,
Sports Goods Suppliers,
M. G. Road, AGRA
Dear Sirs,

ww I shall be thankful to you if you could kindly let me know within a fortnight whether you can
supply the following items of games and sports from your ready stock. If so, kindly quote your
rates along with the brands available with you for immediate supply.

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2. Cricket balls,

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3. Hockey sticks,
4. Foot-balls,
2 dozen
6 dozen
4 dozen
2 dozen

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5. Volley-balls, 2 dozen
6. Badminton cocks, 6 dozen
If your quotations reach me within a fortnight and if they are approved by our Sports

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Committee, I shall place an order with you for immediate supply of the goods.
Yours faithfully,

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Sd. X Y Z
Principal
(2) Placing an order for Goods
From
The Registrar,
rin Dated

To
Agra University, Agra
No. 615/Misc/Lib-2012
g.n March 20, 2012

M/s Doaba Book House,

Ansari Road, New Delhi

Subject — Order for Library Books

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Dear Sirs,
The Library Committee of the University has considered and approved at its meeting held on
March 18, 2012 your price list together with the rate of discount as quoted by you. You are now
requested to supply all the books as given in our list within a fortnight and send the Bill to me.
Please see that the supply is in conformity with your terms and conditions and there is no delay
on your part. Please also see that the latest editions of the books are supplied to us.
I assure you of prompt payment of the Bill after its verification by the Librarian of the
University.
Yours faithfully,
Sd. X Y Z
Registrar

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LETTER-WRITING | 379

(3) Letter regarding settlement of accounts

From
The Modern Scientific Instruments Company Ltd. Dated
Daryaganj, 15.10.2011
New Delhi
No. 302/Inst./2011
To
The Registrar,
University of Allahabad,
Allahabad
Subject : Settlement of Accounts
Dear Sir,

ww We supplied some scientific instruments to your University in compliance of your order dated
10. 2. 2011. The total Bill came to 2,63,850, out of which the University has already paid us
1,50,000. The balance of 1,13,850 has been pending for payment for over six months now.

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and settle the account finally.
Thanking you,
Yours faithfully,

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For
Scientific Instruments

(4) Letter for asking for overdue payment ngi Co. Ltd.

From
Messrs A. Rahman & Co.
7, Taj Road,
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15. 1. 2012
Agra
No. 201/payment/2010-11 rin
To
M/s Abdul Gani & Co. g.n
Rakab Ganj,
Bareilly
Subject : Reminder for overdue payment
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Dear Sirs,
I beg to remind you once again that the payment of our Bill dated 1.4.2011 still remains unpaid
in spite of our three reminders. Please note that this is our final reminder. If we do not receive the
payment within a fortnight, we shall be left with no option except taking legal action.
We hope you would kindly make the payment in time and not force us to take legal action
against you.
Thanking you,
Yours faithfully,
Sd. XYZ
For
A. Rahman & Co.

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380 | L.W.C.E.

(5) Reply to the above

From
M/s Abdul Gani & Co. Dated
Rakab Ganj, 20.1.2012
Bareilly
No. 281/ACC/2011-12
To
Messrs A. Rahman & Co.
7, Taj Road,
Agra

ww Dear Sirs,
We are in receipt of your letter dated 15.1.2012. We are sorry that the payment of your Bill has
been delayed. Our firm had fallen into a financial crisis, from which it is now gradually recovering.

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assure you we shall take all steps to make your payment on priority basis.
Regretting the inconvenience caused to you.

syE Yours faithfully,

Sd. X Y Z
For

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(6) Letter of Claim for damages

From nee
M/s Raj Furniture Pvt. Ltd.
Cannaught Place, rin Dated
15.4.2012
New Delhi
No. 81/Claim—F/2012 g.n
To
The Claims Officer,
Northern Railway,
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New Delhi

Subject : Claim for Damages

Dear Sir,
A large consignment of many items of school furniture was booked by us from Haldwani by
Northern Railway. When the consignment reached here and we went to take delivery of the same,
we found a large number of chairs and tables completely broken or damaged. This damage was
evidently caused by mishandling of the same by the coolies while loading and unloading the items.
The responsibility of damages rests squarely with the Railway staff. Their carelessness and
mishandling have damaged furniture worth 15,000.

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LETTER-WRITING | 381

Therefore I lodge herewith my claim for damages worth 15,000. We request you to make an
early enquiry into the matter and pass our claim for 15000 for early payment.
Thanking you,

Yours faithfully,
Sd. X Y Z
For
Raj Furniture Pvt. Ltd.
Applications
Applications for a post can be written in two forms—

ww (1) Running or narrative form

(2) Tabular form or on the prescribed proforma.
We give below an example of each form :

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(1) Application for the Post of a Lecturer
To
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The Principal,

Sir,
Kolkata
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St. Lawrence College,

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With reference to your advertisement No. 3F/Lec/12, dated 5.2.2012, published in The Times
of India for the post of a lecturer in English for your College, I beg to offer my candidature for the

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same.
With regard to my educational qualifications, I beg to submit that I passed M. A. in English
from Calcutta University in 1999 and obtained First division. Subsequently I obtained the Degree

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of Ph. D. in English in 2002. The topic of my research was ‘Shakespeare’s Historical Plays’. My
examiners spoke highly of my thesis. In my earlier educational career also, I obtained First division

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in all examinations from High School to B. A.
Regarding my teaching experience, I would submit that I have been working as a Lecturer in
English in Allahabad University since September 2002 on a temporary basis. Thus I have an

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experience of teaching Degree classes for nearly two sessions in a reputed university. It is natural
that I should seek an appointment on a permanent basis as advertised for your College.
I would assure you that if an opportunity is given to me to serve in your College, I would
discharge my duties to my utmost ability and sincerity and spare no efforts to give entire satis-
t
faction to you and to my students.
Thanking you, Sir,
Dated : 10.5.2012 Yours faithfully,
R. D. Pirohit
2/41, M. G. Road
Patna
Enclosures
1. Photo Copies of all certificates Degrees and Marksheets
2. Copy of experience certifcate
3. Copy of High School certificate for verification of age.

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382 | L.W.C.E.

(2) Application for the above post in Tabular Form

To
The Principal,
St. Lawrence College,
Kolkata
Sir,
With reference to your advertisement for the post of a lecturer in English, I beg to apply for the
same. I give hereunder the details of my bio-data for favour of your consideration.
1. Name of the Applicant : R. D. Pirohit

ww 2.
3.
Father’s Name
Postal Address
:
:
Shir S. K. Pirohit
2/41, M. G. Road, Patna

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5.
Date of Birth

Exams..Ea
Educational Qualifications—

Board /
: 30. 8. 1982

Year of
Passed
High School syE University
U. P. Board
Passing
1996
Division

I
Percentage of Marks

69%
Intermediate
B. A.
U. P. Board
Allahabad ngi
1998
2000
I
I
67%
63%

M. A. (Eng.)
University
Patna University 2002nee I 65%
Ph.D. (Eng.) Allahabad
University
2007
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‘Shakespeare’s Historical Plays’

6. Teaching Experience :
versity on a Temporary basis. g.n
Taught degree Classes for two sessions in Allahabad Uni-

7. Enclosures :
(ii) Copy of Teaching experience certificate.
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(i) Copies of all certificates, Degrees and Marksheets

(iii) Copy of High School certificate for verification of age.

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8. Address for Correspondence: 2/41, M. G. Road, Patna, Tel : 385793
Dated : 10 . 5. 2009 Yours faithfully,
Signature
R. D. P.
(3) Call for Interview
An Institution or Industrial House or a Government Department or any appointing authority
has to send letters to the applicants calling them for interview. The call for interview may be sent
according to the following format :

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LETTER-WRITING | 383

Name of the Candidate : …………………………………………………

Address : …………………………………………………

Dated : ……………

Dear Sir,

ww With reference to your application for the post of Junior Engineer, you are required to appear
for an interview before the Interview Board in the Chief Engineer’s Office on Monday, the 12th of
July, 2012 at 10 a. m. Please bring all your certificates and other relevant documents in the original

w for verification.

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Please note that no T. A. or D. A. will be paid to you for appearing at the interview.

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Yours faithfully,
R. C. Dwivedi
For

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P. W. D. Kanpur

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(4) Joining Report
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To
The Principal, g.n
Dated : 28 . 7. 2012

Sir,
D. A. V. College,
Bhopal
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With reference to your letter of appointment No. Eng/II-2012, dated 25.7.2012, I have the
honour to submit that I have joined my duties as Lecturer in English at your College with effect
from the forenoon of 28.7.2012. This may kindly be entered in the records of the College.
Thanking you, Sir,
Yours faithfully,
R. K. Nigam,
3/5 (1), Nehru Nagar
Bhopal

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384 | L.W.C.E.

(5) Application for Casual Leave

To
The Principal,
St. John’s College,
Jaipur,
Sir,
I beg to submit that I have received a telephonic call from my father to meet him today at
Ajmer for an urgent piece of work. Therefore, I am going to meet him and will return from there by
tomorrow evening.
Therefore, I request you kindly to grant me casual leave for two days, i.e., for 5th & 6th of July,

ww 2012 and oblige.

Dated : 5.7.2012 Yours faithfully,

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P. K. Dua,
Lecturer in English,

.Ea St. John’s College,

Jaipur

To
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(6) Application for Medical Leave

The Divisional Manager,

L. I. C. of India,
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M. G. Road, Meerut
Sir,
I regret to write that I am laid up with high fever. My family doctor has diagnosed it to be

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typhoid fever. He has advised me to take leave for seven days for treatment and rest.
Therefore, I request you kindly to grant me Medical leave for seven days with effect from the
7th June to 13th June, 2012.
The Medical Certificate is enclosed herewith. g.n
Thanking you, Sir,
Dated : 7.6.2012 eYours faithfully,
R. N. Tripathi t
Accountant
Encl.
Medical Certificate

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