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IES
LIGHTING HANDBOOK
Current Publications of the
Illuminating Engineering Society include
ILLUMINATING ENGINEERING
(a monthly journal)
CURRENT PRACTICES
American Standard Practice of School Lighting
REPORTS
Standard Method for Measuring and Reporting Illumination
from Artificial Sources in Building Interiors
Art Gallery Lighting
Lighting of Power Presses
Lighting in the Shoe Manufacturing Industry
Study of Table Tennis Lighting
Lighting Performance Recommendations for Portable
and Installed Residence Luminaires
Brightness and Brightness Ratios
Visibility Levels
The Interreflection Method of Predetermining Brightnesses
and Brightness Ratios
Brightness Distribution in Rooms
Illuminating Engineering, Nomenclature and Photometric Standards
STUDY AIDS
Experiments with Light
Lessons in Practical Illumination
IES LIGHTING
HANDBOOK
The Standard Lighting Guide
FIRST EDITION
Published by the
1947
'RE
BOOK ROOM
Copyright 1947
BY THE
ILLUMINATING ENGINEERING SOCIETY
other working tools, so that now they may be used easily by everyone.
Every precaution has been taken to secure broad coverage of all phases
of lighting and a completely objective approach. First, the integrated
views of several different specialists were incorporated in each section of
the manuscript and, finally, the printer's proof was read and approved by
a Board of Review including the President and several Past Presidents of
the Illuminating Engineering Society.
We wish to acknowledge with sincere appreciation the assistance of the
many individuals who cooperated in the preparation of the manuscript.
The following list of names of the contributors cannot reveal the hours of
effort which they devoted to the work. Each deserves a large portion of
credit for the completion of a difficult assignment.
CONTRIBUTORS
Elliot Q. Adams Arthur C. Hardy Miles Pennybacker
Charles L. Amick Robert F. Hartenstein Lawrence C. Porter
William T. Anderson, Jr. Henry H. Helmbright Wentworth M. Potter
Carlyle A. Atherton Samuel G. Hibben Priscilla Presbrey
George R. Baumgartner Caroline E. Horn Gwilym F. Pride aux
Norman Beese
C. John P. Hoxie Ellery H. Raddin
Conrad Berens John P. Huebsch Fred Rahr
Frank Benford Maryon J. Ingham Edward V. Rambusch
O. Howard Biggs Edgar W. Jeffrey W. Clifton Randall
Faber Birren Leon Johnson Kirk M. Reid
Ralph R. Brady Loyd A. Jones Harris Reinhardt
Arthur A. Brainerd Deane B. Judd Andrew E. Reynolds
Francis Breckenridge William II Kahler. Val J. Roper
A. Carl Bredahl James M. Ketch Dana W. Rowten
Lorin C. Brown John L. Kilpatrick LlNDSLEY SCHEPMOES
William D. Buckingham Paul A. Kober William H. Searight
LEROY J. BUTTOLPH George E. Korten Howard M. Sharp
Frank E. Carlson John O. Kraehenbuhl George E. Shoemaker
Donald P. Caverly johan c. kromhout Richard E. Simpson
Albert H. Clarke Emil Kun Richard G. Slauer
Wilfred E. Conley Warren W. Langston Domina E. Spencer
James L. Cox Maurice K. Laufer Raymond J. Stefany
Eugene C. Crittenden William F. Little J. William Steiner
Cazamer L. Crouch Henry L. Logan Jonathan C. Stimson
Herman E. D'Andrade David L. MacAdam Everett M. Strong
Robert L. Dearborn Charles T. Masterson Walter Sturrock
Leo Dolkart Stanley McCandless John A. Summers
Creston Doner John W. McFarlane Ray P. Teele
Arthur C. Downes Helen G. McKinlay Francis T. Tillemans
Allen J. Dusault O. Phelps Meaker Victor H. Todd
Warren H. Edman Gordon G. Milne Richard F. Townsend
Myrtle Fahsbender Beverly A. Travis
J. Dixon Mitchell
Ralph E. Farnham Davis II Tuck
.
John W. Mollica
William E. Folsom Dorothy Tucker
Parry H. Moon
James C. Forbes Leslie C. Vipond
William E. Forsythe
Wesley S. Mowry
Fred J. Vorlander, Jr.
Kurt G. Franck Frank E. Mueller
Charles E. Weitz
J. Harvey Nelson
G. William Frederick Kenneth C. Welch
Allen K. Gaetjens Dorothy Nickerson David L. Williams
Henry P. Gage William C. Norvell Frederick C. Winkler
Bernard F. Greene Brian O'Brien C. Scott Woodside
Jean F. Gschwind Lawrence B. Paist Robert R. Wylie
James D. Hall Jack F. Parsons Irvine A. Yost
Eric B. Hallman Willis A. Pennow Robert J. Zavesky
The by the IES Lighting Handbook Committee and by its
part played
Board Review was most important. These men contributed their best
of
thinking and experience both before and after the production of manuscript
had begun, and during the reading of proof, in establishing the basic pol-
icies which are revealed in the completely practical character of this first
edition. Their critical appraisal and check of the manuscript after its prep-
aration added much to its overall utility as well as to its technical accuracy.
HANDBOOK COMMITTEE
C. A. Atherton, Chairman J. L. Kilpatrick
A. A. Brainerd H. L. Miller
F. C. Eley J. W. Milford
J. M. Guillory R. G. Slauer
G. K. Hardacre, (ex officio) Walter Sturrock
C. C. Keller, Vice Chairman H. O. Warner
S. B. Williams
BOARD OF REVIEW
D. W. At water E. C. Crittenden
Conrad Berens Ward Harrison
L. H. Brown P. S. Millar, Chairman
R. B. Brown, Jr. R. W. Staud
The General Office Staff took an active part in many phases of the work
under the direction of A. D. Hinckley, Handbook Business Manager and
Executive Secretary of the Society. C. L. Crouch, the Society's Technical
Director, acted as Handbook Editor during the formative stages of the
project and made many investigations upon which the plans for publication
were based.
Recognizing that much remains to be learned about light and its applica-
tions, we feel, nevertheless, that this first edition Anil faithfully serve its
readers. It is inevitable in a book of this size that some errors and omis-
sions will be discovered. Your cooperation in calling them to our attention
will be appreciated.
Robert W. McKinley
editor
CONTENTS
Preface
Contents
Illustration Credits
REFERENCE DIVISION
Section 1 The Physics of Light Production
Section 2 Light and Vision
Section 3 Standards, Nomenclature, Abbreviations
Section 4 Color
Section 5 Measurement of Light
Section 6 Light Sources
Section 7 Light Control
Section 8 Lighting Calculations
Section 9 Daylighting
APPLICATION DIVISION
Section 10 Interior Lighting
Section 11 Exterior Lighting
Section 12 Sports Lighting
Section 13 Transportation Lighting
Section 14 Photographic, Reproduction, Projection and Television
Lighting
Section 15 Miniature Lamp Applications
Section 16 . . . Miscellaneous Applications of Radiant Energy
APPENDIX
MANUFACTURERS' DATA
INDEX
ILLUSTRATION CREDITS
We are indebted to the mar^ individuals and organizations who con-
tributed the multitude of photographs and drawings from which those used
in the Handbook illustrations were selected. In preparing the list of credits
every attempt has been made to identify the source or sources of each il-
lustration and table. However, this has not been possible in all cases.
So many excellent photographs were contributed that only a small portion
of the total could be included in the Handbook. The availability of the
larger number made possible the establishment of the highest standards for
the final selection.
Section 1. Section 2.
1-5: 109. 1-7: 60a. 1-S: 60b. 1-9: 2-1: 102b. 2-10:48. 2-11 :48. 2-12 48.
65. 1-10: 68. 1-11: 108. 1-13: 108. 2-14a: 38. 2-15: 102a. 2-16a: 102b. 2-
1-14: 108. 1-16: 108. 19: 60b.
Section 4. 10-62:72,84,43,24. 10-63:76,84-
10-
4-la, c: 76. 4-3: 28. 4-5: 66. 4-11 65: 773. 10-66: 62. 10-67: 38.
10-68:
52. 4-llb: 100. 4-12: 100. 4-14a: 88 37. 10-69:30. 10-70:38,70,35. 10-75:
b:71. 4-15:78,38. 4-16:3. 38. 10-79: 43. 10-80: 70. 10-81: 708.
Section 5. 10-82: 62. 10-84: 38. 10-96: 55.
5-4: 70. 5-5: 109. 5-7a: 5tf. b 88. Section 11.
5-8: 38. 5-9: 32. 5-11: 32. 5-12 67. 11-1:47. 11-2:47. 11-3:708. 11-4:
5-13: 67. 47. 11-5:47. 11-6:47. 11-10:47. 11-
Section 6: 11: 47. 11-13: 47. 11-14: 47. ll-16a
6-1: 38. 6-5: 38, 6-7 95. 6-9
95. 78. b: 79. c: 87. d: 38, 78. 11-17
38. 6-10:38. 6-12 6-14 : 6-15 90. 11-18: 38. 11-20: 79, 87. ll-21a
38. 6-16: 38. 6-17 6-18:, 6-20 38. b: 79, 11-23: 708.
38. 6-21:35. 6-22
108. 6-23: 106. 6- Section 12:
24: 38. 6-25 38. 6-26: 38. 6-27: 38. 12-1: 708. 12-2a, b: 70. c: 38. 12-
6-31:38. 6-32:55. 6-33: 95. 6-34: 95. 3a: 54. b, c: 708. 12-5
12-14a: 70.
6-35: 95. 6-36: 95. 6-39:95. 6^1:95, 708, 38. 12-6: 20. 12-7: 70. 12-8: 70
108,38. b: 97. 12-9: 708. 12-12: 70. 12-13
Section 7: 70. 12-14a: 70. b, c: 97. 12-15a: 70
7-7:36. 7-8: 60a. 7-12a,b: 45 c,d: 1 108. 12-16: 70. 12-17: 70S.
18. d-h: 8. 7-16: . 7-17: 38. 7-20 Section 13.
79. 7-21:79. 13-1: 38. 13-2: 97. 13-3: 97. 13-4
Section 8: 97. 13-5:97. 13-6:97. 13-8:38. 13-9
8-2: 38. 8-3: 38. 8-4: 3* 8-5: 38. 13-10: 38. 13-11: 38. 13-12: 38
8-6: 38. 8-7: 38. 8-9: 45. 8-10: 13-13:38. 13-14:38. 13-15:82. 13-16
8-11: 95, 33. 8-12: 38 8-13: 708. 99. 13-17: 99. 13-18: 38. 13-19: 86
14:38. 8-15:606. 8-16 60b. 88. 13-20: 86. 13-21: 708. 13-22:707
Section 9: 13-23:80. 13-24:94. 13-25:94. 13-26
9-1:^. 9-3:25. 9-4:25. 9-5:25. 9-6:25. 705. 13-33: 30, 108, 58, 38. 13-36: 708
Section 10. 13-37: 74, 79. 13-38: 74- 13-39: 74
10-1: 104. 10-2:107. 10-3:35. 10-4: 13-40:74. 13-41:74,708,95. 13-42:74
38. 10-6:108. 10-7a: 5 S. b:53. 10-8: 13-46:78. 13-47:26,93. 13-48:98. 13-
20. 10-9: 84- 10-10: 49. 10-11: /5. 51:7.
10-12:37. 10-13:^3. 10-14:75,62. 10- Section 14.
15: 5. 10-16: 3/. 10-17: 30. 10-19: 14-2: 14-3a: 87. b: 95. c: 38
38.
108. 10-20: 96.
10-21: 95, 38. 10-222., 14-4:68,64,38. 14-5:73. 14-6:73. 14
b: 30. c: 708. 10-23a, b: 38. c: 30. 8: 73. 14-9: 28. 14-10: 64. 14-11: 38
10-24: 4- 10-32: 73. 10-33 11. 10-34: 14-12:38. 14-13:83.
108. 10-35a, b: 708. c: 22. 10-36: 704, Section 15.
22. 10-37: 45. 10-3S: 13. 10-39: 43. 15-1:38. 15-2:38. 15-4:89. 15-5:38
10-40: 75, 703. 10-41: 30, 95. 10-42 15-6:9. 15-7:38. 15-8:38. ] 5-9: 77.
30, 85,81. 10-43: 2. 10-45: 703. 10-46 Section 16.
73, 76, 704- 10-47: 27, 30, 37. 10-48 16-1: 38. 16-2: 60c. 16-3: 38, 108
SO. 10-49: 38. 10-50 (bottom) 43 16-4: 38. 16-5: 38. 16-6: 708. 16-7
10-52: 2. 10-53a: 708. b: 43. 10-55 95, 44, 38, 108. 16-8: 702c. 16-9: 708
708. 10-56a: 108. b: 10. 10-57: 770 16-10: 38. 16-11: 6. 16-12: 95. 16-14
10-58: 84, 37. 10-60: 38. 10-61: 38 35. 16-15:38. 16-16:38.
CREDITS (Table)
Section 2. 2-2: 7026.
47. 11-5: 47. 11-6: 87. 11-7: 38. 11-
Section 4. 4-1: 11-9: 708. 11-10: 47, 108. 11-11
8: 7.
Section 6.
108. 11-13: 87. 11-14: 708.
47,
6-1 38
: 6-4: 6-7: 706. 6-10:
Section 13.
34. 6-11:38.
13-1:38. 13-2:708. 13-3:50. 13-11:78
Section 8.
Section 14.
8-1: 708. 8-2: 708. S-3: 708. 8-4
14-7:38. 14-9:38. 14-10:68. 14-11:38
708. 8-5:708. 8-8:38. 8-10:38. 8-11
38. 8-12:38. 8-13:38. 8-14:45. 8-15 Section 15. 15-2: 67.
SECTION 1
1-1
1-2 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
Until such time as new data or concepts are available the quantum
and the electromagnetic wave theories unquestionably be used as the will
basis of continued research in light phenomena. The electromagnetic
wave theory provides a convenient explanation of those characteristics
of radiant energy most frequently of concern to the illuminating engineer.
Radiant energy may be evaluated in a number of different ways; two
of these are:
1. Radiant flux —
the time rate of the flow of any part of the radiant
energy spectrum measured in ergs per second.
2. Luminous flux —
the time rate of the flow of the luminous parts of the
radiant energy spectrum measured in lumens.
COSM IC RAYS
GAMMA RAYS
X-RAYS
HARD SOFT HERTZIAN WAVES
\ VAC UUM U.V.
The known limits of the radiant energy spectrum extend over a range
of wavelengths varying from a few micromicrons (10~ 10 cm) to one hundred
thousand miles (1.6 X 10 10 cm). Radiant energy in the visible spectrum
has wavelengths betAveen 0.38 X 10~ 4 and 0.76 X 10~ 4 cm.
The Angstrom unit (A), the micron (/x), and the millimicron (m/x) are
commonly used units of length in the visible spectrum band. The rela-
tionship of several units for measuring wavelength is given in Table 1-1.
PHYSICS OF LIGHT PRODUCTION 1-3
All forms of radiant energy are transmitted at the same rate of speed
in vacuum
(186,300 miles per second). However, each form differs in
wavelength and thus in frequency. The wavelength and velocity may be
altered materially by the medium through which it passes, but frequency
is fixed independently of the medium. Thus, through the equation:
V = n\v
where V = velocity of waves (cm per sec)
n — (index of refraction)
X = wavelength (cm)
v — frequency (c per sec)
of OS (A
w w Pi
H H W
O w W H
& p4
H
fc
o
C/3
w
g
W
To Obtain
Number of
\\ en
O PS
u
H
W J
H
g
S
H
1
ANGSTROMS
\ %
1
§
104
§
2.540
(J
g
2.540 3.04S
kJ
S
1.609
S
10 7 108
w
lOU
XIO 5 X108 X109 XIO"
MICRONS 10-4 1 2.540 2.540 3.048 1.609 103 104 109
xio X104 xio* X10'
individuals, with time, and with the age and the state of health of any indi-
any individual to act as a standard
vidual, to the extent that the selection of
observer not scientifically feasible.
is
0.9
10-2 I0"4
0.8
£0.5
5
D
J
0.4
>
<0.3
_l
LU
<r
0.2
0.1
0.38 0.42 0.46 0.50 0.54 0.58 0.62 0.66 0.70 0.74 0.70 0.75 0.80 0.85 0.90
WAVELENGTH OF RADIANT ENERGY IN MICRONS WAVELENGTH IN MICRONS
1 micron =10,000 angstroms = 1/10,000 centimeter FIG. 1-3. Goodeve's investi-
gations reveal that high flux con-
FIG. 1-2. The standard (I.C.I.) luminosity centrations of wavelengths just
curve shows the relative capacity of radiant outside the "visible region" are
energy of various wavelengths to produce capable of producing visual sen-
visual sensation. sations. 7
Photoelectric Effect
This phenomenon, which may be observed when a clean metal surface
is illuminated,the liberation of electrons from the surface atoms.
is If
the surface is connected as a cathode in an electric field (Fig. 1-4) the lib-
erated electrons will flow to the anode creating a photoelectric current.
An arrangement of this sort may be used as an illumination meter and can
be calibrated in f ootcandles.
— ELECTRON
ANODE
(ENERGY = Vz mV 2 = hV-E )
ENERGY TO-'
RELEASE
ELECTRON =E
Li Rb K Cs Na Ba Sr Ca Mg Mn Zn Cr Fe* Cd Tl Co Ni Sn Pb Fef Sb Bi As Cu Ti Pt Hg Ag Au
HIGH LOW
* ferrous t ferric
E= hv
i
mt ,2 _ fa _ g'
j
Light Production
1. Incandescence Luminescence
Combustion Arc stream
Arc electrodes Gaseous discharge
Gas mantle Glow discharge
Lamp filament Fluorescence
Radiant heater Phosphorescence
Cathodoluminescence
Chemiluminescence
Triboluminescence
INCIDENT
SEMI- LIGHT
LIOHI
TRANSPARENT SURFACE ABSORBED BY WALLS
CATHODE RESISTANCE
1
,
\ -VW
LIBERATED-
ELECTRON ••: INTERNAL^ •-.
CAPACITANCE'
•.••;:•:::
SEMI -'•••.•: ;
CONDUCTOR
METAL BASE
FIG. 1-5. Cross section of barrier layer or photo- FIG. 1-6. Small aperture
voltaic cell showing motions of photoelectrons through in an enclosure exhibits
microammeter circuit. blackbody characteristics.
Incandescence
Familiar physical objects are simple or complex combinations of chemi-
cally identifiable molecules, which in turn are made up of atoms. In
solid materials the molecules are packed together and the substances hold
their shape almost indefinitely over a wide range of physical conditions.
In contrast, the molecules of a gas are highly mobile and occupy only a
small part of the space filled by the gas.
-8
Single molecules and atoms are much too small (3 X 10 cm) to be
observed directly, but much is known of their characteristics.
Molecules of both gases and solids are constantly in motion and their
movement is a function of temperature. If the solid or gas is hot, the
molecules move rapidly; if it is cold, they move more slowly.
At temperatures below about 573 degrees Kelvin (300 degrees Centi-
grade) invisible energy of the longer infrared (heat) wavelengths is emitted
1-8 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
Blackbody Radiation
The light from practical light sources, particularly that from incandescent
lamps, is often described by comparison with that from a blackbody or
complete radiator. Defined as a body which absorbs all of the radiation
incident upon it, transmitting none and reflecting none, a blackbody will
for equal area radiate more total power and more power at any given wave-
length than any other source operating at the same temperature, unless
that source radiates energy b}' some phenomenon other than temperature.
For experimental purposes, laboratory sources have been devised which
approach the ideal blackbody very closely in output characteristics. All
of the many different designs are based on the fact that a hole in the wall
of a closed chamber, small in size as compared with the size of the enclosure,
is absolutely black. This is understood if one considers what happens to a
ray of light entering such an enclosure. (See Fig. 1-6.) Assuming the
reflectance of the walls to be low, the incident energy soon will be ab-
sorbed in the walls by interreflections.
Recently the brightness of a blackbody operating at the temperature of
freezing platinum has been established as a new international candlepower
reference standard. It has the advantage of reproducibility over the bank
of carbon filament lamps which have been in use for so many years. (See
footnote on page 1-12, also Section 3.)
Planck's equation for blackbody radiation was developed, by the intro-
duction of the concept of radiation of discrete quanta of energ}", to represent
the radiation curves obtained in 1900 by Lummer and Pringsheim, who
used the open end of a specially constructed and uniformly heated tube
as their source. It has the form:
1000 -
-
-l-VISIBLE
REGION - BLACKBODY
O400
cr -
o
,GRAY-
8
*'*< { BODY
I0 100 — \\
- \\
wio'
-
-
\\
IlO 5 - - \
- \
/
V '
\
\
4 -
5 10 SELECTIVE \
o
a. - RADIATOR V \
^103 (TUNGSTEN) \
\
<
Q _
< 10
2 I 1
i l
W x = dX- e- C2/Xr
5
The Wien displacement law gives the relation between blackbody distribu-
tions for various temperatures (see line AB, Fig. 1-7)
TTx = Ci\-
5
F(\T)
It should be noted that this equation applies to the total power, that is,
the whole spectrum. It cannot be used to estimate the power in the visible
portion of the spectrum alone.
Graybody Radiation
A radiator which does not emit as much power as a blackbody but which
has exactly the same spectral distribution is known as a graybody.
The ratio of its output at any wavelength to that of a blackbody at the
same wavelength is known as the spectral emissivity (e\) of a radiator. No
known radiator has a constant spectral emissivity for all visible, infra-
red, and ultraviolet wavelengths, but in the visible region a carbon fila-
ment exhibits very nearly uniform emissivity, that is, is nearly a graybody.
Selective Radiators
ex - 0.365,4/1
where p = the electrical resistivity of the emitting material (ohm-cm)
X = wavelength (cm)
_5 621910/Xr
Planck's equation: Wx = 30,970 ex X (10 - l)"
1
(See foot-
621910/Xr note
Wx = X" 10 ~
5 '
Wien radiation law: 30,970 ex
page
Stefan-Boltzmann law: W = 5.735 X 10
_12
e, T
4
1-8)
exWxd\
where et — —^ (total emissivity)
W\ dX
I
The arc lamp radiates both because of the incandescence of the anode
and by the luminescence of vaporized electrode material in the arc stream.
By varying the electrode materials considerable spread in the spectral
distribution and high brightness may be achieved.
Color Temperature
Efficiency
Luminescence
Whereas the radiation of incandescent sources results from the irregular
excitation at high temperatures of innumerable molecules interacting on
*The value adopted by the I.E.S. (650 lumens per watt) is based on: 1. the 1924 I.C.I, luminosity factors;
2.the second radiation constant in Planck's equations ci = 1.436; and 3. the brightness of a blackbody at the
freezing point of platinum (58.9 candles per square centimeter). It is consistant with the calculations of
H.T. Wensel published in 1939 ("Research Paper 1189" J. Research Nat. Bur. Stand.). See note page 1-S.
<
( MASS = I _
PROTONS <
[ CHARGE = +1
v
Cb
* NUCLEUS
fMASS=l
NEUTRONS^
CHARGE =0
I
O
_.
w
HELIUM ATOM
1
)
I/
9M
/
fMASS= 27
„
ELECTRONS < 0.911 X I0" g
/ t CHARGE = -1
( © ) ( % )
"LIGHT" "HEAVY"
HYDROGEN ISOTOPES
FIG. 1-9. Structure of the atom showing electron orbits around central nucleus
Hydrogen isotopes and helium atom are simplest of all atomic structures.
Atomic Structure
The atomic theories first proposed by Rutherford and Bohr in 1913 have
sincebeen expanded upon and verified repeatedly by careful experiment.
They propose that "each atom is in reality a minute solar system, such as
that shown in Fig. 1-9.
The atom consists of a central nucleus possessing a positive charge n
about which rotate n negatively charged electrons. In the normal state
these electrons remain in particular orbits or energy levels and radiation
is not emitted by the atom.
The nucleus is made up of protons that carry the positive charge and
neutrons that are approximately equal in mass to the protons but un-
charged.
The number of protons in the nucleus is always the same for a given
element and gives that element its atomic number.
All the atoms of a given element have the number of protons in the nu-
cleus equal to the atomic number Z; but they may differ in the number of
neutrons A-Z. Atomic species so differing are called isotopes, as in the
case of deuterium or "heavy" hydrogen (Fig. 1-9), which has a neutron
in its nucleus in addition to the single proton of "light" hydrogen. Simi-
larly, the isotopes C/-234, U-235, and C/-238 of uranium contain 92 protons
each but 142, 143, and 146 neutrons respectively.
1-14 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
The system of orbits or energy levels in which the electrons are pictured
rotating about the nucleus is characteristic of each element and remains
stable until disturbed by external excitation.
Chemical reactions between the elements involve only the valence elec-
trons in the outer orbits.
Light 'production. It is by the proper excitation of the valence electrons
that visible radiation is produced in luminescence phenomena.
HIGH-INTENSITY ARC
anode layer necessary for the conduction of current into the anode and
results in a lower anode voltage drop (about 15 volts). The lower anode
power input reduces the area and brilliance of the anode spot so that its
contribution to the total light becomes unimportant. The radiation
emitted by the flame arc consists chiefly of the characteristic line spectra
of the elements in the flame material and the band spectra of the com-
pounds formed. The excitation of the line and band spectra is thermal in
nature, caused by the high temperature of the arc stream gas. The con-
centration of flame materials in the arc stream is not very high, so that the
flame arc, while brighter than many other light sources, is considerably
less bright than either the low or the high intensity arc. Since the whole
arc flame is made luminous, however, the light source is one of large area,
and high radiating efficiencies (up to 80 lumens per watt) are obtained.
High-intensity arcs. The high-intensity arc is obtained from the flame
arc by increasing the size and the flame material content of the core of the
anode, and at the same time greatly increasing the current density, to a
point where the anode spot spreads over the entire tip of the carbon. This
results in a rapid evaporation of flame material and carbon from the core
so that a crater is formed. The principal source of light is the crater sur-
face and the gaseous region immediately in front of it. (See Fig. 1-10.)
Since the flame material is more easily ionized than the carbon, a lower
anode drop exists at the core area than at the shell of the carbon. This
tends to concentrate the current at the core surface, and so encourages the
formation of the crater.
The increased brightness of the high-intensity arc is produced by radia-
tion resulting from the combination of the heav}^ concentration of flame
materials and the high current density within the confines of the crater.
Although the primary radiation of this gas is the line spectrum of the con-
stituent atoms, and the peak intensity of any one line is limited to that of a
blackbody at the temperature of the crater gas, the energy exchange is so
intense that the lines are broadened by absorption and re-radiation into a
partially continuous spectrum. The sum of this continuous and line
radiation can be so great as to give a brightness over ten times that of the
low-intensity arc.
Gaseous Discharges
The fundamental processes involved in the production of light are the
same for all types of vapor lamps. The activity in a low-pressure mercury
discharge tube such as the commercial fluorescent lamp is exemplary of all
types.
Ultraviolet radiation from mercury (with the lowest boiling point of all
metallic elements) used in fluorescent lamps, like the sodium yellow, neon
red-orange, or cadmium red radiation is the result of changes in atomic
energy caused by the transition of an electron from one energ}^ state or orbit
to another.
:
collides with a valence electron of the mercury atom and excites it by knock-
ing it from its normal energy level to a higher one.
2. The conduction electron loses speed at the impact and changes direc-
tion, but may continue along the tube to excite one or more additional
atoms before completing its path through the lamp.
3. The valence electron returns presently to its normal energy level and
liberates by its transition (in this particular instance) a quantum of ultra-
violet radiation.
=
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LAMP BULB WALL LIGHT
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cal purity.
Less than 0.01 per cent of certain
impurities in a phosphor may re-
WAVELENGTH IN MICRONS
1 micron = 10.000 angstroms = 1/10,000 dllCe the lumen P er Watt ratin S ° f
centimeters
the lamp in which it is used by 20
FIG. 1-13 Fluorescence curve of zinc-
beryllium-silicate phosphor showing in- F t yJ .
u percentages
\ ,
relatively free to move about and since they are initially at a higher level,
less energy is required to knock them up to level D.
PHYSICS OF LIGHT PRODUCTION 1-19
called fluorescence.
o o o o o o
o o o o
==£^= - TRANSITIONS
CAUSED BY
o °°"
o o o ~ o
Q o METASTABLE OR
THERMAL ENERGY
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WITH COPPER ACTIVATOR NO ACTIVATOR
FIG. 1-14. Simplified energy diagram for copper-activated zinc sulphide phosphor.
at a low value the electrons may be trapped for an indefinite period of time,
finally being released when the costal is heated, minutes or even hours
after excitation.
Relationship between activation impurity and efficiency. Table 1-5 and
Fig. 1-15 show the critical relationship which may exist between acti-
vator, impurity, and efficiency in fluorescent lamps.
1 0.001 62.0
2 0.01 56.2
3 0.10 48.7
4 1.0 9.0
* Coated with zinc silicate ZnO-SiOa + 1 per cent manganese contaminated with the indicated quanti-
ties of iron impurities.
t Neglecting ballast consumption.
1-20 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
— CURRENT DENSITY
I
-
MICROAMPERES
PER SQ CM
w 7% o/
-
-
-
/
- ' \'
20 0.6 i
1 1
OX) I 0.02 0.04 O.I 0.2 0.4 I 2 4 I 0.2 0.4 0.6 1.0 2 4 6 IC
Table 1-6 reveals the color effect of activator changes. Table 1-7
includes the characteristic color of radiation emitted by several common
phosphors.
Stokes law, which states that the emitted radiation must be of longer
wavelength than that absorbed, is based on two facts:
1. Relatively large quanta (associated with short wavelengths) are
required to raise electrons to the high excitation energy levels from which
fluorescent and phosphorescent processes may begin.
2. Transition of displaced electrons to their stable level usually occurs
in several short steps giving rise to the smaller quanta associated with
longer wavelengths.
Note: Certain "anti-stokes" emitters exist which store energy in the
metastable or trapping levels and will release wavelengths shorter than
those required to excite them. 5
PEAK OF
MATERIAL ACTIVATOR FLUORES- COLOR OF
CENT BAND FLUORESCENCE
(micron)
Natural Phenomena
Sunlight. Energy of color temperature about 6,500 Kelvin is received
from the sun at the outside of the earth's atmosphere at an average rate of
about 0. 135 watt per square centimeter. About 75 per cent of this energy
is transmitted to the earth's surface at sea level (equator) on a clear day.
F. W., "Experiments on the Use of Infra-Red Sensitive Phosphors in Photography of the Spectrum," J. Opti-
cal Soc. Am., March, 1946.
6. Hulbert, E. O., "Brightness and Polarization of the Daylight Sky," J. Optical Soc. Am., March,1946.
7. Goodeve, C. F., "Relative Luminosity in the Extreme Red," Proc. Roy. Soc. (London) A., Vol. 155,
No. 886, 1936.
SECTION 2
1
2-2 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
Seeing skills must be learned and therefore are not uniformly developed
in all individuals. Visual training in many instances is an un-co-ordinated
and forgotten phase of instruction in some other skill, and may exist only
in an unconscious trial and error process initiated during the development
of a related dexterity (of the fingers, for example). There are notable ex-
amples, however, of co-ordinated visual training.
Several successful programs were conducted on a very large scale during
World War II by the armed services. These prepared personnel for
assignments (as lookouts, photo interpreters, and so on) requiring the
highest possible development of certain visual skills.
In industry, special visual equipment, instruction, and practice is re-
quired in many operations, particularly in those involving inspection.
Educators have found that slow readers may sometimes improve both
speed and accuracy if given proper visual instruction.
Psychological considerations introduced during the learning period may
account, at least in part, for individual color preferences and the associa-
tion of certain colors with temperature levels.
in the brightness of the field of view. The pupil is similar in its function
to the aperture stops in a camera.Compensation for the extremely wide
range of brightness encountered in nature also involves the adaptation
process.
The ciliary muscles comprise the focusing mechanism of the eye. By
controlling the curvature of the crystalline lens,- they change the focal
length of the cornea-lens optical system to permit near vision.
In the relaxed state, the lens (with an equivalent focal length of 0.59
inch) forms on the fovea a sharp inverted image of objects at distances
between 20 feet and infinity located along or close to its optical axis. An
image about 0.03G inch high is formed of a man 100 feet away.
To focus on near objects (closer than 20 feet) the muscles must be
tensed.
The retina comprises millions of light-sensitive nerve endings distributed
throughout an almost transparent membrane about 0.0087 inch thick.
An enlarged and simplified cross section of these nerve endings is shown in
Fig. 2-lB.
Thelight-sensitive nerve endings of the retina have their counterpart in
tiny particles of photosensitive chemicals that give a photographic emul-
sion its image preserving ability. The size and the distribution of these
LIGHT AND VISION 2-3
nerve endings limit the resolving power or visual acuity of the eye in some-
what the same manner that particle size and dispersion control the "graini-
ness" of a photographic emulsion. They are attached individually or in
groups to fibers of the optic nerve.
There are two distinct types of nerve endings, known because of their
shape as rods and cones.
SYNAPSES CONES
CORNEA
r
OPTIC NERVE -^
APERTURE FIBERS BIPOLAR CELLS
STOP-.,
FIG. 2-1 A. Simplified vertical cross section of the human eye showing its camera-
like structure. B. Magnified section of the retina simplified to show only the prin-
cipal nerve structures.
distance from the fovea is increased, and they are usually connected in
groups to a single fiber of the optic nerve. Between 110 X 10 6 and 125
X 10 6 rods have been counted in the retina. 4
Scotopic {rod) vision begins to function when field brightnesses drop
below 0.01 footlambert. The gray appearance (regardless of color) of
objects under low illumination levels is one consequence. Because of the
coarse rod reception mosaic and the multiple connections of rods to single
nerve fibers, sharp images are not transmitted and objects appear as fuzzy
silhouettes. The optical axis for rod vision is removed by 5 to 10 degrees
from the fovea. As a result one usually sees best by somewhat averted
vision at low brightness levels.
10
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8
NIGHT \ DAY
(SCOTOPIC \ <F HOTOPIC)
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38 0.42 0.46 0.50 0.54 0.58 0.62 0.66 0.70 0.74
WAVELENGTH IN MICRONS
micron = 10,000 angstroms = 1/10,000 centimeter
1
FIG. 2-3. In the rods, both
FIG. 2-2. Relative spectral sensitivity curves chemical and photochemical ac-
for photopic (cone) and scotopic (rod) vision show- tivity has been observed involv-
mg Purkinje effect on the wavelength of maxi-
ing the Furkinj ing rhodopsin, retinene, vitamin
mum sensitivity A, and protein.
The macular pigment, a yellowlayer covering the fovea and area immedi-
ately surrounding it, is believed to be one cause of the difficulty of obtain-
ing identical color matches from different observers. Since it varies in
color between individuals and appears to deepen in color with age, the
spectral composition of light thatmust pass through it before the cones
are stimulated will be modified and thus modify any judgement passed
by an observer making a color match.
The Photochemical Theory
Because complexity of the visual process, which includes many
of the
uncontrollable variables, a complete investigation of most visual phe-
nomena is almost impossible at the present time. Nevertheless, sufficient
experimental evidence has been collected to justify the general acceptance
5
of the fundamental concepts of the photochemical theory of vision.
LIGHT AND VISION 2-5
The theory proposes that each neurone (rod or cone) contains a photo-
sensitive substance S that forms upon exposure to light (among other
things) a substance A. Also, there is a chemical reaction by which S is
produced. Though the exact composition of the chemicals involved is not
known, researches 6 support the belief that in the rods S is rhodopsin or
visual purple, a rose-colored liquid; A is retinene, a yellow decomposition
product; and vitamin A is an intermediate product in the chemical reac-
tion. It appears that the relationship between these substances is as
shown in Fig. 2-3. The speed of photochemical reactions between S and
A is rapid as compared with that of the chemical process that includes
production of vitamin A.
Though it is believed similar reactions take place in the cones, the
chemicals of the human cones have not been isolated.
In an attempt to fit the theory to the available experimental data on
dark adaptation, a modification has been proposed. 7 It includes five
postulates: three expressions for the velocity of the reactions just de-
scribed and two expressions for the frequency of electrical impulses by
which visual stimuli are transmitted through the optic nerve to the brain. 8
The modification has the advantage of generality over earlier forms of the
theory that makes possible its application to the mathematical analysis
of any visual phenomenon. Good correlation has been obtained with
several experimental data but unexplained deviations from others have
been noted.
Color discrimination, though known to depend on the proper functioning
of the cones, is not yet understood.
It has been proposed that three types of photosensitive chemicals exist
in the cones and that each has a distinct spectral absorption curve. 9 The
existence of three types of nerve fibers, through which primary color
stimuli may be transmitted as distinct impulses, has also been suggested. 10
Though all colors appear gray at low illumination levels because of the
deficiency of the rods, which provide no color perception, the relative
brightnesses of different colored surfaces having the same reflectance or of
sources emitting equal quantities of energy of different wavelengths will
depend on the colors involved. In general, yellow-greens will appear
brighter than reds or blues. Similar in shape to the curve for the cones,
the peak of the rod sensitivity curve is displaced toward the shorter wave-
lengths. (See Fig. 2-2.) This displacement, known as the Purkinje
effect, occurs gradually as the observer adapts to low brightnesses and
depends more upon the rods and less upon the cones.
The adaptation of the eye to different brightness levels above 0.01 foot-
lambert involves only the cones and is complete after 10 minutes of ex-
posure to each new field. For most practical purposes the process ma}r be
considered complete after 0.5 to 2 minutes of exposure.
Dark adaptation is the term used to describe adaptation to levels below
0.01 footlambert. In the transition region between 0.01 and 0.001 foot-
lambert this will involve both rods and cones. Only rods are operative
at levels below 0.001 footlambert.
:
of the color towhich the eye has been exposed. Initial exposure to high
brightness levels of blue (short wavelength) radiation causes reduced
rates of adaptation (greater total time). Though it has been found that
the adaptation level may continue to decrease for several hours if the eyes
are kept in darkness, for practical purposes the process may be considered
complete after 30 minutes.
Factors of Vision
For evidence of the similarity of the objectives of the eye specialist and
the illuminating engineer, it is only necessary to compare the criteria,
i.e., the factors of vision, against which each group judges adequacy of
illumination
ILLUMINATING ENGINEER EYE SPECIALIST
Visual acuity Visual acuity
Contrast Visual efficiency
Time or speed Visual speed
Brightness Visual comfort
Visual health
A
3~-
FIG. 2-4^4. Common visual acuity test objects showing detail (d) to be
seen and the maximum angle subtended (.4). For normal vision rf m n = 1
i
Visual Acuity
Most persons with apparently normal vision can distinguish the details of a
black object on a white background if the detail subtends at least 1 minute at the eye.
At an observation distance of 20 feet (arbitrarily selected as representative of
distance vision) the characters in the normal lines of both charts (20/20 Snellen, 100
per cent A.M. A.) subtend 5 minutes and their detail subtends 1 minute. Details
in the 20/10 line subtend 1 minute at 10 feet and those in the 20/40 line subtend 1
minute at 40 feet. Thus a person with Snellen rating of 20/40 sees at 20 feet what a
normal observer would see at 40 feet.
LIGHT AND VISION 2-7
80% CVOFEHS
75% OCLGTR L P E D 20/50
70% NRTSYF
65% EOBCD o z 20/70
55%
50%
20/100
45%
F P
30%
N Z
O C
1 FIG. 2-4.B.
Jri £ E 20/200
Visual acuity is also expressed (by the research worker) as the reciprocal
of the angle (minutes) which the smallest detail in a test object subtends
at the eye.
A laboratory acuity value of one means that the observer can just perceive a test
object which subtends 1 minute at the eye; a value of two denotes that an 0.5 minute
object can just be distinguished.
Figure 2-4 shows three common test objects and the relationship between
Snellen and A.M.A. lines and ratings. A uniform illumination of 10 foot-
candles on the charts should be provided for routine examinations.
2-8 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
Visual acuity increases with the brightness of the task. The results of
one study of the relationship are plotted in Fig. 2-5-4, which indicates that
the rate of increase in visual acuity with increased brightness diminishes
at high values of background brightness. The curve rapidly approaches a
maximum at brightnesses greater than 10,000 footlamberts. 11
A
o.oi o.i i to 100 1,000 10,000 100,000
BRIGHTNESS OF BACKGROUND IN FOOTLAMBERTS
' s
OI.90
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B s =B t
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BS 1
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'*'" B s =0
jr+
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0.01 0.1 1 10 5 10 50 100 500 1,000
BRIGHTNESS OF SURROUND BRIGHTNESS OF TEST OBJECT
IN FOOTLAMBERTS IN FOOTLAMBERTS
B c
FIG. 2-5. Maximum
acuity for any test object is attained when the surround
brightness does not exceed that of the task, and is not less than one tenth that of the
task.
A. Variation of acuity with background brightness for a black test object on a
white background. B. Variation of acuity with surround brightness for con-
stant brightness test object (B = 12.6 footlamberts). C. Acuity versus test object
t
Contrast
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SENSITIVITY z
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BRIGHTNESS OF BACKGROUND IN FOOTLAMBERTS
Speed of Vision
n/
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/A
5 10 50 100 1 5 10 50 100
u. BRIGHTNESS IN FOOTLAMBERTS ILLUMINATION IN FOOTCANDLES
O
REFLECTANCE OF
BACKGROUND
IN PER CENT= ^
&
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10 50 100 1 5 10 50 100
ILLUMINATION IN FOOTCANDLES
C
FIG. Speed of vision vs. size, contrast, and illumi-
2-8.
nation of the task. A (I) Speed of noting the presence of
.
Figures 2-95 and 2-9C show speed of vision variations for other tasks. 16 -
17
Brightness
BRASS ON
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10 50 100 500 1000 5 10 50 100
BRIGHTNESS IN ILLUMINATION IN
FOOTLAMBERTS FOOTCANDLES
160
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t
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150
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40
BRIGHTNESS IN FOOTLAMBE"RTS
SIZE
CRITICAL DETAIL RECOMMENDED
OF SEEING TASK FOOTCANDLES
A / B \ C
GOOD/AVERAGE\ poor
•CONTRAST-
Figure 2-10, taken directly from the British code, was developed from
laboratory data of the type shown in Fig. 2-11. These were obtained from
standardized performance tests (location of the gap in an international
test object, black on white) conducted in laboratory cubicles under ideal
conditions. 18
2-14 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
10
'=
SIZE o 'critical 'detail :
IOJ
> 1 8 (BRITISH LABORATORY
6
H 0.8 in \ CRITERIA)
£ 6
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I 2 4 6 10 20 40 100 1000 0.1 0.4 I 2 4 6 10 20 40 100
ILLUMINATION N FOOTCANDLES
Using Fig. 2-12 the footcandles required for 98 per cent performance
may be obtained:
First, measure the critical size of the detail to be seen, the distance from the eyes,
and the reflectance of the detail and its background. Then by plotting these values
on the nomogram and drawing straight lines point to point (left to right), the foot-
candles required are found.
30 40 50 60 70
AGE IN YEARS
visibility meter. Both filters are calibrated, one in numbers (1-20) repre-
senting the size (minutes) of the test object reduced to threshold during
calibration by each setting of the filter, and the other in recommended
footcandles.
The footcandle scale is calibrated arbitrarily on the assumption that 10
footcandles is a conservative illumination for reading 8-point (3.7 minute
size) black Bodoni type on white paper. For normal eyes the visibility of
this reading task under 10 footcandles is chosen as a conservative standard
by the designers. The user of the meter may, if he wishes, choose another
standard (20 footcandles for example) and multiply scale readings by the
new standard divided by 10 (scale reading X 20/10).
LUCKIESH-MOSS
\ METER
VISIBILITY
100% CONTRAST
V
\
\
\
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6 98% PERFORMANCE
? 5 (BRITISH CRITERIA)
SIZE, CONTRAST,
y" TIME AND
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^ BRIGHTNESS
^^s
-v
I 5 10 50 100 1000
ILLUMINATION IN FOOTCANDLES
light entering the pupil at increasing distances from the center. The
effect is not strong enough, however, to compensate for the reduction in
pupil size with age, which makes it necessary to increase brightness (Fig.
2-13) if the same acuity, minimum perceptible contrast, and speed are to
be maintained as an observer's age increases. 23
Accommodation is the adjustment of the focal length of the eye for view-
ing objects at different distances. Upon tensing of the ciliary muscles,
the lens bulges (Fig. 2-16,4) to the proper contour to focus upon near
objects.
The youthful eye tends to be flexible and therefore can focus upon very
close objects (at eight years to 3 inches or less).
Age tends to stiffen the lens capsule in its flattened shape to the extent
that the muscles are no longer able to give it the convex contour necessary
for close vision. (See Fig. 2-16.B.)
An emmetrope is a person with normal
vision. Presbyopia is the term applied
to loss of accommodation. A myope is
one who is near sighted and cannot accom-
< 60 modate for far vision without correction.
The amplitude of accommodation for
these types of vision is improved by an
increase of illumination on the task. (See
< 20
Fig. 2-1QB.) The percentage of improve-
ment is greatest for the presbyopes, and
40 60
AGE IN YEARS they also benefit much more in percent-
FIG. 2-15. The reduction of visual age gain of visual acuity. (See Fig.
acuity with age. 21 2-165.)
2-18 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
PRESBYOPES
NON-PRESBYOPES
OI40
A.L. AGE 63^
SINUS O 80
VENOSUS z /k.
^^E.L.AGE27
V
"s&
M.F. AGE 27
X jf
y^~ 3.S. AGE 53
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 5 10 50 100 I 5 10
AGE IN YEARS ILLUMINATION IN FOOTCANDLES
FIG. 2-16A. To adjust the curvature of the lens for focusing on near objects, the
ciliarymuscles are tensed, causing the lens to bulge. As the lens capsule stiffens
with age the amplitude of this accommodation decreases as indicated by Duane's
curves of norms of accommodation. B. Improvement in accommodation and acuity
with illumination is greater for presbyopes than for emmetropes or myopes.
Glare \
Disability Glare
EVB =
~ir + -^r + -ir
(See references 24 and 32.)
It appears that foveal adaptation for a uniform field is 90 per cent de-
pendent on the brightness of the portion of the field imaged on the fovea,
the surround contributing only 10 per cent of the total effect. 25 (See Fig.
2-18, K = 0.)
Case 2: Nonuniform Field — Task Brightness Greater than Surround Bright-
ness. new adaptation level
Disability glare is present whenever the observer's
Ba (glare effect included) is greater than task brightness B However, t .
when the task is brighter than the surround, potential glare sources (B g >
B,) may sometimes be superposed on the surround without causing dis-
ability glare.
The initial adaptation level B a (potential glare effect neglected) may be
determined by direct measurement or by computation. 25 It is a function
of task brightness B and surround brightness B s and perhaps also of a
t
B A = B a + EVB
and disability glare exists whenever B A > B t .
For the special situation shown in Fig. 2-17 in which the task is cen-
tered on a surround of 115 degrees diameter and brightness B s on which is
superposed a concentric annular area of brightness B Sl such that B s B Sl +
= B and of variable outside radius 9, curves of B A/B versus are plotted
t , t
H = B S /B t =
FIELD OF ^10
VIEW "X
^5
Ba
^5
Bt
__3
2
1
_ .
1 I
I 1 1 1 1
0.8 I 2 4 6 8 10 20 40 60
IN DEGREES
FIG. 2-17. One and one half degree FIG. 2-18. Variation in the ratio (adap
task (brightness B ) viewed against t tation brightness, B a/task brightness, B ) t
A = Ba
Bt
2-22 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
E G =5FT-C THROUGHOUT
(COBB 8. MOSS DATA)
2.5 3 4
SURROUND FACTOR A
FIG. 2-19. Variation in contrast sensitivity with changes in surround factor (A =
B A /B t ) for several sizes of test objects.
Discomfort Glare
The sensation experienced by an observer when brightness relationships
in the field of view cause discomfort but do not necessarily interfere with
seeing is known as the discomfort-glare effect. . .
FILAMENT-LAMP LUMINAIRES
12" Diffusing sphere 150- watt 750 7.3 315 12.8 570 14.8 570
14" 200 785 10.2 325 18.2 590 21.0 595
16" 300 955 15.9 355 29.0 640 33.6 645
18" 500 1280 27.8 400 49.1 715 57.0 730
14" Semi-indirect 200 370 8.0 315 14.7 570 17.0 600
16" " 300 455 13.2 345 23.4 625 27.2 650
IS" " 500 610 23.0 390 39.6 690 46.0 715
16" Luminous indirect 200 180 7.0 285 12.8 535 15.7 540
18" 300 225 11.2 310 20.4 545 25 590
18" 500 380 19.0 360 34.5 630 42.3 685
20" 750 445 27.5 390 50.1 670 61.4 740
20" 1000 645 39.9 435 72.5 740 89 825
FLUORESCENT-LAMP LUMINAIRES
10" x 4' Half cyl two 40-watt 220 9.6 290 16.4 490 18.9 495
Diffusing four 40 440 19.2 360 32.8 610 37.8 620
12" x 4' Half cyl two 40 185 9.6 275 16.4 470 18.9 475
Diffusing four 40 370 19.2 345 32.8 590 37.8 595
14" x 4' Half cyl two 40 160 9.6 270 16.4 455 18.9 455
Diffusing four 40 320 19.2 335 32.8 570 37.8 570
10" x 4' Half cyl two 40 115 8.7 280 15.3 475 17.7 485
Semi-indirect four 40 230 17.5 350 30.7 590 35.4 610
,12" x 4' Half cyl two 40 95 8.7 270 15.3 455 17.7 460
Semi-indirect four 40 190 17.5 335 30.7 565 35.4 5S0
14" x 4' Half cyl two 40 80 8.7 260 15.3 440 17.7 445
Semi-indirect four 40 160 17.5 325 30.7 540 35.4 560
*ft-c = footcandles on work of about 80 per cent diffuse reflectance. These footcandle values must be
_
multiplied by 10 if the work has a diffuse reflectance of 8 per cent, by 4 if the work has a diffuse reflectance
of 20 per cent, and so on.
When the brightness of the potential glare source is known its value
may be substituted for B g and the formula solved for K, the index of com-
fort. Values of B g which result in values of greater than 75.4 cause K
discomfort which becomes "intolerable" when — 377; the smaller the K
value of K
below 75.4, the smaller the probability that encountering the
potential-glare source will cause discomfort. Since a shock is the cause,
2-24 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
The glare factor for a single potential glare source is determined by the
following empirical formula:
A B 2
K
D 2 2
S°-
6
P
5AD 2 2
S™
where K= glare factor for single source
A = apparent area of source (square inches)
/ footlamberts \
B = r, , . e, .
brightness
6 or source I )
V 1,000 /
I
— —
/degrees\
=- )
v io y
, . /footlamberts^
c<
o = surround brightness
, , ,
I
-
10
I = intensity of source in direction of the
eye (candlepowcr)
-\
-
>s s^BY GLARE SOURCE, U),
-
v ^•v. IN STERADIANS:
n> icr 5
io-
4
-
-
°8 - I0"3
2C -
00
i l i
i i i 1 1 1 i i i
In Fig. 2-20 are plotted comfort threshold brightness ratio curves ob-
tained by substituting different values of B a and to in the following equa-
tion:
Bg^ = (B/Ba) co
y'-p
Ba CO
[000874 +
where #<? max — maximum comfortable brightness of potential
glare source (footlamberts)
Ba = observer's initial adaptation level (foot-
lamberts)
(B/B a ) oo = comfortable brightness ratio for a very
large source
co = solid angle subtended by potential glare
source (steradians)
4. Evolution and glair. Evidence supports the belief that human eyes
have developed through the ages to satisfy the needs of the natural human
environment. Results of recent research indicate that man's normal
habitat, based on the probability of his survival in the natural state (no
clothes or shelter), is limited to the zone of the earth's surface covered by
a 70-degree-Fahrenheit isotherm.
On the assumption that the eyes have been prepared through the evolu-
tionary process to function properly under the conditions of this zone,
comfortable flux ratios characteristic of the zone have been studied for
guidance in interior-lighting design.
Based on an analysis of these data, Fig. 2-21 has been developed to sug-
gest the comfortable limits of flux distribution ratios in the field of view. 30
UPPER
MONOCULAR
(0.5-2.7
of comfort established by nature, the ratio of flux per unit solid angle in
each zone of the field of view to the average flux per unit solid angle through-
out the field is plotted in Fig. 2-21.
To obtain the ratios, a true perspective or a photograph is prepared on
which the zones of the field of view may be laid out in scale. Then the
flux per unit solid angle in each zone and in the field may be obtained by
dividing the integral of flux from all sources in a given zone by the solid
angle subtended by that zone.
5. Spatial brightness equilibrium. On assumptions similar to those just
stated, another investigator has selected for analysis those natural scenes
which immediately prior to sunset provide illumination of the order of 50
to 100 footcandles. This illumination may be provided indoors by means
of available light sources, and electric power supply and distribution sys-
tems. It is suggested that comfort in this range will be assured if "spatial
brightness equilibrium" comparable with that of the presunset period out
of doors is maintained. 31
LIGHT AND VISION 2-27
G| *
(A)
FIG. 2-23A. When
the task has a perfectly diffuse surface,, the disability and dis-
comfort criteria applied to sources such as G in the field of view may be applied
equally well to any source such as G\, G2, Gz, outside the field of view which
contributes to the brightness of the task by reflection. B. When the task surface is
specular the criteria may also be applied to sources outside the field of view, but
only when the angle formed by eye and source with apex on the task is bisected by a
normal to the task, as in the case of G\.
—
10" 5 10" 3 10 3
_1
1" 10" 1' 10' 1° 10° 50° 10 1 10
ANGLE SUBTENDED AT EYE BY SOURCE BACKGROUND BRIGHTNESS IN FOOTLAMBERTS
FIG. 2-24. Threshold illumination FIG. 2-25. Threshold illumination re-
required at the eye for seeing circular quired at the eye for seeing point sources
objects of different sizes (dark back- viewed against backgrounds of different
ground). 33 brightnesses. 33
= +
E_ _ at
E t
Note: It is assumed that the observer knows the location of the source
and is looking toward it.
t = T MS -Vi)
where t — average search time before finding source
(seconds)
T = duration of cycle (flash duration +
dark
period in seconds)
</> = solid angle subtended by the area searched
(steradians)
S = external solid angle corresponding to
retinalarea for which the illumination
produced by the source is above threshold
(steradians)
1944.
13. Cobb, P. W., and Moss, F. K., "The Four Variables of the Visual Thres'iold," J. Franklin Inst., June,
1928.
14. Connor, J. P., and Ganoung, R. E., "An Experimental Determination of the Visual Thresholds at
Low Values of Illumination," J. Optical Sec. Am., September, 1935.
15. Cobb, P. W., "Some Experiments in the Speed of Vision," Trans. Ilium, ''ng. Soc, February, 1924.
16. Ferree, C. E., and Rand, G., "Intensity of Light and Speed of Vision Stu id with Special Reference to
...
Industrial Situations, Part I," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, January, 1927. Also "intensity Situations, Part . . .
II," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, May, 1928. "Size of Object Visibility and Visnn," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc,
October, 1931.
17. Luckiesh, M., and Moss, F. K., The Science of Seeing, D. Van Nostrai Company, Inc., New York,
1937.
E. S. Code of Practice for Good Lighting of Building Interiors inch
18. "I. ing Recommended Values of
Illumination," Illuminating Engineering Society, (British), London, 1945. V ton, H. C, "Proposals for a
New Lighting Code," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, (British) London, February, .
19. Recommended Practice of Industrial Lighting, Ilium. Eng. Soc, May, 194i, -iso American Standard A 11
19^2, American Standards Association, New York. Recommended Practice of Office Lighting, Ilium. Eng.
Soc, 1946. American Standard Practice of School Lighting, Ilium. Eng. Soc, 1946. Recommended Practice
of Street and Highway Lighting, Ilium. Eng. Soc, 1946. Recommended Practice of Store Lighting, Ilium. Eng.
Soc, 1946.
20. Luckiesh, M., and Moss, F. K., "Visibility: Its Measurement and Significance in Seeing," J. Franklin
Inst., October, 1935.
21. Luckiesh, M., Light, Vision, and Seeing, D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., York, 1944. New
22. Luckiesh, M., and Moss, F. K., The Science of Seeing, D. Van Nostrand "'ompany, Inc., York, New
1937.
23. Moon, P., and Spencer, D. E., "On the Stiles-Crawford Effect," J. Optic 1 Soc. Am., June, 1944.
24. Holladay, L. L., "The Fundamentals of Glare and Visibility," J. Optic Soc. Am., and the Review of
Scientific Instruments, April, 1926. Stiles, W. W., "Recent Measurements of the ffect of Glare on the Bright-
ness Difference Threshold," Proceedings of the International Commission on Illun ation, 1928. See also Dept.
Sci. Ind. Research Paper No. 10, Appendix III, London, 1935.
25. Moon, P., and Spencer, D. E., "The Specification of Foveal Adaptation," J. Optical Soc. Am., August,
1943. Moon, P., and Spencer, D. E., "A Simple Criterion for Quality in Lighting," Ilium. Eng., March, 1947.
26. of Quality and Quantity for Interior Illumination, "Brightness and Bright-
Committee on Standards
ness Ratios," Report No. 1, Ilium. Eng. Soc, December, 1944. •>
27. Crouch, C. L., "Brightness Limitations for Luminaires," Ilium. Eng., July, 1945. Luckiesh, M.,
and Guth, S., "Discomfort Glare and Angular Distance of Glare-Source," Ilium. Eng., June, 1946.
28. Harrison, W., "Glare Ratings," Ilium. Eng., September, 1945. Harrison, W., and Meaker, P., "Further
Data on Glare Ratings," Ilium. Eng., February, 1947
29. Moon, P., "Discussion of 'Glare Ratings' by Harrison," Ilium. Eng., September, 1945. Moon, P., and
Spencer, D. E., "Visual Effect of Non-Uniform Surrounds," J. Optical Soc. Am
March, 1945. ,
30. Logan, H. L., "Light for Living," Ilium. Eng., March, 1947. Slauer, R.G., " Discussion of 'Confusion
in Brightness Thinking'," Ilium. Eng., February, 1945. Logan, H. L., "The Anatomy of Visual Efficiency,"
Ilium. Eng., December, 1941. Logan, H. L., "Specification Points of Brightness.'" Ilium. Eng., September,
1939.
31. Ainsworth, G., "Discussion of 'Lighting and Seeing in the Drafting Roorn' by W. G. Darley and G. S.
Ickes," Ilium. Eng., December, 1941.
32. Crouch, C. L., "The Relation between Illumination and Vision," Ilium. Ei Tovember, 1945.
33. Lash, J. D., and Prideaux, G. F., "Visibility of Signal Lights," Ilium. Et^ "ovember, 1943. Stiles,
W. S., Bennett, M. G., and Green, H. N., "Visibility of Light Signals with Sp Reference to Aviation
Lights," H. M. Stationery Office, London, 1937.
34. Knoll, H. A., Tousey, R., and Hulbert, E. O., "Visual Thresholds of Stea< Point Sources of Light in
Fields of Brightness from Dark to Daylight," J Optical Soc Am., August, 1946/
.
35. Blondell, A., and Rey, J., "The Perception of Lights of Short Duration at Their Range Limits," Trans.
Ilium. Eng. Soc, November, 1912. Hulbert, E. O., "Optics of Atmospheric Haze," J Optical Soc. Am., July, .
1941. McNicholas, H. J., "Selection of Colors for Signal Lights," ./. Research Nat. Bur. Standards, December,
1936. Ornstein, Eymers, and Vermeulen, "Color Recognition Tests with Reference to the Suitability of
Signal Glasses," K. Akad. Amsterdam, Proc 37.7, 1934. Woodside, C. S., "Identification Ranges for Colored
Light Signals," Report No. 5, Electrical Section (660), Bureau of Ships, Navy Department, 1944.
SECTION 3
1. Referent dards
The ability easure physical quantities accuiately is essential to
progress in all ph&^s of science and engineering. A fundamental step in
developing this ability is the establishment of reference standards against
which practical measuring tools may be calibrated.
When such standards are physical objects, they are customarily pre-
served at the National Bureau of Standards in Washington. An example
is the set of carbon-filament lamps which has served as the American
1
3-2 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
3. Standard Illuminants
By international agreement in 1931 the I.C.I, adopted the trichromatic
system mathematical color specification and established as standards
for
for colorimetry the illuminants A, B, and C. The relative energy distribu-
tions of these illuminants are given in Table 3-1.
The following specifications are for practical laboratory sources which
have the distribution characteristics of the standard illuminants 8 :
Nomenclature
RADIATION— RADIOMETRY
timeter H H = d$>/dA
*'
LIGHTING— PHOTOMETRY
Luminosity lumen per watt lm watt-1 K K = n/*x
factor
lambert L
footlambert ft-L B' B' = xdI(dA cos 6)
apparent
footcandle
'Luminance
Except where indicated the following material has been revised and con-
densed for handbook publication from the standard nomenclature. The
three subdivisions immediately following, on radiation, light, and light
measurement, deal with fundamental concepts.
1. Radiation Terms
Radiant energy travels in the form of electromagnetic waves.
Radiant energy density is radiant energy per unit volume.
Spectral radiant energy is radiant energy per unit wavelength interval AX,
at wavelength X.
Radiant flux is the time rate of flow of radiant energy.
Radiant flux density is the ratio of radiant flux at an element of surface
to the area of the element.
3-6 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
Steradiancy in a given direction is the radiant flux per unit solid angle,
per unit of projected area of the source viewed from that direction.
Irradiancy is the incident radiant flux per unit area.
Radiant intensity is the radiant energy emitted per unit time, per unit
solid angle about the direction considered.
Spectral radiant intensity is radiant intensity per unit wavelength interval.
x
Luminous
flux is the time rate of flow of light.
Illumination is the density of luminous flux incident upon a surface.
It equals the quotient of flux by the area of the surface when the flux is
uniform over the area.
- Luminous intensity is the solid angular luminous flux density in the
direction in question. It equals the quotient of the flux on an element of
surface by the angle subtended by the element when it is viewed from
the source.
Brightness is the luminous intensity of any surface in a given direction,
per unit of projected area of the surface viewed from that direction.
- The lumen the unit of luminous flux. It equals the flux emitted
is
through a unit solid angle (one steradian) from a point source of one candle.
- The lumen-hour is the unit of light. It is the quantity of light delivered
in one hour by a flux of one lumen.
— The footcandle is the unit of illumination when the foot is the unit of
length. It is the illumination on a surface, one square foot in area, on
which is uniformly distributed a flux of one lumen. It equals lumens per
square foot. See Fig. 3-1.
The lux is the unit of illumination in the metric system. It equals
lumens per square meter.
The phot is the unit of illumination when the centimeter is the unit of
length. It equals lumens per square centimeter.
The candle is the unit of luminous intensity.
Candlepower is luminous intensity expressed in candles.
The apparent candlepower of an extended source (at a specified distance)
is the candlepower of a point source which would produce the same illu-
l/V candle per square foot. This is also called the apparent footcandle.
The lambert is the unit of brightness equal to the average brightness of
any surface emitting or reflecting one lumen per square centimeter. It
equals l/V candle per square centimeter.
falling upon it; practically realized in the form of a cavity with opaque
* See Pages 1-8 and 1-12.
3-8 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
flux density per unit wavelength interval (at that wavelength) of any tem-
perature radiator to that of a blackbody at the same temperature.
5. Lighting Terms
luminosity factor the ratio of the luminous flux at a particular wave-
:
flux to the total radiant flux (usually expressed in lumens per watt of
radiant flux). For energy radiated at a single wave-length, luminous
efficiency is synonymous with luminosity factor.
This term not to be confused with the term efficiency as applied to a
is
light source since the latter is based on the power consumed by the source
instead of on the radiant flux from the source.
mechanical equivalent of light (minimum) the reciprocal of the luminous :
efficiency (maximum) of radiant energy; that is, the watts per lumen at
the wavelength of maximum luminosity.
The best experimental value is 0.00154 watt per lumen, corresponding to
650 lumens per radiant watt, the maximum possible efficiency of a light
source. When expressed in terms of the new value of the lumen these
values become, respectively, 0.00151 watt per (new) lumen and 660 (new)
lumens per watt. See page 1-12.
efficiency (of a light source) the ratio of the total luminous flux to the
:
total power input, expressed in lumens per watt, or, (for combustion
sources) in lumens per thermal unit consumed per unit of time.
reflection factor (reflectance) (p or r) the ratio of the light reflected by
:
radius vector from the origin to the surface in any direction is proportional
to the luminous intensity of the light source in the corresponding direction.
isocandle line a line plotted on any appropriate co-ordinates to show
:
received by the reference plane divided by the total flux from the lamps
illuminating it. See Fig. 8-19, page 8-48. When not otherwise specified,
the plane of reference is assumed to be a horizontal plane 30 inches (76 centi-
meters) above the floor. See Table 8-2.
lamp: a light source.
electric filament lamp a light source consisting of a glass bulb containing
:
vapor lamp.
luminaire: a complete lighting unit including lamp, globe, reflector,
refractor, housing, and such support as is integral with the housing. The
term luminaire is used to designate completely equipped lighting fixtures,
wall brackets, portable lamps, and so forth which are removable. It does
not include permanent parts of a building, such as_a-ceiling, or other struc-
tural element in street-lighting units the pole, or bracket is not considered
;
Excitation purity: the ratio of the distance from the white point to the
point representing the sample to the distance along the same straight line
from the white point to the spectrum locus or the purple boundary, both
distances being measured on the I.C.I, chromaticity diagram.
Chromaticity: the characteristics of light specified by dominant wave-
length and purity. (Complementary wavelength and purity for purples.)
Chromaticity diagram: a diagram on which chromaticities are represented
by points independent of the choice of a standard quality white. See
page 4-12.
Fig. 4-6,
Spectrum locus: the locus of points representing the colors of the visible
spectrum in a chromaticity diagram.
Purple boundary: the straight line drawn between the ends of the spec-
trum locus.
Blackbody locus: the locus of chromaticities of blackbodies having various
temperatures.
Locus of whites: points in a region of a chromaticity diagram representing
qualities that may be considered white under circumstances of common
occurrence.
Three-color mixture: a mixture of suitable amounts of light of three
suitably selected chromaticities with which a color may usually be matched.
Color-mixture data: the amounts of the primaries required to establish
a match.
Transformation of color-mixture data: computations of color-mixture data
for one set of primaries having data for another set.
Luminosity coefficients: constants the sum of whose multiples by the
three-color mixture data for any color give the brightness* of the color.
Trichromatic coefficient: the ratio of any one of the color -mixture data
7. Electrical Terms
There are two types and direct (dc).
of electric currents: alternating (ac)
By alternating current meant a current which changes its direction of
is
flow at regular intervals, and by direct current, one that continues to flow
in one direction. The frequency of alternating current is the total number
of times the current flows in each direction per second. Most alternating
current in the United States has a frequency of 60 cycles per second. 19
In an a-c circuit the alternation of the current is not always in step (in
phase) with the voltage. If the current lags behind the voltage, the circuit
is and if the current leads the voltage, the circuit
said to contain inductance
is have capacitance. Reactance is the general term that correctly
said to
designates both inductance and capacitance.
In an a-c circuit containing reactance, the power consumed is not given
by the product of the voltage and current alone and thus cannot be deter-
mined from the measurement of the current and voltage but must be
measured by a wattmeter. The ratio of the wattage to the product of the
current and voltage is called the power factor of the circuit. For a circuit
containing resistance only, the power factor is unity. For any other circuit
the power factor is a proper fraction.
The phenomenon that occurs on making or breaking a circuit containing
inductance or capacitance is called a transient. If a voltage is suddenly
applied to a circuit containing capacitance, there is an initial rush of current
exceeding the steady current which will be maintained by the same voltage,
but when an inductive circuit is broken an electromotive force is developed
which tends to cause the current to continue to flow.
electromotive force: the potential difference (pressure) measured in
volts required to cause a current of electricity, measured in amperes, to
flow through a resistance, measured in ohms.
fundamental units the ampere, a unit defined as the current which will
:
A F
absolute abs farad spell out or f
alternating current (as noun) feet per minute fpm
spell out or ac feet per second f ps
alternating-current (as adjective) foot ft
spell out or a-c footcandle ft-c
ampere amp footlambert ft-L
ampere-hour amp-hr foot-pound -second (system) fps
Angstrom unit A freezing point fp
antilogarithm antilog frequency spell out
atmosphere atm fusion point fnp
atomic weight at. wt
avoirdupois advp G
azimuth az or a greatest common divisor gcd
B II
centimeter cm inch in
centimeter-gram-second (system) . . . .cgs inches per second ips
chemically pure cp inside diameter ID
circular mils cir mils
coefficient coef J
cologarithm colog joule j
conductivity pond
constant const K
cosecant esc kilocalorie kcal
cosine cos kilocycles per second kc
cotangent cot kilogram kg
coulomb spell out kilometer km
counter electromotive force cemf kilometers per second kmps
cycles per second spell out or c kilovolt kv
kilovolt-ampere kva
D kilowatt kw
decibel db kilowatthour kwhr
°
degree deg or
degree centigrade C L
degree Fahrenheit F lambert L
degree Kelvin K latitude lat or $
diameter diam least common multiple lem
direct current (as noun) . . . spell out or dc logarithm (common) log
direct-current (as adjective) logarithm (natural) log or In
spell out or d-c longitude long, or X
lumen lm
E
efficiency eff
M
electric elec mass spell out
electromotive force emf maximum max
: :
R Y
radian spell out yard •yd
reactive kilovolt-ampere kvar year. •yr
Common Symbols 21
In technical literature many symbols are used to save space and for
convenience in setting up equations. The following are common
Mathematics
+ plus nearly equal to > greater than
— minus identical with 5 not greater than
± plus or minus not identical with < less than
X multiplied by equivalent 5 not less than
-5- divided by difference between : is to; ratio
= equal to difference : as; proportion
^ not equal to congruent with 7-t- geometric proportion
3-14 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
= approaches i equilateral °c infinity
— > approaches limit of = equiangular integral /
a varies as \/ radical root square root
;
•f function
;
||
parallel to \/ cube root 9 or 5 differential; variation
j_ perpendicular to \/ fourth root ir pi
EP horsepower 01 reluctance
—* direction
A increment
* magnetic flux *=> electrical current
^ dielectric flux; electrostatic flux pH potential hydrogen
p resistivity \ y benzene ring
7 conductivity ~->
yields
A equivalent conductivity *=* reversible reaction
i precipitate T gas
REFERENCES
Martino, R. A., Standardization Activities of National Technical and Trade Organizations, National
1.
Bureau of Standards, misc. publication M169. Knowlton, A. E., Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers
Seventh Edition, Section 25, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1941.
2. American Standards Association, American Society for Testing Materials, Central Committee for
Lumber Standards, National Aircraft Standards Committee.
3. American Standards Booklet 4501, American Standards Association, New York, 1945, lists current
,
standards.
4. Birge, R. T., "General Physical Constants, " .Report on Progress in Physics, Physical Society, London,
August, 1941.
•, "A New Table of Values of the General Physical Constants," Reviews of Modern Physics, October,
1941.
5. Method of Test for Spectral Apparent Reflectivity of Paints, D
307-39, American Society for Test-
ing Materials.
6. Proceedings, Eighth Session, Commission Internationale de VEclairage, Cambridge, England, September,
1931.
Judd, D. B., "The 1931 I.C.I. Standard Observer and Coordinate System for Colorimetry," J. Optical
7.
Soc. Am., October, 1933.
Hardy, A. C, Handbook of Colorimetry Technology Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1936.
8. ,
9. Judd, D. B., "A General Formula for the Computation of Colorimetric Purity," J. Research Nat. Bur.
Standards, May, 1931.
10. MacAdam, D. L., "Photometric Relationships between Complementary Colors," J. Optical Soc. Am.,
April, 1938.
11. Munsell Book of Color (standard edition with complete explanatory matter; abridged edition adapted
for comparisons), Munsell Color Company, Baltimore, Maryland, 1929.
12. Glenn, J. J., and Killian, J. T., "Trichromatic Analysis of the Munsell Book of Color," J. Optical Soc.
Am., December, 1940.
13. Judd, D. B., and Kelly, K. L., "Method of Designating Colors," J. Research Nat. Bur. Standards,
September, 1939.
Nickerson, D., Use of the I.C.I. Tristimulus Values in Disk Colorimetry, U. S. Dep. Agr., May, 193S;
14.
mimeograph copies obtainable on request.
15. Newhall, S. M., "Preliminary Report of the O.S.A. Subcommittee on the Spacing of the Munsell
Colors," J. Optical Soc. Am., December, 1940.
16. Nickerson, D., "Central Notations for ISCC-NBS Color Names," J. Optical Soc. Am., September, 1941.
17. Highway Transportation: American Standard Manual on Uniform Control Devices for Streets and
Highways, D6-1935. American Standard Adjustable Face Traffic Control Signal Head Standards, DW.1-1943.
American Standards Associations, New York. Railroad Transportation: Standard Cade of the Association of
American Railroads; Operating Rules; Block Signal Rules, Interlocking Rules. Navigation of Waterways: U. S.
Coast Guard Introduction and Explanation of Light Lists, Atlantic and Gulf Coasts, Pacific Coast, and Intra-
coastal Waterways. Air Navigation: Civil Aeronautics Administration publications establishing color light
markings: Obstruction Marking Manual; Standard Specifications for Airport Lighting; Specifications; ANC
Civil Air Regulations; Airway Engineering Specifications on Code Beacons and Course Lights.
18. Moon, P., "A System of Photometric Concepts," J. Optical Soc. Am., June, 1942. Committee on
Colorimetry, Optical Soc. Am. "The Psychophysics of Color," J. Optical Soc. Am., May, 1944.
19. American Standard Definitions of Electrical Terms, ASA C42, 1941. Am. Inst. Elec. Eng., New York.
Knowlton, E., Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers, Seventh Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company,
New York, 1941. Pender, H, Del Mar, W.A., Mcllwain, K., Electrical Engineers' Handbook, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York.
20. American Standard Abbreviations of Scientific and Engineering Terms, ASA Z10. 1-1941, American
Standards Association, New York.
21. Style Manual, Current EditionU. S. Government Printing Office.
SECTION 4
COLOR
success of any color scheme. Also, the utility, appearance, and aesthetic
effect of a lighting design may be influenced appreciably by the colors of
surfaces in the illuminated area.
Because of the wide differences which exist between the immediate inter-
ests, experience, and training of indivi duals engaged in the several phases
of color work, the possibility for misunderstanding between them is great.
During W
T
orld War II, the American Standards Association adopted an
Emergency Standard, Z44-1942, in order to eliminate such misunder-
standing and many wastefully divergent practices. This standard recom-
mends a method of physical measurement (spectrophotometry) as the
fundamental process in the standardization of color. (See page 4-24.) The
>
standard also recommends the use of basic color specifications which can
be computed from fundamental spectrophotometric data by a method
adopted by the International Commission on Illumination. For the popu-
lar interpretation of these basic color specifications, which might otherwise
be incomprehensible to most people, the Standard recommends the use of
descriptive I.S.C.C.-N.B.S. color names, which can be determined from
the basic color specifications, "wherever general comprehensibility is desired
and precision is not important."
The I.S.C.C.-N.B.S. system of color names described on page 4-6 sup-
plements the fundamental technical color terminology included in Section 3.
Note: References are listed at the end of each section.
1
4-2 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
It is not suggested that the I.S.C.C.-N.B.S. names will replace either the
numerical specifications or the trade names which manufacturers of tex-
tiles, wall coverings, tiles, paint, and so forth, have been using conveniently
for many years, but rather that they may assist in correlating and expedit-
ing all color work.
to be based in good part on experience and judgment for some time, despite
the existence of several proposals whereby solutions ma}^ be obtained
through the application of mathematical formulas. (See page 4-16.)
Color combinations and contrasts for working areas. The effects on seeing
of contrast between task and background and of brightness and brightness
distribution in the field of view are discussed in Section 2. However the
data apply to tasks which for the most part involve black objects on white
backgrounds. If it is desirable to have contrast but at the same time nearly
uniform brightness in the field of view, color may be used.
Few studies have been made to determine the effect of the color and
brightness of surrounding surfaces on the utilization of light for seeing. 2
"^jSurfacc colors and luminous reflectance. The luminous reflectances of
surfaces vary with their color and with the light source used for illumination.
Luminous reflectances are of major importance in lighting design since
they influence brightness and flux distribution ratios, and illumination
levels. The quantitive effects of the luminous reflectance and color of
wall materials have been studied both by direct measurement and by mathe-
matical analysis. It may be stated positively that light walls and ceilings,
whether white or colored, are much more efficient than dark walls in con-
serving light and in distributing it uniformly. 3
In Fig. 4-1, photographs of a room in an industrial building before and
after interior modifications were made are shown with sketches which
suggest the step by step changes in luminous reflectance and color scheme. 3
The results of these changes in terms of footcandles and utilization coeffi-
cients also are indicated.
COLOR 4-3
AVERAGE
COLOR R* FOOTCANDLES
T 2g3
S23 ,
UTILIZATION
COEFFICIENT F7J?3
WHITE
AND YWtifM^A
DARK DARK
GRAY_ -RED- -OAK- V//////////7A
\yyy/y////yym>,„
J-
u-/WMtf//Y.W/m
WHITE — 85- ':
, „ i
WHITE BLOND 1
,•,,,:.
: 't
AND
RUSSET i
* REFLECTANCE 10 20 30 40 50 60
(D)
FIG. 4-1. Effect of color scheme on appearance, coefficient of utilization, and illu-
mination level in a small room in an industrial area. 3 (A) Test room before changes
in color scheme. (5) Step by step changes. (C) Test room with light walls, ceiling,
floor, and furniture. (D) Variation of illumination and utilization coefficient with
color scheme.
4-4 t E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
^WALL
REFLECTANCE
= 0.78
TAKEN AS
REFERENCE
POINT
) 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 |.( 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
CEILING BRIGHTNESS AVERAGE ILLUMINATION (DESK LEVEL)
CEILING BRIGHTNESS (NO INTERREFLECTIONS) \OBTAINED WITH \
'reflectance r=
BB |
iam2
4 10.5
F
7
20—-
12 3
ADAPTATION BRIGHTNESS
4
i
1
5
1
ADAPTATION BRIGHTNESS
2 3 0.1 0.2
ADAPTATION BRIGHTNESS
0.3 0.4 0.5
WALL BRIGHTNESS (DESK LEVEL) WALL BRIGHTNESS (NEAR CEILING) CEILING BRIGHTNESS
KEY
r =
1 0.893
2 0.780
3 0.575
4 0.302
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 5 0.164
WALL BRIGHTNESS (DESK LEVEL) WALL BRIGHTNESS (NEAR CEILING) 6 0.447
CEILING BRIGHTNESS CEILING BRIGHTNESS 7 0.106
Hues versus neutral gray for wall surfaces. When a colored and a gray
surface of equal luminous reflectance are equally illuminated with light
direct from an illuminant they will be equally bright. However, if a con-
siderable portion of the light reaching the working surface has undergone
several reflections from troughs and walls, as is usually the case in indirect
or semi-indirect lighting, greater illumination will be obtained if those
surfaces are colored than if they are grays of the same luminous reflectance.
The amount of this improvement is shown in Fig. 4-3 for yellow, blue-
green, and pink walls in comparison with gray walls having the same
luminous reflectances. The greater the number of inter-reflections, the
greater is the advantage to be gained. In the case of the blue-green and
COLOR 4-5
direct
from the color of light
reflections differs
from the source and is always
12 3 4
NUMBER OF REFLECTIONS
5
Dictionary of Color: Over 7,000 samples, with color names based on his-
toricalorigins and current usage. By A. Maerz and M. Rea Paul.
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
Ridgway: About 1,000 samples, each identified by name, widely used
by archaeologists and naturalists. Robert Ridgway, Washington, 1912.
Textile Color Card Association of the United States, Inc.: Issues standard
and seasonal cards in dyed silk, the accepted authority in the textile
industry. 200 Madison Avenue, New York.
Hiler Color Chart: 162 color samples showing mat and gloss finishes with
card index box containing masks and matching apertures. Favor, Ruhl &
Company, Chicago and New York.
Color Kit: Color identification achieved through the use of disks and a
mechanical spinning device. Designed by Birren, The Crimson Press,
Westport, Connecticut.
Nu-Hue Color Directory: Over 1,000 paint samples with convenient
matching placques and precise mixing formulas for each. Any color can
be purchased by the gallon at retail. Martin-Senour Company, Chicago.
Plochere Color Guide: Over 1,000 color samples, with paint mixing for-
mulas for each. G. Plochere, 1820 Hyperion Avenue, Los Angeles.
American Colorist: Contains over 500 samples, widely used in horti-
culture, art, and industry. Developed by Birren, The Crimson Press,
Westport, Connecticut.
I.S.C.C.-N.B.S. system of color designation. Known as the "Inter-Society
—
Color Council National Bureau of Standards System," this plan was ap-
proved by the Color Council in 1939 for use in the drug and chemical fields. 7
The designations are equally appropriate and useful for other applications,
and it is likely that they will be adopted gradually for general use. The
system provides 312 color names, each of which designates one block of
the Munsell color solid. Munsell notations for the boundary colors of
each block have been determined. 5 Spectrophotometric measurement of
the spectral reflection characteristics of the standard Munsell color chips
have been made and these data have been transposed into the I.C.I.
co-ordinates for illuminant C (standard daylight). Therefore, it is con-
venient to convert a color name, having meaning to the layman, into
Munsell notation having significance for the decorator, and into I.C.I.
co-ordinates, which are familiar to the colorimetrist.
Standard names and hue abbreviations are given in Table 4-1. Central
Munsell notations for each block are given in Appendix Table A-14,
page A-29.
Since there are likely to be many distinguishable (though very similar)
colors in each of the 312 Munsell blocks, the use of the names is limited in
accuracy. If a more accurate specification is necessary, numerical notation
(Munsell or I.C.I.) may be used.
The greatest accuracy and precision in color specification may be obtained
through the intelligent use of spectrophotometric curves. This method
is basic and is widely used in the United States, having been made a part
of ASA Z44-1942.
COLOR 4-7
Capitalized abbreviations refer to the noun form, lower case signifies the adjective form.
Any value unit equals every other value unit and any chroma unit equals
every other chroma unit, but in perceptibility, value units do not equal
chroma or hue units except by chance. Hue units equal each other only
for fixed levels of both value and chroma. 14
The relationship between Munsell value units and reflectance is shown
in Table 4-2. To convert from Munsell notation to I.C.I, co-ordinates,
see page 4-14.
5.1R 4.2/10.3 would be slightly more yellow, lighter, and more chromatic
than 5R 4/10.
The hue letters and decimals may be avoided by using the 100-step hue
scale shown in Fig. 4-4:
COLOR 4-9
WHITE
NAME SYMBOLS
RED 5 R
YELLOW- RED 15 YR
YELLOW 25 Y
GREEN-YELLOW 35 GY
GREEN 45 Y
BLUE-GREEN 55 BG
BLUE 65 B
PURPLE-BLUE 75 PB
PURPLE 85 P
RED-PURPLE 95 RP
DIAGRAMMATIC VIEW
FIG. 4-4. Common forms of Munsell and Ostwald color solids showing notation
by which colors are designated according to their position in the solid. 16
scales
(higher than 8/). However, standardized chips which include high values
of neutral grays, low chroma reds, yellows, greens, blues, and purples are
mounted in the pocket-size folder (Fig. 4-5), which has been developed
especially for illuminating engineers. The chips in the folder are arranged
for convenient comparison with surface colors. With practice in the use
of this chart, value may be estimated rather accurately and converted to
luminous reflectance by means of the scales provided. Inexpensive papers
in colors designated in Munsell notation, suitable for everyday use though
not sufficiently uniform for standards, are available.
COLOR 4-11
(isotints) have constant white content; and colors located in lines parallel
to the top of the wedge (isotones) have constant black content.
If the reflectance of any two or more Ostwald colors is equal, it is the
result of chance rather than of planning. However, I.C.I, (x, y) co-
ordinates for each chip in the Jacobson manual have been determined and
the Ostwald notations for this set of chips may be transposed through the
I.C.I, co-ordinates to Munsell notation or any other notation for which
I.C.I, data are available. These I.C.I, co-ordinates are not applicable to
any set of Ostwald chips 15 except those of the Jacobson manual.
and
Y
V ~ y I
v ,
y are called the trichromatic coefficients of a color. The
value of luminous reflectance or transmittance (r or t) equals the Y value
which carries all the luminosity. To avoid the use of negative numbers in
specifications, the three primaries have been assigned mathematical charac-
teristics which cannot be reproduced in any physical form, such as red,
green, or blue lights. However, since the specifications may be used con-
veniently and the primaries need never be used, the theoretical character of
the latter is not a practical obstacle.
4-12 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
0.52 MICRON
'•"Op.53
DOMINANT WAVELENGTH Or
X = 0.382, LJ
= 0.542 WITH
RESPECT TO:
(S 2 ): 0.553 MICRON
PURITY a/b-50°/o
CARBON ARC •
\
MACBETH 6,800'
PLANCKIAN 7,000° K
MACBETH 7,500)»,<*, J*t^4 GIBS0N V^ (0.1+0.9)
\ ::,/VG BSON >/A4 (0.15+0.85) _
> I
-K.4FLLFLUORESCENT 7,650 K
GIBSON YyA (0.2+0.8)
200MIREDS
100 MIREDS
-MERCURY LINES
(OF FLUORESCENT
+ BLUE 7,650°k)«<v\ " .'. .
of the sample (spectrum plus equal [neutral] energy = 100 per cent).
Luminous reflectance may be determined by any method of heterochromatic
photometry.
Color temperature. Color temperature describes the chromaticity of a
completely radiating (blackbody) source and is widely used in illumination
work. Such a body is black at room temperature (when it does not radiate
any visible energy), red when heated to a temperature within 800 to K
900 K, jr ellow at about 3,000 K, white (neutral) at a temperature of 5,000 K,
weak blue at a temperature between 8,000 and 10,000 K, and a more K
brilliant blue, such as sky blue, when heated to a temperature of 60,000 K
to 100,000 K. The characteristics of a blackbody at different tempera-
tures are defined by Planck's law. (See page 1-8.) The locus of black-
body chromaticity on the diagram shown in Fig. 4-6 is known as the
Planckian locus.
Any chromaticity represented by a point on this locus may be specified
by color temperature. Color temperature should not be used to specify
a chromaticity that does not lie on the Planckian locus. However, what is
called the nearest or correlated color temperature is sometimes of interest,
and has been defined. 18 The loci of isotemperature lines that may be used
as an approximation to obtain a reading on the diagram of the nearest color
temperature are shown in Fig. 4-7.
Equal color differences are more nearly expressed by equal steps of recip-
rocal color temperature than by equal steps of color temperature itself.
4-14 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
tions maybe made directly on charts such as these. 20 (A) Constant chroma loci
for standard chromas at value levels 1 through 9. (B) Constant hue loci for standard
hues at value levels 1 through 9.
4-16 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
—
Both the purpose of a color scheme whether in a factory or night club,
—
on a machine or on a stage and the amount, quality, and distribution of
illumination that is to be available, should be known before colors are
selected.
Composition and design are alwaysof paramount importance. A good
color combination will be most pleasing when used in a good design, and
an excellent design can make almost any combination of colors acceptable.
Consequently, it is possible to find or create exceptions to all "rules" of
color harmony.
Consistency of both design and color can be maintained without mon-
otony. It is possible to use a single hue exclusively if variations of value
(luminous reflectance) and chroma are employed in a design that provides
interest, accent, and variety. The use of one or more hues contrasting
with the dominant hue is the most common method of avoiding monotony.
Contrasting hues of high chroma are most effective when used in small
areas. Light colors (high reflectance) are effective as accents in dark sur-
roundings (prevalently low reflectance), and dark colors are effective for
variety and interest in light surroundings. Contrasting hues may be, but
need not be, complementary. .
COLOR 4-17
Triads of hues, two of which are related but not too nearly alike and the
third of which is approximately complementary to the average of the pair,
are often effective. The pair may be used together to establish the dom-
inant hue, or they may be used for accent and variety. It is usually best
to treat the neighboring hues of a triad in a similar manner, assigning ap-
proximately equal areas to each and using equal ranges of value and chroma.
All principles, such as the preceeding examples, may be violated success-
fully by clever designers, but greater care and ingenuity are necessary in
breaking the rules than in observing them.
Psychological and physiological sensations attributed to color. In almost
every discussion of the aesthetic factor in color schemes some correlation
between color and nonvisual sensations is suggested. The most popular
association consistently emphasized by artists is the supposed relationship
of the red colors (red purple, red, orange, and yellow) with warmth and the
blue colors (bluish purple, blue, and blue-green) with lack of warmth.
This appears to have no foundation in fact. 25
control, and grading than the spectral distribution (color) of the illumina-
tion on objects under observation.
Color selection. If the problem is one of simple selection, as for example
that faced by the housewife about to choose from an assortment of meat,
at the meat dealer's, or of fruit or vegetables at the grocer's, or from an
assortment of dress and upholstery fabrics, paints, or wallpapers at a de-
partment store; the decision will be based on the appearance of the object
on display and upon the customer's estimate of its probable appearance
under the conditions most likely to be encountered in use. The conditions
of display and use differ more often than they coincide. This is particu-
larly true of the illumination.
If spectrophotometric facilities are not available, color matches satisfac-
tory formany purposes may usually be assured by the simple expedient of
checking the match under each of two illuminants of complementary color,
red and green, for example, or yellow and blue. For many simple matching
problems a low wattage incandescent lamp and a blue or daylight fluorescent
lamp are adequate.
A perfect match under all conditions will be obtained by matching spec-
trophotometric curves of the type shown in Figs. 4-9 and 4-10. Two
surfaces having identical curves are in general identical in color to each
other under all conditions although if their surface textures are not the same
(smooth paint and rough textiles, for example), their appearance may vary
slightly depending on the angle from which they are illuminated and viewed.
Color grading and matching. The market value of many things raw —
cotton, tobacco, fruit, vegetables, furs, textiles, and so forth— varies with
their colors over a very wide range. In some instances such products are
accepted or rejected on the basis of color specifications or standards. They
4-18 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
a day, the last two are the same. An excellent description of the color
control procedure applied in the packaging field was given by Granville
23
in Illuminating Engineering in December, 1944.
Spectrophotometry control. The type of color standardization and control
provided by spectrophotometric measurements has increased in use. Such
measurements provide a permanent record which can be converted into a
color specification. The application of the spectrophotometer to the
problem of color standardization for production control purposes is almost
universally recognized as the best approach though not the onty one. 21 27
-
under two illuminants that have the same color temperature but do not
have similar spectral energy distributions.
Artificial daylighting. Specifications for the best artificial daylighting
for use in grading include: a large source of relatively low brightness; dupli-
cation of color of moderately overcast north sky; illumination of at least
75 footcandles for inspecting light colors, more for dark colors.
The color specification for an artificial daylight illuminant should be
aimed at the best obtainable duplicate of preferred natural daylight condi-
tions. Most commercial grading is done under natural daylight and for
such grading the results of classification under artificial and natural day-
lighting should agree. Also, it takes years of experience to make a good
classer, grader, or inspector, and an accurate memory of color standards is
a necessity. Any great change in illumination requires that classers make
adjustments in their memory of standards. The greater the change, the
more difficult this becomes. If artificial illuminants are to be preferred
rather than be merely tolerated for color grading, psychological as well as
physical standards must be maintained,
4-20 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
O 400
$m
IS£S?
7 2 300
is .......
(A)
<o
ZO 200 PREFERRED CONDITIONS:
PTG.4-11A. Tests conducted under the direction of the Intersociety Color Council
show the characteristics of preferred daylight illumination conditions for color
matching, grading, and classing. B. Government type skylight; glass faces due
north running east and west; all reflecting surfaces are finished in neutral white
or gray.
off the light or change its color by reflection from colored walls. The
weather may be bad during the peak of a classing season, and extra work
may pile up that cannot be completed within the few hours of good light
available each day.
;
- 6,500 K
Spectrophotometry
condenser lens
j^Qlamp
COLLIMATOR LENS
0.44 0.52
WAVELENGTH IN
0-60
MICRONS
0.68 0.76 12 3 4
0.6 0.7 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.1
WAVELENGTH IN MICRONS
1 micron = 10,000 angstroms = 1/10,000 centimeter
FIG. 4-15. Spectral transmittance curves for a number of ground and polished
samples of various melts* of glass (top) (below) Spectral reflectance curves for vari-
.
Colorimetry
may be measured in many ways,
Color and the color properties of objects
which involve, either directly or indirect^, visual comparisons of a
all of
500 A
1
i
\
I \
\
1 y \x
1
1 /
0.8 / / \
JE
1 \
/
/ \
/
/ \ \
l
\ ; \ \
/ t \ \
\
l
r\ )
\
\
0.50
V—
«/^-»,
0.55 0.60 0.65
\
\
y,\.
0.70
WAVELENGTH IN MICRONS WAVELENGTH IN MICRONS
(A) IB)
1 micron = 10,000 angstroms = 1/10,000 centimeter
FIG. 4-16/1. (a) Lumens
of 0.65 micron red component in mixture with 0.538
micron (yellowish green), and 0.425 micron (bluish purple), which matches color of
one watt of energy at each spectrum wavelength; (6) lumens of 0.538 micron (yellow-
ish green); (c) lumens of 0.425 micron (bluish purple). B. Standard I.C.I, color
mixture data obtained by linear combination of a, b, and c. Y is identical to the
standard relative luminosity curve.
1. Tang, K. Y., "Visual Performance Under Daylight, fnoandeseent, Mercury Vapor, and Their Mix-
tures," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, March, 1931. Ferree, C. E., Rand, G., Irwin, B., Luckiesh, M., Priest, I. G.,
Richards, H. C, and Troland, L. T., "A Color Symposium," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, February, 1918. Ferree,
C. E., and Rand, G., "Further Studies on the Effect of Composition of Light on Important Ocular Functions,"
Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, May, 1924. "The Effect of Variation of Visual Angle, Intensity, and Composition
,
of Light on Important Ocular Functions," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, February, 1922.
2. Brainerd, A. A., and Denning, M., "Improved Vision in Machine Tool Operations by Color Contrast,"
Ilium. Eng., December, 1941.
3. Brainerd, A. A., and Massey, R. A., "Salvaging Waste Light for Victory," Ilium. Eng., December, 1942.
Nelson, J.H., "Ideal Seeing Conditions," Brit. J. Ind. Med., October, 1945.
4. Moon, P., "Wall Materials and Lighting," J. Optical Soc. Am., December, 1941. Seealso:
Moon, P., "Optical Reflection Factors of Acoustical Materials," J. Optical. Soc Am., April, 1941. Moon,
P., "Colors of Ceramic Tiles," J. Optical Soc. Am., July, 1941. Moon, P., "Reflection Factors of Floor Mate-
rials," J. Optical Soc Am., April, 1942. Moon, P., "Reflection Factors of Some Materials used in School
Rooms," J. Optical Soc. Am., April, 1942. Moon, P., "Colors of Furniture," J. Optical Soc. Am., May, 1942.
Moon, P., "Interreflections in Rooms," J. Optical Soc Am., May, 1941. Paul, M. R., "The Effect of Weather-
ing on the Reflection Factor of Surfacing Materials for Light Wells," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, April, 1933.
5. Nickerson, D., and Newhall, S. M., "Central Notations for ISCC-NBS Color Names," J. Optical Soc
Am., September, 1941.
6. Judd, D. B., "Color Systems and Their Inter- Relations," Ilium. Eng., March, 1941.
7. Judd, D. B., and Kelly, K. L., "Method of Designating Colors," J. Research Nat. Bur. Standards,
September, 1939. Kelly, K. L., "Color Designations for Lights," J. Optical Soc Am., November, 1943.
8. Lovibond, J. W., "The Tintometer — A New Instrument for the Analysis, Synthesis, Matching, and
Measurement of Colour," J. Soc Dyers and Colourists, Volume 3, 1887. "On a New Method of Colour Anal-
,
ysis by Means of the Tintometer," J. Soc Chem. hid., 1890. Measurement of Light and Colour Sensations,
,
ditivity Among Lovibond Red Glasses in Combination with Lovibond 35 Yellow," Oil & Soap, November,
1938.
12. Colorimelry, The Tintometer, Ltd., Milford, Salisbury, England, 1939.
13. Amy, H. V., and Ring, C. H., "International Standards for Colored Fluids and a Suggested Plan for
Such Standardization," Proc Sth Intern. Congr. Applied Chemistry 1912. Ring, C. IL, "Standardized Colored
,
Fluids," J Franklin Inst., August, 1915. Amy, H. V., "Color Standards and Colorimetric Assays," J. Ind.
.
18. Judd, D.B., "Estimation of Chromaticity Differences and Nearest Color Temperature on the Standard
1931 I.C.I. Colorimetric Coordinate System," J. Research Nat. Bur. Standards, November, 1936; J. Optical
Soc Am., November, 1935. Judd, D. B., "Sensibility to Color Temperature Change as a Function of Temp-
erature," J. Optical Soc. Am., January, 1933.
19. Ames, A., Jr., "Systems of Color Standards," J. Optical Soc. Am., and Rev. Sci. Instruments, March,
1921. Judd, D. B., "Color Systems and Their Inter- Relations," Ilium. Eng., March, 1941. Moon, P., "Color
Determination," Ilium. Eng., March, 1941. Nickerson, D., "Color Measurement, A Handbook of Disk
Colorimetry," Misc. Pub. 580, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1946.
20. Nickerson, D., "Spacing of the Munsell Colors," Ilium. Eng., June, 1945. Newhall, S. M., Nickerson,
D., and Judd, D. B., "Final Report of the Optical Soc. Am., Subcommittee on the Spacing of the Munsell
Colors," J. Optical Soc. Am., July, 1943.
21. Hardy, A. C, Handbook of Colorimetry, Technology Press, Cambridge, 1936.
4-30 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
22. Aristotle, "De Coloribus," Works of Aristotle, Vol. 6, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1913. Birren.F., The
Story of Color, The Crimson Press, Westport, Connecticut, 1941. Burris-Meyer, Elizabeth, Historical Color
Guide, William Helburn, New York, 193S. Burris-Meyer, Elizabeth, This is Fashion, Harper & Brothers, New
York, 1943. Burris-Meyer, Elizabeth, Color and Design in the Decorative Arts, Prentioe-Hall, Inc., New York,
1935. Birren, F., Functional Color, The Crimson Press, New York, 1937. Cleland, T. M., A Practical Descrip-
tion of the Munsell Color System, Munsell Color Company, Baltimore, Maryland, 1921. Chase, H. C, An Artist
Talks About Color, J. Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1930. Cutler, C. C, and Pepper, S. C, Modern Color,
Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1923. Graves, M., The Art of Color and Design, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York and London, 1941. Hiler, Hilaire, Color Harmony and Pigments, Favor, Ruhl &
Company, Chicago and New York, 1942. Jacobson, E., The Color Harmony Manual, Vols. 1-13, Container
Corporation of America, 1942. Jacobs, Michael, The Art of Colour, Doubleday, Page & Company, New
York, 1931. Luckiesh, M., Color and Colors, D. Van Nostrand Company, New York, 1938. Luckiesh, M.,
The Language of Color, Dodd, Mead & Company, New York, 1920. Luckiesh, M., Light and Color in Adver-
tising and Merchandising, D. Van Nostrand Company, New York, 1923. Luckiesh, M., Color and Its Appli-
cation, D. Van Nostrand Company, New York, 1921. Mayer, R., The Artist's Handbook of Materials and
Technique, Viking Press, New York, 1940. Moon, P., and Spencer, D. E., "Geometric Formulation of Classi-
cal Color Harmony," J Optical Soc. Am., January, 1944.
. Ostwald, W., Colour Sciences: Part I, Colour Theory
and Standards of Colour, Part II, Colour Measurement and Colour Harmony, Winsor & Newton, London, 1933.
Pope, A., The Printer's Modes of Expression, Harvard Finiversity Press, Cambridge, 1931. Sargent, W., The
Enjoyment and Use of Color, Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1923. Snow, B. E., and Froehlick, H. B.,
The Theory and Practice of Color, American Crayon Company, Sandusky, Ohio.
23. Jacobson, E. G., "The Science of Color, A Summary of the Ostwald Theory," More Business, 1937.
Jacobson, E., The Color Harmony Manual, Vols. 1-12, Container Corporation of America, Chicago, 1942. See
also 22.
Moon, P., and Spencer, D. E., "Area in Color Harmony," J Optical Soc. Am., February, 1944. Moon,
24. .
P.,and Spencer, D. E., "Aesthetic Measure Applied to Color Harmony," J. Optical Soc. Am., April, 1944.
Houghten, F. C, Olson, H. T., and Suciu, J., Jr., "Sensation of Warmth as Affected by the Color of the
25.
Environment," Ilium. Eng., December, 1940.
26. Granville, W. C, "Color Control of Surface Coatings with Master and Working Standards of Color,"
Ilium. Eng., December, 1944.
27. Nickerson, D., "Color Measurement, A Handbook of Disk Colorimetry," Misc. Pub. 580, U. S. De-
partment of Agriculture, 1946.
28. Judd, D. B., "Specification of Color Tolerances at the National Bureau of Standards," Am. J. Psychol.
July, 1939. Judd, D. B., "Specification of Uniform Color Tolerances for Textiles," Textile Research, May and
June, 1939. A Symposium on Color Tolerance, published by Inter-Society Color Council, P. O. Box 155,
Benjamin Franklin Station, Washington, D.C. See also:
Dimmick, F. L., and Hubbard, M. R., "The Spectral Components of Psychologically Unique Red."
Am. J. Psychol., July, 1939. Dimmick, F. L., and Hubbard, M. R., "The Spectral Location of Psychologically
Unique Yellow, Green, and Blue," Am. J. Psychol., April, 1939. Haupt, G. W., "Departures from Additivity
Among Lovibond Red Glasses in Combination with Lovibond 35 Yellow," Oil and Soap, November, 1938.
Judd, D. B., "Sensibility to Color Temperature Change as a Function of Temperature," J. Optical Soc. Am.,
January, 1933. Judd, D. B., "Estimation of Chromaticity Differences and Nearest Color Temperature on the
Standard 1931 I.C.I. Colorimetric Coordinate System," J. Research Nat. Bur. Standards, November, 1936;
J Optical Soc. Am., November, 1936. Tyndall, E. P. T., "Chrornaticity Sensibility to Wavelength Difference
.
as a Function of Purity," J Optical Soc. Am., January, 1933. Wright, W. D., "The Measurement and Analysis
.
of Colour Adaptation Phenomena," Proc. Roy. Soc, B-115, London 1934,. Wright, W. D., "The Breakdown of
a Colour Match with High Intensities of Adaptation," J. Physiol., June, 1936. Weitz, C. E., and Cissell, R. F.,
"Spectral Analysis of Radiant Energy," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, May, 1939.
30. Nickerson, D., "Artificial Daylighting Studies," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, December, 1939. Nickerson,
D., "The Illuminant in Color Matching and Discrimination," Ilium. Eng., March, 1941.
31. Visual Studies Sub-committee on Problem 13, "Preferred Illuminant for Color Matching," the Inter-
Society Color Council.
32. Gibson, K. S., "The Analysis and Specification of Color," J Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., April, 1937
.
33. Barnes, H. F., "Color Characteristics of Artists' Pigments," J Optical Soc Am., May, 1939.
.
Bustenoby, J. H., How to Mix Colors, J. S. Ogilvie Publishing Company, New York, 1935.
34. Hardy, A. C, "A New Recording Spectrophotometer," J Optical Soc. Am., September, 1935.
.
35. Beckman, A. H., and Cary, C. H., "A Quartz Photoelectric Spectrophotometer," J. Optical Soc Am.,
November, 1941.
36. Brode, W. R., and Jones, C. H., "Recording Spectrophotometer and Spectropolarimeter," J. Optical
Soc Am., December, 1941.
37. Colorimetry Committee of the O.S.A., "Colorimeters and Color Standards," J. Optical Soc Am.,
January, 1945.
38. Barnes, B. T., "A Four-Filter Photoelectric Colorimeter," J. Optical Soc Am., October, 1939.
39. Hunter, R. S., "A Multipurpose Photoelectric Reflectometer," J. Research Nat. Bur. Standards, No-
vember, 1940; also J. Optical Soc. Am., November, 1940. Hunter, R. S., "Photoelectric Tristimulus Color-
metry with Thru Filters," National Bureau of Standards Circular C-429, U. S. Department of Commerce
1942.
,
SECTION 5
Measurable Characteristics
. As indicated in Table 5-1, many characteristics of light, light sources,
lighting materials, and lighting installations may be measured. The
measurements of most general interest are:
1. Illumination.
2. Brightness.
3. Intensity in a specific direction, and intensity distribution.
4. Luminous flux.
5. Color temperature.
6. Spectral distribution.
1
:
LIGHT
Wavelength micron Interference Laboratory
grating
Color temperature degree Pyrometer Laboratory
Flux density lumens/sq ft Photometer Laboratory or field
Orientation of po- degree (angle) Analyzing Nicol Laboratory
larization prism
Degree of polariza- per cent Polarization pho- Laboratory
tion tometer
LIGHT SOURCES
Energy radiated ergs/s.q in. Calibrated radi- Laboratory
ometer
Luminous intensity candle Photometer Laboratory or field
Brightness footlambert Photometer or Laboratory or field
brightness meter
Spectral energy dis- ergs/micron Spectrometer Laboratory
tribution
Power consumption watt Wattmeter, or (for Laboratory or field
dc and 100 per
cent power fac-
tor a-c circuit)
voltmeter and
ammeter
Light output (total lumen Integrating sphere Laboratory
flux) photometer
LIGHTING MATERIALS
Reflectance per cent (dimen- Reflectometer Laboratory or field
sionless ratio)
Transmittance per cent (dimen- Photometer Laboratory or field
sionless ratio)
Spectral reflectance per cent (at spe- Spectrophotometer Laboratory
and transmittance cific wave-
lengths)
Optical density dimensionless Densitometer Laboratory
number
E = i
d2
This holds true only when the maximum dimension of the source (or
luminaire) as viewed from the surface, is small (subtending less than
THE MEASUREMENT OF LIGHT 5-3
illumination: --i-
F '- 2
c
E
t2
—4 d2
2.-
I-
uZ
4d j
•COS 9
d
POINT SOURCE
(|NTENSITY = I) ___--"
one fifth the distance between source and surface) and when the surface
approximates a portion of a sphere of radius d with its center at the source.
The cosine law states that the illumination of any surface varies as the
cosine of the angle of incidence 6 (between the normal to the surface and
the direction of the incident light)
E = 4 cos 6
d-
above the element. For a number of point sources of which the location
and candlepower in the direction of the element are known, this law may
be expressed
E = 2 Ig cos 3 0/A 2
Field Measurements
It is often desirable and necessary to make photometric measurements
outside 'the laboratory, and portable instruments have been developed
for this purpose. Typical problems include interior and exterior lighting
surveys of which a common objective is the compilation of reliable data on
a new installation sufficient to determine compliance with specifications or
T
Equipped svith color correciion filler ycj D no. Dale ol last calibraiion
I, the Surface
(Check Which)
U Plus Local Only
FIG. 5-2. Standard I.E.S. interior lighting survey report form IS-10 (reduced).
5-6 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
. .„ .
Average illumination
..
= AX(B-1)X(C-1) -
number
:
—
+ DX(B-1) + EX(C-1)+F
of luminaires
:
Average illumination =
(ft-c, step 1) X (number of luminaires minus 1) (ft-c, step 2)
number of luminaires
Regular area with single luminaire. (1) In each quadrant of the room
take one reading (p), as in step 4 above. Average the four readings:
.„ . . 2ft-c
average illumination =
Regidar area with two or more continuous rows of luminaires. (1) Take
four readings (r, r, r, r) near center of room as shown in Fig. 5-36 and
average the four readings. (2) At each midside of room take one reading
(q) midway between the outside row of units and the wall as shown.
THE MEASUREMENT OF LIGHT 5-7
w o o £ -^9 q
o o o **'P ,q»
o o Q-S--9 o o o
o o o o o
*r *r
O o o o o o o o tj ! 1
i
1
1
I
,
»r ,r
O o o o o o o '
,\*i
1 II 1 1 1 '
O o o o o o o o
O o o o o o o o 1 1 1 1 1 ' 1
o o o o o o o 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
\ A -
\p/ q» q. q*
* 1
"
Average the two readings. (3) At each end of room take two readings
(t t) one at end of a row midway between end of row and the wall, the other
,
between rows and midway to wall as shown. Average the four readings.
(4) In one corner take one reading (p) as shown. Repeat in another
corner and average the two readings.
Regular area with one continuous row of luminaires. (1) Divide the con-
tinuous row into four equal lengths. Opposite each of the three division
points and midway between the row of units and the wall, take a read-
ing (q). Repeat on the opposite side and average the six readings. (2)
In one corner take one reading (p) as shown in Fig. 5-3c. Repeat in another
corner and average the two readings.
Average illumination =
(ft-c in step 1) X (number of luminaires per row) + (ft-c in step 2)
Preparation for the survey. (1) Inspect and record the condition of the
reflectors. (2) Record the mounting height of the floodlights. (3)
Record the location of the poles and the number of units per pole the
;
;
wattage of the lamp and the direction of aim. Check these data against
;
* Because of the large angle of incidence at which light from a floodlighting installation usually strikes a
horizontal playing field, large errors are introduced into measurements made with common types of illu-
mination meters employing barrier-layer cells. Correction for this error must be made if such a meter is used
for taking readings. The correction procedure is outlined on page 5-12. The design of the General Electric
multicell color corrected diffusing plate is such that the incidence error is minimized. (See Fig. 5-5.)
THE MEASUREMENT OF LIGHT 5-9
->4* 60 FT *1*60 FT*+* 60 FT*-| GOAL LINE 50-YD LINE GOAL LINE
JT'
-© ©-.
t
©—e—©—©- ^ L
i
<
i
1
!' '
SEVEN ,
120 STATIONS
FT 1
i J-i
© ^-(-—EQUALLY
e ^ © O -J
|_, I
60 FT
-© ©—© ©
f"
60'fT
FOOTBALL
'
I
LOCATION OF
TEST STATIONS
BASEBALL
ferent cells are shown in Fig. 5-6a. In 1937 the I.E.S. Committee on
Photoelectric Portable Photometers recommended that barrier -layer cell
photometers be calibrated by the use of unmodified radiation from an in-
candescent lamp source operating at a color temperature of 2,700K. 5
To correct the readings obtained with sources of other spectral characteris-
tics, multiplying factors usually available from the manufacturer are used.
Figure 5-66 shows the variation of multiplying factor with color tempera-
ture of calibration source and test source calculated for uncorrected cells
of representative spectral characteristics. 5 For light sources commonly
used in interiors, this error may vary from 5 per cent to 25 per cent.
Some cell-type instruments are equipped with filters which give the
cell the approximate response of the eye and this error is thus minimized.
When thus corrected, the meters evaluate sources with fairly uniform spec-
7 8 9
tral emission well enough for most illuminating engineering purposes. 6 - - -
THE MEASUREMENT OF LIGHT 5-11
COPPER
/\
hA
OXIDE / \
;
H ^v
,
\
\\
SELENIUM^/" \ \
*•*
\ >
,+* \
*''' v
s.
0.5 0.6 0.7
WAVELENGTH IN MICRONS
1.2
THERMO-/.. \
b PILE' !' 1
\\
c
I.I
z 80
o SELENIUM
\\ /COPPER-
i i.o
v I
5 V /oxide CELL
i
U-
/ ^60
U / >
Z 0.9 s
ll
\\
COPPER"" ^ !
ij
0. OXIDE N.
N
V 1,
V SELENIUM
il W-CELL
2
0.7 \
\
0.6
2,000 3,000 4,000 6,000 10,000 20,000 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.76
TEMPERATURE OF BLACKBODY RADIATION WAVELENGTH IN MICRONS
IN DEGREES KELVIN 1 micron = 10,000 angstroms = 1/10,000 centimeters
sensitivity when kept in the dark for periods extending over several hours.
A normal reading can be obtained only after the cell has been adapted by
exposure to the light for a period which for different instruments of the
same type may vary between several minutes and several hours. The
way to determine the interval for a particular instrument is to observe
over a period of time the output (meter reading) of a dark-adapted cell
(12 hours in the dark) when it is exposed to a constant illumination.
Adaptation is complete when the readings remain constant. The cell
must be exposed to each new level of illumination (variation of ±10
footcandles) for this period before accurate readings may be obtained.
The error due to lack of adaptation will not exceed about 5 per cent and
therefore may usually be ignored in field work.
Angle of incidence {cosine law). Light which strikes the face of a cell
is reflected from the cover glass and the cell surface, and may be obstructed
by the rim of the case. The magnitude of these effects varies with the
angle of incidence, and an error of the order of 25 per cent can be expected
5-12 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
*
Portable visual photometers
The portable photometer or illuminometer is a bar photometer on a
small scale. There are a number of different types available but the under-
lying principles are about the same. A fixed photometer head and moving
comparison lamp is often used and some are combined with a photoelectric
photometer.
When using the portable photometer to measure illumination, it is
customary to observe the brightness of a calibrated test plate. For
brightness determinations, the field to be observed is seen directly through
the eyepiece, and balanced with the comparison surface. This type of
photometer is usually accompanied by a set of neutral and colored filters,
which respectively extend the range and produce an approximate color
THE MEASUREMENT OF LIGHT 5-13
match between the test and the comparison surfaces. The color filters
usually should be placed between the comparison lamp and the comparison
surface.
The Macbeth illuminometcr, shown in Fig. 5-7a, consists of a Lummer-
Brodhun cube, eyepiece, and comparison-lamp tube. Though less com-
pact and more complex in its application than the photocell-type meters,
PHOTOMETRIC
FIELD
BRIGHTNESS
SCALE
ROTATE TO BALANCE
PHOTOMETRIC SCALE
lens for focusing the light from the source and an eyepiece for viewing the
photometric field. The system presents a split field Avith the test
optical
field in the center and the comparison fields on either side. The compari-
son-field brightness is adjusted by turning a knob. When a photometric
balance has been obtained, the reading is seen on an illuminated scale
viewed through a magnifier located just below the eyepiece. Neutral
filters extend the range. In the hands of an experienced observer photo-
metric balances can be reproduced with a variation of 1 or 2 per cent
scale and filter errors are usually somewhat larger. 13
rier-layer cell as the measuring device. Both are small portable spheres
with a surface opening for the test
MICROAMMETER
sample. A collimated beam is incident
PROJECTOR
m on the sample at about 45 degrees and
the total reflected light is integrated
by the sphere. The tube carrying
the light source and the collimating
lenses can be rotated so that light is
incident directly on the sphere wall
for the unreflected or 100 per cent
reading. The sample is in place dur-
ing both measurements and thus may
be considered a part of the sphere
ILLUMINATOR- so that the effect on both readings of
the small area it occupies is the same.
The ratio of the reading when light is
incident on the sample, to the read-
FIG. 5-8. The General Electric ing when the light is incident on the
light cell reflectometer showing sphere wall is the luminous reflectance
arrangement for transmittance for the conditions of the test. The
measurements. light cell reflectometer is designed to be
used also with another sphere source giving diffuse illumination for meas-
urement of luminous transmittance as shown in Fig. 5-8. The transmit-
tance thus determined is the total transmittance for diffuse incident light. 14
The Luckiesh-Moss visibility meter shown in Fig. 2-14 on page 2-16 is
used to determine the visibility of an object or task.
Laboratory measurements
Because many encountered are uncontrollable and there-
of the variables
fore limit the accuracy of field measurements, more reliable
and precision
data may usually be obtained in the laboratory. Therefore whenever it
is at all convenient photometric measurements should be made in a labo-
ratory properly planned and equipped for this work.
: :
Most laboratories well equipped for general photometric work make use
of the following basic types of equipment
Bar photometer.
Integrating sphere.
Distribution (gonio) photometer.
Direct luminaires 15 .
Indirect luminaires 16 .
Semi-indirect luminaires 15 .
Each of these procedures, which are combined here for handbook ex-
planation, have been discussed in detail in the references indicated. While
the handbook condensation is in agreement with the original in each case,
it is recommended that the detailed reports be studied for additional
guidance.
General. The tests shall be conducted by a reliable laboratory which «
certifies by its signature that the tests have been .conducted in accordance
with the I.E.S. specifications tand that the data are accurate. A prominent
note to the effect that the test results are typical only when all test con-
ditions such as light center position and so forth are reproduced should be
included. A standard illuminating engineering data form will be made
available by the Society for reporting tests on general illumination
luminaires.
DATA TO BE REPORTED
Manufacturer's name.
Name or type of luminaire.
Manufacturer's catalog numbers.
Number of samples submitted (minimum of six).
Lamps
Type.
Number per luminaire.
Watts each.
Total watts including auxiliary control equipment.
Volts, bulb size, base, service, filament construction, color, type of bulb glass.
Light center.
Rated lumens each.
Power factor.
Description of luminaire:
I.E.S. classification.
Applicable I.E.S. performance recommendations.
Materials.
Luminous reflectance and/or transmittance.
f :
Dimensions including husk and stem; may be given on dimensioned scale draw-
ing. (See Fig. 5-9a.)
Light center position during test.
Distance from cap of lamp base to plane of fitter screw.
Weight, also maximum and minimum weights of six samples tested.
Method used for standardizing lamp and for calibrating photometer.
Candlepower distribution, brightness, and light flux values as in Fig. 5-96.
Total lumen output (in terms of bare lamp lumens).
Testing distance.
Description and explanation of any deviation from standard test conditions or
procedure.
Total efficiency.
Permissible spacing ratios (relative to mounting height). (See page 8-22.)
* Maximum beam candlepower as recorded in prescribed beam exploration.
* Average maximum beam candlepower.
* Beam spread in degrees in vertical and horizontal directions.
* Outline of the beam. (See Fig. 14-4c.)
* Tabulation of lumens for test area explored.
* Beam efficiency.
* Average lumen distribution in beam.
* Beam lumens.
* Average isocandle curves.
Photometric Data
TYPICAL DIMENSIONAL
MEASUREMENTS FOR
LUMINAIRES
s
LUMINAIRE DISTRIBUTION DATA
E"
ANGLE pSmr
180 S-/S
175 v?7 f?
165 7JS~ '*J
155 V 3J X°l
145 jyj 3 is
'
135 3.6 3 "f
125 2&7 / r°
115 7}f >n
! f 105 76 t/
9-LlN
\ 95 3f vi
\
90 iZl
85 323
K im
*?<,
75 rs° -}°t
l2i|N
/ 65 /C'° IS ?F
\ \ \ 55 2)1, 2I2L
/ 45 1?J° inr
f
' * \\ 35 3?/o 2.192-
I X^_ /
'
/
i
+
\
\
25
15
J7f-
V'/o
17 Si
"7
II
5 </l<7° 31
^70° o V/-To
•
16 IN. »
s
L
mgjngB
KBBfty *" f IN. *
LIGH Tf!uxWLUE5 MAXIMUM BRIGHTNESS OF LUMtNA1R£
wO. j3 ?f'5~
I2ij?
*-7 0-30°
30-60°
7^/5-
(PHOTOGRAP H) 60-90°
70° ///-
K^wluSSSe*:'!?:'.
a b
FIG. 5-9a. Page from standard I.E.S. report form showing dimensioned scale
drawing and photograph, b. Distribution data presented on standard I.E.S.
Form.
or voltage at which the lamp is held. This is the basis of the following
method for obtaining the output and distribution characteristics of the
luminaire.
The lamp can be used as an absolute standard of intensity, but for the
purpose of these tests it is better to use it as a combined standard and test
lamp. The lamp is held at a definite current value rather than voltage
value throughout the test to eliminate possible errors due to socket drop or
faulty electrical connections.
The lamp used to calibrate the photometer with which the lu-
is first
E = — footcandles
where / is the standardized fiducial intensity in candles. This value of E
isused to find the scale constant C of the photometer. When the scale
reading is S,
C X 8 = E
The standard lamp is then adjusted in the luminaire and connected with
the same ammeter as used for the calibration. The photometric test is
carried on at the selected current.
The actual values of light output and beam
intensities under these
conditions will be smaller than they would be the lamp were operated at
if
degree of the bare lamp and the luminaire, (b) the candlepower of the ro-
tating luminaire at 5 degrees, 10 degrees, 15 degrees ., and 175 degrees.
. .
pheric transmission before and after the test has been made. This may
be done by measuring the illuminations at two distances (500 feet and
1,000 feet, for example). When the absorption is not great an approxi-
mate correction can be calculated by assuming that the difference between
the two values of candlepower computed by means of the inverse-square
law, divided by the difference in distance, equals the absorption per foot.
sources to be compared are placed in turn on the other side, the luminous
intensity of the comparison lamp is cancelled out and the ratio of test
source candlepowers is obtained independent of any lack of symmetry in
the photometer. Usually, the distance between the photometer head
and comparison lamp is fixed, so that the brightness of the comparison
surface is constant.
Heterochromatic visual photometry. Close attention to detailed photomet-
ric procedure is required in the photometry of discontinuous spectra such
as are produced by discharge sources.
THE MEASUREMENT OF LIGHT 5-21
DIAMETER OF
PARABOLIC
REFLECTOR
1,000
0.2
>
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0-8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
DIAMETER OF DISK TYPE LIGHT SOURCE IN INCHES
a source and a surface so that the light from the source reaches the sur-
face for only a certain fraction of the time, and if the rotation is so fast
that the eye perceives no flicker the effective brightness of the surface is
reduced in the ratio of the time of exposure to the total time (Talbot's
law) . The reduction is by the factor 0/360 degrees, where 6 is the angular
aperture in degrees. The sector disk has advantages over many filters
in that it is not affected by a change of characteristics over a period of time
and reduces total luminous flux without changing its spectral composition.
Neutral filters are not readily obtainable. Wire mesh or perforated
metal filters although perfectly neutral have a limited range. Mirrored
filters have high reflectance and the reflected light must be controlled to
avoid errors in the photometer. Also, it is difficult to secure completely
uniform transmission over all parts of the surface.
So-called neutral glass filters are seldom neutral. In general, they have
a characteristic high transmission in the red region and low in the blue.
This may be reasonably well corrected by the use of two layers of glass,
one of the most neutral glass available and the second yellow-green which
absorbs in the extreme red. However, this type of filter has a transmit-
tance characteristic curve which varies with ambient temperature as do
the curves for many other optical filters.
The "neutral" gelatin filters are quite satisfactory, though not entirely
neutral and some have a small seasoning effect, losing neutrality over a
period of time. These must be protected by being cemented between two
glass surfaces and watched carefully for loss of contact between the glass
and gelatin. Any separation changes the transmittance characteristics.
THE MEASUREMENT OF LIGHT 5-25
each 10-degree zone is multiplied by a zone factor, which is the zonal area
on unit radius sphere, total lumens for any zone or the complete sphere
(total flux) can be computed as can the efficiency of the luminaire. Zone
factors are given in Appendix Table A-30 page A-45.
Several integrating (sphere) photometers have been constructed but the
one most generally used is the Ulbricht sphere of the type shown in Fig.
5-12. These have been used in dimensions from an inch or so to 15 feet
in diameter. The size is principally a matter of convenience. With
proper precautions and corrections, a small sphere can be quite as accurate
as a large one. A cube or octahedron has also been used. The limiting
minimum dimension is the size of the luminaire, and the correction de-
creases as the size increases. 27
* In some cases mean zone intensity may occur at other than mid-zone angle.
5-26 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
Spectrophotometers
In spectrophotometers the light is spectrally dispersed by a device
such as a prism or grating. (See Fig. 4-14, page 4-25.) Incorporated in
the instruments is a visual or photoelectric photometer by means of which
the reflectance or transmittance of the test material at each of many nar-
;
r> _ 2 U\ K\ R\
~ 2 UxKx
where R is the desired luminous reflectance, and U\ is the energy of wave-
Electrical Measurements
It is often necessary to determine certain electrical characteristics of
light sourcesand accessories in connection with photometric measurements.
The following are the measurements most commonly encountered. If
additional information is required the reader is referred to one of the many
texts or handbooks on electrical engineering. 29
with S open (the power taken by the voltage circuit of the wattmeter)
and W
L is the power taken by the load.
A compensated wattmeter is one that is so designed that the current
through the compensating coil produces a torque equal and opposite to
that produced by the power taken by the wattmeter. The current and
5-28 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
W = EI cos d
If the power factor is known, the procedure just outlined for direct-
current measurements may be followed (using instruments designed for
alternating-current operation). When the power factor is not known,
the ammeter-voltmeter method can not be employed. Alternating-cur-
rent wattmeters, however, will indicate the power.
Ammeters are not connected across the line. They are to be connected
in series with the load.
THE MEASUREMENT OF LIGHT 5-29
Test circuit for fluorescent lamps. The circuit shown in Fig. 5-13e
is a convenient arrangement for determining the electrical characteristics
in a preheat-starting (hot-cathode) type of fluorescent-lamp circuit.
Precautions. Only one meter at a time is to be connected in the lamp
circuit. The ammeter or current circuit of the wattmeter should have a
resistance such that the drop across it is less than 2 per cent of the lamp
voltage. The voltmeter or voltage circuit of the wattmeter should have
as high a resistance as possible with reliability; this should be at least
1,000 ohms per volt. The phase angle correction is negligible when only
one instrument is connected in the lamp circuit. Correction or compen-
sation for the voltage drop in any series elements of meters should be made
unless they are less than \ per cent of lamp volts.
With a lamp in the circuit and with Si open and $2 closed the corrections
for the current in the voltmeter or power loss in the wattmeter can be
determined. With Si closed and *S 2 open the lamp is started and operated
for about 10 minutes to allow conditions to become nearly constant before
any measurements are made. A refinement of method is to place a foot-
candle meter against the lamp or place the lamp on a photometer and
5-30 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
determine the light reading with no electric meters in the circuit and to
adjust the line voltage to re-establish this reading when any meter is
connected in the lamp circuit.
REFERENCES
Meyers, G. J., Jr., and Mooney, V. J., "Measuring the Brightness of Streets by Means of Photography,"
1.
Ilium. Enq., June, 1941. Dean, J. H., "A Graphical Method of Computing Street Lighting Illumination
Charts," ilium. Eng., July, 1942. Davis, D. D., Ryder, F. A., and Boelter, L. M. K., "Measurement of
Highway Illumination by Automobile Headlamps under Actual Operating Conditions," Trans. Ilium. Eng.
Soc, July, 1939.
2. Committee on Lighting Practice of thel.E.S., Report of, "Recommendations for a Standard Method for
Measuring and Reporting Illumination from Artificial Sources in Building Interiors," Ilium. Eng., February,
1943.
3. "Procedure for Measuring Footcandles of Floodlight Installations," National Electrical Manufacturer's
Association Standards Bulletin PL, November, 1939.
4. Forsythe, \V. E., "The Present Status of Photometry," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, February, 1936.
5. "Report of the Committee on Portable Photoelectric Photometers," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, April, 1937.
6. Fogle, M. E., "New Color Corrected Photronic Cells for Accurate Light Measurements," Trans. Ilium.
Eng. Soc, September, 1936. Dows, C. L., and Allen, C. J., "The Light-Meter and its Uses," Trans. Ilium.
Eng. Soc, July, 1936.
7. Parker, A. E., "Measurement of Illumination from Gaseous Discharge Lamps," Ilium. Eng., November,
.
1940.
8. Dows, C.
"Illumination Measurements with Light Sensitive Cells," Ilium. Eng., February, 1942.
L.,
9. Teele, R. P., "A
Physical Photometer," J Research Nat. Bur. Standards, September, 1941.
.
23. Davis, R., and Gibson, K. S., "Filters for the Reproduction of Sunlight and Daylight and the De-
termination of Color Temperature," Bureau of Standards, Misc. Pub., 114, 1931.
24. Jones, L. A., "Summary of American Opinion on BS/ARP18, British Standard Specification for Fluo-
rescent and Phosphorescent Paint," RC43, American Standards Association, New York, June, 1942.
25. Kingsbury, E. F., "A Flicker Photometer Attachment for the Lummer-Brodhun Contrast Photom-
eter," J Franklin Inst., August, 1915. Guild, J., "A New Flicker Photometer for Heterochromatic Photom-
.
etry", J. Sci. Instruments, March, 1924. Ferree, C. E., and Rand, G., "Flicker Photometry," Trans. Ilium.
Eng. Soc, February, 1923. Moon, P., and Severance, D. P., "The Design of Photoelectric Flicker Photom-
eters," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, July, 1939. Sharp, C. H., and Kinsley, C., " A Practical Form of Photoelectric
Photometer," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, February, 1926. Sharp, C. H., and Smith, H. A., "Further Develop-
ments in Photoelectric Photometers," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, April, 1928.
26. Dows, C. L., and Baumgartner, G. R., "Two Photo-voltaic Cell Photometers for Measurement of
Light Distribution," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, June, 1935. Colby, C. C., Jr., and Doolittle, C. M., "A Dis-
tribution Photometer of New Design," Trails. Ilium. Eng. Soc, March, 1923.
27. Weaver, K. S., and Shackelford, B. E., "The Regular Icosahedron as a Substitute for the Ulbricht
Sphere," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, March, 1923. Lectures on Illuminating Engineering, The Johns Hopkins
Press, Baltimore, Maryland, 1911.
28. Hardy, A. C, "A Recording Photoelectric Color Analyzer," J. Optical Soc. Am. and Rev. Scientific
Instruments, February, 1929. Hardy, A. C., "A New Recording Spectrophotometer," J. Optical Soc Am.,
September, 1935.
29. Knowlton, H. E., Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers, Seventh Edition, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New .York, 1941. Pender, H., Del Mar, W. A., and Mcllwain, K., Electrical Engineers' Hand-
book, Third Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1936.
SECTION 6
JLIGHT SOURCES
It is that man made use of the incandescent flame as a source of
known
light even before the beginning of recorded history, and that more than
half of the world's inhabitants and 10 per cent of American families use
"flame sources exclusively even today. The present efficiencies of the
"candle (0.1 lumen per watt), the kerosene lantern wick (0.3 lumen per
watt), the acetylene flame (0.7 lumen per watt), and the illuminating gas
flame have not changed greatly since they were first utilized for lighting
purposes.
The first electric arc was discovered by Davy in 1801. Edison's first
successful incandescent lamp in 1879 emitted 2.6 lumens per watt. In
1901 Cooper Hewitt's forerunner of modern gaseous discharge sources
produced 13 lumens per watt. Thus by the time the Illuminating En-
gineering Society was founded in 1906 a recognizable ancestor of each of
our present-day sources, with the possible exception of the fluorescent lamp,
had already been developed.* See Fig. 6-1.
MAXIMUM THEORET-
ICAL EFFICIENCY OF
WHITE (EQUAL-
ENERGY) LIGHT
* In 1898 Edison applied for a patent on a "Fluorescent Electric Lamp" which was issued to him in 1907
as U. S. Patent No. F65.367.
References are listed at the end of each section.
6-2 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
:
The depreciation curve superim-
LUM =N:i: .\v:v. : -
20
GROUP
REPLACEh dENT-
I.\v
I-
-
.-
IV-':
T TOP VIEW
C-17 FILAMENT
' ,-7 FILAMENT
f' f SUPPORTS ,C-9 FILAMENT /
, LEAD-IN j,m.,£, w FILAMENT /
rSUPPORTS
M-jf/- SUPPORTS
\\ 1
Jr-ARBOR WIRE
•STEM PRESS
WSTEM PRESS
/ \
SIDE VIEW
SIDE VIEW
OF K 10UNT
OF MOUNT
100- WATT, ROUGH - 100-WATT, VIBRATION-
SERVICE LAMP, A-23 BULB SERVICE LAMP, A-23 BULB
FIG. 6-5. Construction of common types of incandescent lamps for: (a) general
service; (b) rough service; (c) vibration service.
LIGHT SOURCES 6-5
COILED
COIL
IV
NO.I-ANY N0.5-ANY N0.6-ANY NO.7
BASE DOWN
oo oo
o
oooo
ooo
MONOPLANE BIPLANE
\W±
DIFFERENTIAL COIL
N0.7A-ANY N0.9-ANY NO. I3D N0.22-ANY LAMP FILAMENT FORMS
BASE DOWN
FIG. 6-6. Typical incandescent filament types, designations, and usual
burning positions.
The Tungsten Filament
The requirements for a suitable material for a lamp filament involve
the following:
Melting point and vapor pressure. Light output depends on filament
temperature. An iron rod heated in a furnace will first glow a dull red,
and then becomes brighter and whiter as its temperature is increased.
Iron, however, melts at about 2,800 degrees Fahrenheit. Edison chose
carbon as a filament because it has no melting point and vaporizes at
6,510 degrees Fahrenheit, which is above the melting point of tungsten
(6,120 degrees Fahrenheit) and of any other known element. Carbon was
the only filament material used for about twenty-five years.
To obtain satisfactory life performance, carbon lamps had to be oper-
ated much below the point of vaporization because of the high vapor pres-
sure of carbon and the consequent high rate of filament evaporation at
incandescent temperatures. Osmium (melting point 4,890 degrees Fahr-
enheit) and tantalum (melting point 5,250 degrees Fahrenheit), even
though having melting points below the vaporization point of carbon,
can be operated at higher temperatures for the same life since their
vapor pressures and evaporation rates are lower. For a short period prior to
the development of the tungsten lamp these metals were used as filament
materials. Tungsten, first used in 1907 for lamp filaments, proved su-
perior to all others because of its relatively high melting point and low
6-6 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
itsuse would increase the present cost of the lamp perhaps by a factor of
two. Its use is practical today only in special types of lamps such as the
small miner's cap lamps, w here high efficiency has a high money value
r
since it prevents excessive drain on the battery, permits the use of smaller
bulbs, and reduces the over-all weight of apparatus required to produce a
given number of lumen-hours.
Vacuum lamps are known as type B. Gas-filled lamps are known as type C.
6-S I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
TIME IN SECONDS
V
LIGHT SOURCES 6-9
ZONE OF MAXIMUM
140
ICO TEMPERATURE "V -
A ^
— "*
LL1'
> si f^ ^
120 #0100
JUNCTION OF BRASS 5,
US AND GLASS ^*^T
100
Q 2 90
,'
<< POINT OPPOSITE
f FILAMENT
80 Ut 80
/^
V'
60
012345678
DISTANCE FROM LAMP BULB IN INCHES
70
40 SO 60 70 80
PER CENT RATED VOLTS
90 100 110 120 130
c d
FIG. 6-9. Incandescent lamp operating temperatures: (a) 200-watt lamp; (b)
1,000- and 1,500-watt lamps in PS-52 bulbs; (c) temperature gradient in air surround-
ings a 100 watt lamp; (d) effect of voltage on temperature.
:
The following equations enable the lamp user and designer to predeter-
mine the performance under varying conditions of either gas-filled or vac-
uum lamps (capital letters represent normal rated values)
life '_
/ LUMENS y = / LUMENS/WATT \ b = /VOLTSy = / AMPS \"
LIFE \ lumens / \ lumens/watt / \ volts / \ amps /
P p fa z;
< pq
w
p<
H 13 w Pi
P
BULB J
< « w
o < o
Ph
IS
H
H
<
WATTS (Clear
5* Pi
W
2
3
w
or
frosted) c/3
>S
<- WO s
W w
C/3 Pi
02; Q i3w
H
H W W Is < W
J H J <
O s < .2
<
> < < p3 P E3 tn o pq
40 A-19 120 0.34 465 11.7 1,000 15.0 .0013 4,490 260 221
60* A-19 120 0.50 835 13.9 1,000 20.8 .0018 4,530 252 195
100* A-21 120 0.83 1,630 16.3 750 22.6 .0025 4,670 261 201
100 A-23 240 0.42 1,240 12.4 1,000 35.7 .0016 4.470 285 228
100 A-23 30 3.12 1,850 18.5 1,000 8.2 .0062 4,660 285 228
100 (proj.) T-8 120 0.83 1,920 19.2 50 19.4 .0025 4,890 — —
150 PS-25 120 1.25 2,600 17.2 750 25.0 .0032 4,710 290 209
200 PS-30 120 1.67 3,650 18.3 750 25.2 .0038 4,750 307 212
300 PS-35 120 2.50 5,900 19.7 750 27.6 .0050 4,825 374 173
500 PS-40 120 4.17 10,000 20.0 1,000 31.6 .0071 4,840 389 213
1,000 PS-52 120 8.3 21,500 21.5 1,000 39.5 .0111 4,930 475 235
1,000 PS-52 240 4.2 19,100 19.1 1,000 68.3 .0073 4,760 475 235
1,000 (proj.) T-20 120 8.3 28,000 28.5 50 33.4 !
.0110 5,590 — —
1,000 (spot)f G-40 120 8.3 22,500 22.5 200 38.3 .0114 5,200 756 192
1,500 PS-52 120 12.5 33,000 22.0 1,000 43.5 .014 5,010 505 265
2,000 PS-52 120 16.7 44.000 22.0 1,000 46.2 .018 5,030 855 —
3,000 T-32 32 93.8 S8,500 29.5 100 13.6 .048 5,390 — —
5,000 G-64 120 41.7 164,000 32.7 75 44.4 .029 5,360 860 —
10,000 G-96 120 83.4 325,000 32.7 75 54.5 .046 5,540 — —
* Coiled-coil filament,
f Vertical base down. J See Fig. 6-11. § Under specified laboratory test con-
ditions. ||The practice is to weigh a length of 20-mm wire and calculate the diameter. If At an ambient
temperature of 77 degrees Fahrenheit the maximum bare bulb temperature is measured with the lamp
operating vertically base up; the base temperature is measured at the junction of the base and bulb. (See
also Fig. 6-9.)
LIGHT SOURCES 6-11
/
r
'
/
/v V z^z-
60
o£
pC^'
>
,<
S4W /
40 <J& 4° /
""
r<fe^
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
PER CENT RATED VOLTS
FIG. 6-10. Effect of voltage variation on operating
characteristics of incandescent lamps.
Standard general lighting lamp voltages are 115, 120, and 125 volts.
Lamps generally available in any community should conform to the nom-
inal voltage of the distribution system serving the territory. Recent
country-wide surveys of voltages indicated 1.3 per cent of the population
served at 110 volts, 43.4 per cent at 115 volts, 55.3 per cent at 120 volts,
and 0.1 per cent at all other voltages in the 110-130 volt range. Lamp
purchases by voltage do not coincide with these proportions, rather they
show that a larger proportion of lamps of higher voltage rating are being
used than service voltages call for.
High-voltage lamps necessarily have filaments of smaller diameter and
greater length. The filaments are less rugged, require more supports,
and are less efficient than those of equal wattage 120-volt lamps. A 240-
volt lamp will take but half the current of the same wattage 120-volt
lamp, permitting some economy in the wiring of lighting circuits. 7
LIGHT SOURCES 6-13
Low-voltage lamps (6- to 64-volt circuits). Lamps are designed for the
several classes oflow-voltage service generally provided by battery-
generator systems. For train lighting, lamps are rated 30, 32, 60, and 64
volts. The 30-volt lamps are also known as "Country Home Lamps"
because they are used most often in individual farm-lighting systems.
Battery-generator systems also supply lighting for automobiles, trailers,
boats, and airplanes, for isolated beacons and aviation landing fields, and
for many similar places where central station service is usually not avail-
able. Except that these lamps have conventional large bulbs and bases
they might be classed as miniature lamps; there is no sharp dividing line
between the so-called large and miniature lamp classifications. Gener-
ally speaking, lamps designed for operation on circuits of less than 30 volts
are considered miniature lamps, and have small bases.
Low-voltage lamps, because they utilize a shorter and heavier filament
for a given wattage, are more rugged and, in general, more efficient than
lamps of the 120-volt class. 8
Street-railway lamps {525- to 625 -volt circuits). Street-railway service
requires lamps designed for that application. Circuit voltages (including
shop and yard circuits) range from 525 to 625 volts. Some lamps are
designed to operate 5-in-series on these voltages. Dividing the trolley
voltage by 5 gives the design voltage of the individual lamp. The high
circuit voltage and the fact that these lamps are connected in series dic-
tates specially designed lamps for this service. To identify them, lamps
for street railway service are rated in odd wattages (36, 56, 94, 101, and
so forth) to distinguish them from multiple burning lamps. The larger,
gas-filled lamps, identified by the numeral 1 as the last digit, are designed
and constructed to prevent arcing when burnout occurs.
The number of 30-volt lamps on a street-railway circuit is determined
by dividing the trolley voltage by 30. Each lamp is equipped with an
automatic short-circuiting element which shunts the lamp out of the circuit
when the lamp burns out. These lamps are rated in amperes instead of
watts. Lamps rated 1.0 and 1.6 amperes are available.
Street series lamps. Street series lamps are designed to operate in series
on constant current circuits. The most common circuit carries 6.6 am-
peres and is automatically regulated to maintain this current flow regard-
less of the number of lamps used on the circuit. Lamps are designed also
for 5.5-, 7.5-, 15-, and 20-ampere operation, the higher currents usually
being obtained for each lamp by an individual step-up current transformer
connected to a normal series circuit. These are known as compensator
lamps.
Lamps are designated by their rated initial lumen output and ampere
rating, for example, the 6,000-lumen, 6.6-ampere lamp, or the 25 000-lu-
;
changes in lumen output; the lumen output of series lamps, on the other
hand, remains fixed because generally the lumen output is specified in
street lighting contracts, and changes in efficiency resulting from improve-
ments are reflected by changes in wattage or voltage. This usually re-
sults in odd numbers and fractions, for example, the present 6,000 lumen,
6.6-ampere lamp has an average rating of 46.9 volts and 310 watts.
On a constant current circuit the filaments for all sizes of lamps of a
given current rating are of approximately the same diameter but vary in
length according to the lumen output. The lamp voltage will vary with
the lumen output, ranging from a few volts in the smaller sizes to 50 or
60 volts for the lamps of high lumen rating.
Series circuits should be closely regulated as fluctuations from normal
current will cause considerable variation in lamp performance. The
effect of current variation in series operation is considerably greater than
that of voltage variation on multiple operation. Roughly a 1 per cent
change in amperes (0.066 ampere on a 6.6-ampere circuit) will produce
a change of about If per cent in volts, about 2f per cent change in watts,
about 3| per cent change in efficiency, about 7 per cent change in light
output and about 20 per cent change in life.
The increase in voltage and wattage of lamps on series circuits will
amount to about 4 per cent above the initial rating at the end of their
rated life, averaging about 2 per cent during life. Provision should be
made in the capacity of constant current transformers for this increase in
voltage.
the A and PS bulb shapes. Lamps rated 15-100 watts are frosted inside.
Lamps in the 150-1,500 watt range may be either clear or frosted. Flame-
shaped and round-bulb lamps are available in 15-, 25-, and 40-watt sizes
for ornamental fixtures where the bulbs are exposed and where the bulb
shape is related to the artistic design of the luminaire.
Tubular bulb lamps extend lighting applications since they can be
placed in small inconspicuous reflectors for display cases, small coves, and
narrow cavities. Intermediate and medium screw bases are used on these
sources. Projection lamps employ tubular bulbs because of space limi-
tations; prefocused bases are most common. The Lumiline lamp repre-
sents a considerable departure from conventional lamp construction since
the filament extends between the contact caps at the ends. Special disk
bases and lamp holders are employed. The lumen output of tubular
bulb lamps is reduced below that of globe-shaped lamps of the same wattage
rating because the additional supports required cause a heat loss.
Many types of lamps are available with bulbs made of "hard" or "heat-
resisting" glass. Such bulbs withstand higher temperatures than ordinary
lead or lime glass, and are used on most lamps of the spotlight, flood-
LIGHT SOURCES 6-15
light, and projection types and for general applications where high-wattage
lamps are exposed to rain or snow.
( Bulb finishes and colors. Inside frosting is widely applied to many
types and sizes of bulbs. Frosting gives moderate diffusion of the light,
thus reducing the extremely high filament brightness when lamps are
used exposed, and eliminating striations and shadows when used in most
types of equipment. By frosting inside the bulb, the outer bulb surface
is left smooth and easily cleaned; furthermore, the light absorbed by the
Reflector-Type Lamps
This general designation refers to lamps in which light control is built
into the lamp itself by applying either silver or aluminum to the out-
side or the inside surface of the bulb. Not only has a reflecting surface
been applied to common bulb shapes but also quite a number of bulbs have
been developed in which bulb contour and reflecting surfaces are co-
ordinated to provide specific distributions of light. The most extensive
use of specialized bulb contours has been in the sealed beam headlamps
found in 1940 and later automobiles.
Silver ed-bowl lamp. The silvered bowl lamp represents the most com-
mon reflector lamp for general lighting applications. Such lamps are
processed in two ways, with silvering applied either internally or externally.
In the latter type of lamp a finish of pure silver is deposited on the bulb
and sealed with an electrolytic coating of copper; over these two metal-
lic coatings an aluminum or bronze finish is applied. The reflecting sur-
face is thus protected from all dust, dirt, and deterioration. . The light
control achieved is accompanied by an initial loss of only 6 to 10 per cent
in light output.
This process has also been applied in neck silvering, and such lamps are
being used to provide the specialized light distribution required for street
lighting service, or for such general applications as high-bay and window
lighting. 10
Projector lamp. A wide variety of light beam patterns can be incor-
porated in a lamp by co-ordinating filament positioning with respect to
special bulb reflecting contours. In the projector flood and projector
spot lamps, designated as type PAR, the bulb is constructed of two molded
glass sections. A bowl-shaped section of parabolic or other suitable con-
LIGHT SOURCES 6-17
ment lead-in wire connected to the shell of the base; the other end of
is
one filament is connected to a ring contact and the end of the other fila-
ment to a center contact.
Sign lamps. While large numbers of gas-filled lamps are used in en-
closed and other types of electric signs, those designated particularly as
"sign" lamps are mostly of the vacuum type. Lamps of this type are
best adapted for exposed sign and festoon service because the lower bulb
temperature of vacuum lamps minimizes thermal cracks resulting from
rain and snow. Some low-wattage lamps, however, are gas-filled for use
in flashing signs. Bulb temperatures of these low- wattage, gas-filled lamps
are sufficiently low to permit exposed outdoor use. See Fig. 6-8.
III III
II III
fa^^l
BAYONET BAYONET DISC MEDIUM MOGUL
CANDELABRA CANDELABRA PREFOCUS PREFOCUS
PRE FOCUS-
ING COLLAR
The source of light in a carbon arc is the incandescent solid crater in the
plain- or low-intensity arc, the incandescent vapors of the cerium rare-
earths in the cup-shaped crater of the high-intensity arc, and the arc
stream or "flame" in the flame arc, as shown in Fig. 1-10, page 1-15.
Table 6-4 gives the color characteristics of various arcs in reference to
average daylight and to sunlight. See Section 14 for applications.
DOMINANT PURITY
COLOR WAVELENGTH (PER CENT)
TEM- (MICRONS) REFERRED
AM- REFERRED TO TO
LIGHT SOURCE PERES VOLTS PERA-
TURE
(K)
Daylight Sunlight
Day- Sun-
light light
Because discharge lamps, like other arc sources, have an inherent nega-
tive resistance characteristic, suitable current ballast or control as well as
starting equipment is necessary.
This current-limiting equipment (sometimes referred to as the "auxil-
iary") is necessary for the operation of every discharge lamp. It increases
the total power consumed and, if not "power factor corrected," reduces
the power factor of the circuit below that of the lamps. Power factor cor-
rection by capacitors is effective and frequently practiced. 21
A-Hl
DESIGNATION* — B-Hl A-H4 C-H5 A-H6H A-H9 E-Hl A-H12
F-Hl
Outer bulb size T-16 T-10 T-14 T-2 T-9h T-20 T-28
Clear Clear Clear Clear Clear Clear Clear
Base type Mogul|| Admed. Mogul Ts-in. S-c term. Mogul Mogul
sleeve screw screw
mech.
Burning position t Any Any Horiz. Any Any Any
Max. over -all length (inches).. 13 5| 8 3i 54f 11 14
Light center length (inches) 7| 5 7 9
Vapor pressure (atmospheres) 1.2 8 4-4.5 110 0.55 2.5 1.5
Number of electrodes 3 3 3 2 2 3 3
6 1 If 1 48 2f 5
Glass Quartz Quartz Quartz ft Glassft Quartz
* The suffix number indicates the transformer required, (Examples A-H4, B-H4, C-H4, and S-4 all
operate on an H4 transformer).
f Burning position. A-Hl and F-II1 are for base-up burning, B-II1 is for base-down burning. These
types must be operated within 10 degrees of vertical.
X Supply voltage. Transformer design is centered for the range of standard voltage circuits.
§ Power factor. The higher power factor is obtained with transformers incorporating integral correc-
tion. Transformers for operating two lamps of types A-Hl, B-Hl, A-H5, and C-H5 have an over -all power
factor of 95 per cent.
|| The F-Hl lamp is designed for street-lighting service and, except for a mechanical-type base, it has
the same characteristics as the A-Hl.
f A-H6 is water-cooled and requires a water jacket of quartz or heat-resisting glass. B-H6 is air-cooled
and rated at 900 watts. Its characteristics are similar to the A-H6.
** Initial lumens per watt (life less than 100 hours).
ft Single bulb lamp; the outer bulb is the arc tube.
XX For normal indoor use. Higher open circuit voltages are desirable for dependable starting at lower
temperatures.
The starting characteristics of type A-Hl are shown in Fig. 0-16. When
the current flow s the argon arc r
is seen for a few seconds as a bluish glow
r
that fills the entire arc tube. The voltage rapidly increases until the
lamp reaches a This takes place in about 7
stable operating condition.
minutes, at which time all of the mercury is completely vaporized and the
lamp operates at about 136 volts, 3.2 amperes. At this stage the arc no
6-24 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
500
1 1
/-^LINE WATTS
LAMP WATTS
LAMP vm TS
O
— -/^-^
>
h IOO
\L_AMP AMPERES s
/y
,
^1 INE AMPERES^
<2 50
V_^ <L
TRANSFORMER
LOSSES
|
10 12 2
TIME IN MINUTES
longer fills the tube but is concentrated in a pencil-like arc stream of high
brightness centered in the inner bulb. At full brightness the lamp produces
approximately 16,000 lumens.
If the current is interrupted while the lamp is in operation, the lamp
cannot be relighted for about 7 minutes. In this time it will cool enough
to reduce the mercury-vapor pressure sufficiently to allow the arc to strike
again. If the circuit is not broken this will occur automatically.
Type A-Hl lamps must be operated within rather close voltage limits,
and transformer taps are provided for satisfactory operation over a wide
range of line voltages. For best performance mercury- vapor lamps
should not be operated from line voltages more than 5 per cent above or
more than 2| per cent below the rated tap voltage of the transformer
involved. The effects of voltage on operating characteristics of type
A-Hl lamps are shown in Fig. 6-17.
Type E-Hl This type has an inner quartz bulb for applications
. requiring
operation in a horizontal position or at an angle larger than 10 degrees
from the vertical. The lamp produces 20,000 lumens.
Type Hj. The 100-watt, type A-H4 lamp shown in Fig. 6-18 is some-
times referred to as a "capillary" lamp because the arc discharge takes
place within a small capsule-like tube of quartz. This construction with
short arc length and small diameter allows operation at high vapor pres-
sures and temperatures. The outer bulb serves merely as a protective
container and can be of any convenient size or shape.
Type H4 comes up to full brightness in from 2 to 3 minutes, starting
with a blue (argon) glow and gradually assuming its normal operating
color and efficiency. The arc will be extinguished in event of current in-
terruption but will restart automatically after a cooling period of 2 to 3
minutes. These lamps will remain in operation even with a 20 per cent
decrease from normal operating voltage, showing, in this respect, con-
siderably more stability than the type A-Hl lamp. However, they will not
start at such a low voltage. 23
Type H5. The type H5 mercury-vapor lamp is a 250-watt capillary
source similar in construction to type H4 but with longer bulbs and bases.
LIGHT SOURCES 6-25
150
/ T~T
140 / ADMEDIUM
/ // SCREW BASE
/
130 7
120 /r -STARTING
RESISTOR
110
r{/
STARTING
;/ SUPPORTING
ELECTRODE
?.
UJ
100
^^ ZZ** LEADS
<t<*
*® '/ & _j
LIGHT
CENTER
Jfc
MAIN
ELECTRODES:
— UPPER
— LOWER
ifiy TUBE-SUPPORTING ^\
CUPS -ARC TUBE
Y
v/
t-OUTERTUBE
Type H5 produces 40 lumens per watt. The type C-H5 lamp has been
employed to some extent for outdoor floodlighting and highway tunnel
lighting.
Type H6. The 1,000-watt, type A-H6 mercury lamp consists of a
capillary quartz tube about If inches long, having an outside diameter of
I inch and a bore of inch. A
Sealed into each end is a tungsten wire
which serves both as electrode and lead. The tips of these wires project
just through the surface of a small mercury pool in each end of the lamp.
The pressure in the capillary when the lamp is not operating is about one
fifteenth of an atmosphere, the pressure of the argon gas with which the
lamp is filled. The lamp reaches its full brightness in 1 or 2 seconds after
power is applied, the heat from the arc quickly vaporizing the mercury
and building up the pressure to about 110 atmospheres (1,620 pounds per
square inch). 24
Because of the high wattage concentrated in such a small volume, in
order to maintain reasonable operating temperature it is necessary that
water be passed over the capillary tube fast enough to prevent the forma-
tion of steam bubbles on its quartz surface. To accomplish this, a "ve-
locity tube" is placed around the lamp with a very small radial clearance
through which the water must flow. Because the cross section of the
water path is so restricted, sufficient velocity to prevent steam formation
is attained with a water flow of about 3 quarts per minute. More than
90 per cent of the infrared radiation is absorbed by the circulating water.
The lamp produces 65,000 lumens with a maximum surface brightness
of 195,000 candles per square inch (one fifth the brightness of the sun).
Because heat storage is small and cooling rapid, type H6 lamps may be
restarted at once after the current has been turned off. During life, the
lamp voltage gradually increases and the current and the wattage decrease.
6-26 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
The depends on the number of times the lamp is started and the type
life
FIG. 6-19. Typical circuits for operating mercury vapor lamps: (a) single-lamp
circuit; (b) two-lamp circuit.
Transformers for the type A-H9 lamp are made for 115-, 230-, 460-, and
575-volt circuits. All have taps for 95, 100, and 105 per cent of rated line
volts and include a built-in capacitor for power factor correction.
The autotransformer and connection leads are carried into a wiring com-
partment for direct conduit connection of line and lamp. The total
power consumed by lamp and transformer is about 3,220 watts for the
230-volt transformer. 21
at present are the 180-watt, 10,000-lumen lamp and the 145-watt, 6,000-
lumen lamp. These are applied principally to street and highway light-
25
ing and can be used on either series or multiple circuits.
The 10,000-lumen lamp shown in Fig. 6-20 consists of a tubular inner
bulb about 12 inches long and about 3 inches in diameter placed within a
double-walled vacuum flask to maintain the proper temperature. The
inner bulb contains a small quantity
of sodium, and some neon gas to -BASE CONTACTS
(SOCKET NOT
one side of each filament connected SHOWN)
to molybdenum anodes. Four base
contacts are required. This lamp
has an average life of 3,000 hours
under normal street or highway light-
ing service. It has a starting volt-
age of 50, a normal operating voltage
of 30, and a current rating of 6.6 am-
peres. DOUBLE-WALLED
On closing the lamp circuit to begin t~ EVACUATED
12 IN.
FLASK
the starting operation a time-delay
relay allows the cathodes to heat.
Then the circuit is broken and the
induced voltage of the transformer
starts a discharge of a characteristic CATHODE
"(FILAMENT)
red color through the neon. As the
temperature rises the sodium evapo-
rates and gradually the sodium vapor
discharge comes up to its full bright-
ness and normal yellow color. This
warm-up requires about 30 minutes.
The auxiliary equipment for street FIG - 6 " 20 -
10,000-lumen, sodium-vapor
amp '
in
AVERAGE CO < S3
STARTING Q P^m'S
RATED VOLTS* O RESIST-
TYPE BASE GAS
VOLTS
H ANCE <J 2
pa u i-'
< w
A.C. D.C. P
<
AR-3 (105-1251 80 115 0.25 T-4£ Cand. screw P-3 In base Argon Is 1,000
A.C.f 1
AR-5 1
105-125 SO 115 0.25 T-4^ Blue slide P-3 In base Argon 1ft 3,000
lA.C.f J
(20,000
ohms)
NE-2 105-125 65 90 0.04 T-2 Unbased§ W-ll External Neon 1ft t 25,000
NE-3 105-125 65 90 0.04 T-2 Unbased§ W-ll In lead Neon lftt 3,000
NE-16 105-125 67-87|| 0.25 T-4J D-c. bay. P-3 External Neon 1-2- 3,000
NE-20 105-125 60 85 1.00 G-10 Med. screw PW-5 In base Neon 2A 3,000
Fluores- 110-125 100 140 1.00 S-ll Two-prong 3,000
cent A.C. or med.
screw
Fluores- 110-140 100 140 G-6 Cand. screw W-10 50,000 Krypton 3,000
cent A.C. ohms
KR-1 150-175
D.C.
Fluores- 110-125 4 G-16 Candelabra Special 31 1,000
cent skirted
Xmas screw
tree
* At hours operation.
t May be operated on 135-volt, d-c circuits.
t Glass parts only.
§ Lamps have wire terminals f«-inch long not included in length, MOA Resistance where specified is
set into one lead wire &-inch from end of glass seal.
|| Direct-current operating voltage at 1.5 milliamperes, 53-65 volts.
LIGHT SOURCES 6-29
Argon, Neon, and fluorescent glow lamps are available. In the fluorescent
type the energy output of the discharge in the 0.01 to 0.1 micron wavelength
Schuman ultraviolet region is sufficiently independent of ordinary ambient
temperatures that these lamps may be operated satisfactorily out of doors
in winter weather.
Crater lamps. These lamps, shown in Fig. 6-22, emit the characteristic
lines of the neon spectrum from an arc between the central "crater"
cathodes and the surrounding ring anode. They operate in series with a
ballast resistor on direct current; their output may be modulated rapidly.
Concentrated-arc lamps. These lamps are a type of direct-current dis-
charge lamp made with permanent, fixed electrodes sealed into an argon-
filled glass bulb. The light source is a small spot (0.003 to 0.059 inch in
diameter) of incandescent zirconium which forms on the end of a zircon-
ium-oxide-filled tantalum tube, (the negative electrode). See Fig. 6-23.
2 37 0.055 0.003 62,000 36,000 0.32 175 T-5 Min. 3 140 100
10 21 0.5 0.016 35,400 14,200 2.7 700 T-9 Small 8 225 130
25 20 1.25 0.029 26,000 13,600 8.7 800 T-9 Small 8 355 145
100 15.4 6.25 0.059 33,600 25,200 77.0 1,000 ST-19 Med. 4 470 160
| 60
Q
2 55 FIG. 6-24. Spectral energy
LU
I-
(/)
distribution curve of typical
a: 50
in xenon-filled flash lamp (radiation
Q_
in direction perpendicular to
1045
HI
/
'
_)
helix).
O
O40 1 micron = i0,000 angstroms = 1/10,000
_J
centimeter
3 35
20 r\
//
\ VOLTS AT
//
u r \ -X 56 MF
15
%o ,
\
MF AT 1800
\ /_
\ S°« VOLTS
10
1
1
i \ s^ <?
N
5
II
IV
\\
-X'tpoS
\ "
v56
\. v.
S^
lis''
if
\,. -28
~-- -----_- ^** —
r" '000~
1
15
S^s --_-_
r-_- -_-vr. = --- .__
100 200 300 400 500 600 700
TIME IN MICROSECONDS
Several straight tubular lamps have been developed for use in trough
reflectors. For most applications, however, more concentrated forms are
preferred. As with tungsten filaments, improved concentration is ob-
tained by coiling the tube in the form of a helix. Three sizes of helices
have been used with different bulb and base combinations to make the
typical lamps shown types and sizes of elec-
in Fig. 6-26. Lamps differ in
trodes, type of gas with pressure, and tube
which the tube is filled, filling
28
material; also, different electrical circuits are used for flashing the lamps.
LIGHT SOURCES 6-31
In one type of flashing circuit an extremely high potential (of the order
of 10,000 volts or more) is momentaiily applied to the wall of the tube,
producing a brilliant flash of light of extremely short duration. When the
condenser charge has been almost entirely expended, the voltage across the
terminals drops to a low value, the tube ceases to conduct, and the con-
denser proceeds to accumulate the charge required for the next flash.
Another circuit utilizes flashlamps which operate without separate
ionizing potential. In this type the lamp is not connected across the
terminals of the condenser until it is desired to flash the tube and the tube
itself is designed to flash over at the potential of the charge in the con-
denser. The power-supply design is thus simplified, but it is necessary to
employ a switch which can handle the high voltages and momentarily
high currents involved.
Limits of energy input. For single-flash operation, the limit to the
amount of energy which can be consumed depends upon the desired lamp
:
life,that is, the total number of useful flashes. This is affected by the rate
of tube blackening and destruction of the tube or its parts.
If a flashtube is operated repetitively and rapidly at the maximum
energy input level so that its temperature rises excessively, it will either
miss (fail to flash) or become continuously conductive. In the latter case
the tube may be damaged. The total watts consumed are the product of
the watt-seconds per flash and the number of flashes per second. The
figures for a tube operating at 2,000 volts and 112 microfarads (224 watt-
seconds per flash) are tabulated below for different rates of flash
Input to Lamp
Flashing Rate (Watts)
Where repetitive flashing is necessary the power input per flash to the
tube must be reduced as the rate of flashing; is increased.
-BASE CEMENT
>BASE PINS
a
INSIDE OF TUBE COATED WITH STEM EXHAUST
FLUORESCENT PHOSPHORS PRESS TUBE
FIG. 6-28. Cutaway view of fluorescent lamps showing typical electrodes and
bases : (a) filament (hot) cathodes (preheat starting) (b) filament (hot) and (c) cylin-
;
0.8
80
-
BLUE PINK
60
5 40 V
5 20 // WHITE
O
>
£100
z GREEN
m 80 tJl
LU
^60
< n DAYLIGHT
w 40
cr
20 \\ V
1 -^ >
0.38 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.76 0.38 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.76 1
WAVELENGTH IN MICRONS
1 micron = 10,000 angstroms= 1/10,000 centimeter
FIG. 6-30. I.C.I, x-y co-ordinates and spectral distribution curves of light from
typical fluorescent lamps.
LIGHT SOURCES 6-35
hrs/
start
Rated life (hours)** 2,500 2,500 2,500 2,500 2,500 2,500 2,500 2,500 2,500 2,500 2,500 3,000
ccr
7 *> 84%
and lumen main- 75% ' ,0 85% 78% 84% 78% 84% 78%
tenance (per cent
initial lumens) 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,000 1,600 4,000 4,500
for daylight and 72% V6% 76% 72% 76% 72%
white lamps at
70% rated life
6,000 6,000 6,000 6,000 6,000 6,500
69% 70% 70% 69% 70% 69%
lumens:
Initial
White 73 210 330 582 490 622 600 940 1,485 1,600 2,310 4,300
Daylight. . . 68 185 295 505 420 555 517 800 1,350 1,960 3,900
Soft white .
365 487 472 720 1,170 1,760 3,350
4,500° white. 200 310 547 460 585 570 860 1,380 2,110 4,000
Blue 315 300 460 780
Green 900 855 1,300 2,250
Yellow green 1,080 2,600
Pink 300 2S5 440 750
Gold 375 355 540 930
Red 45 42 60 120
Footlamberts:
White 2,615 2,775 2,690 1,390 2,060 1,420 1,515 2,370 2,040 1,750 1,965
Daylight... 2,345 2,495 2,330 1,180 1,905 1,275 1,330 2,140 1,570 1,840
Soft white .
975 1,560 1,100 1,175 1,870 1,373 1,580
4,500° white 2,470 2,770 2,520 1,310 2,030 1,290 1,360 2,120 1,640 1,915
Blue 1,125 750 850 1,350
Green 3,200 2,610 2,400 3,900
Pink 1 050
, 720 800 1,300
Gold 1,650 900 1,000 1,600
Red 160 110 110 210
* Industry averages. Lack of complete data from all sources results in some discrepancies within
the table,
t Wattage consumed by auxiliary must be added to get total.
t Includes lamp and two sockets.
5 Circular lamp 12 inches diameter.
f|
Figures indicate maximum outside diameter in eighths of an inch.
11 110- to 125-volt circuit ballasts available for all types, higher voltage ballasts for some.
** Average life under specific test conditions.
Lamp current (milliamperes) . 100 200 41 100 200 100 200 100 200
Rated life (3 hours operation
per start) hours§ 2,500 2,500 2,500 2,500 2,500 2,500 2,500 2,500 2,500
Lamp watts|| 15 26 40 24 39 22 38 29 51
Approximate lamp volts 175 147 108 277 230 247 217 335 292
Initial lumen output (white) . 915 1,400 2,300 1,410 2,100 1,405 2,350 1,920 3,250
Footlamberts (white) 1,680 2,590 1,750 1,670 2,560 1,050 1,755 1,065 1,790
!
t Includes lamp and two sockets. Wattage consumed by auxiliary must be added to get total.
||
Six hours operation per start. 4,000 hours; twelve hours operation per start, 6,000 hours.
J
II Same as 40-watt hot cathode lamp in table 6-8.
3
FOOT!
(n
ETERf RENT DESIGNATION BRIGHTNESS!
CO CO
(milli- (milli-
(100-hr H <= 3
meters) amperes)
oper-
ation)
i-J
O < 8J §1 si
o—
> 00
3,500° White M 74
24 Daylight^ M woo OOO 71 63 1.5
Warm white M SO
t For gases No. 1050, No. 50, or No. BIO at standard pressure (for argon multiply by 0.96). For Argon at
4-millimeter pressure multiply by 0.87.
§ For luminous portion (over-all less 4 inches), assuming lamp power factor equals 100 per cent and neg-
lecting voltage drop, wattage loss at electrodes, and ballast watts: To get over-all lamp voltage multiply volts
per foot by length of luminous portion and add 105 (approximate electrode drop). To get total watts con-
sumed by lamp and ballast multiply watts per foot by length of luminous portion and add both (voltage
loss at electrodes 105 x operating current) and the ballast watts.
K Applies to soft white also.
.
77
r~ — The conversion from the ultraviolet wavelength (0.2537 micron) to the visible wave-
lengths which make up the 3,500° white color, is accomplished by the phosphor at the
theoretical maximum efficiency (44 per cent) known as the quantum ratio.
Losses from coating absorption, bulb absorption, end loss in brightness and non-
utflization of 2,537 total 14 per cent. (86 per cent efficiency).
ELECTRICAL ENERGY
INPUT
40 50 60
ARC LENGTH IN INCHES
cfSU 1
50 MA
200 1
48 IN. 200 MA
\y 350 VIA
150 500 VIA
""'ix
100
15 IN: ^18 IN. l
TI2
|J^ HOT CATHODE
50
450
96 IN.
jf
<5
< 400
T8 COLD CATHODE
100 MA \
350
72 IN. 9 5 IN.
300
72 IN.
<^ 1/
yr
1
48 IN.
250 S
<^1
1
200 **^S
1
36 IN.
\S
*^J^
150
^^r T8
HOT CATHODE
"100
8 IN.
1
y i
50
\
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
ARC LENGTH IN INCHES
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1,000
LAMP CURRENT IN MILLIAMPERES
FIG. 6-34. Lumen-per-watt ratings of typical white fluorescent
lamps as a function of lamp current.
6-40 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
RATING POINT
O 100
GRC UP /
a/
Z 80
V
'
/c
20 40 60 80 100 120
AMBIENT (ROOM) TEMPERATURE IN DEG F
FIG. 6-37. Effect of ambient temperature on
light output of the fluorescent lamps shown in
Fig. 6-36 operating in still air at rated watts
and current.
Hours operation per start. The oxide cathode coating must be in good
condition to ensure proper starting at rated voltage of the preheat-starting
fluorescent lamp. However, each time a preheat-type lamp is started a
small amount of the oxide coating is consumed. A sufficient quantity of
the material may be removed in about one thousand starts to cause starting
failures. For this reason, the average life of these lamps is rated on the
basis of hours operation per start. See Tables 6-9 and 6-10.
Because the proper starting of cylindrical (cold) cathode lamps depends
primarily on a high voltage rather than on the oxide coating of the cathodes,
the life of this type of lamp is not appreciably affected by starting frequency.
Effect of voltage and humidity on starting. To start a fluorescent lamp
requires a higher voltage than is necessary to keep the lamp in operation
once it has been started. Although all aspects of starting phenomena have
not been explained, it is believed, on the basis of one theory which fits the
available experimental data reasonably well, that capacitive current in the
lamp is a necessary prerequisite to starting of the lamps now available. 34
The two methods used are called preheat ("hot") starting and instant
("cold") starting. The usual sequences are:
Preheat starting: (a) A heating current is passed through the electrodes
and electrons are ejected from the electrodes by thermionic emission,
(b) Upon the application of a transient (600-1,200 volts) provided by the
ballast and timed by a manual or automatic starting switch, electrons will
flow through the tube, ionize the gases, and initiate a mercury vapor dis-
charge.
Instant starting: (a) By the application of a high open circuit voltage
(400-3,000 volts depending on the type of lamp and electrode) electrons
are ejected by field emission from the electrodes, (b) Electrons will flow
through the tube, ionize the gases, and initiate a mercury vapor discharge.
The high-voltage transient induced by rapid dissipation of the ballast
magnetic field upon separation of the contacts of the starter switches
LIGHT SOURCES 6-43
120
1
^^ J££40TI2
sate for the variation of current throughout each cycle. With fluorescent
lamps, the carry-over of light depends on the phosphorescent qualities of
the coating. This characteristic of the phosphors varies considerably.
6-44 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
Two-lamp, lead-lag ballasts which are available for both hot and cold
cathode types reduce this stroboscopic effect to a point where in ordinary
two-lamp applications it is negligible. However, it may be an important
consideration where moving objects are viewed or where the eye itself is
moving rapidly. Further reductions may be made by three-phase opera-
tion of three adjacent lamps or pairs of lamps.
Radio interference. The mercury arc in a fluorescent lamp as well as
other discharge sources causes a sparking action at the electrodes which
emits low-power radio waves. These waves may be picked up and ampli-
fied by near-by radios and cause a buzzing noise to be superimposed on
the music or speech from the broadcasting station. The sound usually
is more noticeable between stations on the dial but may be heard over the
High voltage may also constitute a safety hazard and various protective
devices are used to prevent people from coming in contact with an open
circuit.
Power factor correction for fluorescent-lamp
ballasts. Inherent charac-
teristics ofleakage reactance transformers result in a low power factor.
The true watts of a low-power-factor transformer are approximately
the same as the true watts of the high-power-factor type when connected
to the same load. The low-power-factor type of transformer draws more
current from the power supply, and, therefore, larger supply conductors
are necessary than when using high-power-factor-type transformers. Some
public utilities supplying power have established in their rate schedules
penalty clauses for low-power-factor installations and bonus clauses for
high-power-factor installations. The use of high-power-factor transform-
ers permits greater loads to be carried by existing wiring systems.
Typical power-factor-corrected circuits for preheat-starting lamps are
shown in Fig. 6-40o(l) and (2).
The power factor of existing instant-starting ballast installations for
cylindrical (cold) cathode lamps can be corrected to the desired value by
use of condensers connected across the primary supply lines between the
primary switch and the load (Fig. 6-40, b). The use of a capacitor trans-
former as in circuit 2 of Fig. 6-40 b), usually is less expensive, as the effect
of condenser capacity varies as the square of the voltage applied across
its terminals. The capacitor transformer is of "auto"-type construction
with extended winding depending on the voltage rating of the condenser.
T TO LAMP
LOAD
LINE
LINE
HIGH POWER
FACTOR
TRANSFORMER
volts to correct the power factor to a desired value, the capacity can be
reduced to 1 microfarad if 440 volts are applied to the condenser ter-
minals. In new installations high-power-factor transformers should be
used. This type is shown in circuit 3 of Fig. 6-40,6. The primary wind-
ing is extended to a value three to six times the input voltage in order to
reduce the condenser capacity.
CARBON __ U-SHAPED
RESISTOR BIMETAL
FIXED BIMETALLIC
SILVER
CONTACT
S!h -r THIRD
CONTACT
CONTACT
(ELECTRODE)
CONTACT
(ELECTRODE)
CARBON
CONTACT
m
LINE
t— BIMETAL
LINE
FIG. 6-41. Starter switches for preheat cathode circuits: (a) thermal type; (b)
glow switch type; (c) manual reset type; (d) automatic reset type.
sumes power (less than one watt), but produces sufficient heat
negligible
to hold the lockout contacts open. When the deactivated lamp is replaced,
the starter automatically resets to its normal position, ready to function
again.
Typical circuits
LINE
VOLTAGE TI2 14-WATT LAMPS
3^
0.006 MF RADIO-
INTERFERENCE D.P.S.T. MANUAL
CAPACITORS STARTING SWITCH
It
O LINE VOLTAGE
© a
LAGGING SIDE
kSIMj-
LEADING SIDE
i -J
LINE
VOLTAGE
J
a c-
21
FIG. 6-42. Typical fluorescent lamp circuits: a. Circuits for preheat-starting,
filament-cathode lamps: ©
series circuit for 14-watt lamps with incandescent lamp
resistance ballast and manual starting switch; ©
ballast for use on direct-current
circuits, b. Two-lamp circuit for instant-start lamps on which the lamps are
operated out of phase to minimize stroboscopic effect, c. Safety circuits for in-
stant-start, cylindrical (cold) cathode lamp operation in interiors: four-lamp, ©
two-ballast circuit in which removal of a lamp-base cover disconnects transformer
primary; ©
circuit developed by the Detroit Board of Education for use where
lamps are subject to breakage; ®
circuit for use in refrigerated showcases, d.
Dimming-circuits for series-connected, cylindrical (cold) cathode lamps: vari- ®
able resistance; ©
variable voltage transformer; saturable reactor. ®
'
REMOVABLE
— t--t
:>
' COVER
- PRIMARY
A* DISCONNECT
NcJ
o.
REMOVABLE
O
FIXED COVER fc
r*ii SECTION A-A
f T"
LAMP ! |
1
Tll-l
(COVER RAISED TO
HOLDER [ «? BREAK THE CIRCUIT;
CURRENT
TRANSFORMER
MOMENTARY
©
CONTACT SWITCH
MOMENTARY *
CONTACT SWITCH
VARIABLE-VOLTAGE
TRANSFORMER
6-50 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
REFERENCES
1. G.
Merrill, S., "The Economics of Light Production with Incandescent Lamps," Trans. Ilium. Eng.
Soc, December, 1937. Millar, P. S., "The Qualities of Incandescent Lamps," Elec. Eng., May, 1936; Dis-
cussion, October, 1936.
2. Merrill, G. S., "Voltage and Incandescent Electric Lighting," Proc. Intern. Ilium. Congr., Vol. II, page
1494,1931.
3. Hall, J. D., "The Manufacture of Incandescent Mazda Lamps," Elec. Eng., December, 1941. Millar,
P. S., "Safeguarding the Quality of Incandescent Lamps," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, November, 1931. "The
Development of the Incandescenr^Electrie Lamp to 1879," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, October, 1929.
4. Langmuir, I., "Tungsten Lamps of High Efficiency," Trans. Am. Inst. Elec Engrs., October, 1913.
5. Coolidge, W. D., "Ductile Tungsten," Trans. Am. Inst. Elec Engrs., May, 1910.
6. Research Paper No. 502, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C.
7. Handbook of Interior Wiring Design, Industry Committee on Interior Wiring Design, 420 Lexington
Avenue, New York, 1941.
8. Prideaux, G. F., "Miniature Lamp Design and Applications," Cleveland Eng., December 6, 1945.
9. Macbeth, N., "Color Temperature Classification of Natural and Artificial Illuminants," Trans. Ilium.
Eng. Soc, March, 1928.
10. Whittaker, J. D., "Applications of Silver Processed Incandescent Lamps with Technical Data," Trans.
Ilium. Eng. Soc, May, 1933.
11. Mili, Gjon, "Influence of Filament Form on Beam Characteristics with Shallow Paraboloid," Trans.
Ilium. Eng. Soc, March, 1934.
12. Carlson, F. E., "Light Source Requirements for Picture Projection," /. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs.,
March, 1935.
13. Carlson, F. E., "Properties of Lamps and Optical Systems for Sound Reproduction Systems," J. Soc
Motion Picture Engrs., July, 1939.
14. Farnham, R. E., "The Lighting of Photochemical Reproduction Processes," Ilium. Eng., February,
1941.
15.Forsythe, W. E., "Light Sources for Color Photography," Photo Technique, June, 1939.
16.Teele, R. P., "Gas Filled Lamps as Photometric Standards," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, January, 1930.
17.Hall, J. D., "Stop Vibration, Add to Lamp Life," Factory Management and Maintenance, October, 1940.
18. Forsythe, W. E., "Arcs Their Operation and Light Output," Ilium. Eng., February, 1940.
19. Bowditch, F. T., and Downes, A. C, "Spectral Distributions and Color Temperatures of the Radiant
Energy from Carbon Arcs used in the Motion Picture Industry," J. Soc Motion Picture Engrs., April, 1938.
20. Found, C. G., "Fundamentals of Electric Discharge Lamps," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, February, 1938.
21. Kronmiller, C. W., "Control Equipment for Discharge Type Lamps," Ilium. Eng., December, 1944.
22. Buttolph, L. J., "The Characteristics of Gaseous Conduction Lamps and Light," Trans. Ilium. Eng.
Soc, February, 1935. McMath, J. B., "Development and Use of Gaseous Conductor Tubes," Trans. Ilium.
Eng. Soc, July, 1938. Rentschler, H. C, "Distribution of Light from Gas and Vapor Discharges," Trans.
Ilium. Eng. Soc, June, 1934.
23. Noel, E.B., "Radiation from High Pressure Mercury Arcs," Ilium. Eng., February, 1941. Marden, J.
W., Meister, G., and Beese, N. C, "High Intensity Mercury Arc Lamps," Elec Eng., November, 1936. St.
Louis, J. A., "Characteristics of 400-watt and 250-watt type H
Mercury Lamps," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc,
June, 1936.
24. Noel, E. B., and Farnham, R. E., "A Water-Cooled Quartz Mercury Arc,"
J. Soc. Motion Picture
Engrs., September, 1938.
25. Fonda, G. R., and Young, A. H., "The A-c Sodium-vapor Lamp," Gen. Elec. Rev., July, 1934. Gordon,
N. T., "Operating Characteristics of Sodium-vapor Lamps," Gen. Elec. Rev., July, 1934.
26. Ferree, H. M., "Some Characteristics and Applications of Negative Glow Lamps," Trans. Am. Inst.
Elec Engrs., January, 1941.
27. Buckingham, W. D., and Deibert, C. R., "The Concentrated- Arc Lamp," J. Optical Soc. Am., June,
1946.
28. Carlson, F. E., and Pritchard, D. A., "The Characteristics and Application of Flash Tubes," Ilium.
Eng., February, 1947.
29. Townsend, M. A., "Electronics of the Fluorescent Lamp," Trans. Am. Inst. Elect. Engrs., August,
1942.
30. Amick, C. L., Fluorescent Lighting Manual, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1942. Forsythe, W.E., Barnes
B. F., and Adams, E. Q., "Fluorescence and Fluorescent Lamps," J Sci. Lab., Denison Univ. Bull., No. 36,
.
April 1941. Inman, G. E., "Characteristics of Fluorescent Lamps," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, January, 1939.
31. Handbook of Cold Cathode Illumination, Fluorescent Lighting Association, New York, 1945.
32. Lowery, E. F., Frohock, W. S., and Meyers, G. A., "Some Fluorescent Lamp Parameters and Their
Effect on Lamp Performances," Ilium. Eng., December, 1946.
33. Diefenthaler, R. J., and Forbes, J. C., "Effect of External Factors on Light Output of Fluorescent
Sources," Ilium. Eng., December, 1946.
34. Thayer, R. N., and Hinman, D. D., "Requirements for Reliable Instant Starting Fluorescent
Lamps," Ilium. Eng., September, 1945.
35. Mills, E. S., and Campbell, J. H., "Fluorscent Lamps and Radio Reception, Mag. of Light No. 5, 1940.
36. Weitz, C. E., Electric Illuminants, International Textbook Co., Scranton, Pa.
SECTION 7
LIGHT CONTROL
Once has been produced by combustion, incandescence, gaseous
light
discharge, fluorescence, or other means, the problem of primary impor-
tance is its control. Light sources, such as flames or arcs, or incandescent,
electric discharge, or fluorescent lamps, rarely are found to have the
inherent characteristics of candlepower distribution, brightness, and color
suited to direct application without control or modification. Also, cer-
tain uncontrollable application conditions such as smoke, fog, condensa-
tion of moisture, collection of dust, grease, and so forth may alter the
characteristics of either lamp or luminaire in service.
Modification of lamp characteristics or compensation for uncontrollable
application conditions may be provided in a number of ways, all of which
are examples of one or a combination of the following phenomena (which
will be taken up in the order given here)
Wave motion may be represented graphically as shown in Fig. 7-1, the plot of the
function
Y = a sin
(4-f)
where
Y = displacement of particles from
point P on the wave path (at
time t)
a = amplitude of the wave
T = period of oscillation (time)
x = distance along the wave path
from origin to point P FIG. 7-1.Graphical representation
X = wavelength of a plane wave.
Phase differences between motions at points and P are equal to 2 n X/\; when
X/\ is a whole number, the motions are in phase. 1
1
7-2 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
Huygens' principle the concept that each point in the wave front (pri-
is
(resultant)
WAVE
TRAINS
SOURCE
WAVE j^'
FRONTS'
FIG. 7-3. Wave fronts are the FIG. 7-4. New wave fronts may be
loci of points the motion of constructed (Huygens' principle) by
which is in phase. describing arcs of equal radius with
centers at each point in the known
front and drawing the curve (or sur-
face) tangent to these arcs (or spheri-
cal segments).
LIGHT CONTROL 7-3
Reflection
1. Specular Reflection
will equal the angle between the incident ray and the normal, Fig. 7-5(a.)
If two or more rays are reflected, these may form a virtual, erect, or
inverted image of the source. A lateral reversal of the image occurs when
odd numbers of plane mirrors are used, as in Fig. 7-5(6). The image is
left-handed for an even number, right-handed for an odd number.
SOURCE
OBSERVER -^
FIG. 7-5. (a) The law of reflection states that the angle of incidence i = angle of
reflection r. (b) A lateral reversal of the image accompanies reflections from an
odd number of plane mirrors.
FIG. 7-6. Reflections from (a) clear plate glass and (b) from front and (c) rear
silvered mirrors.
Huygens' wavelet has emanated at the same velocity as that of the primary wave at
the instant of contact.
5. Therefore, if an arc is described with center at P and radius equal to PX, the
actual front of the new wavelet at time t has been established. It is a hemisphere
on the air side of the reflector.
6. By describing additional arcs at succeeding points of contact P' and P" with
radii P'X' and P"X" (only two are necessary in the case of the plane wave) it is
possible, by constructing the tangent to these arcs, to determine the actual position
© of the primary wave front WW
after reflection.
In this manner the principle may be applied equally well to a reflection of plane
or spherical waves from either plane or figured surfaces, tnough the construction
is more complex. 3 Refraction may be explained a similar manner.
10 20 30 40 50
Jl60 70 SO
ANGLE OF INCIDENCE , Q , IN DEGREES
7-6 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
2. Spread Reflection
a surface is figured in any way (corrugated, deeply etched, or ham-
If
mered) it spreads any rays it reflects, that is, a 'pencil of incident rays is
FIG. 7-9. The type of reflection varies with different surfaces: (a) polished sur-
face (specular); (6) rough surface (spread); (c) mat surface (diffuse).
3. Diffuse Reflection
Diffuse reflectors. Flat paints and other mat finishes and materials re-
flect at all angles and exhibit little directional control.
Applications: where wide distribution of light is desired.
Maintenance: cleaning is often difficult since surfaces which approach
microscopic roughness are likely to collect and hold dirt.
4. Compound Reflection
Most common materials are compound reflectors and exhibit all three
components (specular, spread, and
reflection In some, one or
diffuse).
two components predominate, as shown in Fig. 7-10. Specular and
narrowly spread reflection (usually surface reflection) cause the "sheen"
on etched or embossed aluminum, textiles, semigloss paint, snow fields,
and so forth.
Refraction
A change in the velocity of light (speed of propagation, not frequency)
occurs when a ray leaves one material and enters another of greater or less
physical density. The speed will be reduced if the medium entered is
more dense and increased if it is less dense. 3
Except when light enters at an angle normal to the surface of a medium
of different density, the change in speed always is accompanied by a
bending of the light from its original path at the point of entrance, as
shown in Fig. 7-11. This is known as refraction. The degree of bending
depends on the relative densities of the two substances, on the wavelength
of the light, and on the angle of incidence, being greater for large differ-
ences in density than for small. The light is bent toward the normal to
the surface when it enters a more dense medium and away from the normal
when it enters a less dense material. One result of refraction is that the
7-8 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
ray path followed that with the highest average velocity in any given
is
case. FermaVs that the total path will be the one which
'principle states
takes the least time to traverse.
When light is transmitted from one medium to another, each single ray
follows the law of refraction. When a pencil of rays strikes or enters a
new medium the pencil may be broken up and scattered in many direc-
tions because of irregularities of the surface, such as fine cracks, mold
marks, scratches, or changes in contour, or because of foreign deposits of
dirt, grease, or moisture.
The two interfaces of the glass plate shown in Fig. 7-11 are parallel and
therefore the entering and emerging rays also are parallel. The rays are
displaced from each other because of refraction.
Examples of refraction. A
common example of refraction is the appar-
ent bending of a straw at the point where it enters the water in a drinking
glass. Although the straw is straight, light rays coming from that part
of the straw under water are refracted when they pass from the water into
the air and appear to come from higher points. Objects seen through
window glass sometimes appear distorted as a result of the nonuniform
thickness and flatness characteristic of window glass. These irregularities
cause irregular refraction of transmitted raj^s and distortion of the images
of objects atwhich the rays originate.
Prismatic light directors, such as shown in Fig. 7-12(a) and (6), may be
designed to provide a variety of light distributions for illumination pur-
poses.
LIGHT CONTROL 7-9
VERTICAL
SECTION ELEVATION
LIGHT OBJECTIVE
EYEPIECE
SOURCE
I
ic
.
the mediums.
,. . .
reflected totally, as m
.
Fig. 7-13.
Prisms. Many devices use total internal reflection by prisms for re-
direction, inversion, and erection of light beams. Performance quality
depends on flatness of reflecting surfaces, accuracy of prism angles, elimi-
nation of back surface dirt in optical contact with the surface, and elimi-
nation (in manufacture) of prismatic error.
The angle of minimum deviation Dis related to the prism angle A and
to the index of refraction n 2 as follows:
,
sin
=
e-±-») AiR(n|)
n2
A
sin
D
n2 = -j
A
+
_L 1
1, or
FIG. White
7-14. light is dispersed
into its component colors by refrac-
D = (n2 - l)A
tion when passed through a prism.
are reasonably accurate. See Angle D is the angle of deviation.
Fig. 7-14.
FIG. 7-15.
Ray path traces
through lenses:
(a) positive,
(b) negative.
MARGINAL PARAXIAL
ZONAL I
al rratloriS:
(a) Spherical aberration: conversion at different
foc«l Sm-n'ti Af rfoJ
°f P f
ara Iel ravs at varying distances from the axis of
a lens. (6) Coma
rHffppfnn J
6ral ma S mficatlon of rays passing through
len •
(A} rhthl?! r
different zones of a
eml'thi"XS M\ gI at
\* dlffe enCe
m f ?
f0 ^.
length for rays of different wave-
and curvature existence in two parallel planes of two
mntn«LiS;i?
mutually perpendicular f r . :
incident on solid opal and flashed opal glass, white plastic or marble sheet, (d)
Mixed transmittance through opalescent glass.
Maintenance: for outdoor use the rough surface usually must be en-
closed to avoid excessive dirt collection.Etched surfaces are difficult to
keep clean; smooth surfaces are easy to clean.
Diffusing materials scatter light in all directions, as shown in Fig. 7-17(c).
White, opal, and prismatic glassware are used widely.
Applications: luminous areas where uniform brightness is desired.
Maintenance: smooth surfaces minimize dust collection and permit
easy cleaning.
Mixed transmittance materials. Mixed transmittance is a result of a
spectrally selective diffusion characteristic exhibited by certain materials
such as fine opal glass, which permits the plane transmission of certain
colors (wavelengths) while diffusing other wave-lengths. This character-
istic in glass varies greatly, depending on such factors as its heat treat-
ment, composition, and thickness and the wavelengths of the incident
light.
Louvers. Louvers are panels orbaffles mounted in such a position that
light transmitted by them confined in a particular direction. They
is
frequently are used to reduce the "spill" from a luminaire and thus to
increase the attainable control. The most effective louvers have a small
cross section (as viewed from the area to be lighted), are opaque, and have
a flat black surface. However, louvers may be and often are translucent
or finished in light colors. Typical louvers are shown in Fig. 7-18.
.
/ / / "71
/ ////////////// *
ANGLE OF EYE
PROTECTION,/
// // // DEPTH OF
////// ///////
MORE SECTIONS
LESS
DEPTH
LOUVER
PRINCIPLE OF LOUVER DESIGN
CONTROL MAY BE IMPROVED BY USING MORE
SHALLOW ONES OR THE SAME NUMBER
OF GREATER DEPTH
Polarization
The action of a taut rope fixed at one end and agitated at the other is
analogous to that of a polarized light wave. As indicated in Fig. 7-19(a),
when the end of the rope moves in a vertical line, a knot at any point along
the rope will move in a parallel line. When the end of the rope moves
through a circle, the knot will traverse a circle; and if the end revolves in
WAVE PROGRESSES
(NO CHANGE)
POLARIZED TRANS-
MITTER AXIS PER-
PENDICULAR TO
PLANE OF POLAR-
WAVE
IZATION OF
'--
PARALLEL TO PLANE OF
POLARIZATION OF WAVE
FIG. 7-19. (a) Wave motion shows various types of polarization. (6) Polarized
transmitters pass only that component of polarized wave motion which has its axis
parallel to their plane of polarization.
7-16 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
5T POLV\RIZA TION \
-1 1.00
4 /
\
\
\
\
1
/
®, \
1
y
<40
tET
;_ ^
TRAf-JSMITTANC ;e
•""
b :
0.96 cc POLARIZATION
COMPONENT:
-4)
0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.76
f PERPENDICULAR
PLANE OF PAPER
IN
TO
WAVELENGTH IN MICRONS PLANE OF PAPER
FIG. 7-20. Characteristics of commer- FIG. 7-21. Polarization by re-
cial polarizers: Early type comprised
(a) flection at a glass-air surface is
of iodo-quinine sulphate crystals im- at a maximum when the sum of
bedded in a plastic (trade name: Polaroid the angle of incidence i plus the
J film), (b) Modern polyvinyl alcohol angle of refraction r equals 90
molecular polarizer (trade name: Polar- degrees. (See text.)
oid H film).
: .
transverse wave motion the disturbance at each point along the path can be resolved
into two rectangular components, perpendicular to and in the same plane of the
paper, indicated respectively by the dots and arrows. At the point of contact some
of the incident light will be reflected, some refracted, some absorbed; and some of
that absorbed will be re-emitted in the reflected ray. Since the motion is transverse,
if the angle between reflected and refracted rays is 90 degrees, none of the disturb-
ance components parallel to the plane of incidence of the refracted rays can be re-
emitted in the reflected ray, and only radiation polarized in a plane parallel to the
surface is reflected.
The polarizing angle (sometimes called Brewster's angle) at which polarization
will be most nearly complete, occurs when the sum of the angles of incidence i and re-
fraction r equals 90 degrees. It is determined by the relationship known as
Brewster's law
»2 = tan i
where
=
index of refraction for the reflecting medium
n»
=
angle of incidence
%
At all other angles of incidence the reflected ray will include polarization components
in other planes. Figure 7-8 shows the variation in reflectance which occurs at vari-
ous angles of incidence for both polarized and nonpolarized light at an air-glass
surface.
Interference
When two light waves come together at different phases of their vibra-
tion, they combine to make up a single wave whose amplitude equals the
sum of the amplitudes of the two. This interference phenomenon is
utilized to increase luminous transmittance, 6 and for extreme^ accurate
thickness measurements in machine shops. 2 Interference also is the cause
of the diffraction pattern which is sometimes seen around a pin hole or at
the edge of a shadow cast by the sharp edge of an opaque screen and of
irridescence in bubbles, oil slicks and other thin films. 9
— UNTREATED
GLASS, Rg
INDEX OF
REFRACTION
FILM,n F =1.34
GLASS 06=1.57
FILMED GLASS,
R
Diffraction
Diffusion
Absorption
Absorption occurs when a light beam
smoky atmosphere, or a
enters a
piece of glass or plastic or meets a dense body. Part of the incident light
is reflected from particle to particle within the body until its energy has
been absorbed and converted into heat. Because of the nonuniform size
of the particles (relative to the wavelength of light) and because of their
spectral reflectance, the absorption characteristics of practically all mate-
rials are selective (accompanied by change of color of light).
REFERENCES
1. Monk, G. S., Light Principles and Experiments, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, 1937.
2. Hardy, A. C., and Perrin, F. H., The Principles of Optics, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, 1932.
3. Franklin, William S., and Grantham, G. E-., General Physics, Franklin & Charles, Lancaster, Pa., 1930.
4. Jolley, L. B. W., Waldram, J. M., and Wilson, G. H., The Theory and Design of Illuminating Engineering
Equipment, Chapman & Hall, Ltd., London, 1930.
5. Potter, W. M., "Some Notes on the Utilization of Internal Reflections," Ilium. Eng., March, 1945.
6. Jacobs, D. H., Fundamentals of Optical Engineering, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, 1943.
7. "New Polaroid Study Lamp," J. Optical Soc Am., September, 1940. Polarized Light and Its Ap-
plication, Polaroid Corp., Cambridge, Mass., 1945.
8. Roper, V., and Scott, K. D., "Seeing with Polarized Headlamps," Ilium. Eng., December, 1941.
Chubb, L. W., "Polarized Light for Motor Vehicle Lighting," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, May, 1937. Land,
E. H., "Polaroid and the Headlight Problem," J. Franklin Inst., 1937.
9. Dunning, J. R., and Paxton, H. C, Matter Energy and Radiation, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New
York, 1941.
10. Lyons, D. A., "Practical Applications of Metallic and Non-Metallic Film on Optical Elements," J.
Optical Soc. Am., February, 1945. Jones F. L., and Homer, H. J., '"Chemical Methods of Increasing the
Transparency of Glass," J. Optical Soc. Am., January, 1941. Cartwright, C. H., and Turner, A. F., U. S.
Patent 2207656. Blodgett, K., "Use of Interference To Extinguish Reflection of Light from Glass," Phys.
Rev., May, 1939. Kollmorgen, F., "Light Transmission Through Telescopes," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, Feb-
ruary, 1916.
SECTION 8
LIGHTING CALCULATIONS
AVERAGE ILLUMINATION
Many present-day interior lighting designs have as their major objective
the provision of a certain average maintained general illumination level.
Appendix Table A-l, page A-l, includes illumination levels (footcandles)
representative of good practice in many commercial, industrial, educational,
recreational, and home areas. 1
7-7
av
* X "u X Km 7
"u
_ fcj<xv X A.
A A
FrTTT~7
X km
= E av X A
=
Eav X A
m
•
»
u X km
~~
F X ku
* Four per cent less than the absolute illumination. Corresponds approximately with reading of photome
ter in which test plate error causes readings that are 4 per cent low.
Values obtained using these equations are tabulated in Table 8-1 for various
values of k u k n and A corresponding to a value of F = 1,000 lumens.
, ,
10 70 25.2 26.6 28.0 29.4 30.8 32.2 33.6 35.0 36.4 37.8 39.2 40.6 42.0 43.4 44.8 46.2 47.6 49.0
60 21.6 22.8 24.0 25.2 26.4 27.6 28.8 30.0 31.2 32.4 33.6 34.8 36.0 37.2 38.4 39.6 40.8 42.0
50 18.0 19.0 20.0 21.0 22.0 23.0 24.0 25.0 26.0 27.0 28.0 29.0 30.0 31.0 32.0 33.0 34.0 35.0
12 70 21.0 22.1 23.3 24.5 25.6 26.8 28.0 29.1 30.3 31.5 32.6 33.8 35.0 36.1 37.3 38.5 39.6 40.8
60 18.0 19.0 20.0 21.0 22.0 23.0 24.0 25.0 26.0 27.0 28.0 29.0 30.0 31.0 32.0 33.0 34.0 35.0
50 15.0 15.8 16.6 17.5 18.3 19.2 20.0 20.8 21.6 22.5 23.3 24.1 25.0 25.8 26.6 27.5 28.3 29.1
14 70 18.0 19.0 20.0 21.0 22.0 23.0 24.0 25.0 26.0 27.0 28.0 29.0 30.0 31.0 32.0 33.0 34.0 35.0
60 15.4 16.2 17.1 18.0 18.8 19.7 20.5 21.4 22.2 23.1 24.0 24.8 25.7 26.5 27.4 28.2 29.1 30.0
50 12.8 13.5 14.2 15.0 15.7 16.4 17.1 17.8 18.5 19.2 20.0 20.7 21.4 22.1 22.8 23.5 24.2 25.0
16 70 15.7 16.6 17.5 18.3 19.2 20.1 21.0 21.8 22.7 23.6 24.5 25.3 26.2 27.1 28.0 28.8 29.7 30.6
60 13.5 14.2 15.0 15.7 16.5 17.2 18.0 18.7 19.5 20.2 21.0 21.7 22.5 23.2 24.0 24.7 25.5 26.2
50 11.2 11.8 12.5 13.1 13.7 14.3 15.0 15.6 16.2 16.8 17.5 18.1 18.7 19.3 20.0 20.6 21.2 21.8
18 70 14.0 14.7 15.5 16.3 17.1 17.8 18.6 19.4 20.2 21.0 21.7 22.5 23.3 24.1 24.8 25.6 26.4 27.2
60 12.0 12.6 13.3 14.0 14.6 15.3 16.0 16.6 17.3 18.0 18.6 19.3 20.0 20.6 21.3 22.0 22.6 23.3
50 10.0 10.5 11.1 11.6 12.2 12.7 13.3 13.8 14.4 15.0 15.5 16.1 16.6 17.2 17.7 18.3 18.8 19.4
20 70 12.6 13.3 14.0 14.7 15.4 16.1 16.8 17.5 18.2 18.9 19.6 20.3 21.0 21.7 22.4 23.1 23.8 24.5
60 10.8 11.4 12.0 12.6 13.2 13.8 14.4 15.0 15.6 16.2 16.8 17.4 18.0 18.6 19.2 19.8 20.4 21.0
50 9.00 9.50 10.0 10.5 11.0 11.5 12.0 12.5 13.0 13.5 14.0 14.5 15.0 15.5 16.0 16.5 17.0 17.5
30 70 8.40 8.86 9.32 9.80 10.0 10.7 11.2 11.6 12.1 12.6 13.0 13.5 14.0 14.4 14.9 15.4 15.8 16.3
60 7.20 7.60 8.00 8.40 8.80 9.20 9.60 10.0 10.4 10.8 11.2 11.6 12.0 12.4 12.8 13.2 13.6 14.0
50 6.00 6.33 6.66 7.00 7.33 7.66 8.00 8.33 8.66 9.00 9.33 9.66 10.0 10.3 10.6 11.0 11.3 11.6
40 70 6.30 6.65 7.00 7.30 7.70 8.05 8.40 8.75 9.10 9.45 9.80 10.1 10.5 10.8 11.2 11.5 11.9 12.2
60 5.40 5.70 6.00 6.30 6.60 6.90 7.20 7.50 7.80 8.10 8.40 8.70 9.00 9.30 9.60 9.90 10.2 10.5
50 4.50 4.75 5.00 5.25 5.50 5.75 6.00 6.25 6.50 6.75 7.00 7.25 7.50 7.75 8.00 8.25 8.50 8.75
50 70 5.02 5.32 5.60 5.88 6.16 6.44 6.72 7.00 7.28 7.56 7.84 8.12 S.40 8.6S 8.96 9.24 9.52 9.80
60 4.32 4.56 4.80 5.04 5.28 5.52 5.76 6.00 6.24 6.48 6.72 6.96 7.20 7.44 7.68 7.92 8.16 8.40
50 3.60 3.80 4.00 4.20 4.40 4.60 4.80 5.00 5.20 5.40 5.60 5.80 6.00 6.20 6.40 6.60 6.80 7.00
60 70 4.20 4.43 4.66 4.90 5.13 5.36 5.60 5.83 6.06 6.30 6.53 6.76 7.00 7.23 7.46 7.70 7.93 8.16
60 3.60 3.80 4.00 4.20 4.40 4.60 4.80 5.00 5.20 5.40 5.60 5.80 6.00 6.20 6.40 6.60 6.80 7.00
50 3.00 3.16 3.33 3.50 3.66 3.83 4.00 4.16 4.33 4.50 4.66 4.83 5.00 5.16 5.33 5.50 5.66 5.83
70 70 3.60 3.80 4.00 4.20 4.40 4.60 4. SO 5.00 5.205.40 5.60 5.80 6.00 6.20 6.40 6.60 6.80 7.00
60 3.08 3.25 3.43 3.60 3.77 3.94 4.11 4.28 4.45 4.63 4.80 4.97 5.14 5.31 5.48 5.66 5.83 6.00
50 2.57 2.71 2.85 3.00 3.14 3.28 3.43 3.57 3.71 3.85 4.00 4.14 4.28 4.43 4.57 4.71 4.85 5.00
80 70 3.15 3.34 3.50 3.67 3.85 4.02 4.20 4.37 4.55 4.72 4.90 5.07 5.25 5.42 5.60 5.77 5.95 6.12
60 2.70 2.85 3.00 3.15 3.30 3.45 3.60 3.75 3.90 4.05 4.20 4.35 4.50 4.65 4.80 4.95 5.10 5.25
50 2.25 2.37 2.50 2.62 2.75 2.87 3.00 3.12 3.25 3.37 3.50 3.62 3.75 3.87 4.00 4.12 4.25 4.37
90 70 2.80 2.95 3.12 3.26 3.42 3.57 3.73 3.88 4.04 4.20 4.35 4.51 4.66 4.82 4.97 5.13 5.2S 5.44
60 2.40 2.53 2.66 2.80 2.93 3.06 3.20 3.13 3.46 3.60 3.73 3.86 4.00 4.13 4.26 4.40 4.53 4.66
50 2.00 2.11 2.22 2.33 2.44 2.55 2.66 2.77 2.88 3.00 3.11 3.22 3.33 3.44 3.55 3.66 3.77 3.S8
100 70 2.52 2.66 2.80 2.94 3. OS 3.22 3.36 3.50 3.64 3.78 3.92 4.06 4.20 4.34 4.4S 4.62 4.76 4.90
60 2.16 2.28 2.40 2.52 2.64 2.76 2.88 3.00 3.12 3.24 3.36 3.48 3.60 3.72 3.84 3.96 4.08 4.20
50 1.80 1.90 2.00 2.10 2.20 2.30 2.40 2.50 2.60 2.70 2.80 2.90 3.00 3.10 3.20 3.30 3.40 3.50
150 70 1.68 1.77 1.86 1.96 2.05 2.14 2.24 2.33 2.42 2.52 2.61 2.70 2.80 2.89 2.98 3.08 3.17 3.26
60 1.44 1.52 1.60 1.68 1.76 1.84 1.90 1.98 2.06 2.14 2.22 2.30 2.38 2.46 2.54 2.62 2.70 2.78
50 1.20 1.26 1.33 1.40 1.46 1.53 1.60 1.66 1.73 1.80 1.86 1.93 2.00 2.06 2.13 2.20 2.26 2.33
200 70 1.26 1.33 1.40 1.47 1.54 1.61 1.6S 1.75 1.82 1.89 1.96 2.03 2.10 2.17 2.24 2.31 2.38 2.45
60 1.08 1.14 1.20 1.26 1.32 1.38 1.44 1.50 1.56 1.62 1.68 1.74 1.80 1.86 1.92 1.98 2.04 2.10
50 .900 .950 1.00 1.05 1.10 1.15 1.20 1.25 1.3C 1.35 1.40 1.45 1.50 1.55 1.60 1.65 1.70 1.75
500
If lamp output is 500 lumens multiply tabulated values by 7755,. Table applies to all types of lamps.
t Ifarea per luminaire or per room rather than area per lamp is used, divide tabulated values by no. of
lamps per luminaire or no. of lamps per room respectively.
.
Ceiling . . .
70% 50% 30%
525 SPACING
and Main- Walls 50% 30% 10% 50% 30%
LUMINAIRE tenance
10% 30% |
10%
Factor
Room COEFFICIENT OF UTILIZATION
Q Index
Spacing not
» to exceed J .37 .31 .27 .36 .31 .27 .31 .27
I .45 .41 .38 .45 .40 .37 .40 .37
H .49 .45 .42 .49 .45 .42 .45 .42
G .53 .49 .46 .53 .49 .46 .48 .46
^3^1^ T F
E
.56
.61
.53
.58
.49
.55
.55
.60
.52
.57
.49
.55
.51
.56
.49
.55
MF D .66 .63 .60 .64 .62 .60 .61 .60
G .75 C .67 .65 .62 .66 .64 .62 .63 .61
Direct: R.L.M. Dome M .65 B .71 .68 .66 .69 .67 .65 .66 .64
Reflector P .55 A .72 .70 .67 .71 .68 .67 .67 .66
Spacing not
J .35 .31 .28 .34 .31 .28 .30 .28
" Mu I
H
.43
.46
.39
.44
.37
.42
.42
.46
.39
.44
.37
.42
.39
.43
.37
.42
JfL ;
G
F
.50 .47 .45 .49 .47 .45 .46 .45
ml /llmffiii 1 .53 .50 .47 .51 .49 .47 .49 .47
4K____^ E .56 .54 .51 .56 .54 .11 .53 .51
MF D .61 .58 .56 .59 .57 .(6 .56 .56
G .75 C .62 .60 .57 .61 .58 .57 .58 .56
Direct: R.L.M. Deep-Bowl ]\j 55 B .64 .62 .61 .63 .61 .60 .60 .59
Reflector P .55 A .65 .63 .61 .64 .62 .61 .61 .60
Spacing not
to exceed J .43 .40 .39 .42 .40 .39 .40 .38
J-3L 0.6 xMH I .51 .50 .49 .50 .49 .48 .49 .46
H .55 .54 .53 .54 .53 .52 .53 .52
(III ui\
!
Spacing not
^\ to exceed
J .40 .36 .34 .39 .36 .34 .36 .33
I .48 .45 .43 .47 .44 .43 .44 .42
/<^v ° 1 x MH H .52 .50 .48 .51 .49 .47 .49 .47
G .55 .53 .52 .55 .52 .51 .52 .51
//// llili T F .58 .56 .53 .56 .55 .53 .55 .53
emjr ~^s&
75
E .62 .60 .58 .61 .59 .57 .58 .57
MF D .66 .63 .61 .64 .62 .61 .62 .61
G .75 C .67 .65 .62 .66 .64 .62 .63 .62
Direct: Aluminum High-Bay M .65 B .69 .67 .66 .67 .65 .64 .65 .64
Reflector, Medium Spread P .50 A .70 .68 .67 .69 .67 .65 .66 .64
* per cent of initial lamp lumens in upper hemisphere. + 79 = initial luminaire efficiency.
Jl
1
79 79 per cent of initial lamp lumens in lower hemisphere,
t I.C.I classifications: D
= direct; = semidirect;
SB G
= general diffuse; SI = semi-indirect; I = indirect
j MF = Maintenance factors based on the following percentages of initial lamp lumens emitted at 70-per-
cent rated 40-watt fluorescent 0.76, 100-watt fluorescent 0.72, incandescent 0.85, mercury 0.S4.
life:
G = Good. M
= Medium. P = Poor.
Note: Consider cleaning schedule, ceiling and wall reflectances, type of work, heating, and ventilation as
well as type of lamp and luminaire when choosing factor. Good conditions are seldom encountered.
§ MH = Mounting height above floor.
CH = Ceiling height above floor.
Room indices for rooms of different proportions are given in Table 8-3.
.
Factor
Room COEFFICIENT OF UTILIZATION
Index
Spacing not
J .40 .38 .36 .39 .38 .36 .38 .36
ex ee
I .48 .46 .45 .47 .46 .45 .45 .43
ft o
Cone. H .52 .51 .50 .51 .50 .49 .50 .48
IH G .55 .54 .53 .54 .53 .52 .53 .51
ZmL, I °'Med F .57 .56 .55 .56 .55 .54 .55 .53
jtfi^^Tj^ i
. 8 x MU E .b0 .59 .58 .59 .58 .57 .57 .56
^"-"^-""^ 70 MF D .64 .61 .60 .62 .60 .59 .60 .59
C 80 C .64 .63 .61 .63 .62 .60 .60 .60
Direct: Concentrating or ]yj '72 B .65 .64 .63 .64 .63 .62 .62 .61
Medium, Heavy-Duty Type p '^ A .66 .65 .64 .64 .63 .62 .62 .62
Spacing not J .37 .34 .31 .36 .34 .31 .34 .31
^ to exceed
I .45 .42 .41 .44 .41 .40 .41 .39
B ° 1 . 1 x MH H .48 .46 .45 .49 .45 .44 .45 .44
//Mmk. ^ G .52 .50 .48 .51 .49 .48 .49 .48
if/Hrai ~ F .55 .52 .51 .54 .51 .50 .51 .50
JiPhL
**^^ m -f*~&
1 E .57 .56 .54 .57 .55 .53 .55 .53
70 ]\jp D .62 .59 .57 .60 .58 .57 .57 .56
G 80 C .63 .61 .58 .62 .59 .58 .59 .58
Direct: Wide Spread,
Heavy -Duty Type
M 72 B .64 .62 .61 .63 .61 .60 .60 .59
p ^5 A .66 .64 .62 .64 .62 .61 .62 .60
Diffuser p -
45 A .54 .53 .51 .53 .51 .49 .49 .48
Spacing not
to exceed J .25 .22 .20 .24 .22 .20 .22 .20
.31 .28 .26 .29 .28 .26 .28 .26
^*»^ O.SxMH I
H .34 .31 .29 .32 .31 .29 .30 .28
J^^^-^^L
Jn t G
F
.36
.38
.33
.35
.32
.34
.34
.36
.33
.34
.31
.33
.32
.34
.30
.32
<^^»^-^^J> |
E .40 .39 .38 .39 .37 .36 .37 .35
^<=^^ 33 MF D .43 .41 .40 .42 .40 .39 .39 .38
G .70 C .45 .43 .42 .44 .41 .40 .40 .40
^-
Direct: Enclosed
^ , ™ M
Lens-BIate
.60 B .48 .45 .44 .47 .43 .42 .42 .41
p 5Q A .50 .47 .46 .48 .46 .45 .45 .44
Distributing Type
Spacing not
to exceed J .38 .32 .28 .37 .32 .28 .31 .28
.47 .42 .39 .46 .41 .38 .40 .37
1 xMH I
H .51 .47 .44 .50 .47 .43 .46 .43
^g^'N, ° G .55 .51 .48 .54 .51 .47 .50 .47
jg^^S^^jN t F .58 .54 .51 .57 .53 .51 .52 .50
^z^^^^^^g^^ ~ E .63 .60 .57 .62 .59 .56 .58 .55
^^t^^^^z*^^
^%5 ' ^F D .68 .64 .61 .66 .64 .61 .63 .60
^
%^^*:ss: G
79 .65 C .70 .67 .63 .68 .65 .64 .64 .62
M .55 B .73 .70 .68 .71 .68 .67 .67 .66
Spacing not
to exceed J .34 .29 .25 .33 .29 .25 .28 .25
.42
^T^ °
! x MH I
II .46
.38
.42
.35
.39
.41
.44
.37
.42
.34
.39
.37
.41
.34
.39
^j^^^>^^\ | G .50 .46 .43 .48 .45 .41 .44 .41
^£^^^^>^^ — F .53 .49 .46 .51 .47 .44 .47 .44
^^^^^^^^^^^ E .57 .54 .51 .56 .52 .50 .52 .50
i^^^^^-s*** ^
\
^Ss* ^ sS
1
Spacing not J .29 .26 .23 .28 .26 .23 .25 .23
to exceed
I .35 .32 .31 .35 .32 .30 .32 .30
^_o^ o 1 xMH H .38 .36 .34 .38 .36 .34 .35 .34
^^^-^~zjLy\ \ G .41 .39 .37 .41 .39 .37 .38 .37
^-*^^fG^^^^^Sg^!m*
= — F .44 .41 .39 .42 .41 .39 .40 .39
,£gifgjg§§^^^
* ^
s=S
====**
Direct: Vapor and Dust M .65 B .53 .51 .50 .52 .50 .49 .49 .49
Tight, two or three P .55 A .54 .52 .50 .53 .51 .50 .50 .49
40-watt Lamps
Spacing not J .38 .32 .28 .37 .32 .28 .31 .28
to exceed .41 .38 .38
I .47 .42 .39 .46 .41
^ifiSSV ° 1 xMH H .51 .47 .43 .50 .47 .43 .46 .43
^^0^)
^^^^^ t
G .55 .51 .47 .54 .51 .47 .49 .47
4m3- -^ -
\
F
E
.58
.63
.54
.59
.51
.56
.56
.62
.53
.59
.51
.56
.52
.58
.51
.56
80 MF D .67 .64 .61 .66 .63 .61 .63 .61
Direct: G .70 C .69 .67 .64 .67 .65 .63 .64 .63
Three Kw Reflector, one M ^60 B .72 .70 .67 .71 .68 .67 .67 .66
3,000-Watt Mercury Lamp P .50 A .74 .71 .69 .72 .70 .68 .69 .67
Spacing not J .40 .37 .35 .39 .37 .35 .37 .35
to exceed
-xs^^^ I .48 .46 .45 .47 .45 .44 .44 .43
^~^!^^v o O.SxMH H .52 .50 .50 .51 .49 .49 .48 .48
^S^^-^jL i
G .55 .54 .53 .54 .53 .51 .51 .50
.^^>^^=^^ — F .58 .56 .54 .55 .54 .53 .53 .52
^^^^^^^^^ 1
E .60 .59 .57 .59 .58 .56 .57 .55
^^^^^^^
^^&=*^^ 72 MF D .65 .62 .60 .62 .61 .59 .59 .58
G .70 C .66 .64 .61 .64 .62 .61 .61 .60
Spacing not J .32 .28 .25 .32 .28 .25 .28 .25
/ ^^^ ^^ to^exceed
I .40 .36 .34 .39 .35 .33 .35 .33
^^^»qP*\ 0.8xMH H .43 .39 .37 .42 .39 .37 .39 .36
G .46 .43 .41 .45 .43 .41 .43 .40
-^gpE*
x - F .48 .45 .43 .47 .45 .43 .45 .42
^^5^i^ '^
i
E .52 .50 .48 .51 .49 .47 .49 .46
ss^^t^^^^ MF D .56 .54 .52 .55 .53 .51 .53 .50
*^Zx^^ G .70 C .57 .55 .53 .56 .54 .52 .54 .51
Spacing not J .30 .26 .23 .29 .26 .23 .26 .23
to exceed .32 .30
I .37 .33 .31 .36 .32 .30
.^#jj^Jfc 0.8xMH H .40 .36 .34 .39 .36 .34 .36 .33
G .42 .40 .38 .41 .40 .3S .40 .37
^<0^^*
>«^Er25^^
s
MF
E
D
.48
.52
.46
.50
.44
.48
.47
.51
.45
.49
.43
.47
.45
.49
.50
.42
.46
G .70 C .53 .51 .49 .52 .50 .48 .47
M .60 B .55 .53 .52 .54 .53 .51 .52 .50
Direct: Troffer with Louifers P .55 A .56 .54 .53 .55 .54 .53 .53 .52
.
. -^ Spacing not
to exceed J .28 .24 .22 .27 .24 .22 .24 .22
^ ^^^&\ °
1 xMH I
H
.34 .31 .29 .33 .30 .29
.32
.30 .29
^^PSCJL t .37 .34 .33 .36 .34 .33 .32
^=^^jti|p^ — G .39 .37 .36 .38 .37 .35 .38 .37
~J^^^ \ F .42 .39 .37 .40 .38 .37 .41 .40
ggz^^
"^^^^^ jj E .44 .43 .40 .43 .42 .40 .42 .41
MF D .47 .45 .43 .46 .45 .43 .44 .43
G .70 C .49 .47 .45 .47 .46 .45 .45 .44
Direct: Troffer with Ribbed-
M .60 B .50 .48 .47 .49 .47 .46 .46 .45
P .50 A .51 .50 .48 .50 .48 .47 .47 .46
Glass Cover
Spacing not
J .29 .26 .23 .28 .26 .23 .25 .23
^^^A\ Fv^> I .35 .32 .31 .35 .32 .30 .32 .30
°
1 x MH H
/^^p^M^J\ t
G
.38
.41
.36
.39
.34
.37
.38
.41
.36
.39
.34
.37
.35
.38
.34
.37
"^^^^^^^^
\^s*>&^ ^ i
io
* F
E
.44
.46
.41
.45
.39
.42
.42
.46
.41
.44
.39
.42
.40
.44
.39
.42
MF D .50 .48 .46 .49 .47 .46 .46 .46
Direct: With Louvers four G .70 C .51 .49 .47 .50 .48 .47 .48 .46
40-Watt Lamps M .60 B .53 .51 .50 .52 .50 .49 .49 .49
P .55 A .54 .52 .50 .53 .51 .50 .50 .49
Spacing not
J .32 .27 .23 .32 .26 .23 .25 .23
to exceed
I .40 .35 .31 .39 .34 .30 .34 .30
9
1 x MH H
T^
.44 .39 .36 .43 .39 .35 .36 .35
G
^'^^^ ""^j^T T F
.48
.52
.43
.47
.40
.43
.46
.50
.42
.46
.39
.42
.41
.45
.39
.42
"
77
E .57 .52 .48 .55 .51 .47 .50 .46
MF D .62 .56 .52 .59 .55 .51 .54 .51
White Reflecting Surface M .65 B .69 .63 .59 .65 .61 .58 .60 .58
P .55 A .71 .66 .62 .67 .63 .60 .61 .60
Spacing not
to exceed
J .23 .19 .17 .23 .18 .16 .17 .16
18 I .29 .25 .22 .28 .24 .21 .23 .21
-=^§iiSft^. t
1 x MH H .32 .28 .25 .31 .28 .25 .26 .24
-*ss^^§^^§§5§aJ _ G .36 .32 .29 .34 .30 .27 .29 .26
^^^00^^B^~3&*r
'"^^==== \ F .40 .35 .31 .37 .33 .30 .31 .29
v2£-^^^= J3 E .43 .39 .35 .41 .37 .34 .35 .32
MF D .47 .42 .39 .44 .40 .37 .38 .36
G .75 C .49 .45 .41 .46 .42 .39 .40 .38
Semidirect: Glass-Enclosed
one 40-watt Lamp
M .65 B .52 .48 .45 .49 .45 .43 .43 .41
P .55 A .54 .51 .47 .51 .47 .45 .44 .43
Spacing not
to exceed J .21 .17 .14 .20 .16 .14 .16 .14
.26 .22 .20 .25 .21 .19 .21 .19
^=r^
s
1 x MH I
H .29 .25 .23 .28 .25 .22 .24 .22
^=^=§1|l\> t G .32 .28 .25 .30 .27 .25 .26 .24
F .34 .30 .27 .33 .30 .27 .29 .27
lS0mlmmS$
X^p^^^^^
*
jo MF
E
D
.38
.41
.34
.37
.31
.34
.36
.39
.33
.36
.31
.34
.32
.35
.30
.33
G .75 C .42 .39 .36 .41 .38 .36 .37 .35
Semidirect: Glass-Enclosed
M -^ B .45 .42 .39 .42 .40 .39 .39 .38
three 40-Watt Lamps
l &5 A .47 .44 .41 .45 .42 .40 .41 .39
Spacing not
to exceed J .27 .25 .19 .26 .22 .19 .20 .18
.35 .29 .26 .33 .28 .25 .27 .24
] x MH I
H .3b .34 .30 .36 .32 .29 .30 .28
25 G .43 .38 .34 .40 .36 .32 .33 .31
F .46 .41 .37 .43 .39 .35 .37 .33
-^2^3iC^> *
E
'^
<^0§§0^J .50 .46 .42 .47 .43 .40 .40 .38
7 MF D .55 .50 .46 .51 .47 .44 .44 .42
^^ ~
<jo G .75 C .58 .53 .49 .53 .49 .46 .46 .44
M .65 B .62 .57 .53 .57 .53 .51 .50 .48
Spacing not
to exceed J .24 .19 .16 .22 .18 .15 .16 .14
I .29 .25 .22 .27 .23 .20 .21 .19
„1.2xMH H .33 .28 .26 .30 .26 .24 .24 .21
G .37 .32 .29 .33 .29 .26 .26 .24
I 1 F .40 .36 .31 .36 .32 .29 .29 .26
Spacing not
to exceed J .26 .21 .18 .22 .19 .16 .16 .15
.31 .26 .24 .27 .24 .22 .21 .19
^ 47 1.2 xMH I
H .34 .30 .28 .30 .27 .25 .24 .22
t G .38 .34 .31 .34 .30 .28 .26 .25
F
v^
.41 .37 .33 .36 .33 .30 .28 .27
—Jf^^
°~"~
M
'
MF
E
D
.45
.49
.41
.45
.38
.42
.40
.42
.36
.41
.34
.37
.31
.34
.30
.33
^^^. T ,.
Direct-Indirect:
G .70 C .51 .48 .44 .44 .44 .39 .36 .34
jyj gg B .55 .51 .49 .47 .45 .43 .38 .37
Suspension Type p 59 A .57 .53 .51 .49 .46 .44 .40 .38
Two 40-Watt Lamps
Spacing not
to exceed J .24 .20 .17 .23 .19 .16 .18 .16
I .30 .26 .23 .28 .24 .22 .24 .21
1 . 2 x MH H .33 .29 .27 .31 .28 .26 .27 .25
^"T)
,8
G .36 .32 .29 .34 .31 .28 .29 .27
^^J^ ^ ^-^^/sS^y' ^ F .39 .35 .32 .36 .33 .31 .31 .30
00 E .42 .39 .36 .40 .37 .35 .35 .33
7 MF D .46 .43 .40 .43 .40 .38 .38 .37
" G .70 C .48 .45 .42 .44 .42 .40 .40 .38
B .51 .48 .45 .47 .45 .43 .42 .41
Semidirect: Ceiling Type p Vn A .52 .50 .47 .49 .46 .45 .43 .42
Two 40-W att Lamps
8-10 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
Spacing not
to exceed J .27 .24 .22 .24 .22 .21 .21 .19
.30 .29 .29 .27 .26 .25
^^^^ 46
1.2 xMH I
H
.33
.36 .34 .32 .32 .30 .29 .28
.23
.26
G .39 .37 .35 .36 .33 .32 .30 .28
F .43 .40 .37 .38 .35 .34 .31 .30
r^ E .46 .43 .41 .41 .38 .37 .34 .32
.Tjrt^^^^^-^^^f*^ 3 ^ 33 MF D .50 .46 .44 .43 .41 .39 .36 .35
Direct-Indirect:
G .65 c .52 .49 .46 .45 .43 .41 .37 .36
With Ribbed-Glass Bottom M .55 B .55 .52 .50 .47 .45 .44 .38 .37
Four 40-Watt Lamps P .50 A .56 .54 .52 .49 .47 .45 .40 .38
45
E .40 .39 .37 .35 .34 .32 .31 .29
MF D .43 .41 .39 .37 .36 .34 .32 .31
Semidirect: With Ribbed- G .65 C .45 .43 .40 .39 .37 .36 .33 .32
Glass Bottom, Ceiling Type
Four 40-Watt Lamps
M .55 B .47 .44 .43 .40 .38 .37 .34 .33
P .50 A .48 .46 .44 .41 .39 .38 .35 .34
Spacing not J .26 .23 .20 .23 .21 .19 .19 .17
to exceed
I .31 .28 .27 .28 .26 .24 .23 .20
45 1.2 xMH H .35 .32 .30 .31 .28 .27 .26 .24
t G .38 .35 .33 .34 .31 .30 .28 .27
^-^m^^ t F .41 .38 .35 .36 .34 .32 .30 .28
~~^ms
^<%iZ02S9g&&^1 ^^^ *
34 MF
E
D
.44
.48
.42
.45
.39
.42
.39
.42
.37
.39
.35
.38
.32
.34
.31
.33
G .70 C .50 .49 .44 .43 .41 .39 .35 .34
Direct-Indirect with Louvers M .65 B .53 .50 .48 .46 .43 .42 .37 .36
Sus pension Type P .60 A .54 .52 .50 .47 .45 .43 .39 .37
Four 40-Watt Lamps
Spacing not J .24 .21 .19 .21 .19 .18 .19 .17
IS to exceed
-^sr-^~~> I .30 .27 .25 .26 .24 .23 .23 .21
^^^"^^Ssksk)! t
0.9 xMH H .32 .30 .28 .29 .27 .25 .25 .24
-^^-^iiiiil^S^^*"/
— G .35 .33 .31 .31 .29 .28 .27 .26
x^^*0&i&^^^ \
F .35 .35 .32 .32 .31 .29 .29 .27
45 E .4C .38 .36 .35 .35 .32 .31 .29
Semidirect "With Louvers,
: MF D .43 .40 .39 .38 .36 .34 .32 .32
Type
Ceiling G .70 C At .42 .40 .39 .37 .35 .33 .32
11 Factor
Room COEFFICIENT OF UTILIZATION
Q Index
Spacing not
to exceed J .18 .14 .12 .14 .11 .09 .08 .07
^- 70 1.2 x CH I
H
.22
.26
.19
.22
.17
.19
.17
.20
.15
.17
.13
.15
.10
.12
.09
.10
^T* 1 G .29 .25 .22 .22 .19 .17 .14 .12
\zgSiTfr~ ~ F .32 .28 .25 .24 .21 .19 .15 .14
^^kss^iSSS^^
000 ^ E .35 .32 .29 .27 .24 .21 .17 .15
^^^SSS^ ^ ii
MF D .39 .35 .32 .29 .26 .24 .19 .18
G .60 C .42 .38 .35 .31 .28 .27 .20 .19
Semi-indirect: M .50 B .46 .42 .39 .34 .31 .29 .22 .21
Two 40-Watt Lamps P .40 A .48 .44 .42 .36 .33 .31 .23 .22
Spacing not
J .17 .14 .12 .13 .11 .09 .07 .06
I .21 .17 .16 .16 .14 .12 .09 .OS
1.2 xCH H .24 .21 .18 .18 .15 .14 .11 .09
G .27 .24 .21 .21 .18 .16 .12 .11
< A^"t> *
MF D
F
E
.30
.33
.37
.27
.30
.33
.23
.27
.31
.23
.25
.27
.20
.22
.25
.18
.20
.23
.13
.14
.16
.12
.13
.15
^^s^^ ° G
M
.70
.65
C
B
.39
.43
.36
.40
.33
.37
.29
.31
.26
.30
.25
.28
.17
.19
.16
.18
Indirect: Silvered Bowl P -55 A .45 .42 .40 .34 .31 .30 .20 .19
Spacing not
to exceed
J .15 .11 .10 .09 .08 .06 .04 .03
I .19 .15 .13 .12 .10 .09 .06 .04
1.2 x CH II .22 .19 .16 .14 .12 .10 .07 .05
G .26 .22 .19 .17 .14 .13 .08 .07
^^iP so
F .28 .24 .21 .19 .16 .14 .09 .08
^rlL^r~~~-. t E .32 .28 .25 .21 .18 .17 .11 .10
jl ^-"^afa^^? — MF D .35 .31 .29 .23 .21 .19 .12 .11
fZ^T\**^^^^^*~^
^&^Z*~ G .60
I C .38 .34 .31 .25 .22 .21 .13 .12
M 5Q B .42 .39 .36 .27 .25 .24 .15 .14
P .40 A .43 .41 .38 .29 .27 .25 .16 .15
Inc lirect
room mdex =
. 2 X room width
-
,
—
4 X
— — .
room mdex =
. , 2 X -.
6 X (mounting
room width
—..,,„.
height
—
+ length (feet)
?r-=r
(feet) — 2.5)
-.
8y nbol J I H G F E D C B A
CEILING HEIGHT (FEET)
Semi-indirect and Indirect 10 to 12 to 14 to 17 to 21 to 25 to 31 to 37 to
Luminaires 9 to 9^ 11* 13i 164 20 24 30 36 50
ROOM ROOM
WIDTH* LENGTH* room inde:
(Feet) (Feet)
8-10 H I J J
10-14 H I I J
9 14-20 G H I J J
(8h9) 20-30 G G H I J J
30-42 F G H I J J J
42-up E F G H I J J
10-14 G H I J J
14-20 G H I J J J
10 20-30 F G H I J J
(9|-10|) 30-42 F G G H I J J
42-60 E F G H I J J
60-up E F F H H I J
11-14 G H I I J J
14-20 F G H I J J
12 20-30 F G G H I J J
(11-121) 30-42 E F G H I J J
42-60 E F F G H I J
60-up E E F G H I J
13-20 F G H H I J J
20-30 E F G H I J J ,
14 30-42 E F F G H I J J
(13-15J) 42-60 E E F F H I J J J
60-90 D E E F G H J J J
90-up D E E F F G I J J
16-20 E F G H I J J
20-30 E F F G H I J
17 30-42 D E F G H H J J J
(16-181) 42-60 D E E F G G I J J J
60-110 D E E F G G 1 J J J
110-up C D E E F G H I J J
20-30 D E F G H I J J
30-42 D E E F G H I J J
20 42-60 D D E E F G I J J J
(19-2U) 60-90 C D E E F G H J J J
90-140 c D D E F F H I 1 J J
140-up c D D E F F H H 1 J J
* For areas with dimensions greater than those shown in the table, use the following procedure to deter-
mine the room index:
1. Divide length and width by some common number which reduces dimensions to values within limits
of table.
2. Subtract 2| ft from the mounting height (or ceiling height) and divide this dimension by same divisor
used in step 1.
3. Add 2J ft to reduced height dimension and select the room index from the above table according to
these new dimensions.
LIGHTING CALCULATIONS 8-13
ROOM ROOM
WIDTH* LENGTH* ROOM INDE3
(Feet) (Feet)
22-30 D E E F G H I J J
30-42 C D E F G G I J J
24 42-60 C D D E F G H 1 J J
(22-26) 60-90 C D D E F F H I J J J
90-140 C C D E E F G H 1 J J
140-up C c D E E F G H I I J
27-42 c D D E F G H I J J
42-60 c C D D F F H H I J
30 60-90 B C C D E F G H I J
(27-33) 90-140 B C C D E E F G H I J
140-180 B c c D E E F G H I J
180-up B c c D E E F G H I J
34-42 B c D E F F H I I J
42-60 B c c D E F G H I J J
36 60-90 A c c C E E F H H J J
(34-39) 90-140 A B c C D E F G H I J
140-200 A B c C D E F F G H I
200-up A B c C D E F F G H I
40-60 A B c c E F G H I I J
60-90 A B B c D E F G H I J
42 90-140 A B B c D E E F G H J
(40-45) 140-200 A A B c D D E F G H I
200-up A A B c D D E F F G I
46-60 A A B c D E F G H I J
60-90 A A B c C D F F G H J
50 90-140 A A A c C D E F F G I
(46-55) 140-200 A A A c c D E E F G I
200-up A A A c c D E E F G H
56-90 A A A B c D E F G H I
60 90-140 A A A B c C D E F G H
(56-67) 140-200 A A A B c C D E E F H
200-up A A A B c C D E E F H
68-90 A A A A B C D E F G I
75 90-140 A A A A B c D E F F H
(68-90) 140-200 A A A A B B C D E F G
200-up A A A A B B C D E F G
90-140 A A A A A B C D E F G
90 or more 140-200 A A A A A B c D E F G
200-up A A A A A B c c D E F
8-14 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
F
tu
~F t
The total lumens emitted in each zone may be determined using the nomo-
gram Appendix Fig. A-3 or the zonal constants in Appendix Table A-30
and the distribution curve. The procedure for the zonal constants (sym-
metric distribution) is as follows:
1. Determine the lumens in each zone between degree and 180 degrees
beginning at the intersection of the vertical axis and the bottom of the
luminaire, by multiplying the average candlepower in each zone by the
zonal constant. Tabulate these values, the rated lamp lumens, and H,
the candlepower at 90 degrees, on a form such as Table 8-4.
2. Obtain the following sums:
Lumens in 0-degree to 40-degree zone (C)
Lumens in 0-degree to 90-degree zone (D)
Lumens in 90-degree to 180-degree zone (I)
3. Determine per cent of flux in degree to 40 degree zone:
/Y r °- 40 C - OMH
~ D - 5.0H
* The average reflectance of a given wall area is determined by multiplying the area of each window, door,
drapery, woodwork section, mirror, picture, tapestry, and so forth, by its reflectance and dividing the sum
of the results by the total area. Since clear glass has a reflectance of only about 8 per cent, a full shade or
Venetian blind with a reflectance of 50 to 80 per cent, when it is drawn to cover a window, will increase the
average reflectance and, therefore, the utilization coefficient of a room.
1 1 1 1
70% 5n<£
'"
inor.
Room Com- Mult. Mult. Mult. Mult. Mult. Mult. Mult. Mult.
Index ponent Factor "Fu Factor Fu Factor Fu Factor Fu Factor Fu Factor Fu Factor Fu Factor Fu
0.8 Ku | |
i 1
"~1
1
1.0 Ku i I | 1 1 1
i
1.25 Ku 1 1 1
~~ ~1 ~1 ~1 "~
Ind .34 .30 .26 .25 .21 .19 .12 .11
Hor .40 .33 .27 .35 .29 .24 .25 .21
F Dir
1.5 Ku 1 1 1 1 1 | |
2.0 Ku ~1 1 1 1
~~ "1
1
2.5
~ ~K~u ~1 ~1
1
1 1
| i 1
3.0 Ku I 1 1
i
1
~1
1
4.0 kZ 1 | !
~1
1
5.0 Ku 1 1 1 1 1
~~
| 1
'
Fu " directional component X multiplying factor.
8-16 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
35-40 B . Broad
40-45 M . Medium
45-50 N . Narrow
50-55 VN . Very narrow
55-60 C . Concentrating
More than 60 F Focusing
Ceiling Re-
0.75 0.5
flectance
Direct Com-
ponent
Classifica-
B M N VN C F B M
tion
Wall Re-
0.5 0.3 0.1 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.5 0.3 0.1
flectance
Ceiling Re-
0.5 0.3
Direct Com-
ponent
Classifica-
N VN C F B M N VN C F
tion
Wall Re-
0.5 0.3 0.1 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.5 0.3 0.1 0, 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.1
F-l 5 .73 .70 .67 .75 .73 .71 .77 .76 .74 .79 .78 .77 .61 .58 .65 .63 .69 .67 .73 .71 .76 .74 .78 .76
E-2.0 .79 .76 .73 .81 .79 .76 .83 .81 .79 .84 .83 .81 .68 .65 .72 .70 .75 .73 .78 .76 .80 .78 .82 .80
D-2.5 .84 .81 .79 .86 .83 .81 .87 .85 .83 .88 .86 .85 .75 .72 .78 .76 .80 .79 .82 .81 .84 .83 .85 .84
C-3.0 .86 .83 .81 .88 .85 .83 .89 .87 .85 .90 .88 .86 .77 .75 .80 .78 .82 .80 .84 .82 .85 .84 .86 .85
B-4.0 .89 .86 .85 .90 .87 .86 .91 .88 .87 .91 .89 .88 '.82 .80 .84 .82 .85 .84 .86 .85 .87 .86 .88 .87
A-5.0 .91 .88 .86 .92 .89 .87 .92 .90 .88 .92 .90 .89 .84 .82 .86 .,4 .87 .85 .88 .86 .89 .87 .89 .88
:
AVERAGE BRIGHTNESS
Ithas long been realized that brightness as well as illumination must be
considered in lighting design. Recently a committee of the Illuminating
Engineering Society developed a simple method of predicting average
brightness values in interiors. 6 The procedure, based on the original work
of Buckley, 7 Hisano, 8 Yamauti, 9 Moon, 10 and Spencer, 10 is as follows:
1. Obtain the average maintained illumination level (E av ), using Ta-
ble 8-1 or the lumen method and record on a form such as Table 8-6 with
the data indicated.
2. Compute and enter in Table 8-6 the room coefficient k r (similar in
concept to the room index) using the following equation:
,
kr =
Ml + w) »
2 Iw
where h — ceiling height = length of room w = width of room
I
The best conditions for critical seeing are those for which the ratio of any
of the brightness values just given to the brightness of the task falls
within the range §-3. 6
Brightnesses
Task: B = Eav X r
t = t footlamberts
Working plane: B v = Eav X rp = footlamberts
Floor: B s = Eav X -J~ = footlamberts
Ej av
T> J.
"
Walls midway to ceiling: B mw = E av X = footlamberts
D +
Walls near ceiling: B tw = E av X -Jr- = footlamberts
Table 8-7. Brightness Ratios For Direct, Indirect, and General Diffuse
Lighting Installations in a Variety of Rooms6
A. AVERAGE FLOOR BRIGHTNESS (£,)/AVERAGE
ILLUMINATION LEVEL (E av )
Ceiling reflectance
0.8 0.7 0.5
Wall reflectance
0.5 0.3 0.1 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.5 0.3 1
Room coefficient
Kr
Direct and
Indirect floor reflectance ?7 = 0.3
Lighting
0.1 0.290 0.288 0.286 0.290 0.288 0.286 0.290 0.288 0.286
0.2 .280 .277 .273 .280 .277 .273 .280 .277 .273
0.3 .271 .266 .261 .271 .266 .261 .271 .266 .261
0.4 .262 .255 .249 .262 .255 .249 .262 .255 .249
0.5 .253 .245 .237 .253 .245 .237 .253 .245 .237
0.7 .236 .226 .216 .236 .226 .216 .236 .226 .215
1.0 .213 .200 .188 .213 .200 .188 .213 .200 .186
Direct and
Indirect floor reflectance r, = 0.1
Lighting
0.1 0.096 0.096 0.095 0.096 0.096 0.095 0.096 0.096 0.095
0.2 .093 .092 .091 .093 .092 .091 .093 .092 .091
0.3 .090 .088 .087 .090 .088 .087 .090 .088 .087
0.4 .087 .085 .083 .087 .085 .083 .087 .085 .083
0.5 .083 .081 .079 .083 .081 .079 .083 .081 .079
0.7 .078 .075 .072 .078 .075 .072 .078 .075 .072
1.0 .070 .066 .062 .070 .066 .062 .070 .066 .062
General
Diffuse floor reflectance rf = 0.3
Lighting
0.1 0.298 0.295 0.293 0.298 0.296 0.294 0.300 0.297 0.295
0.2 .295 .291 .287 .296 .292 .288 .299 .293 .291
0.3 .292 .287 .282 .293 .289 .284 .298 .289 .287
0.4 .289 .283 .277 .291 .285 .280 .296 .285 .284
0.5 .286 .280 .274 .288 .282 .276 .295 .281 .281
0.7 .281 .275 .268 .2S4 .278 .271 .295 .274 .277
1.0 .275 .270 .263 .279 .274 .266 .288 .265 .274
General
Diffuse floor reflectance 77 = 0.1
Lighting
0.1 0.099 0.099 0.098 0.100 0.099 0.098 0.010 0.099 0.099
0.2 .098 .097 .092 .099 .098 .096 .100 .099 .097
0.3 .097 .096 .091 .098 .096 .095 .099 .098 .096
0.4 .096 .095 .091 .097 .095 .093 .099 .097 .095
0.5 .095 .093 .090 .096 .094 .092 .098 .096 .094
0.7 .093 .091 .088 .094 .092 .090 .097 .095 .093
1.0 .091 .089 .087 .092 .091 .089 .095 .093 .091
LIGHTING CALCULATIONS 8-19
Ceiling reflectance
0.8 0.7 0.5
Wall reflectance
0.5 0.3 0.1 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.5 0.3 0.1
Room coefficient
Kr
Direct and
Indirect floor reflectance ?7 = 0.3
Lighting
0.1 0.332 0.198- 0.657 0.332 0.198 0.657 0.332 0.198 0.656
0.2 .340 .202 .667 .340 .202 .667 .340 .202 .667
0.3 .348 .206 .680 .348 .206 .680 .348 .206 .680
0.4 .357 .212 .697 .357 .212 .697 .357 .212 .696
0.5 .367 .218 .717 .367 .218 .717 .367 .218 .716
0.7 .389 .231 .765 .388 .231 .765 .388 .231 .762
1.0 .426 .256 .856 .426 .256 .856 .426 .256 .851
Direct and
Indirect floor reflectance r f = 0.1
Lighting
0.1 0.288 0.172 0.057 0.288 0.172 0.057 0.288 0.172 0.057
0.2 .300 .179 .059 .300 .179 .059 .300 .179 .059
0.3 .313 .186 .082 .313 .186 .062 .313 .186 .062
0.4 ;327 •194. .064 .327 .194 .064 .327 .194 .064
0.5 .340 .202 .067 .340 .202 .067 .340 .202 .067
0.7 .368 .220 .073 .368 .220 .073 .368 .220 .073
1.0 .413 .249 .083 .413 .249 .083 .413 .249 .083
General
Diffuse floor reflectance r, = 0.: }
Lighting
0.1 0.442 0.268 0.090 0.453 0.274 0.092 0.478 0.289 0.098
0.2 .455 .278 .095 .464 .284 .097 .490 .298 .010
0.3 ,
.466 .287 .099 .476 .294 .010 .500 .306 .011
l
0.4 .478 .297 .010 .488 .304 .105 .512 .313 .111
0.5 .490 .307 .107 .450 .314 .110 .523 .320 .115
0.7 .514 .328 .117 .523 .334 .119 .545 .334 .125
1.0 .551 .359 .131 .559 .364 .133 .576 .354 .138
General
Diffuse floor reflectance r/ = 0.] .
Lighting
0.1 0.415 0.252 0.085 0.424 0.257 0.087 0.447 0.271 0.091
0.2 .427 .262 .085 .437 .268 .091 .460 .382 .096
0.3 .441 .272 .091 .450 .278 .096 .473 .293 .010
0.4 .454 .283 .096 .464 .289 .010 .487 .304 .106
0.5 .46S .294 .010 .477 .300 .105 .500 .315 .110
0.7 .496 .316 .112 .505 .322 .115 .525 .336 .120
1.0 .538 .350 .127 .545 .356 .130 .562 .368 .135
8-20 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
Wall reflectance
0.5 0.3 0.1 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.5 0.3 0.1
Room coefficient
Kr
Direct and
Indirect floor reflectance r f = 0.3
Lighting
0.1 0.351 0.210 0.070 0.351 0.210 0.070 0.351 0.210 0.070
0.2 .382 .229 .077 .382 .229 .077 .382 .229 .077
0.3 .418 .253 .085 .418 .253 .085 .418 .253 .085
0.4 .459 .281 .096 .459 .281 .096 .459 .281 .096
0.5 .506 .314 .011 .506 .314 .011 .506 .314 .011
0.7 .618 .397 .141 .618 .397 .141 .618 .397 .141
1.0 .084 .057 .214 .084 .057 .214 .084 .057 .212
Direct and
Indirect floor reflectance r/ = 0.1
Lighting
0.1 0.311 0.187 0.062 0.311 0.186 0.062 0.311 0.186 0.062
0.2 .351 .211 .070 .351 .211 .070 .351 .211 .070
0.3 .394 .239 .080 .394 .239 .OSO .394 .239 .080
0.4 .441 .270 .092 .441 .270 .092 .441 .270 .092
0.5 .493 .306 .011 .493 .306 .011 .493 .306 .011
0.7 .614 .393 .140 .614 .393 .140 .614 .393 .140
1.0 .085 .057 .213 .085 .057 .213 .085 .057 .213
General _
0.1 0.450 0.273 0.092 0.459 0.279 094 0.482 0.292 0.099
0.2 .472 .289 .099 .479 .294 .100 .498 .304 .010
0.3 .492 .306 .011 .499 .310 .107 .514 .316 .111
0.4 .516 .324 .113 .520 .327 .115 .532 .329 .117
0.5 .540 .344 .122 .543 .345 .123 .549 .342 .125
0.7 .591 .386 .140 .589 .385 .140 .584 .368 .140
1.0 .671 .455 .172 .661 .449 .170 .636 .409 .166
General
Diffuse floor reflectance r f = 0.1 L
Lighting
0.1 0.425 0.258 0.087 0.434 0.263 0.089 0.454 0.275 0.093
0.2 .449 .276 .090 .457 .280 .096 .474 .291 .099
0.3 .474 .295 .099 .480 .299 .010 .495 .308 .011
0.4 .501 .315 .011 .505 .318 .111 .516 .325 .114
0.5 .528 .336 .117 .530 .338 .120 .537 .342 .122
0.7 .584 .381 .137 .582 .380 .138 .577 .378 .138
1.0 .671 .453 .170 .660 .447 .169 .636 .433 .165
LIGHTING CALCULATIONS 8-21
LEVEL (Eav )
Ceiling reflectance
0.8 0.7 0.5
Wall reflectance
0.5 0.3 0.1 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.5 0.3 1
Room coefficient
Kr
Direct
Lighting
floor reflectance 77 = 0.3
0.1 0.261 0.238 0.216 0.223 0.204 0.185 0.149 0.136 0.123
0.2 .266 .221 .180 .226 .190 .154 .151 .127 .010
0.3 .271 .212 .153 .232 .181 .131 .154 .121 .087
0.4 .283 .208 .134 .243 .178 .115 .162 .118 .076
0.5 .299 .210 .120 .257 .180 .010 .171 .120 .069
0.7 .345 .229 .108 .296 .196 .092 .197 .131 .062
1.0 .045 .204 .118 .038 .252 .010 .257 .168 .068
Direct
floor reflectance rj = 0.1
Lighting
0.1 0.115 0.096 0.077 0.098 0.082 0.066 0.066 0.055 0.044
0.2 .142 .011 .071 .012 .091 .061 .081 .061 .040
0.3 .171 .119 .067 .046 .010 .057 .097 .068 .038
0.4 .200 .133 .066 .071 .114 .056 .011 .076 .037
0.5 .231 .149 .067 .098 .128 .057 .132 .085 .038
0.7 .299 .190 .074 .256 .162 .064 .171 .011 .043
1.0 .425 .274 .102 .365 .235 .087 .243 .157 .058
Indirect
floor reflectance 77 = 0.3
Lighting
0.1 1.108 1.129 1.151 1.108 1.129 1.151 1.108 1.129 1.151
0.2 1.228 1.277 1.326 1.228 1.277 1.326 1.228 1.277 1.326
0.3 1.363 1.446 1.528 1.363 1.448 1.528 1.363 1.448 1.529
0.4 1.514 1.638 1.761 1.514 1.638 1.761 1.514 1.638 1.759
0.5 1.682 1.856 2.030 1.682 1.856 2.030 1.682 1.856 2.027
0.7 2.078 2.386 2.699 2.078 2.386 2.699 2.078 2.386 2.691
1.0 2.861 3.481 4.138 2.861 3.481 4.318 2.861 3.481 4.112
0.1 1.114 1.134 1.153 1.114 1.134 1.152 1.114 1.134 1.152
0.2 1.241 1.285 1.328 1.241 1.285 1.328 1.241 1.285 1.328
0.3 1.381 1.457 1.531 1.381 1.457 1.531 1.381 1.457 1.531
0.4 1.537 1.651 1.765 1.537 1.651 1.765 1.537 1.651 1.765
0.5 1.710 1.872 2.035 1.710 1.872 2.035 1.710 1.872 2.035
0.7 2.113 2.406 2.705 2.113 2.406 2.705 2.113 2.406 2.705
1.0 2.906 3.506 4.146 2.906 3.506 4.146 2.905 3.506 4.146
8-22 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
Wall reflectance
0.5 0.3 0.1 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.5 0.3
Room coefficient
Kr
General
Diffuse floor reflectance r/ = 0., 3
Lighting
0.1 0.634 0.633 0.631 0.589 0.587 0.586 0.479 0.477 0.476
0.2 .694 .693 .650 .642 .643 .645 .522 .520 .524
0.3 .748 .758 .767 .694 .702 .762 .561 .563 .577
0.4 .805 .826 .848 .745 .764 .849 .602 .606 .635
0.5 .864 .898 .936 .797 .830 .942 .640 .650 .697
0.7 .982 1.054 1.135 .902 .969 1.144 .715 .740 .833
1.0 1.167 1.310 1.483 1.062 1.195 1.485 .825 .878 1.061
General
Diffuse floor reflectance r/ = 0.J
Lighting
0.1 0.564 0.563 0.561 0.523 0.522 0.521 0.425 0.424 0.423
0.2 .634 .637 .612 .589 .591 .593 .478 .480 .481
0.3 .703 .712 .699 .651 .660 .669 .527 .535 .543
0.4 .769 .789 .792 .711 .731 .751 .574 .590 .607
0.5 .835 .869 .891 .771 .803 .838 .619 .645 .675
0.7 .967 1.036 1.104 .888 .953 1.026 .704 .757 .819
1.0 1.166 1.305 1.465 1.061 1.190 1.345 .824 .929 1.055
Luminaire Spacing
In planning general-lighting systems the aim is to provide a uniform
level of illumination throughout the room. To make the entire area
equally suitable for whatever its use may be, spottiness and dark corners
are eliminated so far as possible. The maximum permissible spacing be-
tween luminaires and from luminaires to side-walls for equal uniformity
is a function of the mounting height above the floor and the distribution
p j'o a
i> io ojo o Jo o
". i. . '
•
.
I '. •
(',
•
of v je- a-!- c Jo.
:OJ
o' to tf p
;6,iS<> ;}p;:;oi; :
c no
FOUR-TWO SYSTEM
Floodlighting Calculations
GS
ONE-STORY GS
TWO-STORY
THREE-STORY
FOUR-STORY OR MORE
UNITS ARE PLACED IMMEDIATELY INSIDE AND BELOW PARAPET
AND ELEVATED SUFFICIENTLY TO PERMIT EASY MAINTENANCE
AND AVOID DRIFTING SNOW.
AT EDGE OF AREA GS
AT EDGE OF AREA GS
FIG. 8-3. Typical floodlighting applications and equipment, See Section 11 for
discussion.
LIGHTING CALCULATIONS 8-25
AVERAGE AREA
LIGHTED
FIG. 8-4. Spot sizes (average effective coverage) for typical beam spreads and
installation arrangements are given in Table 8-8. D = the distance from the pro-
jector to the plane of the lighted surface or area, measured perpendicular to the sur-
face. Z = the measurement which determines the average angle of throw and con-
sequently determines the average area covered by each projector. Two conditions
apply: (1) If a perpendicular from the plane of the lighted surface to the projector
falls within the total area to be lighted, Z = one half the distance from the base of the
perpendicular to the farthest edge of the surface to be lighted. (2) If a perpendicu-
lar from the plane of the lighted surface to the projector falls outside the total area
to be lighted, Z = the distance from the base of the perpendicular to the mid-point
of the total area to be lighted.
Number of projectors = tL av X A
km X Fb
where
E av = maintained average illumina- = maintenance factor (usually
tion level (footcandles) assumed to be 0.70)
A = area of surface to be lighted = initial lumens in the beam
(square feet)
8-26 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
11 4 4 25 7 7 44 9 9 70 11 11
20 23 5 50 11 8 100 15 12 150 19 14
25 40 71 16 8 170 25 13 330 34 17 540 45 22
60 195 31 11 490 49 18 1,630 73 25 1.960 105 34
80 450 54 15 1.200 90 24 2,920 145 36 7.270 251 53
38 9 9 90 13 13 155 18 18 210 20 20
20 47 11 9 no 15 14 195 21 1-9 320 26 24
50 40 81 14 11 190 22 17 330 30 23 550 38 29
60 150 22 14 340 33 20 630 45 28 1,076 58 36
80 260 32 17 600 49 25 1,160 68 35 2,060 90 45
3,010 87 87 6,810 132 132 12,200 176 176 19,300 222 222
40 3,030 88 S8 6,870 133 132 12 ,300 177 177 19 ,500 223 222
500 80 3,120 90 89 7,070 135 133 12,700 181 179 20,100 228 225
120 3,270 93 90 7,410 139 135 13,300 187 1S1 21,100 235 228
160 3,490 97 92 7,900 145 138 14 .200 195 185 22,500 246 233
The beam lumens rating of a particular luminaire is often provided by the manu-
facturer or may be computed from a candlepower distribution curve as follows:
1. On a form such as Table S-9 record the following data:
45 8 8 60 9 9 80 11 11 130 14 14
10 80 12 10 110 14 12 5 110 13 12 175 17 16
15 20 240 26 14 360 32 17 15 10 150 17 14 260 22 18
30 790 56 21 1,430 79 27 15 310 25 19 530 33 25
133 33 8.690 622 50 20 630 43 23 1,250
40 2,900
25 1.150 65 27 —63 —30
100 13 13 140 16 16 185 18 18 305 23 23
10 140 16 15 170 19 17 10 240 22 2() 400 28 26
20 220 23 IS 310 28 20 20 450 33 24 800 44 32
25 30 430 36 21 660 45 27 25 30 970 55 32 2,050 83 44
40 920 59 28 1,430 75 34 40 2.300 98 42 6,950 187 66
50 1,930 94 37 3.270 131 45 50 6,450 194 60 — — —
60 3,950 155 46 8,590 249 63
3. Record (on Table 8-9) constants from Appendix Table A-31 page A-47, for
not less than ten zones equal in width to about one tenth the beam spread. Measure
or estimate and record on Table 8-9 the average candlepower for each zone.
4. Compute zonal lumens F z :
F = z Iz av X zonal constant.
The sum of the zonal lumens in each zone from degree to the angle at 10 per cent
I max equals the beam lumens.
8-28 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
ZONES* /
lav IN 70NFt
UN ^uiMiiT
ZONAL F z (ZONAL
CONSTANT^ LUMENS)
1. X
2. X
3. X
4. X
5. X
6. X
7. X
8. X
9. X
10. X
Note. Lumens in the beam (Fb) equal the sum of the zonal lumens in the zones between degree and angle
at 0.1 /max- Fb = 2S" JmaxF, =
1
of rectangular areas subtending not less than one tenth the beam spread in horizontal and vertical directions
are used. The total number of solid angles used is 100, for which the constants are found in Appendix Ta-
ble 000.
t From distribution curve or measurements.
t Zone width should not exceed one tenth the beam spread for best results.
§ From Appendix Table 31, page A-47.
Searchlighting Calculations
The useful range of searchlights can be calculated with the aid of the
following formulas:
Ea — Eb ?> or Ea — Eb
rK
,2 It
R 2
Show-Window Lighting
0-10 -
150
4/u a/s Height ~ H
in 500
LU
_i
§450
< PROJECTION
DISTANCE 1 f PROJECTION
k400 I DIST ANCE IN FEET:
O
o
"- 350
COVER ^geT VI
Y
z 300
O 1/
II i
/
\l
£250 \
1
z \
\ \
.AMPS
I 200 1 l 1
1
\
\
0-WATT
5 15 0-WATT
J-'
I i
5«1
w
/I
'
r
Jgl\
*~~~\£ ~*^C
^^fj?* S?§s=
4 2 2
DISTANCE FROM CENTER OF BEAM IN FEET
664
FIG. 8-6. Illumination produced at various distances by typical reflector and pro-
jector lamps.
8-30 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
3. From Table 8-10 obtain multiplying (K), length (L), and shielding (S)
factors.
4. The initial lumens to be provided per linear foot of window:
F f = Eav HKLS
where E av = average illumination maintained in
service (assuming maintenance fac-
tor - 0.75)
H = height in feet
K= multiplying factor
L = length factor
S = shielding factor
4.0 4.2 3.4 2.0 6.8 5.5 3.9 1.6 2.0 3.0 2.8 3.4 2.9
3.5 3.6 3.0 1.8 6.0 5.0 4.1 1.8 2.3 3.6 2.9 3.1 3.0
3.0 3.2 2.6 1.7 5.5 4.6 4.5 2.0 2.8 4.1 3.0 3.2 3.1
2.5 3.0 2.4 1.7 4.6 4.0 5.0 2.4 3.7 5.0 3.1 3.3 3.2
2.0 2.9 2.3 1.7 4.3 3.7 5.5 3.1 5.1 6.1 3.3 3.4 3.4
1.5 3.0 2.4 1.9 4.1 3.6 6.3 4.1 8.3 9.4 3.6 3.6 3.6
1.0 3.3 2.9 2.3 4.6 4.1 7.5 7.5 20.3 20.0 4.4 4.3 4.3
4.0 4.9 5.7 4.2 11.3 10.3 7.6 2.7 1.5 1.7 3.8 3.0 2.7
3.5 4.6 5.2 3.9 9.2 9.2 6.8 2.3 1.6 1.9 3.8 3.1 2.S
3.0 4.2 4.2 3.4 7.9 6.9 5.6 2.5 1.8 2.2 4.0 3.1 2.9
2.5 4.1 3.9 3.0 6.2 5.0 4.7 2.8 2.2 2.7 4.0 3.3 3.1
2.0 4.1 3.8 2.7 5.7 4.3 3.7 3.3 2.8 3.7 4.1 3.5 3.3
1.5 4.0 3.6 2.4 5.2 4.4 4.1 4.3 4.1 5.7 4.5 4.0 3.6
1.0 4.3 3.6 2.3 5.0 5.0 6.8 7.6 7.6 15.1 5.3 4.7 4.2
LIGHTING CALCULATIONS 8-31
1 Glass end Solid ends 1 Glass end Solid ends 1 Glass end Solid ends 1 Glass end Solid ends
4.0 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.2 1.4 2.2 Not usually employed
3.5 1.3 1.4 1.4 1 2 1 4 2.3 Not usually employed
3.0 1.3 1.4 1.5 1 2 1 5 2.6 Not usually employed
2.5 1.3 1.4 1.6 1 2 1 6 3.0 Not usually employed
2.0 1.4 1.4 1.6 1 2 1 8 3.7 1.4 1.6 2.9
1.5 1.4 1.5 1.7 1 2 1 9 4.6 1.4 1.8 3.3
1.0 1.4 1.5 1.8 1 3 2 1 5.3 1.4 2.2 4.0
Egg-crate Louvers (Mat White) Shielding Lamps to 45° Crosswise and 25°
H/D RATIO Lengthwise
Showcase Lighting
Typical arbitrary trim lines used for showcase lighting calculations are
the same as those shown in Fig. 8-5 for show windows. Plane A extends
from the lower front edge of the case to a point one-third of the case height
above the base. Plane C-B runs from the top back corner to a point that is
one-half case depth. Zones B and C are equal in area. One, two, or per-
haps all three zones will be important depending on the method of display-
ing the merchandise.
To estimate the average initial illumination on a zone in one of the cases,
substitute the proper value for the utilization factor u in the following K
formula:
Footcandles on zone = K„ X F f
20
F =
Ft
f
XN
L
INCANDESCENT
FLUORESCENT FLUORESCENT LAMP, CLEAR INCANDESCENT
ZONE LAMP IN WHITE LAMP IN CON- T-10 IN SEMI-
LAMP T-10 HEIGHT
DIFFUSING RE- CENTRATING DIFFUSING RE- REFLECTOR (inches)
FLECTOR REFLECTOR FLECTOR SHOWCASE
3 IN.
-»j \— |«6IN.*j f«--9INr-»" [•—-1 2 IN.--.-*] V 18 IN.
,,:. ' ! -11111111111
Luminous Elements
The efficiencies of a number of typical luminous elements are given in
Table 8-12. The maintained average brightness of a specific element
may be obtained from the following formula:
EFiNK,
B e
A
where B av — maintained average brightness of ele-
ment (footlamberts)
E = efficiency of element (from Table 8-12)
(per cent)
F( = initial lumen output per lamp
N = number of lamps
Km — maintenance factor
A — luminous area (square feet)
REFLECTANCE OR TRANSMIT-
DIMENSIONAL TANCE
TYPE OF ELEMENT RATIOS
0.20 0.30 0.40 0.60 0.70 0.80
12 16 |
20 j
24 j
28 32
10 13 17 20 23 27
REFLECTANCE OR
DIMENSIONAL TRANSMITTANCE
TYPE OF ELEMENT RATIOS
0.20 1 0.30 0.40 1 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80
7 10 13 17 20 23 27
25 35 44 51 56 61 65
26 37 46 54 60 66 70
'
.
>ffiffi^v'^?
< D = 0.40 W Lamps should be placed in
p ' S = 0.60 W the corner to permit wider
S = 1.5D spacing and better lateral
A = WS uniformity of brightness
"/If: with highly diffusing ma-
terials. A slight shading of
brightness at the sides may
be noticed. In small ele-
ments tubular or Lumiline
lamps placed end to end
conserve space.
13 17 21 25 29 33 37
/« S = 0.66 W
= 2D
luminated elements of this
character may use any type
/I S
A = (W - C) S of translucent material, the
choice being governed by
the unlighted appearance,
texture, and efficiency.
8-36 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
REFLECTANCE OR
TYPE OF ELEMENT DIMENSIONAL TRANSMITTANCE
RATIOS
0.20 0.30 0.40 I 0.50 I 0.60 0.70 I
12 15 17 19 20 21
13 20 26 31 35 3S 40
24 35 45 51 — — —
S = 0.40 W Wedge-type elements use a
A = 2 WS polished aluminum para-
bolic trough reflector with
lamps centered at focus.
The slight graduation of
brightness (approximately
2 to 1)with cased opal glass
sides maintains an effective
luminous background for
sign letters or decorative
patterns.
33 45 55 65 73 79 83
41 55 66 74 80 84 86
10 78 16 24 31 39 47 55 63
15 140 28 42 56 71 85 99 113
25 258 52 78 104 130 156 182 208
100 40 440 89 133 177 222 266 310 355
60 762 154 230 307 384 461 538 614
75 1,065 215 322 429 537 644 751 859
100 1,530 308 463 617 771 925 1,080 1,234
25 258 26 39 52 65 78 91 104
40 440 44 67 89 111 133 155 177
60 762 77 115 154 192 230 269 307
200 75 1,065 107 161 215 268 322 376 429
100 1,530 154 231 308 386 463 540 617
150 2,535 256 383 511- 639 767 894 1,022
200 3,400 343 514 685 857 1,028 1,200 1,371
60 762 22 33 44 55 66 77 88
75 1,065 31 46 61 77 92 107 123
100 1,530 44 66 88 110 132 154 176
700 150 2,535 73 110 146 183 219 256 292
200 3,400 98 147 196 245 294 343 392
300 5,520 159 238 318 397 477 556 636
500 9,800 282 423 564 706 847 988 1,129
60 762 17 26 34 43 51 60 68
75 1,065 24 36 48 60 72 83 95
100 1,530 34 51 69 86 103 120 137
150 2,535 57 85 114 142 170 199 227
900
200 3,400 76 114 152 190 228 267 305
300 5,520 124 185 247 309 371 433 495
500 9,800 220 329 439 549 659 768 878
750 14 ,550 326 489 652 815 978 1,141 1,304
100 1,530 21 31 41 51 62 72 82
150 2,535 34 51 68 85 102 119 136
200 3,400 46 69 91 114 137 160 183
1 ,500 300 5,520 74 111 148 185 223 260 297
500 9,800 132 198 263 329 395 461 527
750 14 ,550 196 293 391 489 587 684 782
1,000 20 ,700 278 417 556 696 835 974 1,113
' Incandescent lamp watts.
8-38 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
D 2
will be spread over a greater area, reducing the illumination in the ratio
of the area of plane A to the area of plane B, as shown in Fig. 8-8b. This
ratio is equal to the cosine of the angle of incidence or tilt and:
E = — cos 6
D 2
ILLUMINATION E =
FLUX IN LUMENS(F.)
FIG. 8-8. Point-by-point calculations assume a point source and involve applica-
tions of the inverse square and cosine laws.
'
h
E„ = — COS h = -75 d =
h 2
d 2
Cosd h
I 3 / Cos 6V = sin dh
Eh = -r-; cos dh = -rr
acos 9h
h1 d2
E = — cos" d h
v sin 6 h —I sm 3,6 h = —/ cos V
h2 dz a2
E h C ° Sdh
d2
30 40 50 60
ANGLE IN LATERAL PLANE, L , IN DEGREES
FIG. 8-10. Candlepower at various vertical and horizontal angles from a luminaire
with as3 mmetric distribution.
r
l
1 h 6* cp\ cos 3 0J cp X COS 3 ir- Eh
h
F =
J. 7T
u
2
Tmax
J.
and E= L = IXA
2d 2d
where E = illumination on a plane parallel to the source
d = distance from source to plane (feet)
B = brightness (footlamberts)
F = total flux (lumens)
A = area (square feet)
The lumen output of fluorescent lamps divided by the maximum candle-
power is somewhat lower than t 2 because the emission is not completely
diffuse. For 15- to 100-watt preheat-starting fluorescent lamps the range is
9.15 to 9.30, with an average value of 9.25. 25
It will be noted that the illumination from a line source of infinite length
varies inversely as the distance but not inversely as the square of the dist-
ance. Figure 8-12 illustrates the relationship for a 4-foot line source. 2
3 4 5 6
SOURCE-PLANE DISTANCE IN FEET
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 15 20 30
e 0'
4 14° 27° 37° 45° 51° 56° 60° 63° 66° 6S° 75° 79° 82°
6.250 5.707 4.472 3.200 2.210 1.524 1.066 .764 .559 .41! .320 .107 .047 .015
5 0°0' 11° 22° 31° 39° 45° 50° 54° 58° 61° 63° 72° 76° 81°
4.000 3.771 3.202 2.522 1.904 1.414 1.050 .785 .595 .455 .358 .126 .057 .017
6 0°0' 9° 18° 27° 34° 40° 45° 49° 53° 56° 59° 68° 73° 79°
2.778 2.673 2.372 1.9S7 1 . 60! 1.260 .982 .766 -.600 .474 .378 .142 .066 .021
7 0°0' 8° 16° 23° 30° 36° 41° 45° 49° 52° 55° 65° 71° 77°
2.041 1.980 1.814 1.585 1.336 1.100 .893 .722 .583 .47.' .385 .154 .074 .024
8 0°0' 7° 14° 21° 27° 32° 37° 41° 45° 48° 51° 62° 68° 75°
1.563 1.527 1.427 1.283 1.1 If .953 .800 .640 .552 .45: .3S1 .163 .080 .026
9 0°0' 6° 13° 18° 24° 29° 34° 38° 42° 45° 48° 59° 66° 73°
H 1.235 1.212 1.148 1.054 .94: .825 .711 .607 .515 .43- .370 .168 .085 .029
22° s
10 0°0' 5°43' 11° 17° 27° 31° 35° 39° 42 45° 56° 63° 72°
.fa
1.000 .985 .943 .879 .so; .716 .631 .550 .476 .41 .354 .171 .0S9 .032
1
12 0°0' 4°46' 9" 14° 18" 23° 27° 30° 34° 37° 40° 51° 59° 68°
.694 .687 .668 .634 .59: .546 .497 .448 .400 .35 .315 .169 .094 .036
o 14 0°0' 4°5' 8° 12° 16° 20° 23° 27° 30° 33° 36° 47° 55° 65°
!3 .510 .506 .495 .477 .45' .426 .396 .365 .334 .30 .275 .162 .096 .039
pa 0°0' 3°35' 7° 11° 14° 17° 21° 24° 27° 29° 32° 43° 51° 62°
16
o .391 .38S .382 .371 .35; .339 .321 .300 .280 .25 .238 .152 .095 .041
18
C
0' 3°H' 6° 9° 13° 16° 18° 21° 24° 27° 29° 40° 48° 59°
< .309 .307 .303 .297 .28; .276 .264 .250 .236 .22 .206 .140 .092 .042
20 0°0' 2°51' 5°43' 9° 11" 14° 17° 19° 22° 24° 27° 37° 45° 56"
.250 .249 .246 .242 .23( .228 .219 .210 .200 .191 .179 .128 .088 .043
> 22 0°0' 2°36' 5°10' 8° 10° 13° 15° 18° 20° 22° 25° 34° 42° 54°
O
35
.207 .206 .205 .201 .19( .192 .185 .179 .171 .16 .155 .114 .084 .043
•<
24 0°0' 2°23' 4°45' 7° 10° 12° 14° 16° 18° 21° 23° 32° 40° 51°
W
a .174 .173 .172 .170 .161 .163 .158 .154 .148 .14 .137 .106 .079 .042
t3 25 0°0' 2°17' 4°34' 7° 9° 11° 14° 16° 18" 20° 22° 31° 39° 50°
o
CO .160 .160 .15S .157 .154 .151 .147 .143 .138 .13 .128 .101 .076 .042
30 0°0' 1°54' 3°50' 5°43' 8° 9° 11° 13° 15° 17° 18° 27° 34° 45°
a .111 .111 .111 .109 .108 .107 .105 .103 .100 .09: .095 .OSO .064 .039
36 0"0' 1°36' 3°ir 4*46' 6° S° 9° 11° 13° 14° 16° 23° 29° 40°
O .077 .077 .077 .076 .076 .075 .074 .073 .072 .071 .069 .061 .052 .035
40 0°0' 1°26' 2°52' 4°17' 5°43' 7° 9° 10° 11° 13° 14° 21° 27° 37°
.063 .062 .062 .062 .062 .061 .050 .060 .059 .05. .057 .051 .045 .032
w 50 0°0' 1°9' 2°17' 3°26' 4°34' 5°43' 7° 8° 9° 10° 11° 16° 22° 31°
.040 .040 .040 .040 .040 .039 .039 .039 .039 .03; .038 .035 .032 .025
00 0°0' 0°57' 1°55' 2°52' 3°50' 4°46' 5°43' 8° 9° 9° 14° 18° 27°
.028 .028 .028 .02S .028 .027 .027 .027 .027 .02; .027 .025 .024 .020
150 0°0' 0°23' 0°46' 1°9' 1°32' 1°55' 2°17' 2°40' 3°2' 3°26' 3°49' 5°43' 8° 11°
4.444 4.444 4.443 4.442 4.440 4.437 4.434 4.430 4.421 4.416 4.415 4.379 4.324 4.195
200 0"0' 0°17' 0°34' 0°52' 1°9' 1°26' 1°43' 2°0' 2°17' 2°35' 2°52' 4°17' 5°43' 9°
2.500 2.500 2.500 2.499 2.499 2.498 2.497 2.495 2.494 2.492 2.490 2.479 2.463 2.415
* Uoper figures — angle between light ray and vertical. Lower figures— footcandles on a horizontal plane
produced by source.
—
B
KX Ft
e
9.25 X D X L
where Ba = average brightness (in cp/sq in. ; 1 cp per
sq in. = 452 footlamberts)
K = ratio, brightness of center section to av-
erage brightness (K = 1.09 for 20-, 30-,
40-,and 100-watt lamps)
Ft = total lumen output
D = diameter (inches)
L = luminous length (inches)
Ft
Be =
Ke X D X L X sin 6
ANGLE *0 Sin 9
0°
10° 172 .174
20° 46 .342
30° 24.7 .500
40° 17.1 .643
50° 13.3 .766
60° 11.3 .866
70° 10.1 .940
80° 9.5 .985
90° 9.25 1.000
E = B s
SIDE VIEW
I
MOUNTING
i HEIGHT
j in feet:
10 12 14 16 2 4 6 8
DISTANCE IN FEET FROM CENTER OF UNIT
FIG. 8-13. Illumination distribution curves for a closed-end R.L.M. type fluores-
cent luminaire (two 40-watt white preheat-starting-type fluorescent lamps) at vari-
ous mounting heights. (Based on output of 2,100 lumens per lamp)
—
^
H=5 FT,' \
\
/ , io .
-H ^ JO
%\
V^.
— ~£
60
H-5 FT,
\
/ V /
\ |0- «-*"'""
H=5
—
''>
~\Q~
*•
with a T-8 lamp producing 460 lumens per foot; c and d are for a similar reflector of
li-inch focal length with a T-12 lamp producing 500 lumens per foot.
For relatively small circular sources, when the distance to the point at
which the illumination is to be determined is large compared to the source
dimensions, the inverse square law can be applied. For closer points the
illumination at points along the axis of the disk is:
E =
where F = lumen output of disk (brightness in
f ootlamberts times area)
d = the distance from point on axis to the
edge of the disk.
The formula assumes a cosine distribution and the distribution of many
direct-lighting luminaires approximate this. The
illumination at points
along the axis can also be calculated by considering the circular source as a
portion of the infinite plane, in which case:
E = BsX sin 2
For very close points the disk approaches an infinite plane and the formula
on page 8-44 would apply. Either of these formulas may be used to
determine the illumination at points along the axis of an annular or ring
source by rinding the illumination from the whole disk and that from the
"hole" and then subtracting the latter from the former.
The curves of Fig. 8-15 and Fig. 8-16 relate the average brightness (foot-
lamberts) of a rectangular luminous area such as a panel, window, or wall,
the angles with their apexes at a given point subtended by the area, and
the illumination at the point produced by the area. 14 The contribution
of each such luminous area to the illumination at a given point is calculated
independently. Values of illumination E at points in planes parallel or
perpendicular to rectangular luminous areas may be obtained bv sub-
(E\
stituting the brightness
E =BX
(E\
I „ )
W
I
- ) from Fig. 8-15 or
Other methods also have been developed for calculating the illumination
from the sun and sky. 31
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
ANGLE 0, IN DEGREES ANGLE 0. IN DEGREES
FIG. 8-15. The ratio of illumination E FIG. 8-16. Ratio of the illumination
(at the point P of intersection of a per- E a point P in a line perpendicular to
(at
pendicular erected at one corner of a one corner of a rectangular luminous
rectangular luminous area and a parallel area, which with the base of the rectangle
illuminated plane) to the brightness B forms the illuminated plane) to the bright-
of the luminous area is a function of the ness B of the luminous area is a function of
angles B and 6 with their apexes at the the angles B and 6 with their apexes at
point of intersection, subtended by the the point of intersection, subtended by
rectangle sides intersecting the perpendic- the rectangle sides intersecting the per-
ular. pendicular.
LIGHTING CALCULATIONS 8-47
Street Lighting
C
110° 130° 150° 180° I50 c 130° 110' 130° 150° 180° 150° I30 c II0
/\
/ \house
\ " /
side/
Coefficient of utilization
* Spacing is measured along centerline of street. When luminaires are opposite, double the value of effec-
tive lumens.
LIGHTING CALCULATIONS 8-49
General isolux curves. Isolux curves indicate the amount of light striking
the road surface from a single unit or from a number of units. All
points on a given isolux line receive the same horizontal illumination.
Isolux curves for a single
luminaire can be made up for
some specific mounting height FOR
MULTIPLY BY
CORREC-
with the horizontal distances MOUNTING TION
HEIGHT FACTOR
shown (1) in feet, or (2) ex-
pressed as ratios of the actual
distance to the mounting
height, as in Fig. 8-20. To
correct this type of curve for a
different mounting height, the
footcandle values are multi-
plied by the conversion factor
given. This factor is the ratio
of the present or stated mount-
ing height squared, to. the new
mounting height squared.
To determine the illumina-
tion in the horizontal plane at
a given point from the second
type of isolux curve (Fig. 8-20),
locate the point in question and
express its distance from a 1 O I" 2 3
RATIO OF LATERAL DISTANCE TO MOUNTING HEIGHT
point directly under the lumi-
naire in terms of the mounting FIG. 8-20. Isolux curves for a street-light-
ing luminaire plotted for ratios of lateral and
height, which in this case is
longitudinal distances to mounting height;
25 feet. For example, the m-
the curves shown are for a 25-foot mounting
tersection of the lateral line
height.
1 and the longitudinal line 2
is a point on the street 50 feet from the luminaire) measured along
naires. Such a curve is lllus- indicate the cumulative effect of two adjacent
_
REFERENCES
Sturrock, W., "Levels of Illumination," Mag. of Light, No. 4, 1945.
1.
2. Harrison, W., and Anderson, E. A., "Coefficients of Utilization," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, March 1920.
3. Moon, P., and Spencer, D. E^ "Maintenance Factors," Ilium. Eng., March, 1946. Gaetjens, A. K.,
"A Guide to Realistic Maintenance Factors," Ilium. Eng., May, 1945.
4. Data/or Designing Interior Illumination, Folder A-4854, Lamp Division, Westinghouse Electric Corpora-
tion, Bloomfield, New Jersey, October, 1946.
5. Amick, C. L., Fluorescent Lighting Manual, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1947.
6. I.E.S. Committee on Quality and Quantity of Illumination "Report No. 3," Ilium. Eng., May, 1946.
7. Buckley, H., "On Radiation from the Inside of a Circular Cylinder," Philosophical Magazine, October
1927, September 192S, and March, 1934.
8. Hisano, K., "Light Flux Distribution in a Rectangular Parallelepiped and its Simplifying Scale "
Ilium. Eng., March, 1946.
9. Z., "Recherche d'un Radiateur Integral au moyen d'un Corps Cylindrique,"
Yamauti, Com. Int.
des Poids Mes., Proc. Verb, 1933.
et
10. Moon,
P., "Interreflections in Finite Cylinders," J. Optical Soc. Am., January and March, 1941. Moon,
P., "Interreflections in Rooms," J. Optical Soc. Am., January, June, and July, 1946. Moon, P., and Spencer,
D. E., "Light Distributions in Rooms," J. Franklin Inst. August, 1946.
11. Essential Data for General Lighting Design, Folder D, Lamp Department, General Electric Company,
Cleveland, Ohio, May, 1944.
12. Harrison, W., and Weitz.C.E., Illumination Design Data, Bulletin LD-6A, Lamp Department, General
Electric Company, Cleveland, Ohio, October, 1936.
13. Reinhardt, H., Fluorescent Lighting Handbook, Hygrade Lamp Division, Hygrade Sylvania Corpora-
tion, Salem, Massachusetts, 1942.
14. Moon, P., Scientific Basis of Illuminating Engineering, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York,
1936.
15. Kraehenbuehl, J. O., Electrical Illumination, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1942.
16. Higbie, H. H., Lighting Calculations, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1934.
17. Boast, W. B., Illumination Engineering, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1942.
18. Barrows, W. E., Light, Photometry and Illuminating Engineering, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.,
New York, 1938.
ILLUMINATION FROM PROJECTED BEAMS
19.Hallman, E. B., "Floodlighting Design Procedure as Applied to Modern Setback Construction," Trans.
Ilium. Eng. Soc, April, 1934. Dearborn, R. L., "Floodlighting Design by Graphical Method," Ilium. Eng.,
September, 1945.
STORE AND SIGN LIGHTING
20. Ketch, J. M., Three A's of Store Lighting, Bulletin LD-7, Lamp Department, General Electric Com-
pany, Cleveland, Ohio, April, 1946. Lighting Handbook, Lamp Division, Westinghouse Electric Corporation-
Bloomfield, New Jersey, 1947.
ILLUMINATION FROM POINT SOURCES
21. Goodbar, "Shortcut Method of Point by Point Calculations," Ilium. Eng., January, 1946.
I.,
22. See reference No. 15, page 235, No. 16, pages 107, 115, and 303.
23. See reference No. 17, pages 54, 71, 94, and 97.
24. Franck, K., "Illumination Conversion Chart for Inclined Work Planes," Ilium. Eng., April, 1944.
ILLUMINATION FROM LINE SOURCES
25. Spencer, D. E., "Exact and Approximate Formulae for Illumination from Troffers," Ilium. Eng.,
November, 1942. Wakefield, E. H., and McCord, C, "Discussion of Illumination Distribution from Linear
Strip and Surface Sources," Ilium. Eng., December, 1941. Wakefield, E. H., "A Simple Graphical Method
of Finding Illumination Values from Tubular, Ribbon, and Surface Sources," Ilium. Eng., February, 1940.
Wohlauer, A. A., "The Flux from Lines of Light," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, July, 1936. Whipple, R. R.,
'Rapid Computation of Illumination from Certain Line Sources," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, June, 1935.
26. Baugartner, G. R., "Practical Photometry of Fluorescent Lamps and Reflectors," Ilium. Eng., De-
cember, 1941.
27. Reinhardt, H., "Illumination from a Line Source," Elec World, December, 1945.
28. Linsday, E. A., "Brightness of Cylindrical Fluorescent Sources," Ilium. Eng., January, 1944.
DAYLIGHTING
As a consequence human
beings are adapted to the char-
of evolution,
acteristics of daylight illumination These characteristics vary over a wide
.
range: At noon on a clear day with the sun directly overhead (possible
only in latitudes within about 23 degrees of the equator) as high as 10,000
footcandles may be available on a horizontal plane. Clear sky alone can
provide more than 1,500 footcandles and a clouded sky may produce 4,000
footcandles. Full moonlight provides about 0.02 footcandle.
Figure 9-1 shows the seasonal and daily variations in average daylight
illumination characteristic of locations lying along 42 degrees north latitude
(Boston, Cleveland, Chicago, Rome, or Barcelona). Locations closer to
the equator usually will receive more illumination and those closer to the
poles less. The number of clear and cloudy days which may be expected
each year in a given area may be obtained from the United States Weather
Bureau.
5 •7
-1000 -100
-4 •6
-2000 -100
-3000 -500
5 -10 -500
3 5
-4000
-500 -200
•3 A 6 -5000 -1000
?
5
•20 -2000
4 -6000 -300
1-2 3 5
- MOOO -400
.] 5 >-
< -3000
<r -1000
\° -7000 •1100
O •4 30
in
2 3
Ocvi\ z -4000 # -1200 «•
\ -500
7500 UJ UJ UJ
O v
to r
Z z z UJ
Z v
.1
•4 < -5000 < -1300 < z
•0 P _J _l < -600
a.
-2 -3 -40 a. a Q. _J
tr 0-
< -8000
< -1500
v
2 H *
3 2 < -1400 _l
D z -6000 t
z Z
<
-) o \ -1 O o
-
Q o o P -700
ff x
-3 N N
5 *-o Z -1500 ex
•2
50 uu
C£
o
(T cc UJ
0. O o >
CD \ I I I
ai tr— \ UJ - z
2
a -8500 z z z c -800
1
UJ
o o o -2000
z -7000
0 2
-GO < -1600 -900
-I
Q-
NOON'V\ 1
z
-
< o :
2500
\
3-1
Cf '_
-1000
° cvi \ -70 -1610
l°
£ -3000
<—
(T >r
Q. 5 CM
< iryj -1200
o?D
5~> -80
-4000
- -
FIG. 9-1. Average daylight illumination at various times and in various planes at
42 degrees north latitude. 1
. 1
DAYLIGHTING 9-3
Glass and efficiency Three types of window glass are in common use:
TYPE CLEAN TRANSMITTAL CE
Clear sheet 82-90% (depending on color)
Ribbed 67-84% (depending on color and pattern)
Rough or hammered 50-8S% (depending on color and pattern)
For the average office win-
dow with clear water-white
glass, a single transom, and
few mullions, 80 per cent is a
representative efficienc} 7
. A
factor of 60 per cent should
be used for the average fac-
tory window with many small
panes.
Maintenance factors. Main-
tenance factors will vary over
O 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
a wide range depending on the ANGLE FROM VERTICAL IN DEGREES
local atmosphere, the cleaning
FIG. 9-2. The effect of slope on the dirt col-
schedule, the glass surface and lection rate of a typical factory window is re-
the window slope. Values for vealed by this plot of the maintenance factor
factory windows cleaned twice (glass transmittance six months after cleaning)
each year are given in Fig. 9-2. as a function of slope. 2
Tables 9-1, 9-2, and 9-3* and Figs. 9-3 to 9-6, inclusive, which were
developed from test data on factory -type windows, facilitate comparisons
between different designs. 2 The values given are based on a sky brightness
of approximately 980 footlamberts and a series of windows 100 feet long.
The possible contribution of interreflections is not included.
SKY BRIGHTNESS:
9B0 FOOTLAMBERTS
CLEAN WINDOW — SKY BRIGHTNESS 980 FOOTLAMBERTS
-
FACTOR 0.5
:
V MAINTENANCE FACTOR 0.5 J
-
.
\ 1
\ \
\
/
^LEFT AND RIGHT/
leftVJ ''right
5 10
DISTANCE FROM WINDOW
15 20 25
5
p
10
— V^ „/
10 15 20 25 20 15 10 5
IN FEET
DISTANCE FROM WALLS IN FEET
FIG. 9-3. Effect of window
height on daylight illumina- FIG. 9-4. Daylight illumination at various
tion on a horizontal plane at points on a horizontal plane at sill height in a
sillheight in a building with 50-foot-wide rectangular building with a 100-
a 100-foot-long series of win- foot-long series of windows (8 feet 6f inches
dows in one wall (neglecting high) in each of two opposing walls (neglecting
interreflections). 2 interreflections) .-
Brightness Control
In offices, roller shades or Venetian blinds are used to reduce the apparent
source brightness. In factories, saw-tooth roofs usually face north and
are sloped so that no direct sunlight is admitted. A saw-tooth roof can
be constructed with windows facing south; however, with this orientation
some means for diffusing the direct sunlight should be used in summer.
Diff users reduce the maximum illumination to a greater extent than they
do the minimum and therefore improve uniformity.
A coat of whitewash or other diffuse transmittance material sometimes
is sprayed on a glass window late in the spring and washed off in the fall.
It should be noted that ordinary whitewash (slaked lime) may etch a glass
surface slightly during the summer and consequently hasten the accumula-
tion of dirt the following winter.
Heat-absorbing glass with permanent diffusing surfaces has lower trans-
mittance than ordinary glass, but when it is used the application and
removal of the diff user are unnecessary.
Painting. Finishing an interior with high-reflectance paint or other
coating increases the daylight as well as the electrical illumination level
• Page 9-7.
DAYLIGHTING 9-5
over that which might be expected with low -reflectance surfaces. The
amount of increase depends upon window area, room dimensions, wall and
ceiling reflectances, and ground brightness. To coat the exterior of the
saw-tooth roof and vertical walls of courts or of adjacent buildings with a
high-reflectance material will increase the daylight illumination also.
Roof Windows
A building can be too wide to 30~SLOF€
FT
eo" slope 12
obtain adequate daylight illumi-
nation through side-wall windows
45
alone. Roof windows may be
\ SKY BRIGHTNESS: 980 FOOTLAM&ZRTS /
used to increase the daylight il- (340 _1 CLEAN WINDOW TRANCE ITTANCE: 0.64 L_
_l \ MAINTENANCE FACTOR 05(VERTICAL)( :
P
\
Figure 9-5 represents a building
100 feet wide with windows in the ^60° SLOPE
Vf
side walls 12 feet high. On the 10 1
i
10 20 30 40 30 20 10
40 50
roof of this building are shown: DISTANCE FROM WALLS IN FEET
(1) a monitor with 6-foot vertical FIG. 9-5. Effect of monitor design on
windows; (2) a monitor with 6- daylight illumination at various points on
foot windows on a 30-degree a horizontal plane at sill height, in a 100-
slope; (3) 6-foot skylights on a foot-wide rectangular building with a 100-
60-degree slope. footdong series of windows (12 feet high)
in each of two opposing walls (neglecting
Notice that the glass area is the
interreflections) ."
same in all three, and that each
glass area is so located as to provide the best daylight illumination of which
it is capable. The curves show the footcandles transmitted to the hori-
zontal reference plane by each of these three roof designs added to those
transmitted by the side-wall windows.
Monitor design. As a general rule, the best daylighting can be secured
through vertical windows in a monitor half as wide as the building. A
monitor should be no higher than half its width, and should be at least
twice as wide as its window height. When the width of a monitor is less
than twice the height of its windows, light transmitted by the upper panes
will be cut off by the roof line.
Increasing the height of a monitor, whether it be wide or narrow, in-
creases the minimum illumination faster than it does the maximum and thus
helps to secure uniformity. Occasionally, sloping glass in a wide monitor
results in a greater proportionate increase in the minimum illumination
level in a building than in the maximum. Whether the windows are
vertical or sloping, an increase in their glass area always results in an in-
crease in the minimum illumination.
9-6 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
Multistory Buildings
FIG. 9-7. To determine the daylight illumination at any distance from a window-
series of a length other than 100 feet, multiply the value for a lOO-foot-long series
(found in Figs 9-3, 9-4, & 9-5), by the appropriate factor selected from these curves. 2
5 25 30 35 39 42 44 47 48 50 52 53 54 55
10 13 16 20 24 28 32 35 38 40 42 44 45 47
15 7.5 9.8 12 16 19 22 24 27 30 33 34 36 38
20 4.8 6.2 8 10 13 16 18 21 23 26 28 30 32
25 3.3 4.3 5.5 7.3 9.6 12 14 16 18 21 22 24 26
55 0.7 1.0 1.3 1.8 2.3 2.8 3.5 4.2 4.9 5.8 6.6 7.5 8.5
60 0.6 0.8 1.1 1.4 1.9 2.3 2.9 3.4 4.1 4.8 5.6 6.4 7.2
65 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.9 3.4 4.0 4.6 5.3 6.1
70 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.4 1.7 2.1 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.6 5.1
75 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.2 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.6
80 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.3 1.6 1.9 2.2 2.6 3.1 3.5 4.0
85 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.4 1.7 2.0 2.3 2.6 3.1 3.5
90 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.8 3.1
95 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.5 2.8
100 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.7 O.S 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.7 1.9 2.2 2.5
105 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.8 2.0 2.3
110 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.1 1.4 1.6 1.9 2.1
115 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9
120 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.2 1.3 1.6 1.7
125 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.7 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.2 1.4 1.6
130 0.1 0.2 0.2 3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.1 1.3 1.5
135 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.0 1.2 1.3
140 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
•Sky brightness, 980 footlamberts; efficiency factor, 0.64; maintenance factor, 0.50; interreflcctions
neglected.' Correction factors for other lengths given in Fig. 9-7.
9-8 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
o o s oo s o © C-4
£ O
5 3.04.0 5.1 6.0 6.7 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.5 0.6 0.9 1.1 1.4 1.6 0.4 0.9 1.4 2.0 2.9
10 5.817.4 9.8 11.2 12.0 2.2 3.0 3.6 4.3 4.7 1.3 1.9 2.3 2.9 3.6 1.2 1.7 2.4 3.3 4.2
15 6.68.0 10.6 12.8 13.8 3.0 4.4 5.2 6.5 7.1 1.9 2.7 3.3 4.3 5.2 1.7 2.5 3.3 4.1 5.1
20 6.0 7.7 9.8 12.1 13.6 3.5 5.1 6.3 7.8 9.0 2.4 3.3 4.0 5.4 6.6 2.3 3.2 4.0 4.8 5.8
25 5.1 6.8 8.5 10.6 12.1 3.8 5.2 6.6 S.3 9.8 2.7 3.6 4.5 5.9 7.3 2.7 3.S 4.6 5.4 6.3
30 4.3 5.8 7.5 9.2 10.7 3.6 5.0 6.1 8.4 10.0 2.9 3.7 4.6 6.0 7.5 2.9 4.2 4.9 5.8 6.6
35 3.6 4.8 6.4 7.8 9.1 3.4 4.6 6.2 7.8 9.2 2.7 3.6 4.5 5.9 7.5 2.8 4.0 4.9 5.7 6.4
40 3.1 4.0 5.4 6.0 7.8 3.1 4.2 5.5 7.0 8.1 2.5 3.4 4.3 5.8 7.1 2.6 3.7 4.6 5.5 6.2
45 2.5 3.4 4.5 5.5 6.6 2.8 3.7 4.9 6.2 7.3 2.3 3.1 4.0 5.3 6.8 2.4 3.5 4.4 5.2 5.9
50 2.1 2.8 3.7 4.7 5.6 2.6 3.3 4.4 5.5 6.5 2.1 2.8 3.7 4.9 6.4 2.2 3.2 4.0 4.9 5.5
55 1.7 2.4 3.0 3.9 4.8 2.3 2.9 3.9 4.9 5.8 1.9 2.6 3.3 4.5 5.9 2.0 2.9 3.7 4.5 5.3
60 1.3 2.0 2.5 3.3 4.0 2.0 2.6 3.4 4.4 5.2 1.7 2.3 3.0 4.1 5.4 1.9 2.6 3.5 4.2 4.9
65 1.1 1.7 2.1 2.8 3.4 1.8 2.3 3.1 3.9 4.6 1.6 2.1 2.7 3.7 4.8 1.7 2.4 3.2 3.9 4.6
70 0.9 1.4 1.8 2.4 3.0 1.5 2.1 2.7 3.4 4.0 1.4 1.9 2.4 3.4 4.3 1.5 2.2 2.9 3.6 4.3
75 0.8 1.2 1.5 2.1 2.5 1.4 1.9 2.4 3.0 3.5 1.3 1.8 2.2 3.0 3.9 1.4 2.0 2.7 3.4 4.1
80 0.611.0 1.3 1.8 2.2 1.3 1.6 2.2 2.7 3.1 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.7 3.5 1.2 1.8 2.4 3.1 3.8
85 0.50.9 1.2 1.6 2.0 1.1 1.5 1.9 2.4 2.8 1.1 1.4 1.8 2.4 3.1 1.1 1.7 2.2 2.9 3.6
90 0.50.8 1.0 1.4 1.8 0.9 1.3 1.7 2.1 2.5 1.0 1.3 1.7 2.2 2.8 1.0 1.5 2.1 2.7 3.3
95 0.4 0.6!
0.9 1.2 1.6 0.8 1.1 1.5 1.8 2.2 0.9 1.2 1.5 2.0 2.5 1.0 1.4 2.0 2.5 3.1
100 0.40.6 0.8 1.1 1.4 0.7 0.9 1.2 1.5 2.0 0.9 1. 1.4 1.8 2.3 0.9 1.3 1.9 2.3 2.9
1
105 0.40.5 0.7 0.9 1.3 0.5 0.8 1.0 1.4 1.8 0.8 1.1 1.3 1.7 2.1 I) S 1.2 1.7 2.2 2.7
110 0.3,0.5 0.60.8 1.1 0.4 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.2 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.6 2.0 O.S 1.1 1.6 2.1 3.0
115 0.3,0.4 0.50.7 1.0 0.4 0.5 0.7 1.0 1.4 0.7 1.0 1.2 1.5 1.9 0.7 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.3
120 0.30.4 0.5 0.6 0.8 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.9 1.2 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.4 1.7 0.7 1.0 1.4 1.8 2.2
125 0.20.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.1 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.6 0.6 0.9 1.3 1.7 2.1
130 0.20.3 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.7 1.0 0.6 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.6 1.9
!
135 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.9 (i 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 0.6 O.S 1.1 1.5 1.9 li
140 0.2,0.3 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.2 0.3 (i 0.5 0.8 0.6 O.S 1.0 1.2 1.4 0.6 0.8 1.1 1.5 1.8
i
* Sky brightness, 980 footlamberts; efficiency factor, 0.64; maintenance factor, 0.50; interreflections
5 1.6 2.6 3.3 3.9 0.6 1.0 1.5 2.1 0.5 0.8 1.1 1.5 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
10 4.8 8.3 10.6 16.9 1.6 2.3 3.5 4.6 0.9 1.5 2.2 2.9 0.5 0.8 1.3 1.8
15 7.0 13.8 18.4 21.3 2.5 4.1 6.3 7.4 1.3 2.3 3.4 4.5 0.8 1.6 2.3 2.9
20 4.9 10.1 16.3 19.3 3.3 6.2 8.9 10.1 1.7 3.1 4.6 6.0 1.2 2.4 3.3 4.3
25 3.5 6.8 11.9 16.2 3.9 7.1 9.6 11.6 2.0 3.8 5.7 7.5 1.6 3.1 4.5 5.S
30 2.5 4.9 8.5 12.8 3.5 6.8 9.5 11.9 2.4 4.6 6.7 8.9 1.5 3.9 5.8 7.4
35 1.8 3.8 6.3 9.8 3.0 6.1 8.9 11.7 2.8 5.3 7.6 10.0 2.3 4.5 6.8 8.6
40 1.3 3.0 5.1 7.8 2.6 5.4 8.1 11.1 2.9 5.6 8.1 10.6 2.5 4.7 7.1 9.1
45 1.0 2.4 4.3 6.2 2.2 4.7 7.2 9.8 2.7 5.2 7.6 10.0 2.4 4.7 7.0 9.1
50 0.8 1.9 3.6 5.3 1.9 4.0 6.3 8.6 2.3 4.6 6.9 9.1 2.3 4.5 6.9 8.9
55 0.6 1.6 3.0 4.4 1.7 3.5 5.3 7.5 2.0 4.1 6.2 8.3 2.1 4.2 6.5 8.6
60 0.5 1.4 2.5 3.8 1.4 3.0 4.5 6.4 1.7 3.6 5.5 7.5 1.9 3.9 6.0 8.0
65 0.5 1.2 2.1 3.2 1.2 2.5 3.8 5.5 1.5 3.1 4.9 6.8 1.8 3.5 5.5 7.3
70 0.4 1.0 1.7 2.7 1.0 2.1 3.2 4.7 1.3 2.6 4.3 6.1 1.6 3.2 5.0 6.7
75 0.4 0.8 1.5 2.3 0.9 1.7 2.7 4.0 1.1 2.3 3.8 5.4 1.4 2.9 4.5 6.1
80 0.3 0.7 1.2 1.9 0.7 1.4 2.2 3.3 0.9 2.0 3.2 4.8 1.3 2.6 4.0 5.5
85 0.3 0.6 1.0 1.6 0.6 1.2 1.9 2.7 0.8 1.7 2.8 4.1 1.1 2.3 3.5 5.0
90 0.3 0.5 0.9 1.4 0.5 1.0 1.6 2.3 0.7 1.5 2.4 3.5 1.0 2.0 3.1 4.4
95 0.3 0.4 0.7 1.1 0.4 0.9 1.3 1.9 0.6 1.3 2.1 3.0 0.9 1.8 2.8 3.9
100 0.2 0.4 0.6 1.0 0.4 0.7 1.2 1.6 0.5 1.1 1.9 2.6 0.8 1.6 2.5 3.5
105 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.8 0.3 0.6 1.0 1.5 0.5 1.0 1.6 2.3 0.7 1.4 2.3 3.2
110 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.3 0.4 0.9 1.4 2.0 0.6 1.3 2.1 2.9
115 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.3 0.5 0.8 1.1 0.4 0.8 1.3 1.8 0.6 1.2 1.9 2.6
120 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.2 0.5 0.7 1.0 0.4 0.7 1.1 1.6 0.5 1.1 1.8 2.4
125 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.9 0.3 0.7 1.0 1.4 0.5 1.0 1.6 2.2
130 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.3 0.4 0.9 1.4 2.0
135 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.8 0.2 0.6 0.9 1.2 0.4 0.9 1.3 1.8
140 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.2 0.5 0.8 1.1 0.3 0.8 1.2 1.6
* Sky brightness, 980 footlarnberts; efficiency factor, 0.64; maintenance factor, 0.50; interreflections
neglected. 2 Correction factors for other lengths given in Fig. 9-7.
t Measured from intersection of window plane and horizontal reference plane.
t Measured between sill and intersection of window plane and horizontal reference plane.
f
.
REFERENCES
1. Kimball, H. H., "Daylight Illumination on Horizontal, Vertical and Sloping Surfaces," Trans. Ilium.
Eng.Soc, May, 1923. -"Sky Brightness and Daylight Illumination Measurements," Trans. Ilium. Eng.
Soc. October, 1921.
,
2. Randall, W. C, and Martin, A. J., "Predetermination of Davlighting by the Fenestra Method " Trans
Ilium. Eng. Soc, March, 1930.
3. Brown, L. H., "Control of Natural Light in Schoolrooms," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, March 1940- June
1939.
4. Biesele, It. L., Jr., Folsom, W. E., and Graham, V. J., "Control of Natural Light in Classrooms," Ilium.
Eng., September, 1945.
5. Harmon, D B., "The Rosedale School, A Demonstration in Classroom Lighting, Decoration and Seat-
ing," Texas State Board of Health, Austin, Texas, 1947
See also
6. Baker, II. J., "Daylight Recording at the Edison Electric Illuminating Co. of Boston," Trans. Ilium.
Eng. Soc, May, 1925.
7. Beal, A. F., "Some Factors Affecting Daylight Lighting of Interiors," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, March,
1927.
8. Brown, W. S., "Practical Daylight Calculations for Vertical Windows," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, March,
1926.
9. Bull, H. S., "A Nomogram to Facilitate Daylight Calculations," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, May, 1928.
10. Coblentz, W. \V., "The Biologically Active Component of Ultraviolet in Sunlight and Daylight,"
Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, July, 1931. ."Spectral Characteristics of Light Sources and Window Materials
Used in Therapy," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, March, 1928.
11 Coblentz, W. W., and Stair, R., "The Effect of Solarization upon the Ultraviolet Transmission of Win-
dow Materials," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, November, 1928.
12. Committee on Natural Lighting of the I.E.S., "A Bibliography of Natural Lighting," Trans. Ilium.
Eng. Soc, March, 1929.
13. Elvegard, E., and Sjostedt, G., "The Calculation of Illumination from Sun and Sky," Trans. Ilium.
Eng. Soc, April, 1940.
14. Estey, R. S, and Miller, R. A., "The Transmission of Solar Radiation through Heat-Absorbing Glass,
Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, May, 1935.
15. Gage, H. P., "Hygienic Effects of Ultraviolet Radiation in Daylight," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, April,
1930.
16. Gamble, D. L., "The Influence of the Reflecting Characteristics of Wall Paints upon the Intensity and
Distribution of Artificial and Natural Illumination," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, April, 1933.
17. Greene, B. F., "Natural Light Reflected from the Ceiling," Ilium. Eng., June, 1946.
18. Greider, C. E., and Downes, A. C, "Sunlight —
Natural and Synthetic," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc,
April, 1930.
19. Harmon, D. "Lighting and Child Development," Ilium. Eng. April, 1945.
B., ,
20. Higbie, H. H., "Treating the Windows to Conserve Daylight," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, March, 1929
— ."Control of Illumination from Windows," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, March, 1927. ."Prediction ol
Daylight from Vertical Windows, "Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, May, 1925.
21. Higbie, II. H., and Levin, A., "Further Experimental Data on the Prediction of Daylight from Win-
dows," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, April, 1926. ."Prediction of Daylight from Sloping Windows," Trans.
Ilium. Eng. Soc, March, 1926.
22. Higbie, H. H., and Bull, II. S., "How Glass Affects Your Davlighting," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, March,
1931.
23. Higbie, H. H., and Turner-Szymanowski, W., "Calculation of Daylighting and Indirect Artificial
Lighting by Protractor Method," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, March, 1930.
24. Hobbie, E. H., and Little, W. F., "Transmission of Light through Window Glass," Trans. Ilium. Eng.
Soc, March, 1927.
25. Ives, J. E., "Records of Daylight by the Photoelectric Cell," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, May, 1925.
26. Ives, J. E., and Knowles, F. L., "Recent Measurements of the Brightness of the Clear North Sky in
Washington, D. C," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, March, 1935.
27. Johnston, H. L., "Daylight Variations," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, March, 1940; July, 1939.
28. Kimball, H. H., "Records of Total Solar Radiation Intensity and Their Relation to Daylight Inten-
sity," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, May, 1925.
29. Knowles, F. L.,and Ives, J. E., "Sill Ratio Method of Measuring Daylight in the Interior of Buildings,'
Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, May, 1939.
30. Kunerth, W., and Miller, R. D., "Variations of Intensities of the Visible and of the Ultraviolet in Sun-
light and in Skylight," ?Ya»s. Ilium. Eng. Soc, January, 1932.
31. Logan, II. L., "Specification Points of Brightness," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, September, 1939.
32. Luckiesh, M., "Simulating Sunlight," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, April, 1930.
33. Meller, H. B., Hibben, S. G., and Warga, M. E., "Studies of Ultraviolet in Daylight," Trans. Ilium.
Eng. Soc, January, 1932.
34. Moon, P., and Spencer, D. E., "Light Distribution from Rectangular Sources," J. Franklin Inst.,
March, 1946. —
/'Illumination from a Non-uniform Sky," Ilium. Eng., December, 1942.
35. Nickerson, D., "Artificial Daylighting Studies," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, December, 1939.
36. Prideaux, G. F., "An Artificial Sunshine Solarium," Ilium. Eng., November, 1946.
37. Randall, W. C, "Designing for Daylight," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, July, 1927. "Saw-tooth De- — ,
—
sign Its Effect on Natural Illumination," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, March, 1926.
3S. Randall, W. C, and Martin, A. J., "The Window as a Source of Light," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, March,
1932. ."Daylighting in the Home," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, March, 1931. ,"The Utilization 6f
Exterior Reflecting Surfaces in Daylighting," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, March, 1929. ."Making Your —
Windows Deliver Daylight," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, March, 1927.
39. Reid, K. M., and Chanon, II. J., "Daytime Lighting Requirements for Tunnel Entrances," Ilium.
Eng., March, 1940.
40. Taylor, A. H., "The Color of Daylight," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, February, 1930.
41. Thomas, G. W., "The Status of Natural Lighting in Modern Building Codes," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc,
March, 1932.
42. Vogel, A., Randall, W. C, Martin, A. J., and Benford, F., "Daylighting in Multi-Story Industrial
Buildings," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, February, 1928.
43. Wynkoop, F., "Advances in the Art of School-room Daylighting," Architectural Record, July, 1945.
<
:
SECTION 10
INTERIOR LIGHTING
LIGHTING METHODS
Today the elementary approach to the solution of lighting problems
assumes small rooms (under 500 square feet) or bays (floor spaces resulting
from the subdivision of a larger area by columns or other architectural
supporting members), with ceiling heights between 8 and 14 feet. It
assumes also that the illumination will be supplied from luminous areas
small in proportion to the floor area they illuminate, suspended from the
ceiling or surface mounted on ceiling or side walls.
This approach is changing slowly. The trend toward large area sources
that began prior to the availability of the fluorescent lamp was given
increased momentum by its development Many large structures have
clear floor spaces far in excess of 500 square feet. Nevertheless, the
common approach follows a definite pattern.
INTERIOR LIGHTING 10 3
Luminaire Layout
The illuminating engineer has classified several types of lighting in-
stallations according to luminaire layout as follows:
General lighting is the name given to an arrangement of artificial sources,
usually symmetrical in plan, which attempts to distribute light flux through-
out a room to provide approximately uniform illumination on the working
plane. Unless otherwise required or specified, the working plane is con-
sidered to be 30 inches above the floor. The greatest advantages of
general lighting are its independence of seeing task location and the relative
simplicity of its installation and adjustment, ^he light distribution is
similar to that provided out-of-doors. (See Fig. 10-1.)
ts
'
HP
Luminaire Classifications
The manner in which from a lamp is controlled by a luminaire
light
affects brightness patterns, glare, and shadows through distribution and
diffusion. Luminaires are classified by the International Commission on
Illumination (I. C. I.) in accordance with the way in which they control the
light as in Table 10-1.
Wherever light is applied the directional component is important from
architectural considerations. The play of light and shadow often estab-
lishes the character of the structure; areas of contrasting brightness may
indicate spaciousness, height, isolation, coziness, and so on. Thus the
basic ways of directing light, even though they have evolved because of
practical application considerations and are most often considered as a lu-
minaire problem, should be viewed from an architectural standpoint as well.
APPROXIMATE DISTRIBUTION OF
LUMINAIRE LIGHT OUTPUT
CLASSIFICATION (percent)
Upward Downward
.
10-6 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
by the luminaire to the work plane only. (See Fig. 10-5.) Space between
and above luminaires may be left dark by this type of distribution. Direct
lighting, which was one of the first ways developed for applying electric
illumination, provides maximum work -plane illumination. In many cases
a direct lighting system is the least expensive.
Disturbing shadows may result unless the area of the luminaires is
relatively large or the luminaires are placed relatively close together.
Shadows are at a minimum when the luminous area is largest, as with the
so-called skylight or lighthood types. Direct and reflected glare may be
distressing. In making installations care should be taken to avoid glare
and excessive contrasts between the light source and its background.
There are two direct-luminaire types: distributing and concentrating.
The distributing types include reflectors and diffusers with surfaces of
procelain-enamel, white baked synthetic enamel, diffuse aluminum,
prismatic glass, and silver-mirrored glass. The "shielding angle" of a
direct type fluorescent - lamp luminaire should be not less than 13 degrees
below the horizontal. More shielding is desirable for filament-lamp
equipment. The "cut-off angle" of a filament- lamp luminaire is meas-
ured up from the vertical. Widespread light distribution which can be
obtained also with aluminum, mirrored-glass, and prismatic-glass is
advantageous in many applications in which the seeing tasks are in vertical
or near-vertical planes.
In most areas distributing units provide adequately uniform illumina-
tion when they are spaced a distance not exceeding the mounting height
above the floor; exceptions include areas of high ceilings or high bays.
Concentrating direct-lighting luminaires include prismatic glass, mir-
rored-glass, and aluminum reflectors. These are used in narrow high
bays and in industrial craneways where it is necessary to mount the
reflector at a height equal to or greater than the width of the area to be
illuminated. In such areas, a concentrated beam directs light to the
working area without excessive absorption by walls or unshaded windows.
Spacing should provide uniform illumination over the working area.
Similar luminaires, sometimes equipped with louvers, are used to provide
supplementary lighting on specific work areas.
Semidirect lighting a natural evolution of direct lighting. Candle-,
is
General diffuse lighting makes light available about equally in all direc-
ti^ns^Brightness uniformity is improved, and luminaire-background
con trasts a re reduced. Luminaires in this category include incandescent
lamp enciosing-globe ancffluorescent-lamp types. (See Fig. 10-5.)
Globes should be of a density sufficient to provide completely diffuse
distribution. The surface area of luminaires should be sufficient to reduce
their brightness to within one-twentieth that of the background. The
"direct-indirect" luminaire that directs about half its output upward and
the remainder downward with little or no horizontal component often falls
into this classification. General diffuse lighting systems give more il-
lumination for a specified wattage than do indirect or semi-indirect systems,
binTcause more noticeable shadows and may cause both direct and reflected
glare.
Se mi-indirect lighting is a compromise between direct and indirect
lighting. The component of semi-indirect luminaires is made as
direct
great (up to 40 per cent) as the installation efficiency requires and is
balanced with the indirect component which may be as great (up to 90
per cent) as the brightness and illumination uniformity of the installation
requires. Both semi-indirect and indirect lighting light the ceiling and
upper walls. (See Fig. 10-5.)
In general, semi-indirect types have a larger utilization coefficient than
do indirect units. More attention must be given to the factors of direct
and reflected glare but less than to semidirect or direct types. Luminaires
of this and other classifications are available in completely enclosed types,
10-8 I £ S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
which resist the collection of dust and dirt and are easily cleaned. Also
there are styles that are open at both top and bottom so that only the
upper surface of the lamps remains to collect dust and dirt. The reflec-
tance of the ceiling shouM be maintained as high as practicable when semi-
indirect or indirect luminaires are utilized.
Indirect tig! ting is the type wherein the output of a luminaire is diffused
and redistributed by a large intermediate surface (usually a ceiling).
Indirect lighting is less efficient than most direct lighting because of the
absorption of this redistributing surface, but it is a common means of
getting very uniform levels of illumination. (See Fig. 10 5.) The
permissible brightness of the intermediate surface and relatively low
efficiency achievable limit its use. Ninety to 100 per cent of the light from
indirect luminaires is first directed to the ceiling and upper wall areas, from
which it is reflected diffusely to all parts of the room. Usually only enough
light is emitted below the horizontal to raise the luminaire brightness to
match that of the ceiling.
One measure of the quality of lighting which a given source will produce
is the angle subtended by the source at the point of work. With three-
dimensional work tasks, particularly of a specular or semispecular nature,
this factor is particularly important. The most common large-area source
is an indirect-lighting system. In effect, the entire ceiling and upper wall
areas become a light source. If the brightness is uniform and approxi-
mately equal to that of the luminaires, with such a large area serving as a
source of light, little direct glare is experienced at illumination levels up to
about 50 footcandles. Shadows are practically eliminated and reflected
glare reduced. As with semi-indirect luminaires, ceiling reflectance must
be maintained high because at best this type of system is likely to be the
least efficient. Specular and semi-mat-finished configurated ceilings have
been developed for use with indirect-type luminaires to present reduced
brightness at normal viewing angles. For many locations where indirect
lighting is impractical there are available special luminaire types which
produce somewhat the same effect. They consist of large luminous areas
placed relatively close to the visual task, as in Fig. 10-6. The angle
subtended by the luminaire is of the same order of magnitude as that
subtended by an indirectly lighted ceiling.
FIG. 10-6. For maximum visibility of specular surface detail, general illumination
is supplemented by light from large-area, low -brightness luminaires.
not have their lighting classified simply as direct or indirect. They often
are provided with more complex systems. Architectural planning of many
of these structures involves traditional style and period considerations.
The lighting design should be developed with full recognition of these
considerations. Similar thinking sometimes is applied to other interiors,
including homes, sales areas, and office and management areas of industrial
plants. This architectural thinking encompasses hanging and surface-
mounted as well as built-in luminaires and calls attention to the value of
considering all types of lighting equipment integral parts of a structure, at
least equal in importance to other elements.
Luminaires should be related to the architectural motif of the building
and should assist in carrying out an architectural plan. This is equally
true of period and modern design.
10-10 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
Greek 700-146 B.C. Column and lintel, with en- Emphasis on the statue of the
Orders :Doric, Ionic, tablature. Harmony of de- god or goddess to whom
Corinthian sign so as to obtain perfect the temple was dedicated.
Important build- balance between horizontal Light was obtained from
ings: Temples and vertical elements. Per- roof openings usually over
fect proportion, simple the statue, or from clere-
decoration story openings, or from
doorways. Temples were
usually oriented so that the
rising sun might light up
the statue. Direction of
incident light mainly from
above, at oblique angles
Roman 146 B.C. -365 Column and lintel, with en- The Romans used windows
A.D. tablature. Arch developed. extensive^. They obtained
Orders: Tuscan, Vault and dome evolved. light by means of clere-
Doric, Ionic, Co- Elaborate decoration stories, openings in the cen-
rinthian, Com- ter of domes, or windows at
posite the base of domes. Direc-
Important build- tion of incident light
ings -.Temples, ba- mainly from above, at
silicas, thermae oblique angles. Light used
(baths), palaces to enhance the elaborate
decoration and majestic
proportions of interiors
Early Christian Column and lintel, with a Oblique lighting from upper
300-900 a.d. long interior perspective. angles obtained through
Important build- Occasional domes and ro- clerestories and window
ings: Basilican tundas supported on arched openings, usually small.
churches colonnades Emphasis on altar obtained
by columnar perspective as
well as the convergent per-
spective of windows in
clerestories. Glass mosaics
reflecting light often used
for the high altar
Byzantine 324 a.d. The dome on pendentives is Lighting from upper angles
Important build- the main feature of Byzan- obtained through windows
ings: Churches tine architecture. In Ro- at the base of domes. The
man architecture domes dome being highly illumi-
were used only over cir- nated acted as a huge re-
cular or polygonal build- flector. Small glass and
ings, but in Byzantine translucent marble win-
architecture domes were dows prevented glare and
placed also over square added color to the interior.
structures. Here the ear- Brilliant mosiacs glowed
lier horizontal motif with numerous subdued
changes almost impercep- reflections. To relieve their
tiblv to a vertical motif flat walldecoration, the
Byzantine builders ob-
tained "depth" by means
of arcades
INTERIOR LIGHTING 10-11
Gothic 1200 - 1500 This aspiring style with its In churches the mood of so-
A.D. pointed arches definitely lemnity was produced by
Important build- introduced the vertical the lofty, dimly illumin-
ings: Churches, motif. Solids prevailed in ated ceiling, while long
monasteries, cas- Roman architecture, but in rays of light penetrated
tles, mansions, Gothic architecture voids stained glass windows. In
town halls prevailed instead, since castles and manor houses
slender buttresses were larger windows than ever
used instead of massive had been used before in
walls domestic architecture be-
came the vogue
Renaissance 1400- The rebirth of classical ideals Lighting effects became more
present day brought the ideal of archi- numerous to suit different
Important build- tectural harmony again in- types of buildings. Domes
ings: Churches, to vogue. Buildings were were supported on "drums"
castles, town so designed that the verti- which were pierced with
halls, palaces, cal and horizontal mem- large windows. The dome
villas, chateaux, bers obeyed the classical lighting of the Byzantine
civic buildings laws of proportion. For period was revived and im-
decoration Greek and proved. The direction of
Roman details were incident light was still
copied mainly from above, though
lower windows also were
enlarged. Windows be-
came more numerous, and
more light was sought than
before
Dual Installations
Many plans for traditional and monumental interiors use two quite
separate lighting systems. In a single interior one group of luminaires may
be installed largely for appearance' sake, while the other group, wholely or
partly concealed, provides utilitarian illumination. The architect may
prepare aesthetic specifications for fixtures that appeal to him as good
looking and appropriate, and establish the mounting height he knows is
correct for the sake of appearance. At the same time, the engineer pro-
vides most of the illumination needed by means of unobtrusively located
utilitarian luminaires, placed where they will best provide the desired
amount of light, of the proper color and other qualities.
Built-in Luminaires
Important departures from traditional design have helped to bring into
being many interesting modern-lighting installations:
An important contribution to the closer work of the two professions is
the type of luminaire which, in conjunction with near-by ceiling or wall
areas, provides wide bands, ribbons, panels, or disks of light, all of rela-
tively low surface brightness, and with dimensions that the architect
selects.
Some of the common built-in lighting forms are described in the following
paragraphs. Design and calculations data on some of these devices will be
found in Table 8-12, (page 8-34).
Luminous cornices are luminous panels located at beam or wall inter-
sections with the ceiling (Fig. 10-8).
Downlighting is a special term used to describe a direct-lighting system
in which light emanating from above the ceiling line, controlled above or at
the aperture by a recessed reflector, lens, or louvers, is projected through an
aperture to the area to be illuminated (Fig. 10-9).
Cove lighting is the term applied to sources concealed by a cove, ledge,
or horizontal recess from which light is distributed over wide areas of
ceiling space to be redirected downward (Fig. 10-10).
INTERIOR LIGHTING 10-13
tS
house lamps and control equipment. Figure A-l Page A-10 provides useful
,
data for estimating the general illumination which may be provided in open
interiors by a range of wiring capacities serving various types of light
sources and luminaires.
•~'.
LIGHTING-APPLICATION TECHNIQUES
Interior-lighting applications may be divided, for convenience in
discussion, into six broad classifications: residence (including farm), office,
store, school, public building,and industrial lighting. Although these
mutually exclusive and no sharp lines of distinction
classifications are not
exist between them either in theory or in practice, their practical objectives
may be quite different as, for example, the lighting of stores and offices.
Physical differences (the average living room compared with an auto-
mobile-assembly plant), emphasis on utility or decoration (the warehouse
compared with the theater), and the variation of seeing task severity (the
watch factory inspection department versus a night club corner table) have
inspired the development of application techniques which are known as
"current practice" in each of the six classifications. The specific tech-
niques are discussed in some detail in succeeding subdivisions of this
section.
No summary any single interior is a
of the considerations involved in
planning and designing all lighting installations. The
sufficient guide for
following, however, should be weighed carefully in planning any lighting
installation:
Quantity of Illumination
The primary standard of lighting effectiveness is the illumination level.
Other factors held constant, increases in illumination level are accompanied
by increases in visual acuity. With an acknowledgment of the limitations
imposed by other factors, levels of illumination have been recommended
by the Illuminating Engineering Society for many of the common seeing
tasks encountered in each of the application fields. (See Table A-l, page
A-l.) The tabulated illumination levels are neither minimums nor
maximums, although they tend toward the former. They are found in the
common practice of the day. which reflects a balance of many variables,
including economic factors, convenience, and availability. The recom-
mendations are reviewed periodically and when, because of new knowledge
and practices, a change appears in order, a revised table is published.
The scientific basis for appraising a seeing task involves four interrelated
factors: (I) the size of the object to be viewed; (2) the brightness contrast
between the object and its immediate background; (3) the time available
for seeing; and (4) the average brightness of the object. Usually, the first
three factors are constants in a specific lighting problem and only the
fourth factor chosen by a designer. Brightness equals the illumination
is
Luminaire Selection
Before lighting calculations are made, a type of luminaire should be
selected for preliminary consideration. The characteristics of different
types of luminaires are described on pages 10-5 to 10-8. Luminaires
are classified according to their light distribution characteristics and also
according to their principal field of application, e.g., the industrial unit.
This latter classification usually depends on the appearance, mechanical
construction, and installation method and sometimes upon the electrical
characteristics of the luminaire.
In many cases, several types are available and the final selection may be
made on the basis of overall cost and appearance.
Luminaire Layout
The determination of the illumination level and the type of luminaire
permits consideration of the luminaire layout. Lighting levels (both high
and low) and other factors occasionally restrict the type of equipment
which may be chosen and its installation arrangement, but in most cases
the advantages of a general, local, localized-general, or a general-plus-
supplementary plan should be weighed. (See page 10-3.)
The individual electric outlet layout plan is a basic method with incande-
scent-lamp luminaires because of the symmetrical lateral light distribution
characteristic of most equipment of this type and because of the economy
and practicality of concentrating lamps of high rated wattages in single
units. The most common plan consists of a symmetrical arrangement of
one to four luminaires in a bay (or room). To a large extent, early fluores-
cent installations followed this same technique. However, the present
trend is to emphasize their linear characteristic and the result is a growing
number of light patterns based on straight line elements.
10-20 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
MAINTENANCE OF LIGHTING
Maintenance a most important factor in the effectiveness of any
is
Incandescent-Lamp-Luminaire Maintenance
In an incandescent-lamp luminaire, sometimes only the lamp itself is
considered an essential operating part requiring regular replacement;
however, the reflecting or other control medium also may be very important.
When there is a factor of permanent or accumulative depreciation to be
considered in these other parts (as contrasted with dirt which, hopefully, is
considered temporary depreciation), provision should be made for their
replacement also. Such depreciation is not necessarily a sign of poor
design, although good design tends to minimize it.
In addition to the dirt problem, the incandescent lamp, like other light
sources, presents two other maintenance problems: output depreciation and
failure to operate. Output depreciation is an inevitable condition of
operation, although in some cases (e.g., series operation of street-lighting
lamps) it may not be of concern from a maintenance standpoint because of
compensating factors which are designed into the system. In designing
installations, output depreciation is included in the original calculations in
order to allow for the expected reduction in performance caused by operating
conditions.
When an incandescent lamp fails to operate, replacement is necessary.
In many installations this is done on a "hit-or-miss" basis. In larger
INTERIOR LIGHTING 10-21
Fluorescent-Lamp-Luminaire Maintenance
Fluorescent-lamp luminaires present problems similar to those of the
incandescent-lamp type, although certain differences are noteworthy.
First of all, the rated lamp life usually is longer, although usually there are
many more lamps used in a given area because of the relatively low lumen
output per lamp. Second, when luminaires are above head height, it is
very difficult to replace lamps without lowering the luminaire or elevating
the maintenance man. Third, the required circuit ballast and starting
accessories, which must be maintained also, often are responsible for the
inoperative lamp. Group replacement is feasible and highly desirable
for many types of fluorescent installations. Cut-out starters are recom-
mended for preheat-starting circuits, particularly those maintained on a
group basis, since otherwise the constant on-and-off flashing characteristic
of many early fluorescent lamp failures may not only be annoying to
persons in the area but also harmful to ballasts. The larger the area
lighted by a single tube or lamp, the more important it is to have a re-
placement immediately.
Depreciation
60
1
REPAINTING
-. 40
ILLUMINATION
AS FOUND
^ 20 tf'.V
When reflectors or glassware can be taken down for cleaning, the following
procedure isrecommended
1. Immerse parts in a cleaning solution and scrub with sponge or
soft brush.
2. Kinse in clear warm water.
3. Do not immerse lamp bases or any electrical connections.
When reflectors or glassware cannot
be taken down, wash with a cleaner
that requires no rinsing, and wipe off
excess moisture with a clean cloth.
A cleaning truck is shown in Fig.
10-18.
Practical methods of reaching lighting
equipment. Table 10-3 will aid in the
selection of suitable lighting mainte-
nance equipment.
Pole lamp-changers. The simplest
type of lamp-changing device is the FIG. 10-18. A luminaire mainte-
clamp grip mounted on the end of a nance truck or wagon with compart-
pole as shown in Fig. 10-19. In many ments for cleaner, rinse water, rags
and lamps.
industrial plants with installations of
open-bottom, vertically-mounted, in-
candescent-lamp luminaires, pole-
changers are used between periods of
regular maintenance for emergency
lamp replacement. For recessed reflec-
tor lamps this device is particularly
well suited since, no other special main-
tenance equipment will be required.
Disconnecting and lowering hangers.
Disconnecting and lowering hangers
offer many advantages for safe, eco-
nomical maintenance of lighting equip-
ment. With such hangers the lumi-
naire can be lowered to the floor by
means of a permanently fastened chain
or cable. (See Fig. 10-20.) Usually
the chain is carried to some convenient
location where it is out of the way until
FIG. 10-19. A pole-type lamp-changer.
needed. When the reflector is lowered
the electrical circuit is broken. After the reflector has been cleaned and
relamped, it is pulled back into place, where it automatically locks into
position, reestablishing the electrical circuit.
Steplodder. For relatively low mounting heights, stepladders are used
because of their convenience and portability. Clips and hooks which hold
10-24 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
Pole lamp-changers —
Disconnecting hanger —X
Stepladder — —X —X
Straight ladder X — —
Portable maintenance platform —
Crow's-nest ladder —X X
X —
Telescoping platform, elevating tower, etc. —
Catwalk or truss (fixtures swing in) —X X
X X
Crane or Relamping bridge
X X
and lSv-erin^crank
° nneCting ^ lowering han S ers -
Inserts show disconnect housing
.
over machinery and other obstacles, since the ladder may swing out at an
angle over the side or back of the truck. Hooks and damps should be
attached to the ladder (see the discussion of stepladders) to hold the re-
quired spare lamps and cloths. Ladders of this type provide a secure
platform to which a safety belt may be attached.
Telescoping platform, elevating tower, etc. Telescoping devices have the
advantage of small size when the various extensions are nested together,
which permits their passage through low doorways, facilitates storage, etc.
They can be designed to reach nearly any desired height. Outriggers which
may be folded into the frame while it is in transit give this type of device
added stability. (See Fig. 10-22.)
Catwalk or truss. High-bay installations can be designed with luminaires
mounted near trusses or specially designed catwalks to which they can be
INTERIOR LIGHTING 1027
STOP-STRIP
-->,
\ HOLDS / <.
I \ \ REFLECTOR / / I
"CATWALK ON CRANE
b
FIG. 10-23. Provision for luminaire maintenance sometimes is provided in build-
ing or machinery installation plans. Luminaires may be reached conveniently from
(a) catwalks or trusses, (b) cranes, or (c) monorail cars.
pulled with a short hook and secured for cleaning. (See Fig. 10-23a.) This
permits a maintenance man to clean and relamp conveniently and safely.
The hanger should be designed so that a man may perform his work com-
fortably and rapidly and with a minimum of physical effort. For example,
reflectors at catwalk floor level require bending or kneeling and increase the
possibility of dropping cleaning materials or lamps. A kickplate at the
edge of a catwalk will catch many things that otherwise might roll off.
Crane. Cranes such as that shown in Fig. 10-23b are utilized for lighting
maintenance in many high-bay areas. Attention should be given in plan-
ning the original lighting layout and crane facilities to permit convenient
access to the reflectors. If the crane is designed to pass just under the
lighting equipment, it is desirable to place an auxiliary platform below the
maximum elevation of the crane so that the fixtures are approximately 6
feet above the platform. Thus the maintenance man can clean the reflector
conveniently and reach the other parts and the wiring. If the roof is a
considerable distance above the crane, the reflectors should be suspended
within 6 feet of the crane platform upon which the man will stand.
Relamping bridge. In high ceiling areas, where cranes (if they are
available) aie not to be used for lighting maintenance or where there are
overhead monorails, relamping bridges, or cars such as that shown in Fig.
10-23c may be used. These are maintenance platforms designed for ceil-
ing suspension. They may be towed into place; they may be individually
operated on the monorail system; or they may be placed in position by the
crane. They have been found satisfactory for simultaneous maintenance of
relatively large areas.
10-28 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
The relative proportions of sensible and radiant heat are not the same
for all light sources, nor does the efficiency of a lamp bear any direct relation
to such values. For example, a sodium lamp may have a rated output of
50 lumens per watt, as may a fluorescent lamp. The former, nevertheless,
emits slightly more heat per watt because its efficiency is a result of spectral
energy concentration near the wavelength of maximum luminosity. A
smaller proportion of the total power input goes into the visible sodium
line than goes into the continuous visible spectrum of a 504umen-per-watt
fluorescent lamp, and a larger proportion therefore is converted into heat.
A fluorescent lamp with the same approximate color temperature as an
incandescent lamp is more efficient and "cooler" to the touch. The
important fact is that a lower total wattage load is needed to produce a
INTERIOR LIGHTING 10-29
2 0.5 1.5
4 1 3
1.25 4.5
8 1.8 6
10 2.25 7.5
12 2.6 9
14 3.1 10.5
16 3.5 12
18 4 13.5
20 4.3 15
•Sharp, H. M., "Lighting and Air Conditioning," Lighting and Lamps, April 1946.
tThe test-room temperature rise shown here has been corrected by comparison with data on the "control"
room without electric lighting so that the influence of inside and outside temperatures and wall materials is
minimized.
attributed to lighting.
By above the comfort zone, radiant heat in some
raising skin temperature
cases may
cause discomfort when the air-temperature-humidity relationship
is within the zone (Fig. 10-24). In other cases, when the air-temperature-
humidity relationship is below the comfort zone, radiant heat may provide
comfort by raising the skin temperature into the zone.
The rate of heat loss by radiation depends on the exposed surface of
the body and upon the difference between the mean surface temperature
of the surrounding walls or other objects, called mean radiant temperature
(mrt).*
'Heating, Ventilating, Air Conditioning Guide, 19J7, American Society of Heating and Ventilating Eijgi-
peers, New York,
INTERIOR LIGHTING 10-31
90 80
65 70 75 80 85 90
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES FAHRENHEIT
FIG. 10-24. Still-air comfort chart of the American Society of Heating and Ven-
tilating Engineers.*
Note: Summer and winter comfort zones apply to inhabitants of the United States
only. Application of the winter comfort line is further limited to rooms warmed by
central-heating systems of the convection type. The line does not apply to rooms
heated by radiant methods. Application of the summer comfort line is limited to
homes, offices, and the like where the occupants become fully adapted to the arti-
ficial-air conditions. The line does not apply to theaters, department stores, and the
like where the exposure is less than 3 hours. The optimum summer comfort line
shown pertains to Pittsburgh and to other cities in the northern portion of the United
States and southern Canada, and at elevations not in excess of 1,000 feet above sea
level. An increase of approximately 1 degree effective temperature should be made
per 5-degree reduction in north latitude.
* Heating, Ventilating, Air Conditioning Guide, 1947 American Society of Heating and Ventilating En-
gineers, New York.
10-32 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
Lighting 17 24 24 12 9 9 19
Solar radiation 111 6 7 3 2 4
through windows
Conducted heat 17 26 15 23 26 12 28
Occupants 14 18 20 32 15 26 14
Outside air 26 22 28 23 15 29 25
•>>
Miscellaneous 10 1 6 10 33
•Sharp, H. M., "Lighting and Air Conditioning," Lighting and Lamps, February 1946.
MAX MRT
AT
HORI- POINT MRT MRT
OF
WATTS ZON- PER
AREA LUMINAIRE LAMP "
(sqft)
TAL OF
MAX FOOT TOTAL
IN-
FOOT FOOT CAN- TER-
CAN- DLE
DLES CAN- DLES
IOR
RESIDENCE LIGHTING
The rooms of a home are expressions of the method of living, taste, ac-
tivities,and so on of a family or an individual. Residential-lighting design
is a compromise between individual taste, tradition, decoration, and
seated positions, which may bring the luminaire within their view. It is
not suggested that a room used for social conversation or other "nonseeing"
activity be illuminated to eliminate all shadow and contrast. Such a room
would be unattractive. However, deep shadows may cause unnecessary
eyestrain and fatigue when the room is used for difficult seeing tasks, rather
than for relaxation and conversation.
Relationship between ceiling, wall, and floor color and reflectance, and light
utilizationand appearance. The utilization of light within a room depends
on the wall, floor, and ceiling reflectances. A room is likely to appear
attractive to most people when the ceiling has the highest, the floor the
lowest, and the wall an intermediate reflectance. The following reflectances
are typical of good practice today: ceilings between 65 and 80 per cent;
floorsbetween 10 and 20 per cent; and walls between 35 and 55 per cent.
In rooms where visual tasks are difficult the higher values are better. Wide
variations from these values often are used in rooms where decorative
treatment is of paramount interest and severe visual tasks are not
performed.
LIGHTING FOR:
Kitchen (work counter, range, and sink) . . 40
Dressing-table mirrorf 20
Bathroom mirrorf 40
Laundry (ironer, ironing board, or tubs) . . . 40
Work bench 40
Reading
Prolonged periods (smaller type) 40
Casual periods (larger type) 20
Sewing
On dark goods, fine needlework 100
Average sewing (prolonged) 40
Average sewing (periodic) 20
Writing 20
Children's study tablej 40
Game tables
Card table 10
Ping-pong 40
*The values given for general lighting are intended to minimize brightness ratios between the illuminated
visual tasks and the surround. Where difficult seeing tasks are not involved, the values listed aim to assure
safe passage, eye comfort, and charm.
The given values for typical home tasks are chosen for persons with normal vision, giving proper considera-
tion to such matters as cost and practical attainment. They do not represent the optimum, since under some
conditions more light may be necessary and desirable, and often more light is attainable.
The values listed may be attained by either fixed or portable luminaires, or by a combination of the two.
tTo be delivered on both sides of the face.
JOften a dining-room table,
INTERIOR LIGHTING 10-35
Wall brackets and urns. Wall brackets and urns of either the purely
decorative or functional type have living-room applications. The wall
urn illustrated in Fig. 10-26e when used in pairs on opposite walls increases
the general illumination of a room, especially in low-ceiling rooms and
when located on the end walls of a long narrow room in which a centrally
located luminaire lights side walls better than end walls. The type shown
in Fig. 10-26f is better suited to purely decorative highlighting. In rooms
of normal ceiling height they are mounted 5 feet 6 inches above the floor
and should be arranged as part of a permanent furniture grouping.
Built-in luminous elements. When cost is not a limiting factor, skillfully
applied and balanced luminous elements (Figs. 10-26g, h, and i) offer
endless possibilities and may replace the center fixture or augment it.
The simplest methods are shown. An indirect, or luminous cove, con-
tinuous or sectional, is not recommended for other than its decorative
effect unless it can be mounted at least 1 foot from the ceiling. Greater
separation and the use of directional reflectors is desirable.
Table and floor lamps. To ensure desirable illumination levels for sewing,
reading, and other seeing tasks, portable luminaires should be placed not
more than 30 inches from the work unless a high level of general illumina-
tion also is provided. Portable luminaires prove the most flexible means of
obtaining light at desks, davenports, reading and sewing chairs, and pianos.
(See Fig. 10-27.) Portable-lamp lighting proves more comfortable and
less spottywhen wall and floor brightnesses are sufficient to minimize con-
trasts between the seeing task and the surround.
FIG. 10-27. Typical wall, table, and floor lamps selected and placed for decora-
tive harmony and to provide the recommended quantity and quality of illumina-
tion.
INTERIOR LIGHTING 10-39
Dining Rooms
Whether the dining table is in a room of its own or is at one end of the
living room or kitchen, it is the center of interest for that area. Linen,
china, and polished silver can gleam only if the illumination is provided by
large-area luminaires of proper brightness. The lighting method and the
choice of luminaires, however, depend to a great degree on the activities at
the dining-room table. If it serves as a dining area only, individual taste
and a desire for sparkle may dictate. When the dining table is used also
for sewing, studying, writing, or games, the recommended illumination for
these tasks should be provided. The dining area, therefore, requires
flexible lighting. It can be provided by a choice or combination of ceiling
luminaire, brackets, and built-in lighting. (See Fig. 10-28.)
Bedrooms
Bedrooms in the home are used for dressing, applying make-up, reading,
sewing, and studying as well as for sleeping. A ceiling luminaire is recom-
mended for every bedroom. The types in Figs. 10-30a, b, and g are similar
in performance, and the choice between them depends on individual
preference. The type shown 10-30d may be preferable for child-
in Fig.
ren's rooms, since it has very low brightness when viewed from reclining
positions. The recommended minimums (14-inch diameter and 150-watt
silvered-bowl lamp) are adequate only for small- and medium-sized rooms.
For built-in dressing tables between wardrobes, excellent illumination
for make-up is provided by a recessed luminous element in a furred-down
ceiling. (See Fig. 10-30h.) Thin etched glass is recommended for fluores-
cent lamp elements and diffusing opal for incandescent lamp designs. The
dresser top should be mirrored to reflect light under the chin.
Luminous panels on each side of the mirror are excellent when inset in the
wall as in Fig. 10-30f. Lamps with half-cylinder shades (Fig. 10-30c)
may be mounted on the mirror. A bracket with an open-bottom oval
shade placed over the door mirror is inexpensive.
Wherever fixed luminaires are not installed, portables are needed. Wall-
mounted luminaires over the bed and tall bed-side table luminaires will
provide illumination for reading. Portables at the dresser, desk, reading,
or sewing chair are recommended. A small 6-watt night lamp plugged into
a low convenience outlet is desirable, especially in nurseries.
Bathrooms
The most important illumination in the bathroom is that at the mirror.
The face of the person in front of the mirror, not the mirror, should be
illuminated. The ideal method is to provide a luminous area around the
entire mirror circumference. Two brackets, one at each side of the mirror,
mounted approximately 5 above the floor, also provide good
feet 6 inches
coverage. Either incandescent or fluorescent lamps may be used as in
Figs. 10 31e and g. The length of the fluorescent tube distributes more
light over the face and neck. Where the budget permits only one lighting
outlet in the bathroom, a shaded-lamp over-mirror luminaire can be used,
lamps are shaded.
Unless a bathroom is less than 60 square feet in area, it should have a
ceiling luminaire. If a small budget necessitates a choice between a ceiling
luminaire and mirror illumination, the room should be illuminated from the
mirror area. A wall switch inside the bathroom door should be used to
control all luminaires.
Enclosed showers should have a vapor-proof ceiling luminaire such as
that shown in Fig. 10-3 Id, controlled by a switch outside the compartment.
In large bathrooms a recessed element over the tub also is a convenience.
It should be switch controlled at the door.
For safety and convenience, a night light in the switch plate at the door
or one in the baseboard is recommended.
^ ^
— il
K
?
j
i
'
f e g
FIG. 10-31.Typical recommended bathroom^luminaires. a. General diffuse en-
closing globe, b. Semidirect, ceiling-mounted, for incandescent-filament lamps,
c. Semidirect, ceiling-mounted, for fluorescent lamps, d. Vapor-proof, for shower,
e. Semi-indirect, bracket with lens. f. Semi -indirect, bracket, g. Wall bracket.
10-44 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
to improve the quality of lighting for the more exacting seeing tasks, to
reduce the brightness of incandescent-lamp filaments rated 100 watts and
greater, to soften shadows, and to minimize reflected glare. This im-
provement in quality is gained with some loss in luminaire efficiency.
•Lamp watts only. Does not include power consumed by auxiliary and refers to straight tubes only.
tSome models using fluorescent lamps may be shorter, since the long form and moderate brightness allow
a lower position within the shade, with a wider resultant spread of light.
tin vanity and wall lamps utilizing straight fluorescent tubes full-length shielding is required.
§This size is appropriate only with 75- watt, incandescent-filament lamps (without diffusing bowls) over
sinks and both sides of a dressing-table mirror.
IIThis size (with bowls) required for critical seeing tasks, for use over beds desks, sewing machines, chairs,
etc.
1'Circular fluorescent lamps (32-watt) are being used as supplementary sources.
**An adjustable feature is most desirable in floor lamps in order to fit the height to the varying seating
heights of lounge chairs and davenports.
ttTotally or semi-indirect torcheres should be 60 to 66 inches high.
JJThe shades on small-scale bridge lamps may be smaller (10 to 14 inches), since the extension arm brings
the source closer to the user.
INTERIOR LIGHTING 10-45
Shape, size, and density of bowl are important. For noncritical seeing
tasks, table lamps 19 to 24 inches high equipped with two adjustable
sockets for GO-watt incandescent lamps are satisfactory. Inner bowls
should not be used in dressing-table lamps.
Shades for portable luminaires. Shade linings should be white, ivory, or
a very pale tint. Slant-sided shades aid in spreading light over a wider
area. Shades for floor and table types which utilize fluorescent lamps
can be reduced in depth, and may therefore have desirable large lower
diameters without appearing too heavy and out of proportion in a small
room. Open-top shades produce interesting highlights on pictures and
walls and provide a more uniform distribution of light. A disk of shallow
louvers or of silk or plastic attached to the upper ring is often necessary to
shield the lamp's "mechanics" from the view of standing observers. The
transmittance and reflectance of shade materials should be balanced with
the brightness of the lamps used so that the luminaire will blend with the
surround brightness.
Placement of portable luminaires. All portables should be placed close
to whatever is to be seen. Most of those centered on a large table serve
only for decoration. The type (floor, table, or wall) selected for a given
grouping should be the one which brings the light source nearest the user.
Swivel and extension arms are advantageous, especially at large desks,
sewing tables, and broad-armed chairs.
Luminaires used for sewing, writing, or other handwork should be placed
on the side opposite the hand used so that the hand will not cast its shadow
over the work. Shadows are minimized by diffusing bowls or fluorescent
lamps and when a fixed ceiling luminaire is used in conjunction with the
portables.
Floor lamps usually should be placed toward the rear of the chair or
davenport for which they are selected, so that a seated person does not
view the under part of the shade. Luminaires should not be placed directly
in front or behind a person. Secretary and other tilt-top desks require a
floor type — either the small-scale bridge or larger swivel types, depending
on the desk size.
Davenports placed flat against a wall with no tables to accomodate
portables are served best by floor types of the shorter dimensions given.
Swivel-arm, floor-type portables serve spinet and miniature pianos, though
a taller floor type placed close to the keyboard is better for upright or
grand pianos.
Dressing-table luminaires should be placed about 30 inches apart.
Shades should be near white and at face height. Wall luminaires mounted
over beds should be not more than 26 inches above the mattress top.
Torcheres do not give sufficient downlighting for critical seeing. They
serve best for soft background lighting, especially in halls, dining rooms,
and game rooms.
A balanced arrangement of luminaires within a room usually is pleasing.
10-46 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
FARM LIGHTING
Farm Exteriors
Though may be used less frequently than other entrances, the front
it
Farm Buildings
Two types of incandescent-lamp reflectors are used most frequently for
farm buildings —the standard-dome reflector and the shallow-dome reflector.
The standard industrial dome affords a greater protection from glare. The
shallow-dome reflector spreads light over a wider area. Other reflectors
frequently used are the angle type and, for local lighting, the deep bowl.
In all cases, reflectors should be durable, efficient, and easily cleaned. For
this reason, porcelain-enameled steel or aluminum is recommended.
Milk House
Barns
There are many types of barns; the most common are dairy, horse, cattle,
sheep, hog, and general barns. Typical barn design seldom provides for
much daylight, and much of the regular work in a barn is done during
hours when there is little or no daylight available. Good electrical illumina-
tion is necessary. The care of the stock, especially the sick and the young,
is aided by proper lighting.
The dairy bam should have better lighting than most types because of
the particular need of cleanliness, an important factor in keeping the
bacteria content of milk at a low point. Usually, dairy barns are arranged
in a series of alleys, one set for feeding and the other set for milking and
cleaning. This lends itself readily to the installation of luminaires spaced
10 to 15 feet apart down the center of each alley. (See Fig. 10-33a.)
For the care of young calves box stalls with 4-foot partitions usually are
located at one end of the barn. Unless an alley light comes directly op-
posite, a local light over each stall is desirable. Shallow-dome reflectors
using 60- or 100-watt incandescent lamps and mounted close to the ceiling
are recommended. If the ceiling is open, the bottom of the reflector should
be even with the bottom of the joist. For individual stalls 40- or 60-watt,
incandescent-filament lamps are used.
The cattle barn is a closed area containing feed troughs. In general, a
row of lamps in reflectors over the troughs will provide adequate light at
the troughs and over the rest of the barn floor. In large barns, additional
outlets are necessary, and, therefore, general lighting for the entire area is
recommended. With 12- to 15-foot spacings, the 60-watt lamp is preferred,
10-48 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
® INCANDESCENT LAMP P© PENDANT OUTLET
FLUORESCENT LAMPS So ONE-WAY SWITCH
40 WATT ,=!=, 30 WATT 30 THREE-WAY SWITCH
FIG. 10-33. Lighting layouts for various types of farm buildings, a. Gambrel-
roof dairy barn. b. Horse barn. c. Poultry laying house.
alleys, similar to the dairy barn. The lighting layout should be similar to
that for the dairy barn. Luminaire spacing in the cleaning alleys should be
such that light is distributed into all stalls. (See Fig. 10-33b.) The
partitions usually are solid, in contrast to the open stanchions of the dairy
barn. As in the dairy barn, there are individual stalls at one end.
The sheep barn may be open or closed. Open sheds are enclosed to a
height only sufficient to prevent the sheep from getting out and to protect
them from the wind. Closed sheds are of common barn construction. In
wide sheds usually there are two rows of feed troughs with a center runway.
Here, general lighting supplied by 60- watt incandescent lamps in reflectors
mounted at the ceiling is recommended. In narrow sheds a row of similar
units directly over, or not more than 4 feet behind, the single feed trough
will be found satisfactory.
INTERIOR LIGHTING 10-49
Poultry Houses
The poultry house usually includes the hen house, the brooder house, and
the feed room, all of which may or may not be under the same roof. Light
is necessary for the proper care of the flock and the maintenance of the
houses.
The hen house usually is illuminated for increasing egg production by
extending the daylight period during the short fall and winter days.
For a 20-foot by 20-foot hen house two outlets should be provided, spaced
at the ceiling 10 feet apart, and midway between the droppings board and
the front of the hous?. (See Fig. 10-33c.) Shallow-dome reflectors
should be used to provide the highest levels on feed hoppers, water pans,
and scratching floor. Some light should be provided on the roosts also.
Sufficient light usually is provided for morning or evening by tAvo 60-watt
incandescent lamps. Two 25-watt lamps will be adequate for all-night
lighting. For large rooms, approximately one half a watt per square foot
should be provided. Where lights are used in the evening they should
be dimmed as the end of the period approaches so that the hens can see to
get on the roosts before the lights are turned off completely. The dimming
may be accomplished by operating an auxiliary circuit of 10- or 15 watt
lamps alone for a sufficient time to allow the hens to roost before turning it
off, or by means of dimming equipment. Clock or manual control may be
used for both systems. Some poultry raisers use electric lighting only in
the morning hours, eliminating the necessity for dimming equipment or
auxiliary circuits.
The brooder house, in which chicks old enough to be transferred from the
incubator are kept, usually can be lighted by one 40-watt incandescent
lamp mounted close to the ceiling in the center of the room. Ultraviolet
radiation frequently is used in both the brooder and hen house. (See page
16-16.)
The feed room usually will contain feed bins and auxiliary space for
grinding, mixing, etc. Large storage spaces should be individually lighted
by 40-watt incandescent lamps. Adequate general lighting usually can be
provided by means of a centered RLM dome. The best arrangement is to
have a luminaire opposite alternate bin partitions.
10-50 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
Silo
The silo holds preserved green feed for the stock. A silo is a cylindrical
tank, usually 20 feet to 40 feet high, with an attached chute containing a
ladder. A 100-watt incandescent lamp, mounted at the top of the chute,
will supply illumination both in the silo and on the ladder. If mounted at
the top of the chute, it should be tilted slightly toward the side of the silo
so that it provides some light in the interior of the tank.
Farm Shops
Farms usually have a small workshop, a larger work shop for rough work
on large machinery, and a machinery shed. The lighting of the small shop
in which a work bench, forge, anvil, grindstone, and similar tools are
located should follow industrial-lighting practice, with special care taken
to see that individual machines located against the wall are supplied with
light by local luminaires. The large shop and machinery shed should be
lighted as storage spaces, unless the fanner performs difficult visual tasks
in these rooms.
OFFICE LIGHTING
Seeing tasks in an office include the exacting ones of reading fine print,
faint and blurred typing, and pencilled stenographic notes. Furthermore,
many office workers use their eyes continuously throughout the working
hours for these critical seeing tasks. Many factors in addition to the kind,
arrangement, and number of light sources contribute to the seeing con-
ditions. These include color and size of the paper used and the characters
on it contrast between paper and characters and the reflectance and color
; ;
Quantity of Illumination
In general, the more exacting the visual task, the higher the quality
and the quantity of illumination must be supplied for the same ease of
seeing. The illumination levels provided for tasks such as encountered in
drafting, designing, bookkeeping, and office-machine operation (i.e., long
periods of work on fine detail) should be higher than those provided for
INTERIOR LIGHTING 10-51
FOOTCANDLES
CRITERIONS MAINTAINED IN
SERVICE
DifficultSeeing Tasks 50
Involving:
1. Discrimination of fine detail
2. Poor contrast
3. Long periods of time
Such as encountered in:
Auditing and accounting
Business-machine operation
Transcribing and tabulation
Bookkeeping
Drafting
Designing
Ordinary Seeing Tasks 30
Involving:
1. Discrimination of moderately fine detail
2. Better than average contrast
3. Intermittent periods of time
Such as encountered in:
General office work except for work coming under 'Difficult
seeing tasks" above
Private office work
General correspondence
Conference rooms
File rooms
Mail rooms
Casual Seeing Tasks 10
Such as encountered in:
Washrooms, and other service areas
Reception rooms
Stairways
Simple Seeing Tasks
Such as encountered in:
Hallways and corridors
Passageways
brightness toward the eye. However, since room proportions and other
limitations occasionally do not permit this, the choice of the luminaire
becomes of paramount importance. Large-area luminaires should be of
lower brightness than small-area luminaires. Discomfort is influenced by
factors which also effect a reduction in visibility.
The quality of illumination in an interior depends on the brightness
ratios in the field of view. It is recommended that the following maximums
not be exceeded:
MAXIMUM
AREA RATIO
Between task and surround 3 to 1
Between task and remote surfaces 10 to 1
Between luminaires (or windows) and adjacent surfaces 20 to 1
General Offices
glare (both direct and reflected), proper distribution of light, and uni-
formity of illumination.
2. Efficiency of the system per unit of light emitted: this affects the
operating cost and the heat load in the area.
3. Maintenance: ease and expense of cleaning, service convenience.
4. Sturdiness: long life, low service cost.
5. Appearance: in conformance with occupancy and architectural design
of the interior, lighted and unlighted.
6. opportunity to increase light output at some future
Flexibility:
time, outlets so located that partition changes can be made without re-
location of luminaires.
7. Heat: temperatures and methods of disposing of excess heat.
Supplementary lighting. For general office work, supplementary lighting
on the desks usually is not desirable because of the difficulty of lighting a
large enough area to include the entire working surface, and because of
wiring difficulties. Local or supplementary lighting can be designed for
business machines where the visual task usually is located on a sheet of
paper or card fastened in some sort of holder or rack in a fixed position.
Also, since the machines, as a rule, are electrically operated, power already
is available at the desks or tables.
FIG. 10-34. Indirect luminaires with 500-watt incandescent lamps spaced on 10-
foot centers provide an illumination of 25 footcandles of well-diffused light in this
general office.
10-54 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
Private Offices
Conference Rooms
Tt is common more elaborate interior decoration in
practice to provide
board and conference rooms than in outer offices, and the
of directors'
lighting in these rooms usually conforms to the architectural style of the
interior. Not less than 30 footcandles should be provided over a conference
table, and the illumination should be diffused to eliminate shadows on the
faces of persons seated around the table. Undesirable reflections from the
table surface should be avoided. (See Fig. 10-36.) High-reflectance mat
surfaces are recommended.
Reception Rooms
For reception rooms, a general
level of 10 footcandles should be provided.
If the receptionist does stenographic and clerical work, the higher illumina-
tion required should be provided by supplementary sources. Unless ample
general illumination is furnished such equipment should be available for
use also by persons who wish to read while waiting. (See Fig. 10-36.)
Drafting Rooms
Drafting makes very serious demands upon the eyes, since it involves
accurate discrimination of fine details, frequently over long periods of time.
A high level of glareless illumination should be provided. The contrast
between the work and the background may be very poor, as, for example,
when tracing a faint blueprint or a worn pencil drawing. Reflected glare
from a specular drawing surface as well as from the polished T square,
celluloid triangle, or scales may be particularly annoying and should be
avoided. Care must also be taken to eliminate shadows along the drawing
10-56 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
board may be high enough to shield the eyes of the draftsman from lumi-
naire brightnesses otherwise in the field of view. Where boards are hori-
zontal, straight edges of T squares parallel to line sources of illumination
may cast sharp shadows unless the edges are leveled. To eliminate such
shadows when the straight edge is parallel to the long side of the drafting
table, it is recommended that this side be placed at an angle of 15 to 20
degrees with the lines of lighting equipment (Fig. 10-37)
A drafting table with a frosted or white glass top illuminated from below
to a brightness on the order of 300 footlamberts is recommended for use in
tracing in rooms with 50 footcandles of general illumination. This is a
method of solving a problem which is most difficult to accomplish by over-
head lighting. It is desirable to keep the temperature of the tracing table
as low as possible; therefore, light sources having a high lumen-per-watt
rating should be selected. The desirable brightness of the glass depends
on the nature of the work and the level of illumination from above. The
draftsman should use opaque paper to cover the portion of the glass which
is not concealed by the drawing in order to avoid the direct glare which
would otherwise be experienced.
Office Machines
The seeing problems involved in the operation of business machines can
be divided into three classifications: (1) locating keys, buttons, levers, and
other controls on the machine itself; (2) reading printed, typed, or hand-
written material from which the operator must operate the machine;
(3) reading the results on the machine dials.
Machine operation. The operation of most business machines does not
present a difficult seeing problem and skilled operators do most of the work
by the touch system. Letters or legends on the various keys are used as
checks and during the training period. The general office lighting is
adequate.
Seeing the work. The copies of invoices, lists, etc., which the business-
machine operator must transcribe accurately usually represent the most
10-58 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
difficult seeing task in a modern office. The paper often is of poor quality
and the characters nearly illegible, especially on sixth or seventh carbon
copies, which are not uncommon. Contrast is likely to be very poor.
Higher illumination is necessary if acceptable visibility is to be obtained.
One hundred footcandles is recommended for this type of seeing task.
In order to provide this illumination on the work the use of supplementary
lighting is recommended.
The luminaires should have low brightness so as to avoid specular re-
flections. The light sources should be shielded from the direct view of the
operator and others in the room. Where the operation requires rapid
switching of visual attention between the machine and the work, it is
desirable to have the brightness of the machine approximate that of the
work.
Reading results on dials. The reading of the dials of business machines
may be difficult, particularly when the dials become worn. Often the best
way to solve this problem is by building a light source into the structure of
the machine.
Machine finishes. Though most office machines such as typewriters,
addressographs, billing machines, and so forth have some glossy external
parts that reflect incident light in such a manner as to annoy an operator,
some recent models may be obtained with a higher-reflectance mat finish
than has previously been considered standard. Glaring reflections from
flat specular surfaces can be overcome by proper orientation of the lumi-
naires, but convex specular surfaces such as rods, buttons, and bands may
cause trouble regardless of the luminaire orientation. Dark finishes have
been almost universal, yet, between white papers in or about the machine
and the dark machine surfaces, undesirable contrasts result that may be
very fatiguing to an operator. Dark desk tops also can be a source of visual
discomfort. It is recommended that all polished specular surfaces be
eliminated from machines. It is recommended also that the machines
themselves, as well as the desk tops on which they are installed, be finished
in "light" colors (reflectance of the order of 30 to 35 per cent).
Files
FIG. 10-38. An office, including files, business machines, typing, and work desks,
lighted with plastic luminous-bowl indirect luminaires.
in a minimum of shadow in a typical opened file folder; and the person ob-
serving the files does not cast a sharp shadow over the work. In spaces
where files are opened only occasionally and the room conditions do not
permit well-diffused illumination, direct-lighting sources may be found
satisfactory. Direct-lighting luminaires should be mounted above the
aisle space between the files so that the downward light may penetrate the
folders in the drawers. In some types of filing systems, a number of over-
lapping cards in trays or drawers are held in position at the bottom edge by
a specularly reflecting transparent material. The index and other printed
or typed matter appear along the bottom line of the cards and are viewed
through the transparent material. When illumination is provided by a
general overhead system of direct or semidirect luminaires, one or more may
be seen reflected specularly from the transparent material, making it
difficult (frequently impossible) to read the printed matter. Because of
the various angles at which the trays may be placed, it is difficult to position
supplementary units at any point in the immediate areas above the files so
as to avoid specular reflection. However, if by providing a fairly high
level of illumination with indirect lighting, or large area sources having
relatively low surface brightness, the brightness of the specular reflection
from the surface of the transparent material may be reduced to little more
than the brightness of the surface beneath, it will not interfere with one's
vision. In many catalogue files, the catalogues are arranged vertically as
are the books on book shelves. An illumination on vertical files of about 15
footcandles usually will accompany a level of 25 to 30 footcandles on the
horizontal.
10-60 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
Service Areas
Mail room. For the variety of seeing tasks encountered in a mail room,
30 footcandles of uniformly distributed illumination is recommended.
Corridors and passageways. Any passageways not separated from the
working space by high partitions should have the same general illumina-
tion as the rest of the office space. In corridors and passageways having
high partitions, lower levels of illumination may be adequate. If the
partitions are of glass so that the lighting equipment is visible from the
rest of the office, the same restrictions with respect to brightness of the
luminaires should be observed as in general office space. Outlets should
be placed at locations such as corridor intersections, in front of elevator
doors, and at the top and bottom of stairways. Luminaire spacing
should not exceed about 1^ times the mounting height to achieve a
reasonable degree of uniformity.
Stairways. Luminaires in stairways should be located so that persons
do not cast shadows of themselves over the stairs, so that stairway treads
are not in shadow, and so that glare at eye level is avoided. In general,
an overhead luminaire should be located at each landing. The arrange-
ment should be such that adequate illumination will be provided after
allowing for the failure of any one lamp. Recessed luminous elements in
the walls near the floor often are advisable near landings and especially
where one or two steps connect different elevations in corridors. A
change in the color baseboard at these locations also will
of the floor or
assist in calling attention to thechange in elevation of the floor level.
Lavatories. In these areas a general lighting system which will provide
not less than 10 footcandles is recommended. Mirror lighting is desirable
in rest rooms and wash rooms. (See the discussion of bathroom lighting,
page 10-43.)
STORE LIGHTING
No field of lighting presents as many or as diverse problems to the
designer as that of lighting the modern store. No two stores are alike.
They range in size from small one-man operated shops to large department
stores with hundreds of employees. The merchandise displayed and sold
from needles to automobiles, in texture from
in these areas varies in size
polished metalware to wool blankets, in reflectance from black worsteds
to white sheets, and through all the colors of the rainbow. Some kinds of
merchandise are transparent or translucent, others opaque. Vertical
surfaces are the important ones to be appraised in some cases, in others it
is the oblique, rounded, or horizontal surface that the customer inspects
specific features, and to make most effective all the other appointments of
the establishment. In large proportion, the latter (architectural form,
decoration, materials, fittings, layout) are designed to have the appealing
appearance required by modern visual merchandising methods. When
approached from this viewpoint, a store becomes a pattern of brightness
and color varjdng in significant steps to attract attention, stimulate in-
telligent buying and selling, and create a favorable, lasting impression.
Store lighting should be planned with the following objectives in mind:
controlling traffic; influencing circulation, speeding buying decisions and
impulse purchases; increasing sales per customer per square foot per sales
person; and increasing over-all profit.
Representative of the illumination values which have been found effective
in stores are the following, arranged in steps which are significant from the
standpoint of attention value:
Circulation areas •
20 footcandles
Merchandising areas 50
Show cases, wall cases, counter displays, etc. 100
Featured displays in store and in window 200
500
1,000
In some low-volume establishments in very light traffic areas somewhat
lower values may suffice, whereas competitive conditions and the sales
potential in other situations may dictate higher levels than those recom-
mended. In any event, flexibility in the facilities provided, especially
for accent lighting in store and window, adds greatly to the value of the
system.
Store Luminaires
FIG. 10-39. Good store lighting increases merchandise brightness and background
contrasts and thus attracts customer attention to items on display.
their appearance.
Time. The human eye requires time to see. All other factors being
equal, objects illuminated to higher footcandle values with resulting higher
brightnesses can be seen in less time than those of lesser brightness.
Size. Large objects, and large details of pattern and texture, are easier
seen than small ones. Appraisal often requires the study of small details of
10-64 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
dark ones, and vice versa. A displayman needs a versatile array of lighting
equipment (background lights, spotlights, floodlights, color filters, etc.) to
create these contrasts. Each display should be considered a miniature
stage setting designed to draw attention to a specific area, and to make the
merchandise shown there attractive to shoppers. Contrast can be ob-
tained by brightness and color differences between objects and their
surrounds.
Brightness. The end product of illumination and reflectance is bright-
ness, which attracts attention and aids in seeing.
Reflectance. The reflectance of a wall, ceiling, or merchandise surface
indicates the proportion of incident light that will be reflected. Reflec-
tance therefore controls brightness. It is important to know the character
of the reflection as well as its value. For example, a white tablecloth, a
white china plate, and a polished silver cream pitcher may have the same
reflectance (80 per cent). The cloth, however, reflects its light diffusely
and looks equally bright seen from any angle; the china plate looks white
also, but its glazed surface adds specular reflections; the polished silver
cream pitcher looks dark except for the reflected highlights of light sources
and bright surrounding.
In order that unwanted and uncontrolled reflections in wall and ceiling
areas may be avoided, surfaces that have diffusing, or near-diffusing, char-
acteristics are recommended. These characteristics are typical of mat and
eggshell finish paints, wallpapers, woods, etc.
The use of color. Accurate merchandise appraisal depends in part upon
the color quality of the lighting. A fluorescent lamp may produce a day-
light quality light and an incandescent-filament lamp a reddish yellow light.
Each affects the apparent color of merchandise. Lighting that fails to
show merchandise as it will appear under the lighting where it mil be used
often is responsible for a customer's dissatisfaction and return of the goods.
Returns may be as much as one-eighth of gross sales in some stores.
In addition to affecting the apparent color of merchandise, the color
quality of illumination has an important bearing on the atmosphere and
the decoration of a store. The complexions of customers and salespeople
are affected also. This is especially important in fitting rooms for men's
and women's wearing apparel. If the lighting does not complement the
complexion, it will affect adversely the approval of the fitting. It is
recommended that light of a "warm" color be provided to enhance facial
appearance.
:../-.;::,.'.-;.'
4111 •;
FIG. 10-42. In many stores, light on vertical surfaces is at least equal in import-
ance to that provided on horizontal surfaces.
FIG. 10-43. To minimize glare from luminaires, they should conceal the lamps
from view. The luminaire brightness should be not much greater than that of its
background. High reflectance ceilings and upper wall surfaces and some indirect light
component aid in reducing contrasts.
] r
Stock merchandise located and arranged for display is a large and im-
portant portion of display in the average store.
The ratio of illumination on the merchandise in its display position to
that at its final appraisal point should be planned for maximum display
value and minimum appearance change. Usually, if the ratio of illumina-
tion inside the case to that outside is approximately 2 to 1, the merchandise
will have adequate display value without suffering in appearance when re-
moved for appraisal. An illumination level inside glass-enclosed cases
twice that incident on glass sides and top compensates for surface reflections
that reduce the visibility of the merchandise. In order that customers may
see through these surface reflections, the brightness inside must be higher
than that of the surface reflections. Internal illumination is particularly
necessary in glass-enclosed wall cases because, unless luminaires are located
close to perimeter walls or supplementary units are provided, the general
illumination level usually is lower at the room perimeter than at the center.
INTERIOR LIGHTING 10-69
FIG. 10-45. Shadows produced by carefully controlled beams of light can create
dramatic effects, bring out flowing lines, and reveal the texture of mat-surfaced
materials.
FIG. 10-46. In stores that display items on open, closely-spaced tables general
lighting often is used alone.
FIG. 10-50. Closed- and open-back store windows and a typical open-front store.
10-74 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
FIG. 10-51. By proper orientation and shading of glass surfaces, the brightness
of reflected images in the pedestrian field of view may be reduced below that which
interferes with viewing the window display.
SCHOOL LIGHTING
The trend ineducation toward greater dependence on visual techniques
emphasizes the importance of lighting in schools. Illumination aids mate-
rially in the accomplishment of the visual tasks encountered by students
and teachers and, in so doing, is beneficial in preserving good vision, aiding
impaired vision, minimizing visual strain and fatigue, and increasing the
over-all efficiency of the educational process.
Also, it is recognized that the provision of a model environment for
health and happy living and work at the formative stage in a child's de-
velopment is one of the contributions which classroom experiences can
make to his general education. By using the techniques available today,
light sources, equipment, materials, and proper natural and electric il-
lumination in combination with high-reflectance room and furniture finishes
can provide attractively colorful and cheerful, yet comfortable and efficient,
seeing conditions for students and teachers.
Despite the existence of these techniques and the availability of the
equipment and materials required to put them into practice, many schools
make poor use of natural illumination and have no provision for electric
lighting.
School routine has much to do with this indifferencetoward lighting.
Ordinarily, the hours that a classroom is used each day are few, and inten-
tionally most school buildings are constructed, located, and oriented to
make available as much daylight as possible. However, it is only within
INTERIOR LIGHTING 10-75
recent years that the close relationship among interior decoration, seating
plans, and utilization of daylight has been recognized.
Electric illumination is required during the winter and on cloudy and
stormy days to compensate for reduced daylight levels and, because of
crowded conditions in many urban areas, to make possible staggered and
evening sessions.
Classroom Characteristics
~L
FOOTCANDLES
AREA MAINTAINED
IN SERVICE
RECOMMENDED BRIGHT-
AREAS NESS RATIO RANGE
LIMITS IN NORMAL
FIELD OF VIEW
Design Standards
There is considerable standardization in classroom size, room height,
seating arrangement, hours of occupancy per pupil, visual tasks, and sur-
roundings. Illumination and brightness recommendations given in Tables
10-10, 10-11, and 10-13 are universally applicable. Higher levels would
provide better conditions but are not at this time considered to be economi-
cally feasible for the average installation.
The ratios given in Table 10-11 can be maintained by many types of
equipment and with many spacing arrangements. The average classroom
is 20 to 26 feet wide and 26 to 35 feet long, with a 10- to 12-foot ceiling.
—©-}—© ©
j
12 FT
2a j
-»f-eFT*-
4a
5a
5b
7F
4b 5C
5d
Lecture Rooms
Two levels of illumination are quite desirable in lecture rooms, provided
supplementary illumination is provided for the lecture table or teacher's
rostrum. This permits the use of contrast when attention to the speaker
or his demonstrations is of primary importance, and a high level of general
lighting for quizzes and taking notes.
Local lighting often is used in these rooms, especially when the student
is seated along long tables for reading. Assuming recommended levels of
illumination are provided, and proper brightness ratio maintained, either
localized-general or general lighting may be satisfactory. (See Fig. 10-55.)
* If the area involved is small, brightness values up to twice those shown may be acceptable when all in-
terior surfaces have a high reflectance mat finish.
10-80 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
and that it provides the simplest way of providing the recommended light-
ing levels. Advocates of general lighting point out that general lighting
is usually cheaper to install, and that any type of local lighting subject to
Art Rooms
The recommended general illumination level may be supplemented by
means of lighting equipment such as spotlights or projector lamps designed
and installed to increase the visibility of models and other such material
from the back of the room. Many instructors prefer electric lighting for
this purpose because its color and the shadoAvs it casts are the same through-
out the day. Since north skylight is preferred, electrical illumination
should blend well with it. Daylight incandescent and fluorescent lamps
frequently are used.
Sewing Rooms
Sewing room practices vary appreciably in different school systems, and
to establish uniform standards for all.
it is difficult Because of the common
use of dark materials, and the minute size of the detail to be seen, very high
illumination levels are recommended. These can best be provided by
installing luminaires to supplement the general lighting. Each machine
and work table should be furnished with supplementary lighting.
EMBhHS
FIG. 10-55. Typical school library and reading room.
INTERIOR LIGHTING 10-81
The work shops of the average school system are in most cases designed
to simulate industrial shops. Therefore, it is recommended that the
lighting of all such rooms follow industrial practice. (See Fig. 10-56
and the discussion of Industrial Lighting, page 10-94.)
Auditoriums
School-auditorium lighting should be flexible. Often the room is used
both as an auditorium and as a study hall. A level of at least 10 footcandles
is recommended for assembly purposes and the classroom level of 30 foot-
Dormitory Rooms
Except in special schools (as in military schools, perhaps) there should be
few differences between the lighting goals for dormitories and those for
similar rooms in the home (bedrooms and living rooms). (See pages 10-36
and 10-42.) Most of the differences are associated with lack of decoration,
—
uniformity, ease of cleaning, and similar factors few of which deal directly
with the quantity and finality of illumination. (See Fig. 10-57.) Military
dormitories may tend more toward general illumination from ceiling
fixtures rather than localized illumination from portable lamps. Under
such conditions, general-office lighting standards should be followed. (See
page 10-52.)
The lighting of dormitory rooms should satisfy two dissimilar require-
ments :
Office Buildings
factory visual adaptation as the visitor steps into the lobby from out-
of-doors (from an illumination level approaching 10,000 footcandles in
direct sunlight). This necessity for adaptation combined with the ad-
vertising value of higher levels and brighter surroundings has led many,
building designers to provide higher levels of illumination (20 footcandles)
In hallways and corridors of ordinary ceiling height (less than 30 feet)
luminaires should be spaced not more than 20 feet apart. No branch
corridor should be without a luminaire. A luminaire located at a main
corridor junction will serve two branches not more than 10 feet deep. For
safety in such locations, at least two lamps should be used in each luminaire.
No entrance to an elevator or a stair well should be more than 10 feet
from a luminaire. The recommended average illumination level for
elevators, and stair wells, is 10 footcandles, assuming high-reflectance sur-
faces. The lumieaire and layout should provide such a uniform level that
the maximum value at any place in the room is not greater than three times
the minimum.
Theaters
Theater Stages
The stage provides the most interesting lighting problem in the theater.
Even those theaters designed exclusively for motion pictures occasionally
may accommodate stage shows for charity, for community rallies, and
so forth. ,
Churches
Lighting for churches should be co-ordinated with the church service,
and suited to the architectural design. (See Fig. 10-62.) Soft well-
diffused illumination is recommended. High levels attract the attention
of the worshipper to the altar or pulpit at certain points in the sendees.
The amount of illumination provided at the pews should be keyed to the
amount of reading expected of the congregation, some of whom may have
INTERIOR LIGHTING 10-89
For example, the Gothic church with high vaulted ceilings has depended
in the past upon directional daylighting from great windows along the
walls. The resulting shadows and dimly lighted vaults are responsible
for the majestic beauty of the Gothic style. Therefore, artificial lighting
for Gothic structures can be supplied best by luminaires of the direct type,
supplemented if necessary by indirect and local lighting to minimize con-
trasts or provide illumination levels suitable for reading.
Other types of interiors call for a completely indirect lighting system.
Concealed flush downlighting has been used successfully also.
Directional spotlights, recessed-lens-controlled luminaires, pinhole down-
lights, or coves and troughs may be concealed from view in a variety
of ways.
Indirect lighting which more readily results in diffuse and soft lighting
is used in many churches of the congregational auditorium type, and in
many with Greek or Roman temple plans.
The altar sanctuary requires local lighting. (See Fig. 10-63.) Emphasis
lighting can be directed to any area or object by equipment concealed in
niches or behind ceiling beams. Glare protection for the congregation
results from the angle at which the light is directed. Local lighting on
pulpits and lecterns is almost always necessary. Conversely, general
rather than local lighting, is recommended for the choir loft because of the
difficulty of locating and adjusting local luminaires, and the possibility
of resultant glare for the congregation.
Banks
Most banks have a main floor area, divided between the public portion
and the service cages. For the public portions, many types of equipment
are in common use. (See Fig. 10-64.) Sufficient illumination should be
provided for the depositors' transactions.
When the architectural style makes it difficult to provide adequate gen-
eral illumination, local lighting at writing tables and on the tellers' side of
the tellers' cages also is recommended, since critical seeing tasks are per-
formed at these places and a low level of illumination may result in errors.
Care should be taken to maintain low brightness ratios by means of high-
reflectance surfaces and low-brightness luminaires.
INTERIOR LIGHTING 10-91
Museums and art galleries are primarily places for objects to be dis-
played for study and appreciation. The illumination on vertical and
oblique planes may be of greater importance than that on the horizontal.
Color, line, proportion, and perspective, which are affected by light,
all of
are particularly important in displays. Well-planned illumination is
based on a consideration of the artists' mediums, techniques, and objectives.
General design guidance is provided in Table 10-14. It is doubtful if
an art gallery can be designed to give satisfactory natural lighting during
much of the year and the future may see such structures designed for elec-
trical illumination only.
Hospitals
Table 10-14. Lighting Design Guide for Art Gallery and Museum
Displays
ILLUMI-
NATION
PRINCIPAL LEVEL
TYPE MATERIAL PLANE AND ON PRIN- REMARKS
SURFACE CIPAL
PLANE
(foot-
candles)
Water Colors*
Group Vertical
Framed and Gloss}' 20
Unframed Dull
2. Though a stage often is located at one end this may not be the focal
point of attention.
A symmetrical decorative and flexible lighting layout is recommended.
Hotel lobbies are reception halls and are used as lounge rooms as well.
Adequate illumination should_be provided for those who wish to read and
write. Usually, portable lamps are practical. They emphasize the home-
10-94 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
like character of the hotel and are flexible and easily coordinated with any
decorative scheme.
INDUSTRIAL LIGHTING
In 1915 the Illuminating Engineering Society prepared and issued a
Code of Lighting Factories, Mills and Other Work Places. According to the
procedure of the American Standards Association, revisions of the Code
were made in 1921 and in 1930. The 1942 American Recommended Practice
of Industrial Lighting, which is condensed here, is a development of the
earlier codes.
Illumination is an environment factor that affects every industrial es-
tablishment. The advantages of good illumination to employees and man-
agement are many.
FIG. 10-66. Auniform level of general lighting permits the optimum utilization
of floor space and increases the flexibility of the production line plan in this shop.
INTERIOR LIGHTING 10-95
jf
.
,
^,^.,^
FIG. 10-68. In many industrial areas the visual problems occur on vertical as well
as horizontal planes. In such cases uniform illumination should be provided on the
vertical.
at least 25 per cent more light than the required minimum. In locations
where the dirt will collect rapidly and where adequate maintenance is not
provided, the initial value should be at least 50 per cent above the minimum
requirement.
Where safety goggles are worn, the light reaching the eye is likely to be
materially reduced and the general level of illumination should, therefore,
be increased accordingly in these locations.
The variation may be as great as 30 per cent if points next to the walls are
considered, unless special attention is given these areas.
Layout suggestions. The conventional arrangements of electrical outlets
for lighting (one, two, or four per bay) have been adequate for a wide
range of footcandles because of the many incandescent-filament lamps
available in the 150- to 1,500- watt range with outputs of from 2,600 to
33,000 lumens each. By comparison, the fluorescent-lamp range, encom-
passing only a few ratings between 15 and 100 watts with outputs of 495
to 4,400 lumens each, is limited. To obtain a lumen output per fluorescent
luminaire comparable with that of a 500- or 1,000- watt, incandescent-lamp
luminaire, it is necessary to use many lamps.
VAPORTIGHT
GLASS GLOBE"
GLASS
REFRACTOR
tain areas. Both angle and symmetrical types of reflectors in the 75- to
500-watt size range are used.
areas.
2. The light source should have a brightness of less than 1,800 foot-
lamberts (4 candles per square inch).
3. The light source preferably should be rectangular in shape with a
width of 5 to 6 inches and a length of 24 to 30 inches. "With luminaires of
this size the width of the dark spaces between should be of the order of 2
to 3 feet.
Trough-shaped luminaires are located approximately 6 feet behind the
support for the glass plate. The supporting framework for the glass plate
should be raised or lowered to bring the glass area between the eyes of the
inspector and one or more of the luminaires.
Open-weave fabrics and
other translucent materials.
The location and removal
of any defects in open-
weave fabrics previous to
the final finishing process
isaccomplished best by ob-
serving the defects in sil-
houette against a large-area,
uniformly low-brightness
panel such as shown in Fig.
10-73. The brightness of
the panel should be suffi-
cient to show up defects.
Itshould not exceed 400
foot lamberts. The sur-
round brightness should not
FIG. 10-73. Low -brightness source for silhouette v , ., ,,
De iess Inan i1/10 na 0If
.
/ iU
inspection of translucent materials such as fabrics, / ;
glass, plastics, paper, liquids, etc. the panel. For the best
INTERIOR LIGHTING 10-103
silhouette vision the illumination on the cloth from the observer side times
the reflectance of the cloth should be not more than one-tenth the bright-
ness transmitted by the cloth.
Light transmitted through translucent materials such as glass, paper,
plastics, and liquids also may reveal certain kinds of faults, foreign material,
and defects. Large luminous panels can be built in conveyor lines over
which, or past which, the material flows. The illumination level required
varies with the task. A panel brightness of the order of 100 footlamberts
often is adequate. Bubbles, blisters, cracks, chips, and whorls may be
revealed as highlights or distortions caused by refraction when transparent
materials such as glass jars, bottles, bulbs, clear plastics, etc., are seen
moving before a large-area, low-brightness panel. Alternate dark and
luminous backgrounds or black strips laid on a luminous background aid
in locating and identifying defects.
To detect small cracks and bubbles in glass jars and the pin-point
fire
bubbles caused by foreign material in carbonated beverages, a narrow beam
source is recommended. The mirror action of these defects reveals their
presence.
A modification is the arrangement employed for the inspection of inner
tubes for air leaks. The partially inflated tube suspended from an over-
head conveyor is passed through a trough filled with water under the sur-
face of which there are light sources on each side of the inspector's stand.
Any air bubbles coming from the tube are made visible by the light they
refbct.
Polarized illumination. The detection of internal strains in glass,
mounted lenses, lamp bulbs, radio tubes, transparent plastics, etc., may
be facilitated by transmitted polarized light. The nonuniform spectral
transmittance of strained areas causes the formation of color fringes that
are visible to an inspector. With transparent models of structures and
machine parts, it is possible to analyze strains under operating conditions.
Nonspecular materials. Surface flaws, irregularities in surface shape, pit
marks, scratches, and cracks in nonspecular or mat materials are most
easily seen by lighting which strikes the surface obliquely in such a manner
that nonuniform surface contours cast shadows. Wrinkles in roofing
materials are revealed by small shadows which the wrinkles cast when the
sheet is illuminated by a narrow light beam incident at a grazing angle.
Directional light also has been found useful for the inspection of sand-
paper and Venetian blinds. (See Fig. 14-6.) The light may be specular
for inspecting mat surfaces, but should be diffused at the source for ex-
amining polished or shiny materials.
Minute details and high precision. Careful inspection of very small
objects may be greatly simplified by viewing their magnified images. For
production work the magnified image may be projected on a screen. Be-
cause the projected silhouette is many times the actual size of the object,
any irregular shapes or improper spacings can be detected readily. Similar
devices are employed for the inspection of machine parts where accurate
dimensions and contours are essential. One typical device now in common
use projects an enlarged silhouette of the teeth of a gear on a profile chart.
10-104 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
METAL WORKING
Some very difficult seeing tasks are encountered in metal- working shops.
The difficulties are a result of many different causes, including the following
1. Low-reflectance metal surfaces result in low task brightnesses. The
rapid collection of oil and dirt further reduces reflectance and makes good
maintenance difficult.
2. Work and machine surfaces are of similar character and reflectance
FIG. 10-75. High-bay area lighted with 3-kilowatt mercury lamps in open re-
flectors.
10-106 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
FIG. 10-76 Local lighting of a large press. Four 400-watt mercury lamps in
dust -tight angle reflectors provide 40 footcandles on the working plane. They are
mounted 15 feet above the bed of the press.
FOUNDRY LIGHTING
The lighting requirements for foundry operations are about the same
whether the worker is making nonferrous metal, steel, or gray and malleable
iron castings, or whether the foundry is large and highly mechanized or
small and designed for job-lot work. Recommended levels of illumination
for foundries are given in Appendix Table A-l. Many operations such as
molding and core making involve nonspecular-surface seeing tasks. In
areas where such work is done, high-output luminaires can be installed
high above the floor without introducing glare. Smoke and steam cause
maintenance problems that are minimized through the use of the smallest
practicable number of easily maintained luminaires.
10-108 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
2. Inspection of the core-box sand filling for holes and other flaws.
3. Trimming fins and wire after baking, to finish the cores.
Two types of core boxes are in common use. One is made of metal and
the other of wood. Each type presents its own seeing problem. The
metal box has a specular finish. A low-brightness luminaire is recom-
mended. The wooden core box usually is painted black or varnished and
has about the same reflectance as sand and therefore does not contrast
with it.
In designing the localized-general lighting systems recommended for core
making, the luminaires are placed with their center line directly over the
edge of the bench used by the worker in performing the operation. This
minimizes reflected glare and shadows.
Molding area. The sand mold is formed by packing treated sand in a
flask about a pattern or it may be assembled entirely from sand cores pre-
viously formed and baked. The pattern is withdrawn after packing to
form a cavity in the sand. Sand cores are then placed within the mold to
complete its preparation. The flask comprises upper and lower halves
which, when assembled, form an enclosed cavity into which molten metal
is poured.
The seeing tasks involved in forming molds from treated sand are
1. Inspecting the pattern for foreign material.
2. Setting the pattern in the flask and packing sand around it.
3. Removing the pattern and inspecting the mold for loose sand and for
accuracy.
4. Inserting cores; operator must be able to see the core supports.
5. Smoothing mold surfaces, checking core position, and checking clear-
Grinding area. In grinding the operator removes excess metal and fins
from castings, grinding to contour, to a mark, or to a gauge. Protective
glassesworn by the operators often become fogged. The seeing task is
fairly severe.For hand- and swing-grinder operations, a general-lighting
system is recommended, for stationary grinders, a combination general-
and-supplementary-lighting system. Good practice for stationary grinders
isto locate the center line of the luminaires approximately 6 inches from
the edge of the wheel on the side toward the operator.
Sand-blasting or cleaning area. Three methods are used for cleaning
castings
1. Sand blasting in a blast room.
2. Sand blasting in a cabinet or on a rotary table.
3. Friction in a tumbling barrel.
The principal visual tasks are:
1. Handling castings.
Directing the blast stream (when manual).
2.
Inspecting the castings to see that they are clean.
3.
For lighting large sand-blast houses, a general-lighting system is recom-
mended. Luminaires should be located on the outside of the room direct-
ing light through protecting glass plates in the ceiling or walls so as to be
accessible for maintenance.
Chipping area. The dripper's job is to remove excess metal such as fins
from castings. A general-lighting system is recommended.
Inspection area. Inspection tasks are as varied as the multitude of
products that pass through the foundry. The inspector must determine
if castings are complete, if they have slag holes, or if there are cracks caused
by improper cooling, sand holes, cold shuts, and blows, and he must correct
surface appearance and correct match. The detection of cracks is the most
difficult seeing task.
Some inspection operations are very
simple and do not involve fine detail
or accurate discrimination. For more'
precise inspection, light should be
well diffused to minimize shadows in
cavity and cored molds. The lumi-
naires should be of large area and low
brightness and should be located over
the inspection bench or area. Either
a "light hood" luminaire or a two-
directional grid layout of linear lumi-
naires may be used. (See Fig. 10-80.)
Deep cavities and tubular areas may
require the use of small, shielded por-
table luminaires.
Yard lighting. Narrow-beam, incan-
descent-lamp reflectors, mounted either F a l°^°- .Wse-area, low-bright-
,, ., ., Ir.., ,. ness Jluminairejmstallation for foundry
on the sides of the buildings or on chipping and inspection area.
10-110 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
fences, poles, or steel towers are used for lighting industrial yards. Any
equipment exposed to the weather should be enclosed for protection
against moisture and dirt. A mounting height of 30 feet usually is con-
sidered a minimum. When very narrow beam projectors are used, careful
aiming and overlapping is required to eliminate shadows. Street-lighting
reflectors or refractors with widespread light distribution are used also.
TEXTILES
The seeing tasks in the textile field include both simple ones andsome
of the most severe found in industry. Recent improvements in various
kinds of textile machinery and methods have increased its productivity,
but at the same time have increased the severity of many visual tasks.
For example, in some weaving sheds one weaver now may operate as many
as thirty-six looms and it is necessary for him to see quickly and accurately.
The lighting requirements are determined by the color, weave, and fineness
of the material being fabricated as well as by the specific operation under
consideration. Textile operations can be classified into three groups ac-
cording to the type of fabric involved: (1) cotton, (2) silk and synthetic
fabrics, and (3) wool.
possible also for ends to break and cause a defect without the drop wires
falling and stopping the loom. These more obvious flaws must be noted
in addition to the smaller ones, such as a bent reed, too many ends through
one opening between the reeds, lint on the back of the loom which will in
time cause a break, etc.
Shadows are a real problem in a weave shed. Light sources in the back
aisle cast machine shadows on the work; those centered on the loom over
the work aisle may cast shadows of the weaver's head. The ideal location
for the luminaire is directly over the loom. To soften shadows, the lumi-
naire should be large in area. A standard dome-type reflector, mounted
over each loom, has been found satisfactory. One luminaire mounted
over the work alley between each pair of looms has some advantage in
initial cost; however, the resultant illumination is less desirable because of
the increased possibility of shadows.
Inspection. Inspection is a specialized task peculiar to each mill. A
minimum illumination level of 50 footcandles is recommended and higher
levels often are desirable.
on the entire length of the thread between them. The thread must be
seen against a low-reflectance background, consisting of various parts
of the machine. An illumination of not less than 30 footcandles is recom-
mended for white threads. When dark or tinted threads are used the
illumination should be from 50 to 75 footcandles.
10-114 IES LIGHTING HANDBOOK
Warping. The spools necessary to supply all the warp ends required
for a single section are mounted on the creel and are threaded through
the appropriate spacing devices (reeds) and tension-control apparatus.
(See Fig. 10-83.) All the ends in one section are gathered together in a
single knot and hooked to a pin on the reel. As the reel rotates, the
yardage is indicated on a large dial. After a section has been completed,
knotted, and tied, the next section is placed on the reel alongside the first
by exactly the same process until the required number of warp ends has
been obtained.
Through the action drop wires at the top of the creel, the machine
of
will stop automatically an end breaks or the tension fails. If the break
if
occurs at the creel, it usually is possible to locate both ends and splice
them directly, but if it occurs at the reeds, the location of the end on the
creel is somewhat more difficult.
Good illumination on the creel is necessary to enable the operator to
locate and repair the broken ends and to place new cones, the threads of
which must be tied to the ends of the threads on the cones in use.
The recommended illumination at the top of the creel is 50 footcandles
or more, with the greatest practicable uniformity throughout.
— "— '
" ".•///•//. '."^'/vv^ /V ;Avyy/ 1
^/..'. '/;;///?///////////////////
REEL
0-
DIFFUSING GLASS
ILLUMINATED FROM BEHIND
clarity of the naphtha coming from the washer. This, dirt can best be
seen in silhouette against a white background while it is passing through
the filter gauge.
Dry cleaning by the synthetic solvent 'process. This process differs from
the naphtha type in using a nonexplosive solvent and a closed system.
The seeing tasks are related to loading and unloading the cylinder and
reading the various temperature, pressure, and flow gauges. Light
should be directed into the cy finder and toward the gauges from locations
such that an image of the source will not be formed in the field of view.
Examining and spotting. The dry-cleaning process takes practically
all of the oil and grease out of stains of various types unless it is ground
into the fabric very firmly. Nearly always, however, some spots remain
to be taken out by water spotting. Many stains have characteristic
colors by which they may be identified by a skilled "spotter."
Through long experience this workman is trained to detect, classify
as to type, and remove all types of spots after choosing the proper chemicals.
The critical seeing task lies in detecting the spot and its type. An explana-
tion for the usual large number of the garments rejected during final
inspection, for most of those sent back by customers, and for many garments
stained by chemicals during spotting, can be found in the inability of the
spotter to see the stains and identify them.
After the washing process, spots present a very subdued appearance
with little contrast between themselves and the material. Also, the
reflectance of many materials has a strong specular component. It is
current practice for spotters to work under a screened skylight or along
north-wall windows. Here when the weather is favorable the illumination
between 50 and 200 footcandles and the light is well diffused.
level varies
Except on dark days and in direct sunlight, the natural illumination is
considered satisfactory by most cleaners. Electrical illumination used
to extend the working hours should blend well in color with daylight.
(See Section 4.'
CANDY MANUFACTURING
In compliance with stringently enforced pure food laws and to foster
good will, progressive candy manufacturers utilize every means for promot-
ing cleanliness and efficient plant operation. New plants are constructed
to utilize the greatest possible amount of daylight, but some still have
inadequate and inefficient electric-lighting systems.
Chocolate Making
In the manufacture of choco-
late, the cacao beans first are
toasted and then are passed
through shell-removing ma-
chines. The bean then is con-
veyed by gravity feed to the
crushers which press out liquid
cacao butter. After milling
and mixing with powdered
milk and confectionery sugar,
the pulverized beans are pressed
through a series of rollers and
then mixed with the cacao
butter in a conche.
Many of these operations
are gravity fed and utilize por-
tions of two or three floors in
a large plant with conveyors
or chutes passing through the mmm7MW77777/M77777777777M777m777777M77777777777777/
floors. There is very little FIG. 10-89. Typical five-roller refiner.
adjustments are made at the five
handwork because practically Periodic
rollers. Light should be distributed so as to
all processes described are illuminate the entire refining area.
INTERIOR LIGHTING 10-121
confined to the inside of hoppers, refiners, conches, and other machines. Con-
sequently, no difficult seeing tasks are encountered in chocolate manufacture.
A level of illumination of not less than 10 footcandles is recommended
for the chocolate-processing sections of the plant. However, 25 footcandles
is recommended for the five rollers of the roller mill, where a careful setting
of the rollers must be made periodically. Supplementary lighting, having
a predominant vertical component, should be used at this point. (See
Fig. 10-89.)
Chocolate Dipping
Dipping is carried on in various sections of large plants, because this
arrangement facilitates the manufacture and minimizes the conveyance
of the different fillings. Dipping tables generally are located symmetrically
in the area provided, with the operator sitting beside a depressed section
of the table. Drippings from the operator's fingers are set in a design on
top of the candy for decoration. The dipper must see the relative position
of the drippings from the hand over the confection in order to make a
neat and orderly design. A diffuse, uniformly distributed illumination
level of not less than 20 footcandles on the work should be provided in
each dipping room.
Cream Making
Glucose, which is the base for most creams and fillings, is cooked, beaten
by paddles, then remelted and recooked to increase its viscosity. It
is then flavored, beaten again, and finally pressure-formed in plaster-of-
Kiss Wrapping
A kiss-wrapping production line consists of many individual kiss-
wrapping machines, arranged on both sides of a belt conveyor. General
illumination of not less than 10 footcandles should be provided over the
entire area, with supplementary lighting of 50 footcandles at the critical
seeing points. These vary in location with the type of wrapping machine.
LIGHT
REQUIRED IN \
THIS DIRECTION \
TO COOLING
CONVEYOR
In an ordinary type character, the edges where the bevel joins the
shoulder and at the face are rounded by use into tens of thousands of con-
cave and convex mirrors. (See Fig. 10-93.)
INTERIOR LIGHTING 10-125
FACE SHOULDER
I, EYE EYE
//
* [I ^ 14 /
/ /// / /
; //; // if/
1
'/ v"
r
-PLANE MIRROR 2- CONCAVE MIRROR 3- CONVEX MIRROR TYPE
FIG. 10-93. Reflections from type (above) If the light source is small in area reflec-
:
tions will be glaring, (at left) In an ordinary form there are many thousands of
tiny filets and rounded corners that act as concave and convex mirrors to reflect light
into the eye. (at right) When a large low-brightness source is used characters
become more legible because glare is minimized.
:
FIG. Luminaire
1. The luminaire used should have
10-94. for composi-
tors in printing establishment. a low uniform brightness. This ex-
cludes any fixture with bare or frosted
incandescent lamps that are partially exposed in the direction of the type.
2. The luminous area of the fixture must be large.
3. The image of the luminaire visible to the worker should cover the
entire form.
4. The illumination level at the type should be not less than 50 foot-
candles.
Machine Composition
Linotype, Intertype, and Monotype machines usually are equipped with
equipment by the manufacturers. Fluorescent-lamp lumin-
local lighting
aires should include two lamps operated out of phase to minimize
stroboscopic effect. Large-area, low-brightness luminaires should be
used to provide the minimum recommended illumination level of 30 foot-
candles.
Press Room
On the bed of a typical two-revolution flat-bed cylinder press, it is
necessary to discriminate fine detail during make-ready and register
operations. A minimum general illumination of 30 footcandles is recom-
mended.
Pressmen need a large-area, low-brightness light source, such as
recommended composing table and type case, but low head room
for the
under the feed board interferes with a simple overhead installation.
Fluorescent-lamp luminaires also are well adapted to this application.
INTERIOR LIGHTING 10-127
Color Reproduction
All persons who are responsible for quality control in color reproduction
should use illumination of the same spectral characteristics. A screened
table illuminated to a level
of 50 footcandles of con-
stant known spectral dis-
tribution is recommended
for color inspection. It
may be used with uniform,
equally satisfactory results
by day and night shifts.
It should be conveniently
located with respect to a
group of presses. The
screening surfaces should
have a nonselective reflec-
tance, that is, they must be
either neutral white, gray,
or black. A color-inspec-
tion table may be combined
with a mark-out booth. FIG. 10-95.Combination inspection and mark-
out booth. Note eye-shield or baffle for elimina-
(See Fig. 10-95.) tion of glare when observing type impression.
VAPORPROOF
METAL BOX
Special Equipment
Special lighting equipment often is required, such as that for illuminating
SHOE MANUFACTURING
Shoe-manufacturing processes may be separated into three groups ac-
cording to the type of seeing tasks involved in each:
1. Simple seeing tasks include:
Leather-Shoe Manufacturing
In a sole department, leather, sorted for grain and
Sole department.
thickness, stored in 5- to 6-foot piles on low platforms which are ar-
is
over the aisles so as to illuminate the bins in order that lasts may be
selected.
To improve the lighting in the rear of the bin, wedges of aluminum may
be laid across and fastened to the base of each bin at the front. The sides
DEPARTMENT FOOT-
CANDLES
LEATHER SHOES
Storage and Sole Leather Department
Leather storage 10
Vamp storage 10
Last storage 10
Beam dinkers 20
Miscellaneous areas and aisles 5
General illumination 10
Stitching \Light material 30
[Dark material 100
Office and stock room 30
Making Department
Stitchers, rough rounders, nailers, sole layers,
shank nailers, welt beaters, trimmers, welt
scarfers, welters, tack pullers, lasters, pull- Light material 20
overs, edge setters, edge trimmers, breasters, Dark material 100
sluggers, levelers, randers, wheelers, channel
layers
Sorting and storage areas 10
Aisles 5
/Light material 20
T r eers IDark material 100
Embossing, spraying, cleaning, scourers, buffers, JLight material 20
polishers, hand repairers \Dark material 100
Benches 20
RUBBER SHOES
Coaters and mill run compounding 10
Varnishing, vulcanizing, calenders, coating, upper and sole cutting 30
Sole rolling, lining, cutting, and all making operations 50
Office 30
Aisles 5
10-132 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
Reflected light from the polished working surface of the machine should
be cast over the right shoulder of the operator, between him and the opera-
tor on his right. This position also provides a secondary shadow across
the leather just ahead of the needle point which improves visibility at the
point of work because of the increased contrast.
For specialized work in this department such as eyeletting, buttonholing,
perforating, etc., machines are used which have relatively large overhangs.
These cause bad shadows when illumination is provided by luminaires
mounted overhead. It is recommended that a local lighting system be
used to supplement the uniform general illumination.
In all cases levels of illumination of not less than 20 footcandles should
be provided on the work.
Making department. The making department in the average plant is
subdivided according to operations as follows: (1) vamping; (2) welt-
bottoming; (3) bottoming; (4) heeling; (5) turning; and (6) standard,
screw, nail, or pegged shoe making.
In some plants this department is called the gang room and occupies an
entire floor.
Usually this department is located in the factory area with the highest
natural illumination level. A general electrical-lighting system also
should be installed to provide 20 footcandles. Local lighting should be
used to supplement the natural and electric lighting not only to provide
at all times the high levels of illumination required at the work, but also
to mitigate shadowsoverhanging machine parts.
of
and nailing machines may be illuminated
Lasters, sole layers, levelers,
by diffused light. The source location is not critical. Other machines in
the making department should be illuminated from the rear and to the
right of the operator. The vertical as well as horizontal illumination level
is most important. For recommended levels see Table 10-15.
Finishing room. In the finishing room shoes are inspected and faults
are corrected. Treeing machines are used in this area for ironing out
wrinkles. From here the shoe goes to the final inspection and thence to
the packers and shippers. A uniform illumination level of 20 footcandles
is recommended for this work if the materials have a high reflectance, and
Rubber-Shoe Manufacturing
In rubber-shoe manufacturing plants typical operations include the
following: (1) washing; (2) compounding and milling; (3) cutting and
calendering; (4) drying; (5) sole rolling and cutting; (6) making; (7) var-
nishing and vulcanizing; and (8) packing and shipping.
In the washing department crude rubber is cut up by band saws. A
uniform general illumination level of 10 footcandles is recommended for
10-134 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
washing and cutting and also for the compound and mill area except where
hoods are placed over the compounding machines. In such cases local
lighting should be provided by luminaires installed under the hood with a
reflector directed at the point of work.
As materials pass over the cutting and calendering machines, care must
be taken to see that the coating is applied correctly. Calenders, especially
the three- or four-roller type, should be lighted by luminaires on both sides
of the machines. The light should be well diffused to avoid sharp shadows
and glare.
After cutting or gumming, rolls go to the drying room where they are
dried by steam heat. Where this department is confined to the center of
the building and has no direct general ventilation, there is an explosion
hazard. Where such is the case, explosion-proof or vapor-proof lighting
units are recommended. Supplementary lighting equipment provides
light at both front and rear ends of the sole rolling machine. An illumina-
tion level of 30 footcandles is recommended.
In the sole and upper cutting department, operators work rapidly with
sharp knives. A uniform illumination level of at least 30 footcandles
throughout the area is recommended. Luminaires should be mounted as
high as possible. In some plants beam dinkers are used. These should be
lighted in the manner described on page 10-130.
The making department is the most important in this type of plant.
All parts are supplied, cut to shape, to bench workers who use cement to
attach and complete a shoe. In some cases there is a shelf or rack over the
center of the bench, extending its entire length. The lasts are placed on
this shelf and if luminaires are placed over this shelf and hung low, the
shelf causes a sharp shadow on the working areas of the bench. A general
lighting installation producing not less than 50 footcandles on the work
is recommended.
In the varnishing and vulcanizing areas, a uniform illumination level of
about 30 footcandles is recommended.
FOOTCANDLES
LOCATION MAINTAINED FOOTLAMBERTS
IN SERVICE*
Boilers 10
Bottle storage 10 —
Bottle sorting 50 —
Bottle washers 250f
Cap washers 20
Cleaning fittings and pipes. 200$
Cooling equipment 20
Filling and inspection 50 —
Gauges 30 on facet —
Laboratories 50 —
Loading platforms 10 .
* These footcandle values represent order of magnitude rather than exact levels of illumination.
f See text for explanatory details.
j Brightness of luminous area toward which the workman sights through pipe.
Bottle-Storage Rooms
In bottle-storage rooms necessary to pick out foreign articles, remove
it is
caps, sort out very dirty and foreign bottles, and to sort and segregate
various types such as retail and store bottles. A minimum illumination
level of 50 footcandles should be maintained throughout sorting areas.
A uniform illumination level of 10 footcandles is recommended for the re-
maining portion of the bottle-storage room.
Bottle Washers
One of the most difficult problems in a modern dairy is to light milk
bottles as they are discharged from a bottle-washing machine so that
foreign matter, fractures, etc., are quickly and easily seen.
Method of operation. The complete operating cycle of a typical bottle-
washing machine lasts 6 seconds. The clean bottles stand still (up-ended)
for 1^ seconds in full view of the operator, at a distance of 40 inches. Dur-
ing this time (0.2 second per bottle) he inspects them while picking up a
load of dirty bottles. If the dirty bottles do not require his attention, he
may have a fraction of the remaining 4| seconds to inspect some of the
clean ones as they move out. General illumination of not less than 20
footcandles should be provided, supplemented with a minimum of 50 foot-
candles of well-diffused light at the loading end of the washer.
10-136 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
*.'#
Inspection. Bottles are inspected both while being placed in the washer
and after discharge from the washer. The purpose of the inspection is to
discard foreign or store bottles; bottles stained beyond recovery; bottles
with chipped necks or cracks; and incompletely washed bottles. Foreign
bodies such as paper caps, wire, and nails must be removed.
It was found experimentally that inspection of bottles silhouetted against
a low-brightness luminous surface as in Fig. 10-99 is the most efficient
method. A luminous inspection panel may be incorporated in the un-
loading mechanism in the form
of an inspection light-box. A
typical box consists of a sheet-
metal enclosure containing
lamps and auxiliary equip-
ment, the open front of which
is covered with a translucent
plastic sheet. The assembly
is placed in the unloading
mechanism in such a way that
when the bottles are pushed
out of the washer they are sil-
houetted against the luminous
FIG. 10-100. Illumination of bottle washers panel. Incomplete washing,
which cannot be modified to accommodate a cracks, chips, foreign matter
luminous panel may be improved by installing
in the bottles, etc., can be
a large-area luminaire directly above the in-
spection end. detected readily. (See also
Fig. 10-100.)
A maximum brightness of 500 footlamberts is permissible with 250 foot-
lamberts the preferred value.
.
Manufacturing Areas
General lighting equipment in a fluid milk plant should provide an il-
lumination level of at least 20 footcandles. The light should be well
diffused. Rooms should be finished with ceiling reflectance of 75 per cent
or more and with side-wall reflectance of from 50 to 60 per cent.
The lighting should be such that there will be no specular images of the
light sources formed on the surface of a bottle, whether empty or full, that
will interfere with the proper inspection of the bottle or the finished product.
The distribution characteristics and spacing of luminaires should be such
that no sharp shadows will be cast. Areas adjacent to walls or corners
should not fall below an illumination level of at least 10 footcandles.
REFERENCES
To supplement the condensed Handbook treatment, the Recommended Practices of the Illuminating
Engineering Society listed on page 10-28 and many papers in the Transactions of the Illuminating Engineering
Society (through 1939) and in Illuminating Engineering (1940 and later) including the following taken prima-
rilyfrom those appearing between 1937 and 1947, will be found helpful. Details of outstanding lighting in-
be found in current I.E.S. Lighting Data Sheets.
stallations in various fields will
5. McCandless, S. R., "An Outline of a Course in Lightin g for Architects," May, 1931
6. Potter, W. M., and Meaker, P., "Luminous Architectural Elements," December, 1931.
7. Vaughan, M. S., "The Influence of Architecture and Decoration on Residence Lighting," November,
1937.
8. Schweizer, A C, "Light as Decoration and as an Art," May, 1939.
9. Rolfe, W. T., "An Architect Looks at Illumination," April, 1940.
10. Irvin, R. W., "The Relation of Lighting to Interior Design," June, 1940.
11. Woodside, C. S., "Cove Lighting Design." March, 1936.
12. Owings, N. A., "The Illuminating Engineer and the Architect," June, 1942.
Maintenance
13. Beggs, E. W.j "Planning for Maintenance," December, 1941.
14. Gaetjens, A. K., "Lighting Maintenance in War Industry Plants," luly, 1942.
15. Davis, \V., "Solving Lighting Maintenance Problems in Aircraft Plants," April, 1945.
16. Gaetjens, A. K., "A Guide to Realistic Maintenance Factors for Lighting Installations," May, 1945
23. Fahsbender, M., "Practical Aspects of Farm Home Lighting," July, 1939.
24. Recommended Practice in the Construction and Illumination Performance of Residential Luminaires,
July, 1939.
25. Randall, W. C,
and Martin, A. J., "Daylighting in the Home," March, 1931.
26. Fahsbender, M., and Slauer, R. G., "Fluorescent Lamp Applications in the Home," September, 1940.
27. Little, W. F., "Progress in Rating Residence Luminaires," December, 1940
28. Commery, E. W., McKinlay, H.G.,and Webber, M.E. /'Residence Blackout Methods and Materials,"
September, 1942.
29. "Recommended Practice of Home Lighting," June, 1945.
30. "Dairy Farm Lighting," Lighting News, September, 1938.
Office Lighting
Store Lighting
37. Stair, J. L., Foulks, W. V. C,"What's Newin Store Lighting," January, 1938.
38. Wolff, F. M., "A New Trend in Window Display Lighting," January, 1938.
39. Harrison, W., and Spaulding, H. T., "Overcoming Daylight Reflections in Show Windows," Decem-
ber, 1922.
40. Alexander, H. M., "Practical Aspects of Luminous Storefronts," March, 1939.
41. Gilleard, G., "Illumination Designed for Buying in Self-Service Food Stores," June, 1940.
42. "New Model Store at Chicago Lighting Institute," Lighting News, July, 1940.
43. Wolff, F. M., "The Illumination of Jewelry and Tableware," May, 1941.
44. Stair, J. L., and Foulks, W., "New Technique in Display Lighting," March, 1942.
45. Allison, R. C, "Merchandising with Light," September, 1944.
46. "Worcester Chain Store Lighting Attractive," November, 1944.
47. "Dress Shop Utilizes Combination Lighting," November, 1944.
48. Owings, N. A., "Comments on Lighting Layout and Design," December, 1944.
49. Chapin, R. J., "Post War Requirements of Department Store Lighting," December, 1944.
50. Welch, K. C, "Economics of Store Lighting," December, 1944.
51. Sturrock, W., and Shute, J. M., "Effect of Light on the Drawing Power of the Show Window," Decem-
ber, 1922.
52. "New 40-watt Reflector Showcase LampAnnounced," Lighting News, July, 1939.
School Lighting
53. Albert, F. C, "Scholarship Improved by Light," December, 1933.
54. Dearborn, R. L., "A Study of Brightness, Distribution and Control of Classroom Lighting," September,
1937.
55.Brown, L. H., "The Control of Natural Light in Classrooms," June, 1939.
56. Caverly, D. P., "An Analysis of Photoelectric Classroom Lighting Control," September, 1939.
57. "Recommendations for Classroom Lighting," Lighting News, June, 1940.
58. Brown, L. H., "The Design of Classrooms for High Level Daylight Illumination," March, 1941.
59. Luckiesh, M., and Moss, F. K., "Effects of Classroom Lighting upon Educational Progress and Visual
Welfare of School Children," December, 1940.
60. Slauer, R. G., "Brightness Limits of Wisconsin School Lighting Code," January, 1945.
61. Harmon, D. 6., "Lighting and Child Development," April, 1945.
62. Biesele, R. L., Jr., Folsom, W. E., and Graham, V. J., "Control of Natural Light in Classrooms," Sep-
tember, 1945.
Industrial Lighting
EXTERIOR LIGHTING
Exterior-lighting applications discussed in this section are various types
of electrical advertising and decoration, including signs, luminous com-
mercial fronts, and floodlighting. Lighting for gardens, pools, fountains
and waterfalls and for the prevention of sabotage, theft, and accident also
is discussed.
Illumination for outdoor sports is covered in Section 12, and Section 13
describes current lighting practice for transportation areas, including streets
and highways, railroads, and airports.
ELECTRIC-SIGN CHARACTERISTICS
Outdoor electric signs may be classified as follows:
1. Exposed incandescent lamp signs.
2. Enclosed lamp signs.
3. Silhouette signs.
4. lamp signs.
Electric-discharge
5. Combination signs (incandescent and discharge lamps).
6. Poster panels, panel signs, and wall signs.
They may be evaluated from two interrelated approaches: legibility and
advertising effectiveness.
Size. Physical location, desired legibility range, and character bright-
ness determine the minimum letter height required for legibilty. However,
to attain advertising effectiveness, letter heights of twice minimum height
generally are employed for legibility. Vertical columns of letters, though
usually an aid in increasing the apparent size of a sign, are more difficult
to read than horizontal columns.
FIG. 11-1. This spectacular exposed lamp sign in Times Square, New York City,
isover a city block long. Approximately 30,000 lamps are flashed in sequence to
suggest motion of the figures in the display.
EXTERIOR LIGHTING 11-3
S = MVP
1,000
o
o o
co
o
CO
o
"5
o
IO
LO
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11-6 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
incandescent lamps with colored glass bulbs or clear bulbs with colored
If
accessories are employed, lower letter brightness will result than when equal
wattage lamps with clear bulbs are used alone.
For equal advertising effectiveness colored surfaces require less brightness
than neutral surfaces as shown in Table 11-3.
10 15 10 10 25 25 50
15 15 10 10 25 25 50
25 25 25 25 50 50 50
40 50 50 50 50 60 60
60 eo 60 60 100 100 150
100 100 100 100 150 150 200
* Color similar to that of sign surface; 100-watt or larger lamps require color hoods,
t Color of sign surface and lamp to which white or inside frost rating compares.
Lamp types. For exposed lamp signs located where rain or snow could
fall on relatively hot glass, vacuum-type incandescent lamps are recom-
mended. They are available in 6-, 10-, 25-, and 40-watt ratings in both
clear and colored bulbs, and in 25- and 50 -watt ratings in daylight bulbs.
Inside-coated or colored-bulb lamps are recommended in exposed lamp
signs, since their color is more stable than that of outside coated lamps.
Reflector signs. Efficient reflectors can be employed to direct light to
areas in which it is most useful and create letter brightnesses several times
that of a corresponding letter without reflectors.
Typical polished reflector equipment is shown in Fig. ll-4a and a com-
plete letter using such equipment is shown in Fig. ll-4b. The reflecting
device consists of a small polished reflector with a medium-screw base that
will fit into standard sockets. This reflector uses a 3-, 6-, or 7-watt, cande-
labra- or a 6- or 10-watt, intermediate-base lamp. Either clear or colored
glass roundels in prismatic designs are placed over the reflector opening.
Where excellent side-angle brightness is a requirement, cover glasses should
be employed. For equal advertising value over a limited area in certain
directions, polished reflectors, if used, may result in a rebuction in required
wattage as great as 75 per cent.
Enclosed lamp signs employ light sources enclosed with glass, plastic, or
other light-transmitting materials. The letters or designs usually are
opaque but may be etched in light-transmitting material.
EXTERIOR LIGHTING 11-7
rugated cross section forms many source images and spreads them
in a broad pattern over its surface.
11-* I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
Silhouette signs are those in which opaque letters, designs, etc., are lo-
cated in front of a luminous background and appear in silhouette against
it. Figure 11-5 shows typical silhouette signs.
Effective range. Enclosed lamp and silhouette signs do not have as great
effective range as similar exposed lamp signs because contrast between
letters or designs and background is reduced by loss of brightness in the
enclosures.
The maximum range purposes of enclosed
of effectiveness for advertising
lamp and approximately 1,000 feet.
silhouette signs is
ulO
QP
5 z 'w= 0.125 N. W=l.5 IN. w =3 INA
DO !
r-4
- U
X LU
< DC
F
E*
* + i ,1
5 1
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
WIDTH OF LETTER STROKE IN PER CENT
OF LETTER HEIGHT
For block letters of a width equal to three-fifths of the height and a ratio
of stroke to height of 0.15, the minimum letter height is given by the
formula
H a =
440
where H = minimum
letter height for advertis-
a
ing and quick reading (feet)
R = maximum range of advertising ef-
fectiveness of sign (feet)
Smaller letters will have less advertising value, but will be recognized
readily if their heights are not less than the values determined by the
formula
D_
H T
=
660
12 16 20 24 28 32
HEIGHT OF LETTERS IN INCHES
FIG. 11-8. Effect of height on easy recognition distance of an
opaque block letter on a luminous background for various stroke
per height ratios. The test object (10 inch x 7 inch letter E) was
viewed against a 72 inch x 35 inch panel with brightness of 120
footlamberts under the same conditions as in Fig. 11-7. To obtain
distance values for other panel brightnesses, multiply the value
from this graph corresponding to the proper letter size by the
distance factor obtained from Fig. 11-9.
Brightness and size of illuminated background also affect the maximum
distance at which a sign is effective and readily recognizable. Curves
showing the effect of luminous area on distance for ready recognition are
given in Fig. 11-9. In determining luminous area, deductions should be
made for the area obstructed by the letters.
FIG. 11 9. Effect of a
partially obscured lumi-
nous background area on
easy recognition distance
for an opaque block letter
viewed against it. Unity
on the relative distance
scale corresponds to 552
feet for a test object (10
inch high letter E, 1.5
inch stroke) viewed
against a panel of the
same size and brightness
o
as in Fig. 11-8. To ob-
net luminous area in square feet (unobscured) tain maximum ready rec-
ognition distance for a letter of another size, obtain the value for a letter of that size
from Fig. 11-8 and multiply that value by the distance factor.
EXTERIOR LIGHTING 11-11
Wedge Signs
A wedge sign is a double-
faced, stick-out type of sign,
as indicated in Fig. 11-10.
With lamps placed in a par-
abolic trough reflector at the
wall side of the wedge,
acceptable brightness uni-
formity of the translucent
side panels results when
panels are sloped at an angle
of approximately 18 de-
grees.
Fascia Signs
-p , ,
Table 11-5 gives the average brightness of opal glass panels covering one,
two, and three rows of incandescent lamps, respectively, for different lamp
wattages and for various relationships of cavity size and lamp spacings.
4 4 2.5 4 6 6 10 10
6 6 4 6 — 6-10 10 15 15 25
9 8 6 9 10 15 25 25 40 40
12 10 8 12 15 25 25-40 40 50 60
18 15 12 18 25 40 60 75 100 150
24 19 16 24 40 60 100 100 150 200
30 23 20 30 60 100 150 150 200 300
36 28 24 36 75 150 200 200 300 300-500
48 37 32 48 100 200 300 300 500 750
18 8 6 9 10 15 15-25 25 40 40-50
24 11 8 12 15 25 25-40 40 50-60 60-75
30 13 10 15 15-25 40 40-50 60 75 100
36 15 12 18 25 40-50 60 75 100 100-150
48 20 16 24 40 60-75 100 100 150-200 200
60 25 20 30 50-60 100 150 150-200 200-300 300
72 30 24 36 75 150 200 200 300 300-500
84 35 28 42 100 150 200 300 500 500
96 40 32 48 100 200 300 300-500 500 750
30 11 8 10 10 15 25 25-40 40 50
36 13 10 12 15 25 25-40 40 50-60 60-75
42 15 11 14 15 25-40 40 50 60-75 75
48 18 13 16 25 40 50 60 75 100
60 21 16 20 25-40 50 60-75 75 100 150
72 24 19 24 40 60-75 100 100-150 150 200
84 29 23 29 60 100 100-150 150 200 300
90 32 26 32 60 100 150 200 200-300 300
Illuminated block letters are suitable for use at low mounting heights.
Each letter of this type of sign is an indivilual closed lamp sign for which
data is given on Page 11-6.
11-14 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
2 65 18 750
3 100 24 1,000
4 150 30 1,250
6 200 36 1,500
8 350 42 1,750
9 400 48 2,000
10 450 54 2,250
12 525 60 2,500
15 630 72 3,000
Poster panels and panel signs embrace that classification of signs in which
the advertising message is illuminated by lamps in angle or floodlighting
reflectors, located remotely from the sign's surface. Such signs usually
are not effective at long range, but at relatively short distances they carry
color and detail effectively.
Fundamental principles which should be followed in order to ensure an
efficient and effective panel sign are:
1. To provide uniform illumination over entire sign face. See Table 11-9.
2. To make the brightness of sign sufficient so that it will stand out in
contrast with its immediate surroundings.
3. To permit neither direct nor reflected glare.
4. To make the lighting equipment inconspicuous. It should be located
so that it will not interfere with the view of the sign.
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EXTERIOR LIGHTING 11-17
& 4
2 to 4 2h 21 5 50 75 100
5 to 6 3^ 3 6 75 100 150
7 to 8 4 H 61 100 150 200
9 to 12 5 4 8 150 200 300
13 to 16 64 5 10 200 300 500
17 to 21 9 61 13 300 500 750
22 to 25 12 8§ 17 500 750 1,000
25 to 30 15 10 20 750 1,000
llf x 25f 5 4i 8§ 150 200 300
12$ x 42} 5| 81 150 200 300
18 x 72§ 8h 6 12 200 300 500
* For low-reflectance sign faces use the recommended lamp size for the next brighter surround,
t Standard poster panel. | Standard City bulletin. Note: These spacings should not be exceeded, and
§ Railroad or highway bulletin. closer spacing will result in a higher sign face
brightness.
COMMERCIAL FRONTS
Luminous many commercial buildings for the
fronts are incorporated in
primary purpose an exterior appearance of maximum attraction.
of creating
Such fronts incorporate luminous areas or elements arranged in such a
manner as to increase the individuality of a structure. They provide a
conservative and dignified way of achieving distinction, of advertising, and
of attracting customers. (See Fig. 11-14.)
Commercial buildings may have their entire front luminous or have only
certain areas luminous, such as fascia signs, panels, pilasters, or spandrels.
There is no limit to the variety and diversity of treatment which a
luminous front may receive, particularly that type of front which employs
transmitted light. Close co-operation between illuminating engineer and
architect is recommended.
Luminous front design. Usually the design of a luminous front is a four-
fold function. It concerns the show window, signs, and luminous elements.
The factors influencing the design of lighting for show windows are given
on pages 10-73 to 10-74. Data on signs are given on pages 11-1 to 11-17.
The design of luminous elements concerns the characteristics of the
materials to be made luminous with respect to the light control and light
pattern which they afford, and also the characteristics of the applicable
light sources. Formulas and tables will be found on page 8-34.
For the purpose of attracting maximum attention, it usually is desirable
to have certain portions (fascia signs, important advertising areas, show
windows, etc.) brightest so that these portions will retain their function
of attracting customer attention.
For any given position of an element of constant size, the glare effect
increases with its brightness. For this reason, extra care should be exer-
cised in selecting the value of brightness for very large luminous areas.
Large elements may have a lower brightness than smaller elements for
equal advertising effectiveness.
Table 11-4 (page 11-11) gives recommended brightness values for a
variety of signs and elements applicable in the design of luminous fronts.
The higher an element is above eye level, the brighter it must be for
equal effectiveness. Luminous decorations at the top of a four-story
building, for example, should be at least double the brightness of the same
element located at eye level.
EXTERIOR FLOODLIGHTING
Outdoor areas may be floodlighted with utility, advertising, or decoration
as the primary objective. Utility floodlighting such as for modern airports
and similar areas is discussed in Section Sports floodlighting is covered
13.
in Section 12. Floodlighting commercial, and industrial
of public,
buildings, monuments, museums, etc., covered here, usually is considered
to be for advertising purposes. Floodlighting for decoration (advertising
value may be associated with it) includes that of gardens, exhibitions,
fairs,fountains, waterfalls, etc.
Floodlighting for decorative and advertising purposes is essentially an
art rather than a science. No matter how carefully equipment is placed,
unless it is properly adjusted after the installation is complete the results
will not be satisfactory. When color is used it is frequently advisable to
use a blend of colors in order to produce the desired effect.
Under certain conditions changing color has been used effectively. Such
effects are most readily secured by using a dimmer on the white light to
wash out the colored light gradually, at intervals.
EXTERIOR LIGHTING 11-19
Design Procedure
In designing floodlighting installations the following procedure may be
used:
1. Determine the
effect desired. Where the job is a large one, prepare
an conception of the completed job. The normal viewing location
artist's
is important. For example, a building with projectors mounted on offsets
and directed upward at a sharp angle may appear mediocre when viewed
from ground level and yet be very attractive when viewed from an airplane.
Good visibility from a train often is effective with national organization
properties such as insurance company buildings.
2. Determine the location of the floodlights.
3. Determine the desired level of illumination. See Table 11-10.
4. Select the proper type of equipment.
5. Determine the required number and the lamp wattage rating of the
floodlights.
6.Check the uniformity and coverage of lighting.
Formulas and tabular data are given on pages 25 and 8-26.
SURROUND
INITIAL
SURFACE MATERIAL REFLECT-
ANCE Bright Average Dark
(per cent)
footcandles
Note: Buildings or areas of materials having a reflectance of less than 20 per cent usually cannot be flood-
lighted economically unless they carry a large amount of high-reflectance trim.
11-20 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
Equal illumination 2 6 15 25
Equal advertising or decoration 1.5 2 4 6
Floodlighting of Buildings
2. Shadows cast should look like those cast by the sun. In those cases
where a duplication of natural shadows cannot be effected, it is desirable
that shadows present an interesting pattern. They should not destroy
the basic form and depth of a building's architecture.
3. Walls and other flat surfaces should be illuminated to a level that will
reveal their texture and character.
4. A building should be integrated with the area about it by illuminating
sufficient surrounding area, in other words, a building shQuld not appear
suspended but rather oriented with adjacent grounds, slopes, stairs, plazas,
etc.
5. Floodlighting equipment should be inconspicuously located and should
not introduce glare in the field of view of persons normally observing the
building.
The location of building floodlights depends upon local conditions.
Ordinarily, four locations may —
be considered on adjacent buildings, on
adjacent ground, on the building itself, or on ornamental street standards.
(See Fig. 11-16, also Fig. 8-3.)
Light spilled by improperly shielded and located floodlights mounted
on adjacent buildings may annoy the occupants of those buildings. Changes
in the adjacent buildings or in their ownership might necessitate a change
in the installation. The need for independent metering often is a handicap
to such an installation.
Floodlights located on the ground should be shielded with shrubs, bushes,
etc., to make them inconspicuous and to shield observers' eyes from glare.
Many buildings have niches or ledges or marquees that will adequately
accommodate floodlights. When these do not exist, it may be practicable
to construct special balconies, canopies, or troughs to house the equipment.
In the case of buildings with setback construction, floodlights may be
located on the parapet at each setback.
Ornamental floodlights or lanterns may be mounted on street standards.
—
These usually are equipped with two lamps one lamp is used with an
adjustable reflector for floodlighting and the other lamp illuminates the
lantern and eliminates the black spot caused by the floodlighting reflector.
An ornamental lantern presents a better daytime appearance than the
ornamental floodlight but usually is limited in successful application to
buildings not over three or four stories high.
Illumination level. Adequate illumination for any building is given in
Table 1 1-10 for various surround brightnesses and building materials. Table
11-11 will be of assistance if color is to be used. If a building is located
in an area which normally is crowded, it sometimes is advisable to reduce
the brightness on the lower portion of the building to prevent possible
annoyance to pedestrian and motor traffic. In the case of very tall build-
ings, where it is desirable to have an appearance of even brightness distri-
bution over the entire surface, more illumination will be necessary on the
higher portions of the building. (See page 8-25 for design calculation
data.)
EXTEKIOR LIGHTING 11-23
FIG. 11-16. Building floodlights may be mounted (a) on adjacent buildings, (b)
on adjacent ground, (c) on street standards, (d) on the building to be lighted.
11-24 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
adjacent setbacks. A
means of accomplishing this desirable result is to
leave the upper portion of each setback comparatively darker than the
lower portion of the next higher setback.
GARDEN LIGHTING
In lighting gardens, composi-
tion, balance, color, and bright-
ness should be considered. Also,
in many instances, should be
it
remembered that observers may FIG. 11-19. This floodlighting instal-
be in motion. Originality and lation for a free standing statue of a man
novelty also are dominant factors. properly duplicates the sculpture's day-
When lighting outdoor areas for light appearance.
decoration, it is not necessary
to attain the natural daytime appearance that results from direct light
from the sun mingled with diffused light from the sky. Many beautiful
and unusual effects may be achieved by imaginative application of electrical
illumination.
In the lighting of gardens the most common objectives are: (1) to
illuminate objects which are centers of interest; (2) to illuminate water;
(3) to illuminate outlines of opaque materials; and (4) to illuminate trans-
lucent objects.
General principles. Uniform floodlighting of garden areas usually is
not satisfactory. Usually it is preferable to locate strategically several
small lamps to obtain a delicately composed brightness pattern rather than
a smaller number of higher output. Effect rather than efficiency is the
primary objective. Uniformity of illumination is not necessary; in many
11-26 IES LIGHTING HANDBOOK
cases it is undesirable. Highlights and shadows produce a much more
and dramatic
interesting effect.
As a general rule, no light sources should be visible to an observer.
Usually three choices of location are available: 1. Luminaires may be
shielded from view by trees, shrubs, rocks, building structures, pits, etc;
shrubbery may be planted expressly for this purpose. 2. Conventional
equipment may be placed in a suitable housing with an appearance in
keeping with that of the area. Some types of ornamental grilles around
the lighting sources are satisfactory, particularly if they present a pleasing
silhouette effect. In this case, the housings may be painted as an aid in
camouflaging them during the daytime. 3. Equipment may be designed
in keeping with the surround: mushroom shaped, for example, to fit into
the general scheme of the garden.
Floodlights placed in trees or hedges may spill light on surrrounding
branches and foliage which may create an undesirable effect. Therefore,
small, more easily adjusted luminaires are to be preferred. In any event,
shields, louvers, visors, or hoods to control spill light are recommended.
Such control will make
the equipment less conspicuous and there will be
less chance of areas in the vicinity of the floodlight being illuminated
unintentionally and disturbing the over-all effect.
Illumination level. As a rule, gardens are located where there is little
competing illumination. High levels will create harsh and unpleasant
effects. Levels which may be expected to give good results are recom-
mended in Table 11-12.
Color. Considerable thought should be given to the application of
colored light to gardens. Light from clear-bulb incandescent lamps is
frequently undesirable as the high percentage of red and yellow light tends
slightly to distort the delicate natural colors of flowers, shrubs, and trees
found in gardens. Daylight lamps provide a color of light that is satis-
factory in most cases. Blue light on some buildings, pergolas, etc., will
simulate moonlight; yellow or amber light may be used effectively to light
the surrounding area.
There are two basic systems of protective lighting which may be used.
Frequently, the most practical and effective solution involves a combination
of both.
Searchlights operated by guards are useful for protection and they should
be employed with either system. They permit illumination of areas under
suspicion and can supplement existing lighting at any given point at times
of emergency.
clude those with the candlepower distribution curves indicated in Fig. 11-
22.
^^ B
FIG. 11-22. Candlepower distribution curves for typical protective lighting lumi-
naires. (Distribution in horizontal plane through light center.)
The lighting
boundaries and approaches to a property should be given
of
first Five conventional methods of lighting such areas are
consideration.
summarized in Table 11-14. Both floodlights and pendent luminaires are
employed.
EXTERIOR LIGHTING 11-31
H Ho o
a Q.3
Q s HORI-
O o wo
51 LUMINAIRE CANDLEPOWER LOCATION 3 < ZONTAL
H DISTRIBUTION FOOT-
W CANDLES
OS o<
s tf J
1 Floodlight Narrow beam 70-100 ft in- 20-25 170-200 500
with hori- side fence 1000 —
zontal
spread lens
2 Floodlight Narrow beam 5-12 ft inside 25-30 300 500 2
or medium fence 400 1000 0.33
beam
3 Pendent t 15-20 ft inside 16-20 125 300 0.3
refractor fence 500 0.51
4 Pendent t 8-10 ft inside 25 125 300 0.18
refractor fence 500 0.31
On side of 22-28 100 300 0.23-0.19
bldg. that 150 500 0.27-0.23
forms boun-
dary
5 Pendent t Directly over 25 125 300 0.20
refractor fence or 10 500 0.34
ft inside
fence
* On a series circuit a 6,000-lumen lamp is equivalent toa300-watt filament lamp on a multiple circuit, and
a 10,000-lumen lamp is equivalent to a 500-watt filament lamp,
t See Fig. 11-22.
Emergency lighting falls into two classifications. The first of these re-
quires a high candlepower which can be directed to cover a small area at any
desired point. To accomplish this, it is recommended that searchlights be
placed at convenient locations from which critical areas may be reached by
their beams.
The second classification of emergency lighting includes conditions arising
from fires, explosions, accidents, or the gathering of unruly crowds. To
meet such contingencies, portable wide- and narrow-beam floodlights with
adequate extension cords and, if necessary, portable power supplies should
be available.
REFERENCES
1. Artificial Light, and Its Application, Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Bloomfield, N. J., 1940.
2. Weitz, C. E., Electric Signs, Control ofLampsand Lighting, International Textbook Company, Scranton,
Pa., 1944.
3. LaWall, G. R., and Potter, W. M., "Factors in the Design of Opaque Patterns on Luminous Back-
ground," Trans Ilium. Eng. Soc., May, 1935.
4. Potter, W. M., and Meaker, P., "Luminous Architectural Elements," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc. Decem-
ber, 1931
6. McMath, J. B., "Development and Use of Gaseous Conductor Tubes," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc., July,
1938
6. Benjamin Catalogue No. 26, Benjamin Electric Manufacturing Company, Des Plaines. 111.. July, 1946.
7. Weitz, C. E., Interior and Exterior Lighting, International Textbook Company, Scranton, Pa., 1943.
8. Lighting Handbook A-j.064, Lamp Division, Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Bloomfield, N. J., 1943.
9. Shoemaker, G. E., "Synthetic Lighting," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, March, 1932.
10. Hallman, E. B., "Floodlighting Design Procedure as Applied to Modern Setback Construction,"
Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, April, 1934.
11. Paulus, A., "A Cloak of Light for Miss Liberty," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, November, 1931.
12. Steinhardt, L. R., "The Illumination of Statuary," Ilium. Eng., April, 1941.
13. Cost, R. W., "Floodlighting the Washington Monument," Trails. Ilium. Eng. Soc, December, 1931.
14. Powell, A. L., "Decorative Lighting for Out-of-Doors," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, March, 1929.
15. Atwater, D. W.,and Paulus, A., "Artificial Light as an Aid to the Landscape Architect," Trans. Ilium.
Eng. Soc, March, 1933.
Lighting for Industrial Plants. Holophane Company Inc., New York, N. Y., 1942.
16. Protective
17. Summers, J. A., and Warren, D. M., "Protective Lighting for Industrial Plants," Folder LS840, General
Electric Company, Cleveland, Ohio.
18. Atherton, C. A., "Short-Cut Design for Electrical Advertising," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, February,
1925.
19.Summers, J. A., "Protection Against Sabotage," Ilium. Eng., December, 1942.
20.Beggs, E. W., and Woodside, C. S., "Technical Aspects of Architectural Lighting," Trans. Ilium. Eng.
Soc, December, 1931.
SECTION 12
SPORTS LIGHTING
Though difficult visual tasks, such as following a fast-moving black
hockey puck, a small white golf ball, or the sharp point of a fencer's foil,
Path
Velocity
Average brightness
Background
Brightness pattern
( Location
Observer \ Path
Velocity [
APPROXI-
RANGE OF VIEWING
DISTANCES
SPORT OBJECT DIMENSIONS MATE RE- (feet)
(inches) FLECTANCE*
(per cent)
Player Spectator
'Values given are for clean new equipment. Multiply by ?| to get average value for equipment in use.
possible no glare should be introduced into the field of view of the other two.
with the line of sight and from the ground by reflected light. It appears
that the arrangement shown in Fig. 12-lc will provide illumination satis-
factory for more observer locations than will the others. However, in
the practical case the specific source locations selected will be these which
offer the best compromise between desired illumination diffusion and
minimum glare in the majority cf observer locations.
It is necessary that illumiraticn at points throughout the entire space
above the playing area through which a ball may travel be fairly uniform
(with no sharp changes in level), since a fast-moving object passing quickly
from a light to a dark srace will appear to accelerate. This occurs when
there is inadequate overlap in floodlight beams. Such a condition distorts
the player's judgment of ball trajectory.
Illumination level. In establishing the recommended illumination levels
practical variables, which are considered in relaticn to the basic questions
of object size and brightness and time available for seeing, include the
following:
Speed of play (novice, expert, semiprofessional, professional).
Distance to spectators.
Orientation of spectators.
The values given in Table 12-2 have been found satisfacte ry when the
proper quality of illumination is provided at the playing level and also (in
some sports) in the space above.
The walls and ceilings of interiors used for sports provide a means for
controlling background brightnesses, assist in diffusing the available light,
and make possible a variety of convenient lighting ecjiiipment arrange-
ments. The design and calculation procedures outlined in Section 8 are
applicable to interiors used for sports. However, in addition to luminaire
mounting height, spacing, and lumen output, and illumination uniformity
on a horizontal reference plane, which are important factors in most in-
stallation plans, it is necessary in designing sports lighting to consider also
the following factors:
SPORTS LIGHTING 12-5
1. Observers have no fixed visual axis or field of view and may be ex-
pected to look frequently at the ceiling and luminaires and in every other
direction at some time during a game.
2. The object of regard will have no fixed location, being viewed from
time to time on the floor, near the ceiling, or almost anywhere in between.
3. It is particularly important for observers to be able to estimate ac-
curately object velocity and trajectory.
AVERAGE ILLUMINATION
MAINTAINED IN SERVICE ON SEE FIG.
HORIZONTAL PLAYING SURFACE
(footcandles)
BADMINTON
Tournament 30 12-3
Club 20
Recreational 10
Infield Outfield
BASEBALL
Major League 150 100 12-15
AA and AAA League 75 50
A and B League 50 30
C aiidD League 30 20
Semipro and Municipal League 20 15
On seats during game — 2
On seats before and after game 5
BASKETBALL
College and professional 50 12-9
High school 30
Recreational 10
CROQUET
Tournament
Recreational
CURLING
Tournament
Recreational
FOOTBALL
Class Index: Distance* from nearest sideline
to the farthest row of spectators
I Over 100 feet 100 12-14
II 50 to 100 feet 50
III 30 to 50 feet 30
IV Under 30 feet 20
V No fixed seating facilities 10
*It is conceded generally that distance between the spectators and the play is the first consideration in de-
termining the class and lighting requirements. However, the potential seating capacity of the stands should
also be considered and the following ratio is suggested: Class I for over 30,000 Spectators; Class II for 10,000 to
30,000; Class III for 5,000 to 10,000; and Class IV for under 5,000 spectators.
GOLF DRIVING
General on the tees 10 12-13
On vertical surface at 200 yards 3
Practice putting green 10
GYMNASIUMS
Exhibitions and matches 30 12-9
General exercising 20
Lockers and shower rooms 10
HANDBALL
Tournament 30 12-3
Club 20
Recreational 10
HOCKEY
College or Professional 50 12-12
Amateur League 20
Recreational 10
HORSESHOES
Tournament 10
Recreational 5
RACING
Bicycle 20
Motor (midget auto or motorcycle) 20
Horse 20
Dog 20
Outdoor Indoor
RIFLE RANGE
On target 30 50 12-2
Firing line 10 10
Range 5
SPORTS LIGHTING 12-7
ROQUE
Tournament 20
Recreational 10
SHUFFLE BOARD
Tournament 10
Recreational 5
SKATING
Rink 5 12-12
Park, lagoon, or pond 1
SKEET SHOOT
Target (vertical surface at 100 feet) 30 12-2
Firing point (general) 10
SOCCER
Professional and college 30 12-14
High school 20
Athletic field 10
Infield Outfield
SOFTBALL
Professional and championship 50 30 12-16
Semipro 30 20
Industrial league 20 10
Recreational 10 5
SQUASH
Tournament 30 12-3
Club 20
Recreational 10
SWIMMING POOLS
General 10 12-8
Underwater 5 watts per square foot of
pool surface
Lawn Table
TENNIS
Tournament 30 50 12-4
Club 20 30
Recreational 10 20
TRAP SHOOTING
Target (vertical surface at 150 feet) 30 12-2
Firing point (general) 10
VOLLEY BALL
Tournament 20 12-D
Recreational 10
9
Design Recommendations
Factors 1 and 2 page 12-5 make it particularly desirable to provide large-
area, low-brightness luminaires such as these utilizing fluorescent lamps.
High wall, ceiling, and floor reflectances will be appropriate also, since they
are likely to result in reduced brightness ratios in all possible fields of view.
Considerable object-background contrast is necessary for good visibility.
Factor 3 calls for high-reflectance surfaces also, since interreflections
contribute materially to light diffusion and therefore to illumination uni-
formity on and above the reference plane. Uniformity is necessary if
object velocity and trajectory are to be estimated accurately.
If fluorescent lamp luminaires are recommended, it is essential that they
be operated on lead-lag ballasts or on three-phase circuits so that the visi-
bility of moving objects will not be reduced by stroboscopic effect.
Aerial sports. Archery, badminton basketball, handball, squash, tennis,
,
and volley ball are included in this classification. Such sports may require
that observers look toward the ceiling during a large portion of the playing
time. In planning general lighting installations for these sports every
effort should be made to select, locate, and shield the light sources to avoid
introducing glare into the observer's view, i- 2 3 4 (See Figs. 12-2, -3,
- -
and -4.)
Low-level sports. Billiards, bowling, fencing, curling, shuffleboard, skat-
ing, swimming, boxing and wrestling, and other sports in which observers
in the normal course of play do not look upward are called low level sports.
General lighting may be planned more easily for these sports than for the
5 6 7
aerial type, since luminaire brightness is less critical. - -
(See Figs.
12-5, 12-6, 12-7, and 12-8.)
Arenas and gymnasiums. In these areas uniform^ distributed general
is provided over the entire playing floor so that basket-
illumination usually
ball, volley ball,track and field events, gymnastics, fencing, calisthenics,
hockey, or dancing may be accommodated. 8, 10 (See Fig. 12-9.) -
10 FT
—
T A
i
s /
DISTANCE
a
10 FT
K
^•S-^-"
SCALE, FEET /
10 20 30 40
I I I I— I
/
/
i***^,'
^ >"
* !
BAFFLED, **
38 i
Iri in In In
r~ '
ia i la in la In i<£
k- - 75 FT —
=^- TF TK
FIRING '-TARGET
POINT
FIG. 12-2. Lighting for various types of shooting: a. Archery, one 10- to 18-degree
beam spread floodlight required per target.
LAMP DISTANCE
250-watt, G-30 bulb to 30 yards Up
500-watt, G-40 bulb 30 to 50 yards
1,000-watt, G-40 bulb 50 to 100 yards
b. Skeet, eight 18- to 35-degree beam spread floodlights with 1,000-watt clear PS-52
bulb lamps are mounted 20 feet above the ground, c. Rifle, *300-watt general service
lamp in an indirect luminaire. ** 200- or 300-watt clear bulb general service lamps
behind beams or baffles or in angle reflectors. *** For each group of five targets,
two floodlights with horizontal spread lenses and 750- or 1,000-watt clear bulb gen-
eral service lamps.
12-10 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
A
FRONT WALL
3FT u. 6 FT_»j
UN. r2iN.*| "
A CT
4
a
rna — 6 FT
6FT
5^FT
I* — I0^FT--J5FT
M is^ft «
20 FT *
k— II FT—*\
44 FT
s tr- i i i i i
*
'
S
INCANDESCENT FLUORESCENT
*<'
Vk
tt tt"
I I I
tt tt- I I I I I
T
T
FIG. Lighting for small court games: a. Squash, ten ceiling-mounted Glas-
12-3.
steel diffusertype luminaires with wire guards or four 1,000- watt indirect reflectors
with netting protection may be used as shown in plan and photograph respectively.
b. Handball, eight 750-watt Glassteel diffuser type luminaires or sixteen three-lamp
40-watt direct flourescent type luminaires may be recessed or ceiling mounted behind
wire guards, c. Badminton, outdoors four 70° beam spread floodlights per court
mounted 20 feet above ground may be used with 500-watt clear PS-40 bulb general
service lamps.
I
50 FT
— A
K TTf
Double Courts
Mount twelve 70° beam spread 1,500-watt
96 FT floodlights 30 feet above ground
12 FT MIN.
MIN.
Single Courts
Move poles on line BB to line adjacent to
court. Use 1,000-watt lamps.
^--^--------"^4j^>
120 FT
FIG. 12-4. Lighting for tennis courts: a. layout for tournament play; b. play-
ground installation of eight 1,000-watt floodlights. Two floodlights are mounted on
each of the four poles 30 feet above the courts, c. indoor court installation of one
hundred forty 200-watt lamps in angle reflectors. Reflectors are mounted at wall-
ceiling intersection. Roof and sidewall windows provide daylight for daytime play.
12-12 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
Table Tennis
Club Plan (above)
Location Over table Over table Illumination by (upper figures for recrea-
center center 150-watt in- tional play)
line line side - frosted 2 lamps
filament
Mtg. hgt. (lower figures for skilled
lamps
(above play)
(footcandles)
table) 2 ft 6 in. 2 ft 6 in. 4 lamps
C— 8.
& ^
12-14 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
n n n n n n
\: : : :;.:j
B
i-c
A
f
u u u u U u
A L-B-+J -Ic
WATER LINE
EQUIPMENT SPACING
LAMP
RATING* ^max (feet) E (inches)
(wattsl C
A (ft) (ft)
250 15
4 8 10 5 12
400
500
1,000 6 12 15 74
' 2 18 24
1,500
O rK
(/)
|_ ui I
71
Oh
Zuil
4 20 FT OR
Z- I
_l
MORE
.
N]
SPACING NOT TO
EXCEED 4TIMES
MOUNTING HEIGHT
Fig. 12-8b. Overhead floodlighting plan for outdoor swimming pools. Floodlights
are mounted 18-30 feet above the pool. Lamps should be selected to allow about
1.25 watts per square foot of lighted area.
SPORTS LIGHTING 12-15
INCANDESCENT
LUMINAIRES
^> 4 <
7 FT
0~fFT ^
10
+ 4" ^
V
FIG. 12-9. a.Typical layouts for fluorescent and incandescent lamp luminaires
in a school gymnasium. Forty -two fluorescent lamp luminaires (two 100-watt lamps
each) or 15 incandescent lamp luminaires (one 1,000-watt lamp each) are mounted
20 to 30 feet above the floor.
lights designed for sports field application. Lamps are tors are required,
operated in vertical base-up position. (See Fig. 12-10.)
SPORTS LIGHTING 12-17
Similar diagrams are in general use for other sports. (See Fig. 12-1 lc
and Fig. 12-1 Id.)
There are several ways to put spotting or aiming information to use in
making an installation. First and most accurate is manual aiming of the
floodlight beam centers at predetermined spots on the playing area, as, for
example, on Fig. 12-1 la. This may be accomplished by using built-in
beam by placing accessory beam sights against floodlights parallel
sights or
to their optical axes. Markers then are placed at the aiming points and
the sights aimed at these points by an engineer at the light.
A second aiming method is to calculate or determine graphically from
the aiming diagram the vertical and horizontal angular setting of each flood-
light. Most floodlights are equipped with degree scales which may then
be set to those angles. However, the accuracy of this method is limited, first
by tolerance in the leveling and aligning of mounting pole cross-arms and
second by the difficulty of setting the wide pointers accurately at the proper
position on the cast scales, which generally have coarse graduations. A
difference of several vertical degrees may move the beam center 20 feet or
more on the field.
SPORTS LIGHTING 12-19
Good Practice
FIG. 12-13. Golf driving range lighting equipment layout and installation photo-
graphs. The letter symbols designate the following floodlights:
A — one 70° beam spread type
1,500-watt lamp
B — two 25° to 40° beam spread type
C— three 10° to 25° beam spread type) 1,000-watt lamp
All are mounted approximately 30 feet above the ground.
*
120
I 1 -T • *=*•
?
110 | I
I
75 FT
! 100 FT ,
OFT j
|-»
ftioo
u.
f-» 75 FT
z
|— I 100 FT 4~»
H
X i
I
7
l
U> -i—
uj80 150FT
X |
100 FT f-
75 FT
Z 70
1-
z
o 60
50 30-75
FT
40 __75 FT ^
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 OR OVER
POLE LOCATIONS
DISTANCE FROM EDGE OF FIELD IN FEET
A B c Minimum
The beam spreads indicated in Fig. 12-14a for the various pole locations
are intended as a guide. Equally satisfactory results may be obtained in
each of the indicated zones of pole locations by using combinations of
narrow beam and wide beam reflectors provided they are properly selected
and aimed.
A typical spotting or aiming diagram is presented in Fig. 12-1 la, cover-
ing a Class C installation on ten poles erected 20 feet from the side lines.
Figure 12-14c shows a night view of a typical Class A football field
lighted by approximately 140 floodlights.
Baseball. Baseball presents a severe though not prolonged seeing task.
The ball is small, moves rapidly, and is viewed at varying distances against
variable background brightnesses. The necessity for concentration is
intermittent. The large number of possible observer locations and the
probability that observer-players will be in motion introduce difficulties
also i6,i6,i7,i9,20,23,24,26,27,2s,29 figure 12- 15a presents data for layouts con-
sidered good practice.
INSTALLATION DATA
Location of Floodlights
1,2,5,
Pole No. 3 and 4
6,7,8,
>*m^
>
-,..';
*•*
/ T~~~ r '
1 |
M - ^Tiif'i'iBi™
!'•
4TT" jj-,1.
1
KBlsj
FIG. 12-15. a. Standard floodlighting layout for baseball lields. b. Minimum
baseball field installation of 100 floodlights.
.
7 \
than 45 degrees beam spread
-» -IS FT / >. / \ ~t
> 30 FT "
seldom are used for Softball
-
/ / 200 FT ^° \
installations. Normally, beam t* / 150 FT / \ <^ 4gp ©
spreads of 70 degrees or more !
// \
V—
three-light poles; and 45- 15FT-* .k" 25 FT V ,5FT
©
poles carrying four or
floodlights. The majority of
more
< 90FT- — ->
these installations are made FIG. 12-16. Standard lighting layout for
© ©
10° "10°
1 100 14 10 4 10 10 4 4
2 100 14 10 4 10 10 4 4
3 80 22 14 8 14 9 5 8 5 3
4 80 22 14 8 14 9 5 8 5 3
5 80 12 6 6 12 6 6 6 6
6 80 12 6 6 12 6 6 6 6
7 80 12 8 4 12 8 4 6 6
8 80 12 8 4 12 8 4 6 6
Tot al 120 76 44 96 66 30 48 34 14
1,500-Watt.
12-26 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
REFERENCES
1. "Lighting of a Basketball Court," No. 20-2*, January, 1930.
2. "Lighting a Squash Court," No. 20-3*, October, 1929; No. 20-6*; "Lighting a Squash Racquets Court,"
No. 20-20*, August, 1946.
3. "Lighting an Indoor Tennis Court," No. 20-5*, December, 1929; No. 20-10*; Steiner, J. Wm., "Design of
Illumination for an Indoor Tennis Court," Master's Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1938;
"Indoor Tennis DeLuxe," American Lawn Tennis, December 20, 1937.
4. "New Lighting Systems for Ping Pong," Magazine of Light, Midwinter 1934.
5. "Lighting of a Boxing Ring," No. 20-1*.
6. "Lighting a Bowling Alley," No. 20-4*, December, 1929; No. 20-15*; No. 20-17*; No. 20-18*, May, 1942;
No. 20-19*, July, 1945; No. 20-22*, September, 1946; Brown, T. P., "Comfortable Lighting with Slimline Lamps
in a Bowling Alley," Magazine of Light, No. 4, 1946.
7. "Lighting a Pool Table," No. 20-11*.
8. "Lighting a Sports Arena." No. 20-8*; No. 20-14*; No. 20-16*; "Lighting an Indoor Sports Center,"
No. 20-12*; "Lighting an Indoor Arena," No. 20-13*.
9. "Lighting a College Gymnasium," No. 20-9*; "Lighting a Gymnasium," No. 20-21*, August, 1946;
Kahler, VV. H., "Let There Be Light in the Gym," Scholastic Coach, January, 1944.
10. "Standard Practice of School Lighting," Ilium. Eng. Soc, 1947.
11. "Test Methods," Standards of the National Electrical Manufacturers' Association, Floodlighting Section,
FL6-20, October, 1935.
12. "Computation of Average Intensity," Standards of the National Electrical Manufacturers' Association,
Floodlighting Section, FL6-30, October, 1935.
13. "Computing Intensity Values and Lumens on a Horizontal Plane," Standards of the National Electrical,
Manufacturers' Association, Floodlighting Section, FL6, 55, FL6-60, FL6-65, FL6-70, November, 1935.
14. "I.E.S. Specification for Testing of Narrow Beam Projectors," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, June, 1933.
15. Standard Floodlight Layouts for Outdoor Sports, National Electrical Manufacturers' Association, New
York, 1946.
16. Illumination Design Data Bulletin LD-6A, General Electric Company, Cleveland, Ohio, October, 1936.
17. Sports Floodlighting Planning Book, Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Cleveland, Ohio, 1947.
18. Swackhamer, R. J., and Bobst, G. G., "Lighting for Night Sports," Ilium. Eng., May, 1940.
19. Lighting Handbook, No. A -4064, Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Bloomfield, N. J., 1943.
20. Floodlighting for Nightime Sports, Catalogue HS, Revere Electric Manufacturing Co., Chicago, 111.,
1946.
21. "Howto Floodlight Football Fields," Bulletin GEA-S218, General Electric Company, May, 1939.
22. "Football Lighting," Technical Bulletin No. 226F, Crouse-Hinds Company, Syracuse, N. Y., March,
1941.
23. "Night Time is Play Time," Bulletin No. 2554, Crouse-Hinds Company, May, 1940.
24. "Lighting Layouts for Night Sports," Loose Leaf Manual, Benjamin Electric Manufacturing Com-
pany, Des Plaines, 111., various dates.
25. "Lighting a Football Field," No. 21-2*; No. 21-13*.
26. Steiner, J. Wm., "Something on the Ball," Elec. Light and Power, April, 1946.
27. "How to Floodlight Baseball Fields," Bulletin GEA-28W, General Electric Company, February, 1938.
28. "Baseball Lighting," Technical Bulletin No. 198F, Crouse-Hinds Company, November, 1945.
29. "Lighting a Stadium" (Baseball), No. 21-4*, "Lighting a Baseball Park," No. 21-9*.
30. "How to Floodlight Softball Fields," Bulletin GEA-2918, General Electric Company, April, 1938;
Bulletin GEA-2909, General Electric Company, April, 1939.
31. "Softball Lighting," Technical Bulletin No. 215F, Crouse-Hinds Company, July, 1945.
32. "How to Floodlight a Tennis Court," Bulletin GEA-3310, General Electric Company, March, 1940.
SEE ALSO
33. Kraehenbuehl, Illumination, pages 282-309, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
J. O., Electrical New York, 1942.
34. "Floodlighting an Outdoor Swimming Pool," No. 21-1*; "Lighting a Municipal Swimming Pool,"
No. 21-11*.
35. "Lighting a Putt and Chip Course," No. 21-3*.
36. "Lighting a Golf Driving Range," No. 21-5*.
37. "Lighting for Trap Shooting," No. 21-7*.
38. "Lighting a Bicycle Race Track," No. 21-8*.
39. "Lighting an Automobile and Motorcycle Race Track," No. 21-10*.
40. "Floodlighting a Dog Track," No. 21-12*.
SECTION 13
TRANSPORTATION LIGHTING
The general principles of interior and exterior lighting set forth in Sections
10 and 11 are, for the most part, applicable in the transportation field.
Some practical problems of great importance encountered in applying the
principles to vehicles and the paths over which they travel appear to
complicate the means of achieving desired results because, since they are
of less consequence in other application fields, they are less familiar. For
example, power-supply characteristics and capacities of automobiles,
airplanes, and railway trains often make difficult and expensive the pro-
vision (by means of standard types of light sources) of interior illumination
of recommended quantity and quality. The tremendous areas and the
intermittent use of transportation pathways and their exposure to a wide
variety of weather conditions are factors which should be considered care-
fully in applying the general principles in practical designs.
Lighting of Vehicles
Regardless of the vehicle, there are separate considerations for the
lighting supplied primarily for passenger use, comfort, or safety,and that
supplied primarily to assist the vehicle operator in the performance of his
duties.
The following characteristics of vehicles, though not common to all
types, are influential with respect to lighting
1. Direct-current power supplies are commonly used because batteries
are needed for stand-by operation and because of the desirable character-
istics of d-c motor operation.
2. Equipment costs, fuel economy, space limitations, and similar factors
call for highly efficient utilization of available energy.
3. Most vehicles have low ceilings.
4. Many vehicles are designed for mass production rather than custom
construction.
5. In most vehicles the field of view of most occupants is fixed.
6. Individual passenger occupancy usually is of short duration.
AUTOMOBILE LIGHTING
Most automobiles depend on a three-cell (6-volt) wet storage battery,
kept charged by a d-c generator driven by the car engine. The capacity
of such a battery is limited although the demand for heaters, radios, and
other special devices has materially increased the capacity in recent years.
A single wire grounded wiring system is commonly used. (See Fig. 13-1.)
Illumination of Passenger Automobiles
Interior illumination. The average person does not expect to read or
write continuously in a passenger automobile, either while driving or
while the vehicle is parked. Therefore, installations have been planned to
provide illumination for casual inspection of road maps and other printed
Note: References are listed at the end of each section.
13-2 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
matter, for safety in getting in and getting out, and to carry out the style
motive of the car interior. The number of luminaires commonly used
ranges from one to four, employing 6- to 21-candlepower lamps. Usually
these are shielded so as to prevent direct glare. Standards of brightness
and illumination have not been established for passenger automobiles.
Panel-board lighting for automobiles is designed to meet decorative as
well as utilitarian requirements. Since the average driver uses the various
meters for reference rather than for operation, the seeing problems are
not critical. Illumination usually is provided by small lamps recessed
behind glass, plastic, or other light-transmitting materials; by similar
lamps used for the edge lighting of recessed or raised numerals; or by
direct illumination from lamps at the top or bottom and in front of the
panel faces. Ultraviolet excitation of fluorescent panels was employed in
a standard automobile for the first time in 1946. Dimming control of
panel numeral or pointer brightness is recommended.
Exterior illumination. The most important
illuminating-engineering
problem in the automobile concerns head lamps. Because of the
field
speed at which modern cars are operated, because most roads are used for
two-way traffic, and because a few feet above the road surface is the most
convenient head-lamp location, it is not easy to provide good road lighting
without creating glare for an approaching driver. The standard method
used today employs two filaments in a 7-inch bulb formed by joining a
mirrored parabolic rear section with a lens front section, or a two-filament
lamp in a hermetically sealed, 7-inch-lens-reflector combination. Con-
suming a total power of about 90 watts, the lower filaments of a pair of
such lamps located at the optical centers of their respective reflectors
produce together a maximum beam candlepower of about 65,000 (the
permissible maximum is 75,000). Though the high-intensity portion of
this beam is narrow (confined to a few degrees each side of the optical axes),
careful control of the gradients provides illumination in ditches, for turn-
ing corners, and so forth.
—rUPPER MAX.-r-
I
-- LOWER MAXIMUM
THROUGH UPPER ( OR )
LOWER (MAXIMUM )
DEGREES SPREAD I
The data on pages 13-4 to 13-13 are from the joint standards and
recommended practices of the Society of Automotive Engineers and the
Illuminating Engineering Society as published in the 1947 SAE Handbook.
13-4 1 E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
4
UJ CLEAR ROAD BEAM
>
29
<
• • • • •
H !!
11 • • • •
• i> it •
5
2S
LU
CD
MEETING BEAM
2g
CD
( 1 • <
i 1
H < 1 •
32
1
12 10 6 2. V 2 6 8 10 12
LEFT RIGHT
DEGREES
FIG. 13-2. Multiple-beam head lamp test point candlepower values (car one-half
loaded).
enable the laboratory operator to locate the light source in its correct designed
position and to aim the beams. The laboratory report shall include a copy of the
i nstructions.
Test Procedure
The head lamps shall be located in the designed position as
light sources in the
specified by the manufacturer. A photometer shall be set up at not less than 60 feet
from the head lamps.
Aiming adjustments shall be made on one clear road beam only.
The head lamps' clear road beam shall be aimed so the vertical center of the zone
of highest intensity falls at the horizontal line through the photometer axis.
The clear road beam of each head lamp shall be aimed laterally with respect to the
single vertical line through the photometer axis in the same manner as the manu-
13-6 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
facturer specified said beam shall be aimed on the car with respect to a vertical line
ahead ofeach lamp. Correction should be made for the difference between the dis-
tance from lamp to photometer and the distance from lamp to aiming screen specified
in the manufacturer's instructions.
Where conventional bulbs with two-pin bayonet bases are used, candlepower
tests shall be made with the light source at the designed positions and also in positions
0.060 inch above, below, ahead, or behind the designed position. If prefocused bulbs
are used, the limiting positions at which tests are conducted shall be 0.010 inch added
to the published tolerance of filament positioning for the prefocused bulbs used.
Each pair of head lamps shall be aimed only once for each position of the light
source.
MEETING BEAM»
POSITION CPMAX POSITION CP MAX POSITION CPMIN
1|U-4L 1,000 IU-1L 4,000 2D-V 7,000
1|U— IL 2,000 |D—4L 4,000 2D— 9L 2,000
JU-4L 2,000 |D— IL 7,000 3D— 12L 1,000
The maximum intensity of the beam at any point shall be 75,000 candlepower.
Photometric Test
Photometric tests shall be made with the photometer at a distance of 60 feet from
the lamps. Units shall be operated at their rated voltage during the tests.
The country or upper beam shall have a sufficiently well defined high-intensity
area or hot spot to permit the aiming of both beams from the center of this area.
The upper beam from each lamp shall be aimed visually so that the zones of maxi-
mum intensity superimpose at the photometric test plate and so that the geometric
center of the zone of highest intensity falls 0.6 degree vertically below the photometer
axis.
V V — —
• •
COUNTRY OR
UPPER BEAM
• •
1 1
• II • • <> •
I 1 • • it
TRAFFIC OR
LOWER BEAM
°2
•
•
• •
• •
• • <»
'
16 14 12 10 8
LEF
6 4 2V 24 1)
6 8
RIGHT
10 12 14 16
'
DEGREES
FIG. 13-3. Sealed-beam head lamp test point candlepower values (car unloaded).
The combined beams from the two lamps shall meet the following specifications:
Maximum beam intensity. The maximum intensity of the beam shall not exceed
75,000 candlepower.
Country or upper beam. To provide for manufacturing variations, a tolerance of
plus or minus f degree in location may be allowed for any test point. (See Fig. 13-3.)
Traffic or lower beam. To provide for manufacturing variations, a tolerance of
plus or minus 20 per cent in candlepower and of plus or minus \ degree in location
may be allowed for any test point. (See Fig. 13-3.)
General Requirements for All Types of Motor-Vehicle-Lighting Equipment
This standard covers the requirements and methods for laboratory tests, including
vibration, moisture, dust, corrosion, color, and photometric tests. The types of
:
Sample lamps submitted for laboratory test should be representative of the devices
as regularly manufactured and marketed. Each sample should include all accessory
equipment peculiar to the device and necessary to operate it in normal manner.
Also, each sample should be mounted in its normal operating position on a supporting
bracket designed to be bolted rigidly to the vibration rack. Dust and photometric
tests may be made on a second set of unmounted samples, if desired, to expedite
completion of tests.
Unless otherwise specified, lamps used in the tests should be supplied by the
laboratory and should be representative of standard bulbs in regular production.
They should be selected for accuracy in accordance with specifications approved by
the National Bureau of Standards and should be operated at their rated mean spher-
ical candlepower during the tests. Where special bulbs are specified they should be
submitted with the devices and the same or similar bulbs used in the tests and oper-
ated at their rated mean spherical candlepower.
Vibration Test
A sample unit, as mounted on the support supplied, shall be bolted to the anvil
end of the table of thestandard vibration test machine and vibrated about 750 times
per minute through a distance of J inch. The table shall be spring mounted at one
end and fitted with steel calks on the under side of the other end. These calks are
to make contact with the steel anvil once during each cycle at the completion of the
fall. The rack shall be operated under a spring tension of 60 to 70 pounds. This test
shall be continued for 1 hour.
The unit shall then be examined. Any unit showing evidence of material physical
weakness, lens or reflector rotation, or displacement or rupture of parts shall be
considered to have failed.
Moisture Test
A sample unit shall be mounted in its normal operating position with any drain
holes open, and subjected to a precipitation of 0.1 inch of water per minute delivered
at an angle of 45 degrees from a nozzle with a solid cone spray. During the moisture
test the lamp shall revolve about its vertical axis at a rate of 4 revolutions per minute.
This test shall be continued for 12 hours. The water shall then be turned off and
the unit permitted to drain for 1 hour.
The unit shall then be examined. Any accumulation of more than 1 milliliter of
water in the unit, or warpage or shrinkage of the lens, shall constitute a failure.
Dust Test
A sample unit with any drain hole closed shall be mounted in its normal operating
position, at least 6 inches from the wall in a box measuring 3 feet in all directions,
containing 10 pounds of fine powdered cement in accordance with American Society
for Testing Materials Specifications for Portland Cement (C150-42). At intervals
of 15 minutes this dust shall be agitated by compressed air or fan blower by projecting
blasts of air for a 2-second period in a downward direction into the dust in such a way
that the dust is completely and uniformly diffused throughout the entire cube. The
dust is then allowed to settle. This test shall be continued for 5 hours.
After the dust test the exterior surface only shall be cleaned, and if the maximum
candlepower measured at this time is within 10 per cent of the maximum measured
after the unit is cleaned both inside and out, it shall be considered adequately dust-
tight.
.
Corrosion Test
A sample unit including mounting bracket, if any, shall be subjected to a 20 per
cent salt spray solution for a period of 50 hours, consisting of two periods of 24 hours
exposure and 1 hour drying each, at a temperature of 95 degrees Fahrenheit (35
degrees centigrade)
There shall be no evidence of undue or excessive corrosion immediately after this
test has been completed.
Screen. Beams should be inspected for focus and aim, either on a screen at a dis-
tance of 25 feet ahead of the head-lamps or with inspection equipment which gives
essentially equivalent or more accurate results. If a screen is used, it should be of
adequate size with a mat white surface well shaded from extraneous light and used on
a flat level paved surface. Provisions should be made for moving the screen so that
it can be aligned parallel with the rear axle, and a horizontal line drawn perpendicular
from the center line of the screen will pass an equal distance between the two head-
lamps.
ADJUSTABLE
TAPES;
"-*-
VERTICAL
„- HORIZONTAL
^•DIAGRAM OF
LIGHT SCREEN
FIG. 13-5. Proper car position with respect to screen for headlighting inspection.
The screen should be provided with a fixed vertical center line and four laterally
adjustable vertical tapes and two vertically adjustable horizontal tapes as shown in
Fig. 13-5. The two movable horizontal tapes should be located on the screen at the
upper and lower limits called for in the specifications with reference to the plane on
which the vehicle rests, not the floor on which the screen rests. The four movable
vertical tapes should be located on the screen at the left and right limits called for in
the specifications with reference to center lines spaced to either side of the fixed cen-
ter line on the screen by the amount the lamps are to the left and right.
Note 1. Vehicles in use today are equipped with two distinct types of head-lamp
equipment —multiple- or selective-beam lamps and single- or fixed-beam lamps.
Single- or fixed-beam lighting generally recognized as unsatisfactory because the
is
beams must be aimed low enough to avoid glare to oncoming drivers, and therefore
cannot give satisfactory illumination on the road.
Multiple-beam lighting includes a"traffic" or "meeting" or"passing" beam and an
"open road" or "driving" beam.
Note 2. The inspector should see that the driver understands how to use the mul-
tiple-beam head lamps so as to obtain the best road lighting with minimum glare to
other users of the highway.
13-12 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
Symmetrical beam. Upper beam. (All single-beam lamps, all double-beam sym-
metrical lamps,all adverse weather (fog) lamps.)
Asymmetrical beam. Upper beam. (Multibeam, Tribeam right lamp, Flexbeam
left lamps.)
Approval shall be refused if the center of the high intensity zone is more than 6
LEFT RIGHT
HEADLAMP HEADLAMP
FIG. 13-6. Aim inspection guides for various types of lamps: a. All symmetrical
two-beam lamps, b. All single-beam lamps, c. Asymmetrical beam lamps (Multi-
beam, Supersafe, Tribeam). d. Asymmetrical beam lamps (Flexbeam, Solar).
passenger cars should preferably be aimed near the lower limit, with no load in the
vehicle other than the driver in front seat. With loaded trucks due allowance should
be made for loading.
Multiple-beam, headlamps Upper beam. Approval shall be refused if the center
.
of the high intensity zone is aimed higher or lower than 3 inches below the lamp center
level. The tolerance applicable for this inspection shall be plus or minus 2\ inches.
Note: A tolerance of not more than plus or minus 1 inch, while not required in this
Code, is desirable.
Single-beam headlamps Approval shall be refused if the top of the beam from any
.
single beam head lamp is aimed higher or lower than 5 inches below the lamp center
level. The tolerance shall be plus or minus 2\ inches.
Note: A tolerance of not more than plus or minus 1 inch, while not required in this
Code, is desirable.
Adverse weather lamps. Approval shall be refused if the top of the beam to the left
of the prolongation of the extreme left side of the vehicle is aimed higher or lower than
4 inches below the lamp center level. The tolerance shall be plus or minus 2\ inches.
:
BUS LIGHTING
Operational illumination for motor buses is similar to that of private
automobiles. However, in buses as well as in trains, planes, and ships
interior illumination usually is required continuously during operation as
a safety measure, for reading, for recognition and conversation between
passengers, and so forth. Buses usually provide more room for batteries
and generators than passenger cars and there is greater freedom in lumi-
naire layout. Trolley-operated buses are not handicapped by a limited
power supply.
An illumination level of 15 footcandles on the passenger reading plane
is recommended. Passenger-controlled localized lighting is acceptable for
inter-city buses. For safety a level of 5 footcandles is recommended on
the aisle. The interior decoration should utilize high-reflectance surfaces
in order to minimize the brightness ratios in the passengers' field of view.
This is particularly important when local lighting is used to provide reading
levels. The location and brightness characteristics of luminaires should be
studied carefully so as to minimize both direct and reflected glare. (See
Fig. 13-7.)
Despite the recognized advantages (low brightness, linear shape, shock
and vibration resistance) of fluorescent lamps for bus lighting, the need for
an a-c power supply is an obstacle to their immediate utilization.
Windshield reflections. In a motor bus as in many trolleys the operator
sits in the same space as his passengers. This creates a problem in light
distribution, since the immediate personal desires of passengers with
respect to lighting do not coincide with those of the operator. Com-
fortable, useful, and attractive passenger space lighting may lead to glare
and reflected images in the windshield.
To eliminate this glare windshields may be tilted outward (25 to 35
degrees) at the bottom so that none of the luminaires is imaged by the
windshield in the operator's field of view. However, if the over-all interior
illumination is quite high, there still may be annoying reflections from
illuminated areas, from specularly reflecting handrails, window frames,
etc., and from luminaires located quite near the operator. Opaque screens
or curtains immediately behind the operator may be used as supplements
to windshield tilting or, as on older buses, in place of it.
Destination sign. The usual destination sign is of the cloth roller curtain
type, with white letters on a black background. It is illuminated at night
by lamps mounted in the box at the rear of the roller curtain.
The following are recommendations for destination signs
1. For 38-inch signs it is customary to use three 21-candlepower lamps
mounted 14 inches apart. More uniform lighting of the sign will be ac-
complished by using four 15-candlepower lamps mounted 9 inches apart.
If it becomes necessary to conserve power, three 15-candlepower lamps
may be used with fair results. Signs illuminated by less than three 15-
candlepower lamps are not satisfactory as they cannot be read at a distance.
2. Lamps should be located at least 6 inches to the rear of roller curtains
TRANSPORTATION LIGHTING 13-15
and on a level with the center of the sign. Lamps placed close to the sign
produce uneven illumination which makes the sign difficult to read at a
distance.
3. The interior of the sign box should be painted white or aluminum to
increase the illumination on the sign, and help to produce an even light
diffusion on the translucent letters.
4. The stroke of the letters should equal approximately 12 per cent of
their height. The -width of the letters should equal approximately 70 per
cent of their height and the spacing between letters 20 to 25 per cent of
their height. Letters 5 inches high are recommended. The specifications
for width and spacing as given above are more important than letter height.
Rear sign. A sign bearing the name of the company and terminal cities
similar to those displayed on the rear platforms of fast passenger trains
often is used by intercity bus lines.
The sign usually is painted on a glass disk having a diameter of about 12
to 15 inches and is mounted at one end of a cylindrical metal box about 3
inches deep. The letters are translucent and lamps are mounted in the
box to illuminate the sign at night.
FIG. 13-7. Typical bus-lighting installation: Five footcandles on the aisle is pro-
vided for safety. High-reflectance surfaces and careful design and location of
luminaires minimize brightness ratios and glare in the passenger field of view.
:
The glass disk is frosted on the inside, and the outside edge of the letters
should be at least 1 3/4 inches from the border otherwise, direct light from
;
in the step well. If the latter do not operate automatically upon opening
of the door, they should be shielded from the driver's field, since frequently
they are designed with an upward component of light which might annoy
him if it were always visible.
Stop and tail lights follow the general pattern of automotive requirements
and usually are covered in detail by state law. The numerous stops made
by a bus and the general use of power brakes make it advisable to exceed
the requirements of law in the size, brightness, or number of stop lights
installed if this is permitted.
Fare boxes require a small light to identify the slot or receptacle of the
register when tickets are used, it usually is necessary to provide overhead
;
FLUORESCENT INCANDESCENT
•Changes in the lumen output and life of the lamps will cause other items to change.
Variations in voltage affect the light output of fluorescent lamps only one-
third as much as that of incandescent filament lamps.
Though the larger luminous cross section of fluorescent lamps makes it
more difficult to control the distribution of their output, their large area
and relatively low brightness minimize the need for control.
System efficiencies. Table 13-1 shows that because of the low efficiency
of d-c operated, 14-watt fluorescent lamp systems, their efficiency relative
to that of a-c operated, 40-watt fluorescent lamp systems is 63 per cent.
The 1,500-hour life of the d-c operated, 14-watt lamp added to the greater
number required means that about 7.3 d-c operated, 14-watt lamp replace-
ments can be expected for every a-c operated, 40-watt lamp replaced. In
addition, the larger number of connectors and receptacles increases the
cost of installation and maintenance. It will be noted that as fluorescent
lamp length and incandescent lamp wattage are increased, the relative
system efficiency increases. Since the comparisons depend on the lumen
output and life of each type of lamp, when changes are made in these
characteristics the balance may shift in favor of one type or another.
Installation plans and luminaire characteristics. Lighting systems used
in railway cars are of the direct, indirect, or semi-indirect type.
13-18 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
X ... :
FIG. 13-9. General illumination provided by the centered panel in this car is
supplemented by light from the individual luminaires seen in the luggage rack.
TRANSPORTATION LIGHTING 13-19
FIG. 13-10. The indirect-lighting system in this coach utilizes 30-watt fluorescent
lamps installed in ceiling troughs.
generator, which is either belt or gear driven by one of the car wheel axles.
Lead or nickel-iron storage batteries are floated on the line to provide
stand-by power when the car is not in motion. Nominal voltages are
30, 60, or 115 volts. These voltages are maintained within narrow limits
by means of a "lamp regulator."
The output of such generating systems ranges from 2 to 20 kilowatts.
Typical schematic diagrams are shown in Fig. 13-13.
In some instances power may be supplied by what is termed a head-end
system. In a head-end system a generator located on the locomotive
energizes a circuit extending the length of the entire train. A three-wire
loop system usually is required to balance the voltage throughout the train.
TRANSPORTATION LIGHTING 13-21
_ STARTER
FILAMENTS
^w^
I3.5W T8F LAMP BALLAST LAMP
OR 14 W TI2F LAMP
s-
60 VOLTS
DC
re
®i Sq 25 OHMS
-wv-
0.4
10
AMPERE
VOLTS
TO
GENERATOR
T 16 CELLS LEAD
25 CELLS
EDISON
MOTOR
\ rm 65 VOLTS
NOMINAL
300-AMPERE
HOURS
©J J.
©
FIG. 13-13. Typical railway car electrical circuits: a. Schematic diagram of
axle-generator system, b. Usual circuit for "constant load" vibrator inverter.
c. Typical connections for motor alternator, d. Circuit arrangement for operating
fluorescent lamps on 60-volt, d-c systems, e. Schematic diagram for booster circuits
to provide direct current for operation of fluorescent lamps from conventional 30- to
40-volt, battery-generator systems, f. Circuit connections for operating fluorescent
|
of 8 degrees (as measured to 10 per cent of
its maximum candlepower). The Interstate
Commerce Commission rule that governs the
headlight output of a road locomotive is that
/ ,
it shall make the figure of a man visible at a
^/
distance of 800 feet on a clear night. Switch
engine headlights are required to provide a 300-
feet pickup distance. Representative head-
light axial beam candlepowers range from
FIG 13-15 Typical 250-
watt locomotive head lamp. 300,000 to 400,000.
TEAN SPORT ATION LIGHTING 13-23
AIRPLANE LIGHTING
Most contemporary passenger-airplane interior illumination is powered
by a 24 volt rating, d-c supply. Occasionally, other power supplies provid-
ing 120 volts at 400 cycles are utilized. In most other respects the prin-
ciples of bus lighting discussed on page 13-14 are directly applicable to
the passenger space. (See Figure 13-16.) Because both weight and space
are critical in airplane designs even more than in buses, efficiency is more
important.
Exterior operational lighting for airplanes is controlled by the Civil
Aeronautics Administration, and is related to the airport illumination
standards described on page 13-43.
Airplanes are identified by flashing wing tip and tail lights. Individual
landing lights, similar to sealed-beam automobile head lamps but larger
LIGHTING OF SHIPS
On passenger and merchant ships illumination design is relatively free
of the equipment size, weight, and power requirement limitations that
apply to other means of transport. Occupancy areas approach in size
those encountered ashore. However, ceiling heights usually will be less
and operation in heavy weather at sea imposes high stresses and shocks
on all equipment firmly attached to the ship's structure.
In general the principles set forth in Section 10, 11, 12, and 14 for various
interior and exterior areas ashore will be applicable aboard ship also.
(See Fig. 13-19.) Lighting equipment for shipboard installation should
resist corrosion.
FIG. 13-19. Typical lighting installations on passenger and merchant ships are
based on the same principles as installations for similar occupancy areas ashore.
13-26 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
MAXIMUM
MAXIMUM ATMOS- INTER- RANGE (Yards)*
DAYLIGHT PHERIC NATIONAL
WEATHER VISIBILITY
TRANSMIT- VISIBILITY
CONDITION RANGE OF TANCE PER CODE
TARGET THOUSAND NUMBER
YARDS 12-inch 18-inch 24-inch
(per cent)
* Based on good contrast brightness of target. Calculated from candlepower data, using formulas by
Blondell, Breeding, Pennow, and Rey. Ranges are for targets having J-degree visible angle, with target
illumination of 0.1 footcandle. Twelve-inch searchlights are assumed to have 1-million, 18-inch searchlights
2-million, and 24-inch searchlights 7-million beam candlepower.
control, the searchlight being mounted on top of the bridge and controlled
by direct mechanical linkage from inside the bridge. (4) Remote control
by cable, or by pneumatic or electrical means, where the searchlight is
mounted a considerable distance from the control point.
In all cases the angular movement of the beam may not be less than 45
degrees above and below horizontal or less than 360 degrees in azimuth.
Provision must be made so the beam spread can be increased quickly to
not less than 20 degrees for search and rescue work.
Searchlights installed on vessels limited to inland waterways, harbors,
or intercoastal waterways must be not
than 12 inches effective di-
less
ameter, be designed for continuous operation with not less than a 500-
watt incandescent lamp, and have a minimum beam candlepower of
400,000 and a minimum beam spread of 5 degrees.
Committees of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers and the
National Electrical Manufacturers Association are working with Coast
Guard officials on higher standards, particularly for Great Lakes vessels.
Minimums of 16-inch diameter, 1,000-watts and 1-million beam candle
pow er r
are being considered for the Great Lakes. On ocean-going vessels
of 25,000 tons and over, minimums of 24-inch diameter, 2,000-watts,
and 5-million candlepower are being discussed (1947).
13-28 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
FIG. 13-22. A
few of the lighting equipment designs standardized by the Bureau
of Ships, U.S. Navy Department: a. louvered, industrial-type luminaire for over-
head mounting, b. Adjustable chart-table luminaire for bulkhead mounting, c. Flu-
orescent-lamp luminaire with plastic diffusing enclosure, d. Relay-operated, battery-
powered emergency hand-lantern, e. Blackout shield with red lens. f. Steamtight
globe for bulkhead mounting.
Naval vessels are designed for specific military purposes which may
place such a high priority on combative effectiveness measured in fire
power, stability, and so forth that other factors such as lighting, though
of recognized importance, are purposely designed for minimum weight
and space with required effectiveness fixed at a minimum. To simplify
naval logistics, designs are standardized throughout the service. (See
Fig. 13-22.)
As in the case of military aircraft, it often is necessary to provide means
for limiting the visibility of a ship during the day by means of camouflage,
and at night by limiting the permissible brightness and color of its lights.
:
Principle of Operation
There are a number of specific types of reflex devices, but the principle
of operation is the same for all.
A reflex reflector by no means reflects fight in all directions when illu-
minated. Rather, .as shown in Fig. 13-23, each reflex unit projects a
narrow beam directly back at the source or sources lighting it.
13-30 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
Triple Reflectors
FIG. 13-24. Triple mirror reflectors comprise aggregates of concave cube corners.
.
of a cube, form a mirror system such that any ray of light which has been
successively reflected from all three surfaces will be exactly reversed in
direction. (See Fig. 13-24.)
This triple mirror becomes a reflex device in plate form by aggregating
small concave cube corners in pressed glass or transparent plastic.
Pressed-glass triple reflex. Pressed cover glasses for tail lamps on
automobiles are used in this convenient and economical place to combine
the usual red lens and an area of aggregated cube corners. In case of
lamp failure, the reflex action of the cube corners is an automatic sub-
stitute. A number of state regulations require the use of a reflex in this
manner, and all motor vehicles have been so equipped since about 1935.
The difficulty encountered in press-
ing glass cube corners with a high
degree of precision has limited the
safety value of reflex devices of this
character.
Plastic triple reflex. Acrylic plastic
substitutes for glass reflex devices are
now available. (See Fig. 13-25.)
Triple reflector reflexes are now in-
jection-molded, utilizing this material.
A high degree of precision in the
formation of small cube corners can
be maintained in production and a very
narrow cone of reflected light is pro- FIG. 13-25. Injection -molded plas-
tic reflex used in a highway emergency
jected back to the source. marker flare.
Lens-Mirror Reflex
, , . . i. ,
FIG. 13-26. paths in button and
them useful at long distances. spherical ball type lens -mirror reflexes.
:
CLASSIFICATION OF TRAFFIC
NUMBER OF VEHICLES PER HOUR
(Maximum Night Hour, Both Directions)
industrial streets.
Heavy pedestrian traffic As on business streets.
Discernment
Silhouette discernment. An object is discerned by silhouette when the
general level of brightness of all or a substantial part of it is lower than
the brightness of its background. This method of discernment pre-
dominates in the observation of distant objects on lighted streets and
highways. Silhouette discernment depends on the pavement surface
reflectance. The recommended illumination levels given in Table 13-4
are based on 10 per cent pavement reflectance.
Discernment by surface detail. When an object is seen by virtue of
variations in brightness or color over its own surface, without regard to
its contrast with its background, it is discerned by surface detail.
Glare 30
tf mt.0
EH
A generally recognized
means minimizing the
of ^ 1.7
of the values shown in Table 13-5. Table 13-5 gives the illumination
recommended for highway lighting.
*
Heavy 0.8 1.0 1.2
Medium *
0.6 0.8 1.0
Light or none 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
* This condition is unusual, but if it should occur, the footcandle figure appearing Ln the column to the
right may be used.
The following notes apply to this table:
1. The recommended footcandle values are the minimum average values on the roadway between curbs.
On streets carrying from light to heaviest traffic, the lowest footcandle value at any point should not be less
than one-fourth of the above values. On streets carrying very light vehicular traffic, the ratio between aver-
age and lowest footcandles at any point may be of the order of 10 and produce satisfactory results.
2. In general, satisfactory illumination on the sidewalk will be provided by lighting systems which pro-
vide the above recommended street illumination. However, visibility on the sidewalk should be given ade-
quate consideration when selecting luminai'es.
3. The achievement of satisfactory visibility by silhouette discernment depends on good pavement
brightness which in turn depends on the reflectance of the pavement surface. The values in Table 13-3 are
based on pavement reflectance of the order of 10 per cent. For the streets and traffic conditions in which
silhouette discernment is importance, allow ance must be made for pavement reflectances that vary from the
favorable conditions assumed above. When reflectance is poor (of the order of 3 per cent) the illumination
recommended should be increased 50 per cent. When reflectance is unusually high (20 per cent or more) the
recommended values may be decreased 25 per cent. In general, these corrections will apply more specific-
ally to streets carrying a light traffic volume where the illumination recommended is less than 0.8 footcandle.
On streets carrying a heavy traffic volume and where 1.0 footcandle or more is recommended, visibility is
more apt to depend on discernment by surface detail, and corrections for pavement reflectance become less
important
4. Intersections require illumination in excess of above recommendations.
5. All lighting systems are subject to some depreciation in light delivered to the pavement caused by dirt
accumulation on luminaires and the normal aging of the light source. The rate and amount of depreciation
will vary with local conditions and it is important that an adequate maintenance program be carried out
systematically to minimize such light loss. Such a program should provide for operation of light sources at
rated current or voltage, the regular replacement of burned out or depreciated lamps, and the periodic clean-
ing of luminaires. Where operating conditions are such that a reasonable maintenance program cannot ef-
fectively maintain the desired pavement illumination because of the excessive smoke or dirt, corrosive vapor,
or other conditions, it is recommended that the initial footcandle level for which the system is designed be
increased by an amount sufficient to compensate for the light loss as determined by the local situation.
LOCATION ILLUMINATION
(footcandles)
Highways 0.3
Intersections, circles, and cloverleaves 0.4
1. The above values are minimum average values on the paved roadway. The illumination at any point
should not beless than one-fourth of the above value.
These recommendations are based on concrete pavements having a reflectance of the order of 20 per
2.
cent. Where the reflectance is less than 20 per cent, tne illumination should be increased approximately as
follows:
Reflectance 10 per cent: Increase illumination by 50 per cent.
Reflectance 5 per cent: Increase illumination by 100 per cent.
At traffic circles and cloverleaves, the areas of convergent and divergent traffic require greater illumina-
3.
tion as construction and traffic volume indicate.
4. Regular and systematic maintenance is necessary to maintain the highway lighting system as near to
the recommended footcandle value as possible.
TRANSPORTATION LIGHTING 13-35
2,500 25 20 20 20
4,000 25 25 25 25
6,000 25 25 25 25
10,000 30 30 25
15,000 30 30
Color of Light
Researches have shown that in general the visibility of objects on or
near the roadway is substantially the same throughout even the wide
differences in color of light from sodium-vapor, mercury-vapor, and fila-
ment lamps, when the comparison is on the basis of equal light output
and similar distribution.
Design Considerations
In the preparation of recommendations for street and highway lighting
all ofthe following important factors applicable to the specific problem
should be carefully evaluated:
1. Traffic density (vehicular and pedestrian).
2. Accident experience.
3. Type and speed of vehicles.
TRANSPORTATION LIGHTING 13-37
4. Parking practices.
5. Roadway construction features:
a. Width of street or number, of traffic lanes.
b. Character of pavement surface.
c. Grades and curves.
d. Location and width of curbs, sidewalks, and shoulders.
e. Width and location of dividing and safety islands or channelizing ;
curbs.
6. Special construction features:
a. Intersections.
b. Traffic circles, cloverleaves, and separations.
Bridges, viaducts, underpasses, and overpasses.
c.
Street lighting. Table 13-4 lists the illumination recommended for the
various classifications of city streets indicated in Table 13-3.
The determination of the light distribution, lamp size, spacing, and ar-
rangement of luminaires required to provide the recommended illumina-
tion for any street-lighting project may be made with accuracy and conven
ience by the methods described in Section 8. Light distribution curves (Fig.
13-29), isolux curves (Fig. 8-20),
and utilization curves (Fig. 13-30)
for any given luminaire are help-
ful in designing a street-lighting Z 0.4S
o
system to obtain a particular 1-0.40
STREET SIDE
quantity and quality of illumina-
tion. Table 13-7 gives typical
lighting arrangements for various
f ootcandle levels for several street
widths.
All of the light-distribution
types referred to in Table 13-8
aremost effective when suspended /house side
over the street pavement by suit-
able brackets, mast arms, or other 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
means. WIDTH OF AREA
MOUNTING HEIGHT
Several photographs of typical 20 FT 20 40 60 80 100
installations are shown in Fig. 25 FT 25 50 75 100 125
30 FT 30 60 90 120 150
13-31. MOUNTING PAVEMENT WIDTH IN FEET
HEIGHT
Highway Lighting. The char-
FIG. 13-30. Utilization curves for a street
acter of traffic on highways differs and highway luminaire (type II distribu-
from that which prevails on urban tion), showing per cent of total lumen out-
put falling on the pavement on the street
streets in three particulars that
and the house sides of the vertical axis.
are important from the stand- Spacing is measured along the center line
point of lighting design, namely of the pavement..
Average illumination (footcandles) =
(1) high vehicular speed (2) less lamp lumens* X coefficient of utilization
pedestrian traffic, and (3) well-de- spacing X width of paved area
fined traffic lanes. (See Fig. * When luminaires are opposite each
13-33.) other, double lamp lumens value.
13-38 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
FIG. 13-32. Standard nomenclature for street and highway luminaire arrange-
ment. Specific value of spacing should be substituted for the 150 feet used in the
example.
UNDIVIDED HIGHWAYS
2,500 2 24 100 4 14
4,000 2 24 165 4 14
4,000 3 36 140 6 16
6,000 4 48 190 10
6,000 4 48 185 16
6,000 5 60 170 16
6,000 5 60 160 16
6,000 6 72 150 16
6,000 6 72 140 16
t Four-lane dual highways with center islands exceeding 20 feet in width and six-lane dual highways
with center islands exceeding 10 feet in width to be treated as two separate highways.
t It is assumed that poles or standards are located 2 feet back of curbing or 2 feet back of edge of shoulder
where there is no curbing.
resort, the mounting height may be reduced. Under this last condition
luminaires having maximum candlepower at angles less than 75 degrees
should be used with reduction in spacing, and perhaps with proportionate
reduction in lamp size.
Protection for pedestrians* Poor visibility renders the hours of dusk
and darkness dangerous for persons walking. The pedestrian accident
problem is particularly acute at night where the volume of pedestrian
traffic is large or streets are unusually wide and in areas where the popula-
tion is most dense and children must play in the streets for lack of other
playgrounds. Other potentially dangerous areas will be found wherever
pedestrians congregate, as on streets around churches, schools, theaters,
factories, and street transportation loading zones.
The average footcandle values shown in Table 13-4 for various classi-
fications of streets are the minimum levels of illumination recommended
for traffic safety. Experience has shown in many instances that higher
illumination values afford increased pedestrian safety. In general, at
locations of high accident experience, illumination is recommended which
will ensure good visibility.
Curves in roadways. On
curving roadways luminaires
provide best visibility when
located on the outside of
the curve. When located :__
on the inside of the curve
they are less effective, par-
ticularly if the curve is of
short radius. (See Fig.
CROSS INTERSECTION INTERSECTION RAILROAD CROSSING
13-34.)
Intersections. Because of
the complexity of vehicu-
lar and pedestrian traffic at
intersections, more illumina-
tion required at such loca-
is
The Committee on Pedestrian Control and Protection of the National Safety Council is authority for the
statement: "The fatal traffic accident rate per mile of travel is about three times as high during the hours of
darkness as during the day. A large percentage of this increased night rate involves pedestrians who are at
a particular disadvantage under night-time conditions."— (.Safe on Foot)
13-42 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
not less than 2,500 lumen lamps are recommended for the crossing. (See
Fig. 13-34.)
Alleys. Alleys should be lighted so as to permit safe passage and fa-
cilitate police protection.
Bridges, overpasses, and viaducts. The level of illumination for such
structures should not be less than that recommended for streets or high-
ways carrying an equivalent amount of traffic. When pedestrian walk-
ways are so located that they cannot be lighted by the roadway luminaires,
additional lighting for safety and policing should be provided.
Underpasses and tunnels. When an underpass or a tunnel is short,
adequate illumination may be obtained from adjacent street-lighting
luminaires on the approaches. However, long underpasses and tunnels
require special treatment, since electrical illumination may be needed
both day and night. In general, the illumination should be approximately
50 per cent greater than that recommended for the connecting street or
highway or for a roadway carrying the same volume of traffic.
Vehicular tunnels often utilize design features not common to streets
and highways to overcome special problems. The availability of ceiling
and walls is an impor-
tant consideration. For
this reason, lighting by
A-BORDERLINE SEEING
(OBSERVERS AT CONCENTRATED ATTENTION) the conventional street-
B-MINIMUM FOR SAFE SEEING lighting methods and
(FACTOR OF SAFETY -APPROX. 2)
equipment may not be
C-RECOMMENDED FOR SAFE SEEING
(FACTOR OF SAFETY -APPROX. 5) the most satisfactory
D-DAYLIGHT PENETRATION obtainable.
(ENTRANCE 42 FT WIDE, 14 FT HIGH)
Daytime tunnel en-
trance electrical illumina-
tion should be planned so
that drivers may become
adapted gradually to the
lower tunnel levels of
illumination as they enter
and to the higher day-
light levels as they leave.
A graduation in level by
which this may be ac-
complished for a driving
40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
DISTANCE IN FEET WITHIN ENTRANCE OF TUNNEL speed of 35 miles per
Fig. 13-35. Daytime tunnel-entrance illumination hour is shown in Fig.
conditions evaluated with respect to 35-miles-per-
hour driving speed. 13-35.
:
The equipment used and the methods of solving these seeing problems
are as follows
1. The airport location is marked by an airport beacon, (as in Fig. 13-36),
designed to give a definite periodic sequence of flashes which will be visible
to the pilot from any normal angle of
approach. The standard land airport signal
consists of six white and six green alternate
flashes per minute. Each flash should have
a minimum duration of 0.15 second when
'
clearly visible.
"""",
2. Boundary used to outline the
lights are ,«_,
*^«' i.jgpBF
entire usable landing area of an all-way air-
port. Strip lights are used when the area "**\
7 „
show yellow in one direction only on the units 1,500 feet in from each end
of the runway.
Runway lights may be either semiflush or elevated. Elevated lights
include day markers, usually a small painted cone mounted directly under
the light.
High-intensity runway lights are high candlepower elevated lights,
physically large enough to serve as day markers without the use of auxil-
iary cones. The candlepower of a high-intensity runway light is many
times that of a semiflush or elevated runway light.
3. Wind direction is indicated visually by an illuminated wind cone,
wind tee, A wind cone is a large cloth cone, or "sock,"
or wind tetrahedron.
free to swing around a vertical shaft and illuminated from above by lamps
and reflectors. A wind tee consists of a large free-swinging, T-shaped
wind vane with its shape clearly outlined by rows of lamps. A wind
tetrahedron is a large triangular pyramid turned on its side, free SAvinging,
and with all edges outlined by rows of lamps. (See Fig. 13-38.)
TRANSPORTATION LIGHTING 13-45
a b rfk
-f
FIG. 13-37. Typical lights used to mark usable landing areas: (a) boundary or
strip light; runway lights (b, high -intensity, c, semiflush, d, elevated).
LAMPS WITH
COLOR HOODS
A
FIG. 13-38. Typical illuminated wind-direction indicators: (a) cone, (b) tee,
(c) tetrahedron.
:
FIG. 13-41. Three types of approach lights used to establish visual contact after
an instrument approach: (a) red incandescent type, (b) projector type, (c) neon
ladder type.
KEY
o ELEVATED STRIP AND RUNWAY MARKER LIGHTS, CLEAR
• ELEVATED THRESHOLD LIGHTS, GREEN
® ROTATING BEACON
-<P ILLUMINATED WIND CONE
Airport Classification
Airports are divided into classes I, II, III, IV, and V, the basis being
usefulrunway length. The class required for a given locality is governed
by the types and the number of planes which will make use of the airport,
determining factors being wing loading and power loading. The useful
runway lengths for the five classes are
AIRPORT CLASSIFICATION LANDING STRIP LENGTH
I 1,800 to 2,700 feet
II 2,700 to 3,700 feet
III 3,700 to 4,700 feet
IV 4,700 to 5,700 feet
V 5,700 feet and over
For each class of airport, certain other limiting design standards apply,
among which are runway and taxiway widths, distances from runways
and taxiways to aprons and buildings, grades, approach path ratios for
obstruction clearance, runway paving loads, and field lighting facilities.
(See Fig. 13-42.)
13-50 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
Table 13-9 lists the minimum lighting facilities recommended for each
class of airport. These recommendations are subject to variation to suit
local conditions which may require less elaborate or more extensive treat-
ment.
Table 13-10 gives reference data on airport lighting equipment.
AIRPORT CLASS
MINIMUM RECOMMENDED FACILITIES
I II III IV
Airport beacon X X X X
Identification (code) beacon* X X X X
Boundary and range lightsf X X X X
Obstruction lights X X X X
Illuminated wind cone X X X X
Runway and threshold lights X X X
Illuminated wind tee or tetrahedron X X
Apron floodlights X X
Ceiling projector and clinometer X X
Taxiway guidance lights X
Approach lights J X
* The identification beacon is required only when there is another lighted airport near by.
t Boundary lights should be omitted on runway-type fields.
t Approach lights should be installed for each instrument- landing runway.
Identification bea- Usually above or 500-VVatt, 115- volt, Green flashes Usually mounted
con immediately ad- PS-40 bulb, mo- in Morse above airport
Used to identify jacent to airport gul prefocus base code beacon on aux-
positively a par- beacon iliary platform
ticular point on where the beam
earth's surface will clear all sur-
rounding ob-
structions
Approach light On approach area 200-Watt, 6.6-am- Red On low base at 200 ft
(high intensity). as extensions of pere, PS-30 bulb, ground, or on
Used to indicate runway lights mogul prefocus poles to estab-
desired line of ap- for distance of base; 250- watt, lish level grade
proach to a land- approximately 20-ampere, T-10 from runway
ing area 2,000-3,000 ft bulb, medium end or rising
prefocus base; curve
or 500- watt, 115-
volt, T-20 bulb,
medium prefo-
cus base
. t
Runway light (high 10 ft outside run- 200-Watt, 6.6-am- White on full Mounted on 200 ft
intensity) way edge paral- pere, PS-30bulb, length of ground or on a
Used on all in- lel to the run- mogul prefocus runway ex- low base with
strument runways way, opposite base; 250-watt, cept one- breakable joint
to indicate limits each other and 20-ampere, T-10 half white which will give
of area available so circuited that bulb, medium and one- half way if light is
for landing and a single runway prefocus base; yellow struck accident-
take-off. may be delin- or500-watt, 115- within 1,500 ally by an air-
eated as a unit volt, T-20 bulb, ft of each plane. Maxi-
medium prefo- end of run- mum extension
cus base way 30 in. above sur-
face
Threshold light (high Across each end of 200-Watt, 6.6-am- Green Mounted on (See lo-
intensity) runway along pere PS-30 bulb, ground or on a cation)
Used in conjunc- line perpendicu- mogul prefocus low base with a
tion with and in lar to runway base; 250-watt, breakable joint
same circuit as center fine, sym- 20-ampere, T-10 which will give
high-intensity metrically bulb, medium way if light is
runway light to spaced in two prefocus base; accidentally
indicate usable groups, one or500-watt, 115- struck by an air-
limits of runway group on each volt, T-20 bulb, plane. Maxi-
side of runway, medium prefo- mum extension
leaving an 80-ft cus base 30 in. above sur-
clearance gap at face
runway center
Runway light (low Along both edges 40- Watt, 115-volt, White on full Mounted semi- 200 ft
intensity). of runway pav- A-21 bulb, me- length of flush with pave-
Used on runways ing, opposite dium prefocus runway ex- ment, heavy
to indicate area each other and base; or 325-lu- cept one- half prismatic glass
available for land- so circuited that men, 6.6-ampere, white and and steel cover.
ing and take-off. a single runway A-21 bulb, me- one-half yel- Maximum ex-
may be deline- dium prefocus low within tension 4 in.
ated as a unit base. 1,500 ft of above surface
each end of
runway
Threshold light (low Across each end of 100- Watt, 115-volt, Green Mounted semi- (See lo-
intensity) runway along a A-21 bulb, me- flush with pave- cation)
Used in conjunc- line perpendicu- dium prefocus ment, heavy
tion with and in lar to runway base; or 1,020- prismatic glass
same circuit as center line and lumen, 6.6-am- and steel cover.
low-intensity run- at uniformly pere, A-21 bulb, Maximum exten-
way light to indi- spaced intervals medium prefocus sion 4 in. above
cate usable limits of 50 ft. On base surface
of runway runways less
than 150 ft wide
spacing should
be decreased to
allow a total of
four to be used
Obstruction light On obstructions: 100 Watt, 115-volt, Red At top for heights Not
Used to indicate (a) 150 ft or more A-21 bulb, me- to 150 ft, with over
obstructions or above landing dium prefocus additional light 150
potential hazards area and within base; Ill-watt, for each 150 ft, ft
to aircraft 2 miles, (b) traffic signal, or fraction hori-
within approach 115-volt, A-21 thereof, equally zon-
or take-off areas bulb, medium spaced. Addi- tal
and extending screw base; or tional lights will spac-
above a plane of 1,020-lumen, 6.6- be equally ing
1:40 inclination, ampere, A-21 spaced between
or (c) within bulb, medium top light and
transitional areas prefocus base ground level
and extending
above a plane of
1:7 inclination
Taxiway light (low Along both edges 40-Watt, 115-volt, Blue Mounted semiflush 200 ft
intensity) of taxiway. A-21 bulb, me- with pavement, on
Used to delineate On straight sec- dium prefocus heavy prismatic straight
taxiway tions, opposite base; or 325-lu- glass and steel sec-
Used on Taxiway each other. On men, 6.6-ampere, cover. Maxi- tions.
to path
indicate short sections, A-21 bulb, me- mum extension
from terminal to curved edges and dium prefocus 4 in. above sur-
point of take-off intersections so base face||
and from point of positioned that
landing to term- path of taxiway
inal. is clearly indi-
cated.
Taxiway light (ele- Same as above 30 or 45-watt, 6.6- Blue Mounted on ground 200 ft
vated) ampere, T-10 on low base with on
Same as above bulb, medium a breakable joint straight
prefocus base, or which will give sec-
40-watt, 115-volt, way if light is tions
T-10 bulb, med- accidentally
ium prefocus struck by air-
base. plane If
Landing area or run- At end of runway 1,500-Watt, 32-voIt, White On pipe standards
way floodlight or at edge of T-24 bulb, mogul or vaults in banks
Used for general landing area bipost base; or of two or more
illumination of 3,000-watt, 32- units all on one
runway or landing volt, T-32 bulb, side or on both
area mogul bipost sides of runway.
base
Usually on airport
Apron floodlight As required and so General lighting White buildings or on
Used to illuminate positioned as to service lamps ground on flat
surface of apron avoid light being base or pipe
projected into mountings
pilot's eyes dur-
ing landing or
taking off of air-
craft and to pro-
duce minimum
of 0.5 footcandle
Wind tee On ground near, 25- Watt, 115-volt, Green Mounted on low Lamps
Used to indicate or on edge of, A-19 bulb, me- friction bearings on tee
true ground wind landing areas. dium-screw base on vertical shaft spaced
direction where visible to permit free maxi-
from all points rotation with the mum
and where wind wind of 1 ft
is not influenced apart
by buildings or
natural obstacles
:
Tetrahedron Same as Wind Tee 10-Watt, 115- volt, Red on left Mounted on low
Used to indicate S-14 bulb, me- side, green friction bearings
direction of land- dium-screw base on right side, on vertical shaft
ing or take-off top edge, for free rotation
where traffic con- and tip with wind when
trol is exercised. not controlled
When swinging from tower
free indicates true
ground wind di-
rection
Runway light (ele- 10 ft out from edge 30- or 45-watt, 6.6- White on full Mounted on ground 200 ft
vated) Strip light of runway paving ampere,T-10bulb, length of run- or on a low base
(elevated) or strip, parallel medium prefocus way or strip, with breakable
Used on runways to strip or run- base; or 40-watt, except one- joint which will
and strips to in- way, opposite T-10
115- volt, half white give way if light
dicate the area each other and so bulb, medium and one-half is struck acci-
available for land- circuited that a prefocus base yellow with- dentally by an
ing or take-off. single runway or in 1,500 ft of airplane)]
strip may be de- each end of
lineated as a unit runway
Threshold light (ele- Across each end of 30- or 45-watt, 6.6- Green Mounted on (see lo-
vated) runway or strip ampere, T-10 ground or on a cation)
Used in conjunc- symmetrically bulb medium low base with
tion with and in spaced in two prefocus base; or breakable joint
the same circuit groups, one 40-watt, 115- which will give
as the elevated group on each volt, T-10 bulb, way if light is
strip or runway side of runway or medium prefo- struck accident-
light to indicate strip, perpendic- cus base ally by an air-
usable limits of ular to runway plane. Maxi-
runway or strip or strip leaving mum extension
an 80-ft clearance 30 in.abovesur-
gap at center of face
runway or strip \
As replacements: lights shall be mounted on top of flush runway light housings. Maximum extension 30
inches above surface for all installations.
T[ As new installation, lights shall be located 10-feet out from edge of taxiway opposite each other. As re-
placements, lights shall be mounted on top of flush taxiway light housings. Maximum extension 30" above
surface for any installation.
Representative of
the function of con-
veying identification
and location informa-
tion, the switch light,
or a reflex device (such
as shown in Fig.
13-43), enables the
trainman to locate a
switch at night, and
FIG. 13-43 a. Electric switch amp. Reflex him by
tells its color
switch marker c. Kerosene switch lamp
whether the switch is
S *
*4 •
FIG. 13-48. Centralized traffic control panel with illuminated track model and
lever lights.
2000
RANGE IN FEET
Signal Colors
1
1
1 1
1
1 1 1
1
i
i i i
1
1 1 1
1
1 1 1
1
1 1 1
I
i m 1
1
1
1 n i~i it 'i
|
m i 1T1 f 1 1
|
iVi i.
0.80
0.60
•op.57
T3 0.50
0.50
'p J & *<t)0.58
"\ (LJ =0.864 -0.783X)
,& n ? 2,360"
0.40
(y = 0.400) s
s60°^^>(y (X=0.44)
(X = 0.330?-3^^
4
O 0.49
0.20
0.10
/ ° 47 ^ An?
0.46^'
Zlj i i I
' ' ' '
I
i
' "' Q?
0.80
power is low and the signal range short. Lunar white is the name assigned
to the colorless indication obtained by using a lens of light blue glass
which makes the light appear a high color-temperature white instead of
the usual yellowish kerosene or incandescent filament color. Lunar white
thus provides assistance in distinguishing a white signal from ordinary
nonsignal lights along the wayside.
As is commonly understood, red is associated with the most restrictive
signal aspects, green with the least restrictive, and yellow with interme-
diate indications. For the specific meanings of the many signal aspects
made possible by displaying two or more lights simultaneously, see the
Manual of the Signal Section of the A.A.R. (Association of American Rail-
roads).
The yellow used in position-light signals is a hue somewhat paler than
that covered by A.A.R. specification for yellow color-light signals or
TRANSPORTATION LIGHTING 13-61
Engine repair 50
Frame repair 30
Instrument repair 50
Paint shop 20
Plane maintenance (general) 30
Radio repair 50
Recovering area 30
Storage (live) 10
• The footcandle values represent order of magnitude rather than exact levels of illumination.
LUMINAIRE SHIELDING
ANGLE 0-30° 30-60° 60-90°
REFERENCES
MOTOR- VEHICLE LIGHTING
1. Falge, R. N., "Intelligent Lamp Service, an Essential Requirement for Safe Headlighting," Trans.
Ilium. Eng. Soc, May, 1937.
2. Roper, V. J., and Howard, E. A., "Seeing with Motor Car Headlamps," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, May,
1938.
3. Davis, D. D., Ryder, F. A., and Boelter, L. M. K., "Measurements of Highway Illumination by Auto-
mobile Headlamps under Actual Operating Conditions," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, July, 1939.
4. Boelter, L. M. K., and Ryder, F. A., "Notes on the Behavior of a Beam of Light in Fog," Ilium. Eng.,
March, 1940.
5. Roper, V.J. and Scott, K. D., "Silhouette Seeing with Motor Car Headlamps," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc,
,
November, 1939. "Seeing with Polarized Headlamps," Ilium. Eng., December, 1941.
,
6. Chubb, L. W-, "Polarized Light for Motor Vehicle Lighting," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, May, 1937.
7. Hunt, J. II., "The Motor Car Industry Headlamp Improvement Program," Ilium. Eng., June, 1940.
8. Magdsick, H. H., "Some Engineering Aspects of Headlighting," Ilium. Eng., June, 1940.
Lighting and Safety, Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, September, 193S. "Public Safety in Detroit as Affected
,
by Street Lighting," Ilium. Eng., December, 1941. "Traffic Safety in Wartime," Ilium. Eng., July, 1943.
,
20. Bear, W. P., "Bridge and Highway Lighting in California," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, September, 193S.
21. Sherbaum, E. R., "Reducing Night Accidents in New Jersey with Highway Lighting," Trans. Ilium.
Eng. Soc, February, 1939.
22. Simpson, It. E., "The Community Pays and Saves with Good Street Lighting," Trans. Ilium. Eng.
Soc, April, 1939. Danger in the Dimout, Traffic Survey Made by Department of Motor Vehicles of Con-
,
necticut, 1943.
23. National Safety Council, Prevention of Night Traffic Accidents, 1940. Safe on Foot, 1940. Accident
Facts, 1942, 1943, 1944.
24. Osborne, H. W., "Traffic Safety Engineering," Ilium. Eng., June, 1944.
25. Rolph, T. W., "Saving Social Waste by Better Street Lighting," Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc, September,
1931.
26. Signal Section Specification No. 59, July, 1939. Signal Section Specification No. 69, March, 1941. As-
sociation of American Railroads, New York, N. Y.
27. "Equivalent Indications for Semaphore, Color Light Position and Light and Color Position Light
Signal Aspects," Proceedings of Signal Section, Vol. XLII No. 2. Association of American Railroads, New
York, N. Y.
28. Gage, H. P., "Practical Considerations in the Selection of Standards for Signal Glass in the United
States," Pages 834 to 861, Proceedings of International Congress on Illumination, 1928.
29. Gibson, K. S., and Haupt, G. W., "Standardization of the Luminous-Transmission Scale Used in the
Specification of Railroad Signal Glasses," J. Research National Bur. Standards, Research Paper 1688, Janu- RP
ary, 1946.
.
SECTION 14
* Beam lumens within 0-30 degree zone. Maximum beam candlepower, 6500.
t Maximum beam candlepower, 50,000. Approximate beam spread to 10 per cent maximum candlepower,
15°-20°.
t Color of light balanced approximately to requirements of daylight color films.
PHOTOGRAPHIC LIGHTING
Commonly used photosensitive films and plates include the following:
Ordinary (mainly blue sensitive) Panchromatic (sensitive to all colors)
Orthochromatic (sensitive to all colors except orange and red
Color (sensitive to all colors) Infrared (sensitive to red and infrared)
Their spectral sensitivity curves are given in Fig. 14-1.
The practical problem of producing a latent image in one of these materi-
als requires that the incident radiation be of a quality that includes wave-
lengths to which the material is sensitive and, further, that the quantity of
incident radiant energy (exposure) be sufficient to effect an adequate
photochemical reaction.
Table 14-2. 115- and 120- volt White Diffusing Bulb Incandescent
Enlarger Lamps
150
Table 14-3. 115-, 120- and 125-volt Incandescent Lamps Designed for
Operation at 3200 K
0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.85 0.90
WAVELENGTH IN MICRONS
1 micron = 1/10,000 centimeter = 10,000 angstroms
FIG. 14-1. Spectral sensitivity curves for common types of photographic
materials.
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PHOTOGRAPHY 14-5
Thus, necessary that the film and the illuminant complement each
it is
-f- the diameter of the lens opening. Since the light transmitted is propor-
tional to the area of the opening, the inverse of the square of the /-value is
a measure of the light-collecting ability of a camera lens. The illumination
on the film will be influenced also by surface reflections, glass absorptance,
and vignetting.
There are a number of systems in vogue for evaluating the absolute speed
of film and plates. The American Standards Association has standardized
1
a procedure for determining film speed which appears to include all of the
factors necessary in obtaining satisfactory prints, and should eventually
come into general use. 2
The following formula, embodying the reciprocity law and the factors of
lens aperture and film rating, gives the relationship of the several elements
affecting exposure for objects of average reflectance
F _
KXf
TXS
where E = Illumination on subject being photographed (in footcandles).
/ = /-value at which the lens aperture is set.
S = Speed of film, according to the A.S.A. system. (The older
Weston and G.E. exposure meter values also applicable with
adjustment of K.)
T = Time
of exposure (seconds).
K
= A constant based on the various elements used. 15 is a satis-
factory value for negatives of average density (A.S.A. ).
(Weston K = 10) (G.E. K = 20)
Instead of basing the exposure on incident illumination, the average bright-
ness B may be substituted for E if a corresponding change is made in K.
PHOTOGRAPHY 14-7
FILM RATINGt
G.E. 6 12 24 48 100
PHOTOGRAPHY 14-11
tour, will have a shorter focal length than a shallow one of the same diameter
and therefore will intercept and direct into the beam a larger percentage of
the light emitted by the source. Reflectors should be as deep as practical
for greatest efficiency.
Reflectors for fluorescent lamps usually are of a trough type. Such
reflectors do not control the light in the plane of the axis of the lamp.
However, in a plane perpendicular to the lamp axis, control of the light
distribution can be as accurate as that obtained with practical "point
sources."
Lens spots. The lens spotlight frequently is used
to provide a high
level of illumination overa limited and well-defined area. It is employed
by professional motion picture, commercial, and portrait photographers and
(in small sizes) by amateurs. In its usual form, it consists of a lens of
either plano-convex or Fresnel type behind winch is placed a concentrated
source such as an arc or an incandescent lamp. (See Fig. 14-4.)
j
jTO 5.9
A
'
\a
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r
performance of typical
spotlamps used in motion
picture
studios:
and television ''/) k
3 i D 1
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a. 5000-watt incandes- 30 20 10 10 20 30 30 20 10 10 20 30
DIVERGENCE IN DEGREES
cent-lamp-type lens spot-
lamp, known as a "senior
solar spot." The curves
show candlepower distri-
bution related to A 13° Q ISOCANDLE CURVE LUMEN DISTRIBUTION
(AVERAGE OF RIGHT AND LEFT SIDES)
beam, 18,000 lumens; B 20°
beam, 19,000 lumens; C
30° beam, 26,500 lumens;
D60°beam, 47,000 lumens.
b. High intensity 115-
volt d-c arc lamp type
lens spotlamp (14CM45
arc amperes, 60-70 arc
volts). The curves show
candlepower distribution
related to: A 10° beam,
47,000 lumens; B 18° beam,
75,000 lumens; C 48°
beam, 130,000 lumens.
c. 1,000-watt A-H 6
mercury- vapor-lamp-type
spotlamp. Isocandle
curves and the distribu-
tion of lumens in the
beam are shown on the 30 25 2Q 15 10 10 15 20 25 30
graph. LEFT RIGHT
14-12 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
PHOTOGRAPHY 14-13
that experience has shown to be in the original subject. When this con-
immediately loses its potential aesthetic appeal.
trast is lacking, the picture
A person with normal vision sees an object with two eyes and thus from
two different points simultaneously. The two images produced on the
and this disparity is automatically rationalized and
retinas are different,
interpreted by the mind as form or roundness. Thus, in binocular vision,
contrast is not necessary to create a sense of roundness. In a photograph,
however, the camera "sees" the subject from a single point and therefore
cannot record form except by illusion. This illusion arises as follows:
Wherever a depression or elevation occurs on a surface illuminated by
directional light, a shadow is formed. Thus a highlight plus a shadow is
interpreted by the mind as a depression or an elevation. When a subject
is illuminated by diffuse light alone, that is, by light from all directions, no
lights can be well exposed but the shadows are clear and show no detail at
all. Modeling lights are usually highly directional and are used for the
express purpose of casting shadows and forming highlights.
Outdoors, general illumination, especially in the shadows, is furnished
by sky light and by light reflected by the surroundings. The modeling or
directional light is furnished by direct sunlight. Outdoors a certain
amount of lighting control can be achieved by the judicious use of reflectors.
White cardboard or cloth can be used to reflect light into the shadows while
mirrors can be used to produce sharp shadows and highlights. In pro-
fessional motion-picture photography out-of-doors, even in sunlight, supple-
mentary electric sources often are used to raise the illumination level in
shadowed areas.
14-14 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
Portrait Photography
FIG. 14-6. Photography to compare the effect of lighting direction on the apparent
texture of a surface. Picture a was taken to show the effect of overhead lighting
alone. Picture b shows the increased texture detail visible when the light is applied
at grazing incidence. No attempt was made to light the surroundings which there-
fore are lost in picture a. They could be seen easily in the original subject. Even
less of the surround is visible in picture b because the lighted area is even brighter
than in a. When surroundings are important, supplementary illumination can be
added.
FIG. 14-8. Extreme closeups of locally lighted areas frequently impose a problem
in picture sharpness. The range of distance in sharp focus, known as depth of field,
is extremely limited in closeups and the smallest lens opening on the camera should
be used. Note that the cover in picture at left and the tool post in picture at right
are out of focus. Sharper pictures probably could be attained by more careful fo-
cusing on the ground glass and by the use of a smaller lens opening. Small cameras
have an advantage over larger ones for such pictures, since they have greater depth
of field at the same lens opening, other things being equal.
FIG. 14-9. The effect of supplementary illumination: Picture at left was taken
with no added illumination. Even though the room was well lighted, note that the
lower desk areas appear to be dark. In picture at right photoflood supplementary
illumination was added as described in the text and has resulted in improved illumi-
nation of the desks in the foreground. Both pictures were taken with a surface-
treated lens.
PHOTOGRAPHY 14-17
brightness scale will be lost, or the whole scale can be compressed so that
all brightness differences are decreased. A print can be made to select
whichever type of rendering is desired, by choice of paper contrast grade,
cell is close enough to the subject to receive light only from the illuminated
area of interest.
If the whole brightness range is to be reproduced, the exposure meter can
be used to scan the subject and thereby aid in obtaining proper illumination
for a desirably limited brightness range.
Approximate exposure guide for interiors. The following data may be
found convenient for rough survey pictures, or if an exposure meter is not
at hand. The use of film having an exposure index (tungsten-filament
source) of 64 is assumed. A tripod or other camera support is needed.
For brightly illuminated stores, offices, drafting rooms, and other such
interiors, expose 2 seconds at //16. For interiors of average brightness
such as homes, factories, schools, etc., expose 10 seconds at //16. For
dimly lighted storage rooms, basements, and some restaurants, expose 3
minutes at //16. If there is any doubt as to the brightness class of the
subject at hand, make a series of three pictures differing in exposure. One
should have the suggested time, the other two should have | and 4 times
as much. One or more of the series usually will be printable.
Photographing installations to include luminaires. One type of picture
frequently desired is that of an illuminated office, store, factory, or other
interior with the luminaires appearing in the photograph. The presence
of these bright objects extends the brightness range of the subject, and it
is this high brightness range that demands a departure from usual pho-
tographic technique.
The camera should take film at least 4 by 5 inches in size, preferably
larger. A coated camera lens is desirable but not vital. Such a lens
tends to eliminate "flare" around the luminaires in a picture, and it pro-
duces better shadow detail than an untreated lens.
A low-contrast sheet film should be used, and it should be exposed 4
times the normal determined by a photographic exposure meter measuring
illumination at table height. The films should be developed two-thirds of
the normal time.
The negative should be printed in the usual manner except that some
"dodging" may be necessary.
It may be desirable to add a small amount of supplementary illumination
to the room. The desirability of supplementary illumination depends on
the purpose of the photograph. In any case it assists in obtaining negatives
which can be printed more readily. The brightness range reproducible in
a photographic print is definitely limited, and such a print may not do full
justice to a room that is lighted in a visually satisfactory manner. The
print may make the darker areas seem too dark. On the other hand, if
the illumination is truly uniform, then the effect will be reproduced quite
well in the print. If supplementary illumination is desirable, the use is
PHOTOGRAPHY 14-19
Commercial Photography
For work out of the studio, a photographer takes much of the studio
lighting equipment with him. Where lighting needs are severe, as for
large interiors, 2,000-watt moviefloods are used in reflectors suspended along
the walls.
Similar reflectors, wired to a common connecting cable, and equipped
with No. 22 or No. 50 photoflash lamps, form the more or less standard
lighting arrangement of the banquet photographer. An approximate rule
of thumb is one No. 50 lamp for each 500 square feet of floor area with
:
Professional-Motion-Picture Photography
Lighting of professional-motion-picture sets has reached a very high
stage of development. Cameramen who are artists with light play an
important part in the success of a picture. The lighting equipment must
be extremely versatile and be capable of producing a wide range of illu-
mination levels. Frequently, large areas must be lighted, necessitating
many powerful sources. Since an increasing number of pictures are being-
made in color, the spectral quality of the light must be held within close
limits. This is particularly important because it is common practice to
light the same set by means of more than one type of illuminant.
Both arc and incandescent sources are used. In the former the color
control is achieved in the materials with which the electrodes are im-
pregnated. Filters are used with incandescent lamps to achieve the
desired color. Typical equipment is shown in Figs. 14-3 and -10.
Common motion picture set lighting practice is to flood a set with general
illumination to increase shadow area brightness and reduce average ex-
posure time required and then add (for modeling) spotlighting equipment
FIG. 14-10. Typical motion picture studio equipment a. twin arc broadside with
:
which may be mounted on platforms placed along the top of the set walls
or on the floor in the vicinity of the camera. To this foundation the
cameraman adds variations he feels are needed to interpret a picture
properly.
Sound pictures are photographed at the rate of twenty -four pictures per
second and silent pictures at the rate of sixteen pictures per second. The
camera shutter covers the lens at least 50 per cent of the picture cycle so
the exposure time for each sound picture is -fe second or less and for silent
pictures less than yj second. With lens apertures of the order of f/2.5
and currently available films, approximately 100 to 200 footcandles of
general illumination and about 2 to 4 times this value of modeling illu-
mination are required. Color film calls for a level of from 250 to 700 foot-
candles general illumination and for somewhat lower brightness contrasts
because of the limited exposure latitude of color films. 7
Motion-picture-studio lighting equipment. The equipment used for
motion-picture-studio lighting is of two general types spotlight" and —
floodlight. Spotlights may employ either Fresnel lenses or glass or polished
metal reflectors. By
adjustment of the light source along the optical axis,
beam divergences of from 8 to 50 degrees are obtained. (See Figs. 14-4
and 14-10.) The floodlights ("broadsides" or "broads" as they are known
in studio parlance) may have a beam spread of almost 180 degrees.
For "close-ups" and smaller sets, the broadsides supply the general
illumination and the spots the modeling light.
The spotlights, opened to their wider beam divergences, are employed
frequently on the medium-size and larger sets to supply general illumina-
tion as well as that for modeling, because of the greater distances involved.
Electrical illumination frequently is used to supplement daylight in
out-of-door or on-location scenes. This is done to secure adequate illu-
mination in shadows, accentuate principals, improve modeling, and in
some cases change shadow direction.
For this purpose, spotlighting equipment generally is employed and in
the case of black-and-white photography the discrepancy between the color
quality of the artificial source and daylight seldom is important. Both
arcs and incandescent sources must be filtered to produce a close match
to daylight for color photography.
Darkroom Lighting
In general, the radiation from a darkroom illuminant should be of such
quality as will not appreciably fog photosensitive material during the time
required for its manipulation. No darkroom light source is absolutely
safe, and all types will cause fogging if given sufficient time. Consequently,
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14-24 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
essential for the convenience of the audience, safety, discipline etc. How-
ever,if light from the seating area is allowed to fall on the screen the desired
contrasts are reduced, and the over-all brightness must be increased to re-
store the proper relations.
The logical place to start in planning picture projection is the area in
which the pictures will be shown. This establishes the brightness level,
the type of screen to be used, and the amount of light needed from the
projector. 10
Brightness Levels
Screen Surfaces
Their respective reflectance characteristics determine the condition under
which the four general classes of screens can be used to satisfy the preceding
brightness recommendations.
1. Matte surface screen. Matte surface screens reflect incident light in
such a way that their brightnesses are substantially the same at all angles of
—
view hence they are recommended where the viewers occupy a wide
angle. A surface coated with a flat white paint has this characteristic.
Several screen materials are available which produce a similar result (Fig.
14-11 curve). This type is required in practically all theaters because of
the wide viewing angles and is recommended for classrooms for the same
reason.
2. Beaded The surface of a beaded screen is covered with small
screen.
glass spheres which reflect the major part of the light back in the direction
from which it came, as shown in Fig. 14-11 curve. To observers sitting
near the axis of projection, pictures on beaded screens are several times
brighter than pictures on a perfectly reflecting matte screen. To observers
about 22 degrees off the axis of projection, pictures seen on both types would
appear equally bright, except that the far side of the beaded screen would
appear somewhat brighter than the near side. This brightness difference is
greatest at the shorter viewing distances. Such screens rarely are used for
theater projection because they do not satisfy the brightness requirements
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VIEWING ANGLE IN DEGREES (FROM AXIS)
The ratio of height to width for theater screens corresponding to the pro-
portions of 35-millimeter film should be 3 to 4.
For 8-millimeter and 16-millimeter, motion-picture film the same ratio
of picture height to picture width applies; but, for classroom use, a square
screen usually is preferable since it may be used also for the projection of
slides, in which the greater dimension may be either horizontal or vertical.
Projection Booths
Lumens =
desired brightness (footlamberts) X area of screen (square feet)
Average reflectance (a decimal)
14-28 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
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LENS-TO-
SCREEN DIS-
TANCE (feet) . . 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 50 70 80 100 150
Focal
Length SIZE OF PICTURE
of Type of
Lens Projector
(in-
ft in. ft in. ft in. ft in. ft in. ft in. ft in. ft in. ft in. ft in. ft in. ft in. ft in.
ches)
i 8 mm W2 3 9 5 8
H 1 6 2 9 4 3
1 8 mm W 1 1 10 2 10 3 9 4 8 5 8
H 9 1 5 2 2 2 10 3 6 4 3
16 mm W 1 10 3 9 5 8 7 6 9 4 11 6 13 4 15
H 1 4 2 10 4 2 5 6 6 11 8 7 9 11 11 2
2 16 mm W 1 1 10 2 10 3 10 4 8 5 8 6 6 7 6 9 4
H 9 1 4 2 1 2 10 3 6 4 3 4 10 5 7 6 11
35 mm W 8 2 10 2 12 3 14 4 16 4 20 5 28 6 32 9 41 1
H 5 9 7 5 8 9 10 4 11 9 14 9 29 24 30
3 16 mm W 1 3 1 10 2 6 3 2 3 8 4 4 5 6 4 12 8 18 8
H 11 1 4 1 10 2 4 2 9 3 3 3 9 4 8 9 5 13 11
35 mm W 5 5 6 9 8 2 9 6 10 9 13 6 19 1 21 9 27 4
H 3 9 4 9 5 9 6 9 7 9 9 9 13 9 15 8 19 8
Miniature W 4 8 7 9 4 11 7 14 IS 6 23 2
Slide H 3 4 7 5 11 7 6 9 1 12 2 15
3* 35 mm W 4 8 5 9 7 8 2 9 4 11 7 16 4 18 23 5
H 3 5 4 2 5 1 5 9 6 9 8 5 11 9 13 6 17
4 16 mm W 1 4 1 10 2 4 2 10 3 2 3 10 4 8 9 6 14
H 1 1 4 1 9 2 1 2 4 2 10 3 6 7 10
35 mm W 4 1 5 1 6 2 7 1 8 2 10 3 14 3 16 4 20 6
H 2 9 3 8 4 4 5 2 5 9 7 5 10 4 11 9 14 9
Miniature W 3 7 5 4 7 1 8 9 10 7 14 17 7
Slide H 2 2 3 5 4 4 5 9 6 10 9 1 11 8
Slide W 9 113 9 18 5 23 1 27 9 37 2 46 6 65 2 74 10 93 4
H 7 3 11 14 9 18 6 22 3 28 1 37 3 52 4 59 4 83
6 35 mm W 4 1 4 6 5 4 6 9 9 10 9 13 6
H 2 9 3 4 3 9 4 9 6 9 7 9 9 9
Miniature W 2 4 3 6 4 7 5 10 7 1 9 2 11 7
slide H 1 5 2 2 3 3 9 4 4 5 11 7 6
Slide W 5 11 9 1 12 2 15 3 18 5 24 8 36 11 43 6 49 9 62
H 4 9 7 3 9 9 12 3 14 9 18 1 24 9 34 10 39 8 49 9
8 35 mm W 4 1 5 2 7 1 8 2 10 2
H 2 9 3 8 5 2 5 9 7 4
Miniature W 1 10 2 S 3 7 4 6 5 3 7 1 8 11
H 1 1 1 S 2 2 2 11 3 5 4 4 5 10
Slide W 4 4 6 i 9 1 11 5 13 9 18 5 23 1 32 5 37 1 46 5
H 3 6 5 5 7 3 9 2 11 14 9 18 6 26 29 8 37 2
10 Slide W 3 5 5 4 8 9 1 10 11 16 8 18 5 25 11 29 8 37 2
H 2 9 4 3 5 9 7 3 8 9 11 9 14 9 20 23 9 29 9
20 Slide W 1 6 2 6 3 5 4 4 5 4 7 2 9 1 12 10 14 8 18 5
H 1 3 2 2 9 3 6 4 3 5 9 7 3 10 3 11 9 14 9
:
TELEVISION 14-31
Iconoscope
Figure 14-13 illustrates the spectral response of an iconoscope used in
present-day television studios. 15 With a lens aperture of //4.5, illumina-
tion levels in the range 700 to 1,200 footcandles are required on the set.
Comparison of the sensitivity characteristics of the iconoscope with the
spectral energy distribution of the mercury-vapor arc will suggest the possi-
bility of efficient energy utilization. However, in a television picture pro-
duced by this combination the monotone rendering of colors will be badly
distorted. Blue and violet will be unduly emphasized while green and
yellow will appear to be of unnaturally low brightness. Reds will appear
black.
There is less distortion of the brightness scale when incandescent lamps
are used, though the spectral character of their output emphasizes reds and
yellows. In spite of the high blue and violet sensitivity of the mosaic coat-
ing, these colors appeal- dark and the over-all light utilization is less effi-
cient.
Both the white flame and the high intensity carbon arcs used in motion-
picture photography emphasize blues and violets also, but these lamps pro-
duce a fairly satisfactory scale of grays representing greens, yellows, and
reds.
Both mercury- and carbon-arc sources will supply the required levels of
illumination with much
discomfort caused by heat on the set than that less
caused by incandescent lamps.
Fluorescent lamps possess many advantages from the standpoint of light
quality, particularly as the color of the light in a television studio could be
controlled by employing a combination of lamps of several colors, adjusted
to fit the iconoscope characteristics. However, currently available fluores-
/Y r\ -J in iooo
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80
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\
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cent lamps are not capable of supplying the illumination levels required by
the iconoscope and therefore are not used at present except in conjunction
with carbon or mercury arcs.
Lighting Methods
Lighting practice for television sets follows, in many respects, the methods
used in motion picture studios. 16 The television cameraman endeavors
to provide a flood of illumination throughout the set with general-lighting
equipment, then models with spotlights. The practical difficulty in carry-
ing out this arrangement is that the level of general illumination must be so
high that it is difficult to add 2 or 3 times this value as is done regularly on
the motion-picture set. The high radiant energy density on the actors
causes unbearable discomfort. As a result, very little modeling is
attempted.
Fluorescent Lighting
REFERENCES
1.Jones, L. A., "Measurement of Radiant Energy with Photographic Materials," Measurement »f Radiant
Energy, Forsythe, W. E., Editor, McGraw Hill Book Co. Inc., New York, 1937.
2. "Method of Determining Photographic Speed and Speed Number," ZS8.M-1946, American Standards
Association, New York, N. Y.
3. Evans, R. M., and Klute, J., "Brightness Constancy in Photographic Reproduction," J. Optical Soc.
Am., September, 1944.
4. Jones, L. A., and Nelson, C. N., "Control of Photographic Printing by Measured Characteristics of the
Negative," J. Optical Soc. Am., October, 1942.
5. Taylor, F. C, "35 mmKodachrome film used in Photographing Lighting Installations in Color," Ilium.
Eng., December, 1940.
6. Meyers, Jr., G. J., and Mooney, V. J., "Measuring the Brightness of Streets by means of Photography,"
Ilium. Eng., November, 1941, June, 1941. Hopkinson, R. G., "The Photographic Representation of Street
Lighting Installations," Ilium. Eng., February, 1946.
7. A symposium of papers presented at the 51st semi-annual convention of the Society of Motion Picture
Engineers. Technique of Motion Picture Production, Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York, 1944. See also
reports of the Studio Lighting Committee, Society of Motion Picture Engineers.
8. Farnham, R. E., "The Lighting of Photochemical Reproduction Processes," Ilium. Eng., February,
1941.
9. Tuttle, C. M., "Density of Release Prints," J. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., May, 1936.
10. Report of The Committee on Non-Theatrical Equipment, J Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., July, 1941.
.
11. Lowry, E. M., "Screen Brightness and the Visual Functions," J. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., May, 1936.
12. Will, Jr., Phillip, "Eyes and Ears in School," Architectural Record, February, 1946.
13. Carlson, F. E., "Light Source Requirements for Picture Projection," J. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs.,
March, 1935.
14. Farnham, R. E., "An Appraisal of Illuminants for Television Studio Lighting," J. Soc. Motion Picture
Engrs., June, 1946. Bowditch, F. W., Null, M. R., Zavesky, R. J., "Carbon Arcs for Motion Picture and Tele-
vision Studio Lighting," J. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., June, 1946. Breeding, H. A., "Mercury Lighting for
Television Studios," Proc. Inst. Radio Engrs., March, 1943.
15. "RCA 1846 Iconoscope," Descriptive Bulletin 1846-S-46, RCAVictor Division, Radio Corporation of
America.
16. Linderman, R. G., Handley, C. W., Rodger, A., "Illumination in Motion Picture Production," J. Soc.
Motion Picture Engrs., June, 1943.
17. "Image Multiplier Orthicon," Descriptive Bulletin 2P2$-5-!f6, Tube Division, Radio Corporation of
America.
D
C
F
SECTION 15
Flashlights
1
15-2 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
JU1.0
i \ k
V
'size aa cell ^ SIZE C CELL SIZE D CELL
0.25-ampere lamp load 0.27-AMPERE LAMP LOAD 0.3 -AMPERE LAMP LOAD
60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480 540 600 660
TIME IN MINUTES
FIG. 15-1. Typical battery voltage discharge curves for several standard design
primary dry batteries.
the cost of battery power (which may be $15 per kilowatt hour or more),
the cost of the flashlight, and the cost of the lamp. Today, the mcst eco-
nomical life is about 15 hours for most standard types of flashlight lamps.
Light output and efficiency. The inherent efficiency of flashlight lamps
varies considerably, depending on the lamp voltage. On lamps of very
low voltage, such as one-cell lamps (1.25 volts) the losses caused by lead-
wire cooling are very high and such lamps operate at 3.5 to 4 watts per
spherical candle. Two-cell, 2. 5- volt lamps have an efficiency of 1.5 watts
per spherical candle; three-cell lamps, 1.15 watts per spherical candle; and
four-cell, 5-volt lamps an efficiency of 1 watt per spherical candle. (To
convert watts per spherical candle to lumens per watt, the term used to
express the efficiency of most "large" lamps, divide 12.56, or 4t, by the
watts per spherical candle rating.)
Flashlight batteries. The initial open circuit voltage of a common flash-
light dry battery is approximately 1.5 volts per cell, regardless of its size.
Usually this type is discarded when its voltage reaches approximately
f volt per cell. This 100 per cent voltage variation results in a light output
six times greater on fresh cells than on nearly exhausted cells. There are
three popular sizes of flashlight cells: the AA size cell, which is approxi-
mately \ inch in diameter and If inches long; the C size cell, which is ft
inch in diameter and 1ft inches long; and the most popular D size cell,
which is \\ inches in diameter and 2\ inches long. (See Table 15-2.) All
sizes have different ampere-hour capacities and different voltage discharge
curves.
.
• American Standard Specification for Dry Cells and Batteries, National Bureau of Standards, Washington,
D. C.
Flashlight reflectors. The most popular flashlights are the spotlight type
employing parabolic reflectors (1| to If inches diameter and | inch focal
length) and prefocused types of lamps. When a beam from a flashlight
of this type is projected on a wall at a distance of 30 feet the spot produced
Appliances
Miniature lamps are used on various appliances primarily as indicators
to show visually that power is flowing to the device, or that it is function-
r
ing properly.
Flat irons. Low-voltage, tungsten-filament lamps have been emploj^ed
by connecting them arrangement as shown in Fig. 15-2a,
in series-shunt
to indicate whether the heater element is in or out of the circuit. When
the thermostat opens, the lamp goes out. The lamp must be located
where it will not get too hot. Base solder will melt and basing cement
will loosen at 300 degrees Fahrenheit.
a b
FIG. 15-2. Typical circuits used in flat irons, toasters, electric blankets, and other
heating appliances, a. Series-shunt type for incandescent lamps, b. Shunt type
for glow lamps.
-
T-2 or T-3| bulb glow lamps also are used widely for this purpose.
Generally, these are located in an iron handle to remove them from the heat.
They are connected to the power supply through a resistor as shown in
Fig. 15-26, and so are not affected by the action of the thermostat. Glow
lamp electrodes should be viewed directly for best results; except when
they are to be used in dark surroundings, as at night, their brightness is too
low to permit the use of a cover plate of any sort.
for this purpose, that a sturdy, low-voltage, long-life lamp of the radio-
panel type be used. It should be operated at a reduced voltage to prolong
its life.
mately £ inch depth. The interior of this cavity is coated white and
includes the filament end of the lamp. A shield keeps direct light from
the dial, which therefore is diffusely illuminated. (See Fig. 15-5a.)
2. Edge lighting provided by a lamp located at the focal point of a
parabolic bottom section of the dial also is used. The entire edge of a
glass or plastic dial is silvered and numerals are etched or painted on the
surface. A step in the dial or a second parabolic section projects light
across the background of the dial to illuminate the hands, which should
be beveled to collect the projected light and diffuse it forward.
LIGHT-COLORED HANDS
CLEAR GLASS OR •
3. has been suggested that twelve 0.04-watt glow lamps, one located
It
at each hour position,would illuminate a background against which the
hands could be seen in silhouette. (See Fig. 15-5c.)
Radios
Early a-c-d-c radios without filament transformers used a 6.3-volt,
0.15-ampere lamp shunted by a resistance of about 30 ohms. (See Fig
15-7.) This was not a satisfactory circuit. Though the initial current,
surge caused early lamp failures, the operating voltage was so low that
lamps emitted very little light. Because of the relatively long time required
for radio tube filaments to warm up (during which time the current may be
several times normal), a lamp of the same current rating as the tube
filament cannot be operated in series as it will warm up rapidly and burn
out.
the influence of vibration, the resistance of the joint between the filament
leg and the lead-in wire can change enough to produce radio interference in
a radio set if the clamp is not tight.
Glow lamps also are used in radio sets. One Neon glow lamp, with a
T-4| bulb and a double-contact bayonet base, draws 0.002 ampere at 105
to 125 volts and has characteristics that permit its use as a voltage regulator
in some receiver circuits.
A similar lamp has been used to indicate the output voltage of a
B battery. The lamp is connected in a relaxation circuit with a 4-megohm
resistor in series with thelamp and a -VW
0.1-microfarad condenser across the 4 MEGOHMS
lamp. (See Fig. 15-8.) In such a , _*-\
GL0W B
BATTERY
1
circuit, as the battery voltage drops \j-j/\-*mp
the flash rate is reduced thus giving
a visual indication of the battery con-
ditions. The drain on the batteries FIG. 15-8. The flash frequency of
caused by the lamp is negligible. a glow lamp in a relaxation circuit is
directly related to the impressed
voltage.
Surgical Instruments
• Porter, L. C, "Standardization of Surgioal and Dental Lamps," Edison News Letter, July, 1926. Porter,
L. C, and Roy, A. C, "Ten Lamps or 118," American Surgical Trade Association Journal, January, 1926.
SECTION 16
MISCELLANEOUS APPLICATIONS OF
RADIANT ENERGY
[Photoelectric control
Aiding photosynthesis and production of chlorophyll,
Light \
(plant growth)
Fading of colored materials
Insect attraction and trapping
Development of erythema
Production of vitamin D
Prevention and cure of rickets
Poultry raising
Ultraviolet
Photochemical actions
Catalysis of chemical reactions
Microorganism growth control as in air and liquid sterili-
zation
Radiant-Energy Sources
Many of the produce small quantities
light sources described in Section 6
of ultraviolet energy (wavelength lessthan 0.38 micron) and infrared energy
(wavelength more than 0.76 micron) as well as light energy. In most
cases, the amount of ultraviolet energy emitted by sources used for general
lighting is not of practical importance. However, 75 per cent or more of
the output of standard incandescent-filament lamps, including those with
high ratings of 20 to 30 lumens per watt, is emitted in the infrared spectral
region. Filament lamps designed as infrared emitters may produce 90 per
cent or more of their output in the infrared wavelengths.
The production of ultraviolet and infrared energy may be accomplished
in much the same manner as the production of light, as explained in Sec-
tion 1. The principles of light control described in Section 7 are equally
most cases for infrared and ultraviolet energy as well.
valid in
Figure 16-1 shows the characteristics of solar energy at the earth's surface.
Note: References are listed at the end of each section.
. —
16-2 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
Reflectance, Transmittance, and Absorptance of Radiant Energy
Vl( )LET 1
VISIBLE ! INFR ARED
/\OZONE
.
1
1
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.
—
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0.2 0.4 0.6 08 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 20 2.2 24 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2
WAVELENGTH IN MICRONS
^
1 micron = 10,000 Angstroms = 1/10,000 centimeter
FIG. 16-1. Spectral distribution of solar radiant power density at sea level showing ,
.MATERIAL REFLECTANCE
(per cent)
Aluminum
Untreated surface. 40-60
Treated surface. . .
60-S9
Sputtered on glass. 75-85
Paints 55-75
Stainless steel 25-30
Tin plate 25-30
Magnesium oxide 75-88
Calcium carbonate. . .
70-80
New plaster 55-60
White baked enamels 5-10
White oil paints 5-10
White water paints .
10-35
Zinc oxide paints 4-5
APPLICATIONS OF RADIANT ENERGY 16-3
|
ULTRAVIOLET i
VISIBLE i INFRARED
too
r
90 i
\l\ ^ 4 \
\
\
80 / \
i e' \
\ THALOFIDE
I \
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\ CELL
70 i
60
TT i 1 1
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\
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\ 1 ^"7
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50 \i
/ \
\
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40 \
\ /cs-cso-Ag \
\
'
PHOTOTUBE \
30
\
\
\
20 \ \
\ \
\ SODIUM
\ TUBE \
10
/
\
0.5 6 0.7 0.8 0.9
WAVE LENGTH IN MICRONS
1 micron = 10,000 Angstroms = 1/10,000 centimeter
FIG. 16-2. Relative response of several sensitive elements to energy of different
2
wavelengths.
If it is desired to force the long-day plants, that is, have them bloom
early so as to get them onto a favorable market, it can be done by extending
the daylight hours with electrical illumination. Many plants respond
well to a level of 15 footcandles, some to as low as 2 footcandles. Some,
such as roses and orchids, require considerably more (several hundred
footcandles) illumination. (See Fig. 16-4.)
Conversely, some of the short-day plants, notably chrysanthemums,
will have their time of bloom retarded by extending the natural daylight
period with electrical illumination. This method has been used to en-
courage chrysanthemums to bloom at Christmas time instead of in October.
APPLICATIONS OF RADIANT ENERGY 16-5
FIG. 16-5. Effect of radiant energy from an ultraviolet source on Coleus plants. 4
Irradiated plants are at the right, control plants at the left.
than those with nonfluorescent surfaces. The increased range over which
the fluorescent flags can can be seen is most apparent during the half-light
conditions of dawn and twilight.
This phenomenon is commercially applicable wherever the long distance
visibility of objects is important throughout the hours of daylight. Where
twenty or thirty small private airplanes may be flying from one field,
visibility of each plane can be noticeably improved through the use of high-
daytime-reflectance fluorescent paint.
At night, the decorative possibilities and combinations obtainable
through the use of fluorescent cloth or paint under ultraviolet energy are
limitless. Red or orange-red dials, numbered in fluorescent paint and
irradiated with ultraviolet energy, cause less interruption of dark adapta-
—
tion than those lighted with visible energy which is almost certain to raise
the general illumination level in an area.
Phosphorescent materials. Phosphorescent materials, activated by
ultraviolet energy, daylight, or lightfrom electric lamps, have been shown
to have usable brightnesses of afterglow for periods of from 6 to 9 hours.
Some of these have a measurable (not useful) brightness for as long as 24
hours after the source has been removed. These long-duration phosphors
represent considerable progress over the materials available before World
War II. Phosphorescent materials, generally combinations of calcium and
strontium sulphides, now can be incorporated into adhesive tapes (plastic
over-coatings), paints, and certain molded plastics. Because of the
—
tendency of many plastics either to transmit moisture which decomposes
—
the sulphide- or to react directly with the phosphor, care must be exercised
in the choice of a plastic to carry the phosphorescent powders. Both
vinyl and polystyrene plastics have been found well suited to this
application.
Phosphorescent materials are suitable only for applications where ex-
posure to light prior to use is possible. While some can be used in spots
where a visible brightness is necessary for from 6 to 9 hours, only a few of
the many phosphorescent compounds have this degree of persistence.
Those manufactured from zinc sulphide have high initial brightness after
the light source has been removed, but their useful brightness period does not
extend beyond 20 or 30 minutes. Before refinements in the processing of
calcium and strontium phosphors were made in 1944, the useful brightness
of these types did not extend beyond from 2 to 3 hours after activation.
However, now that long-persistence phosphors are available, phosphores-
cent materials are, in many applications, suitable for night-long use.
Brightness reduction (decay) rates are hastened by high temperatures.
At very low temperatures (60 degrees Kelvin) luminescence may be com-
pletely arrested.
Radium- Luminous materials. Phosphorescent or fluorescent salts may
be activated by the bombardment of alpha rays from radium. These
radium-luminous materials have been used for many years on watch and
clock dials, and on the faces of other instruments that must be read in the
APPLICATIONS OF RADIANT ENERGY 16-11
dark. They are the only type of commercially available luminous materials
that maintain self-luminosity over long periods of time. The power source
(radium) has a half-life period of approximately 1,700 years and can be
considered a continuous source of energy. However, in addition to
emitting alpha rays which cause the luminosity of the material, radium also
emits gamma rays detrimental to the glowing salt. It is the rate of salt de-
composition under the bombardment of the gamma rays that determines the
useful life radium-luminous material. A good-quality material will be
of a
useful for over 6 months and will maintain a relatively constant brightness
during this period. The actual life of a radium-luminous paint is controlled
to a great extent by its initial brightness, which is varied by changing the
concentration of radioactive material in the mixture. Increased brightness
means increased radioactive content, increased gamma ray emission, and
more rapid decomposition of the glowing salt.
Because of the expense of the radium used to activate this material (it is
mixed in in the form of a salt of radium) radium-luminous paint seldom is
used in large quantities or to cover large areas.
0.3654
1
1
5
-5.5
H
<
} \ '
a 5.0
UJ
h-
{ 1
UJ
I 4.5
I-
Z
UJ .
U 4.0 '
UJ
a
<3.5
i
a
CO
a: 3.0
l X0.4047
\
A \p.4358
\\
5 1.0
o 0.5461
10.5
0.5780
/ 0.40 0.44
I I I
.6 0.48 0.52
WAVELENGTH IN MICRONS
1 micron = 10,000 Angstroms = 1/10,000 centimeter
flood
Rated power input (watts) 100 100 100 250 400 1000 100 100 275 400
* * *
Rated life (hours) 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 75 400
Maximum over-all length 5.625 5.5 5.437 8 11 3.25 5.25 6.75 7 6.44
(inches)
Useful arc length (inches) 1 1 1 1.625 2.375 1 1 1 1
Maximum diameter 1.25 2 4.75 1.75 0.25 2.63 5 5 2.75
(inches)
Base Admed Admed Admed Mogul Mogul A" Admed Admed Med Mogul
screw screw skirted screw screw sleeve screw screw screw screw
screw
Transformer secondary 245 245 245 250 1200 245 245 t 33
voltage (no load)
Potential drop between 130 130 130 135 135 840 130 130 t 14
arc electrodes operat-
ing at rated output
(volts)
Arc current (amperes) 0.9 0.9 0.9 2.1 3.2 1.4 0.9 0.9 t 30
rated output operation
* Approximately 700 applications in ordinary home use, or 1,000 hours at 5 hours per start,
t This lamp has a tungsten-filament resistance and a thermal switch enlosed in its reflector-type outer
envelope. It is operated without external ballast on 110, to 125-volt, 50- to 60-cycle alternating current only.
APPLICATIONS OF RADIANT ENERGY 16-13
"\^> ELECTRODE
ELECTRODES
MAIN-''' ELECTRODE
STARTING--
-HEATER
MAIN^
BIMETAL STARTING
SWITCH
FIG. 16-7.Typical sources of ultraviolet energy: a. 4-vvatt bactericidal; b. 16 A22
bactericidal; c- 15-watt 360 BL fluorescent; d. S4 Sunlamp; e. RS sunlamp.
Eye Protection
Eye protection is essential for all who are exposed to the direct or reflected
radiation from lamps emitting ultraviolet especially shortwave U.V.
Ordinary window or plate glass or goggles that exclude radiations of wave-
length shorter than 0.3400 micron usually are sufficient protection. How-
ever, if the radiation is intense, or is to be stared at for some time, Noviweld*
glass goggles should be used. Failure to protect the eyes can result in pain-
ful inflammation of the conjunctiva, cornea, and iris; photophobia; bleph-
arospasm; and ciliary neuralgia. Many of the unpleasant effects are tem-
porary, but frequent repetition may result in permanent injury to the eyes.
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APPLICATIONS OF RADIANT ENERGY 16-15
Tan, differing from erythema but likely to follow it, may result from
somewhat longer wavelengths. When incident radiation exceeds wave-
lengths of 0.39 micron up to approximately 1.4 microns, the result is a skin
reddening and a dilation of the capillaries.
Tables 16-4 and 16-5 record the reflectance and transmittance of the
human Table 16-6 indicates a secondary
skin for different wavelengths.
peak oferythemal effectiveness at wave lengths in the neighborhood of
0.24 micron. This ultraviolet wavelength is not found in natural daylight
or in the output of commercial sunlamps.
0.24 3 0.40 28
.26 4 .45 35
.28 4 .50 42
.30 5 .55 48
.32 11 .60 54
.34 16 .65 65
.36 21 .70 68
0.2399 95 0.2804 6
.2482 90 .2894 25
.2537 80 .2925 70
.2576 70 .2967 100
.2654 30 .3024 50
.2675 20 .3132 2
.2700 15 .3342 0.4
.2760 5 .3663 0.12
16-16 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
13
Ultraviolet Irradiation of Poultry
legs of each individual bird close to a sunlamp (in which case a few minutes
exposure per day would suffice), he has to depend on every bird in a flock
(100 to 150) getting sufficient exposure while milling around under a sun-
lamp 3 feet above them. To assure adequate summation of random ultra-
violet reception as the birds move about, lamps should be burned from 1 to
2 hours per day. It is immaterial what time of day they are used. It is
good practice to suspend the lamp over a mash hopper or water trough and
burn it during feeding times to ensure the maximum number of birds
getting under it. The lamp may be used in a single long exposure, or two
or three shorter ones. The effect is cumulative. The best method of use
depends upon individual management. Usually longer lamp life is ob-
tained with the least number of starts.
At a height of 3 feet, the effective ultraviolet radiation from a poultry-
type sunlamp covers a circular area approximately 10 feet in diameter.
To utilize this to maximum advantage, as many mash hoppers and water
troughs as consistent with need and convenient servicing should be located
within the 10-foot area.
Where chicks are kept in battery brooders or laying hens are kept in indi-
vidual pens, the problem of irradiation is somewhat complicated. If there
are two rows of batteries about the best that can be done is to suspend an
S-4 type lamp or its equivalent, without reflector, between the rows and
halfway from the floor to the top of the batteries.
Where a single tier of batteries is used, the S-4 type with reflector, the
RS-4 type, or an equivalent combination may be used in a horizontal posi-
tion opposite the center of the battery and at such a distance as to confine
most of the light to the battery.
From a compilation of test data and reports published by various uni-
versities and experimental stations, it is found that the use of sunlamps
may be expected to do the following things:
APPLICATIONS OP RADIANT ENERGY 16-17
Bactericidal Ultraviolet
In contrast to the erythemal and tanning effectiveness the peak of abiotic
or bactericidal effectiveness in controlling the growth of microorganisms or
fungi spore occurs at about 0.25 micron as shown in Fig. 16-8. Because of
absorption in the ozone layer of the upper atmosphere, practically none of
thisshort-wave ultraviolet radiation reaches the earth's surface in natural
daylight. Very little of it escapes from common illuminants, since it is not
generated by commercial incandescent solids, and is absorbed by ordinary
glass.
The most practical method
of generating bactericidal radi-
0.5
ation is by the passage of an
10
UJ
electric discharge through low
z O.I
UI (order of 0.001 atmosphere)
S 0.05
u pressure mercury vapor, usu-
UJ
u. ally in long tubular bulbs.
"J 0.01
Characteristics of bactericidal
< 0005
o ultraviolet sources are shown
o
in Table 16-1. Their output
0.001
is measured (by the National
f.
o
< 0.0005
QJ Bureau of Standards) in
UJ
> microwatts (0.2537 micron
b
<
o.oooi
mercury line) per square cen-
uj0.00005
DC timeter at a distance of 1
000001
meter. From their relative
o.2o 034 o.28 0.32 o.36 o.4o o.44 0.48 0.52 o.56 spectral distribution, given in
WAVELENGTH IN MICRONS J,. , - _. .. .,, , , ,
0.2537
60
40
20
0.4358 5461
0.3654 0.4047
0.185
i
'
0.3129
MICRONS
WAVELENGTH IN
• Acceptance of Ultraviolet Lamps for Disinfecting. Purposes, Council on Physical Medicine, American
Medical Association.
16-20 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
0.0002
appears that when bactericidal lamps are used in a space, the volume
It
of make-upair in a recirculating system can be reduced to about one-tenth
that required for the same space without radiation.
The designof luminaires and the choice of interior paints are matters of
criticalimportance when applying short-wave ultraviolet radiators. As in
the case of reflectors for sources of erythemal ultraviolet, aluminum is the
best practical reflecting surface. As will be noted from Fig. 16-13, white
plaster is somewhat less efficient. Most oil or oxide paints reflect a negli-
gibleamount of 0.2537-micron wavelength energy and therefore can be used
on walls or ceilings to reduce reflections when it is desired to restrict U.V.
energy to the upper air. (See Table 16-1.)
FIG. 16 11. Bactericidal ultraviolet -energy sources are used to reduce growth of
mold on meat in storage and sterilize milk cans.
(0.76 micron) and shorter than those of radar waves that are commonly
utilized for heating. Because ordinary glass and the carbon dioxide in air
absorb most of the energy of wavelengths longer than 4.0 microns, only wave-
lengths shorter than about 4.0 microns are utilized in practice, though longer
wavelengths may be emitted by infrared sources.
energy transfer rates are obtained which result in more compact and less
costly installations. Only an actual cost analysis including a comparison
of installation, maintenance, energy, and replacement costs will tell which
is better for a given process. The conclusions will have regional aspects.
Many sources of infrared radiant energy are available. Open hot-wire
and strip electric resistors, gas radiators, and electric-filament heat lamps
are used for various types of industrial heating. Lamps have the ad-
vantage of directional energy control, oven design flexibility, high infrared
output, and reduced fire hazards. Although their filaments are operated at
a relatively low temperature (2,500 degrees Kelvin) as compared with
standard lighting lamps, this is quite high when compared with the usual
temperature of the other common types of industrial heaters.
Radiant-Heating Lamps
Radiant-heating lamps consist of gas-filled or vacuum bulbs containing
either tungsten or carbon filaments designed to operate at about 2,500
and 2,200 degrees Kelvin. Although carbon-filament lamps have a
higher initial efficiency, they show considerable depreciation by blackening
after approximately 100 hours of operation. Tungsten-filament lamps
are considered to be more economical in the long run because of their
higher over-all efficiency and longer life. Some large installations of
tungsten-filament lamps have been in service in excess of 10,000 hours and
have required few replacements. Replacements usually are necessitated
by mechanical breakage caused by handling. Lamp-filament operating
life is very long.
Carbon lamps with power ratings up to 375 watts and tungsten lamps
up to 1,000 watts are available. Prior to 1940 the majority of installations
used 250-watt lamps. Figure 1G-15 shows the radiant-energy density that
may be produced by various types and arrangements of lamps.
Standard practice for
\
^\ V *
'cSSSP
STAGGERED
both reflector-type and
clear-bulb infrared lamps
V s- ss
\
•> vV
\ ^ "nS'< °o
r
I
6883
SQUARE
is to use mechanically
attached bases rather than
N s the cemented type, except
^ ^
^ *
>
with the higher wattage
lamps, where the medium
\
\
V >
\ >
\
s
V bipost base with flexible
N\ connecting leads is used.
See also Fig. 16-16.
& X
\
s
N
N \ \
N X
v ^ Reflecting surface. Pro-
per application of the in-
\\
v
s
candescent heating lamp
vs
8 9 10 12 14 16 18 2 requires the use of some
SPACING OF UNITS IN INCHES
form of reflector to direct
FIG. Power density produced on plane
16-15.
12 inches from lamps by different sizes and arrange-
radiant energy toward the
ments of lamps, 65 per cent efficiency assumed. 20 object to be heated.
APPLICATIONS OF RADIANT ENERGY 16-27
1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6
WAVELENGTH IN MICRONS
1 micron = 10.000 Angstroms = 1/10,000 centimeter
FIG. 16-16. Spectral distribution of energy from various infrared sources.
Dehydration
Infrared energy used to dry or dehydrate hides, sand molds, textiles,
is
REFERENCES
1.
—— —
Luokiesh, M., Taylor, A. H., and Kerr, G. P., "Ultraviolet Energy in Daylight A Two Year Record,"
J .Franklin Inst., 223, 1937, 699. -"Seasonal Variations of Ultraviolet Energy in Daylight," J. Franklin Inst.
23S, 1944, 1.— "A Four Year Record of Ultraviolet Energy in Daylight," J. Franklin Inst., 228, 1939, 425.
2. Koller, L. R., "Measurement of Spectral Radiation by Means of the Photoelectric Tube," Measurement
of Radiant Energy, Forsythe, W. E., Editor, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1937.
3. Knowlton, A.E., Standard Handbook fur Electrical Engineers, 7th Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company,
New York, 1941.
4. C, The Use of Artificial Light in Horticulture, General Electric Company, Cleveland, 1945.
Porter, L.
5. Luckiesh, M., Applications of Germicidal, Erythema! and Infrared Energy, D. Van Nostrand Company,
,
FOOTCANDLES FOOTCANDLES
MAINTAINED MAINTAINED
AREA IN SERVICE AREA IN SERVICE
INTERIOR LIGHTING!
Airplane manufacturing Candy making
Stock parts Box department
Production 50 Chocolate department
Inspection 100* Husking, winnowing, fat extraction,
Parts manufacturing crushing and refining, feeding
Drilling, riveting, and screw fastening.. 30 Bean cleaning; sorting, dipping, pack-
Spray booths 30 ing, and wrapping
Sheet aluminum layout and template Milling....
work; shaping and smoothing of small Cream making
parts for fuselage, wing sections, Mixing, cooking, and molding
cowling, etc 50 Gum drops and jellied forms
Welding Hand decorating
General illumination 20 Hard candy
Supplementary illumination 1,000* Mixing, cooking, and molding
Sub-assembly Die cutting and sorting
Landing gear, fuselage, wing sections, Kiss making and wrapping
cowling, and other large units 30 Canning and preserving
Final assembly Receiving department
Placing of motors, propellers, wing Preparation department"!
sections, and landing gear . 30 Container handling '!
Inspection of assembled ship and its Canning department *[
equipment 50 Processing department
Machine tool repairs 100* Storage and warehouse department
Armories Chemical works
Drill 10 Hand furnaces, boiling tanks, stationary
Exhibitions 30 driers, stationary and cavity crystal-
Art galleries lizers
General 10 Mechanical furnaces, generators and stills,
On paintings (supplementary illunina- mechanical driers, evaporators, filtra-
tion) 50 tion, mechanical crystallizers, bleach-
Assembly ing
Medium 20 Tanks for cooking, extractors, percolators,
Medium fine 50 nitrators, electrolytic cells
Fine 100* Churches
Extra fine 200* Auditoriums
Auditoriums Sunday School rooms
Assembly only 10 Pulpit or rostrum (supplementary illumi-
Exhibitions 30 nation)
Automobile Art glass windows
Parking spaces 2 Light color 20
Showrooms (see also Show windows) ... 50 Medium color 100*
Automobile manufacturing Dark color 200*
Assembly line 100* Clay products and cements
Frame assembly 30 Grinding, filter presses, kiln rooms
Body manufacturing Molding, pressing, cleaning, and trim-
Parts 30 ming 20
Assembly 30 Color, glazing, and enameling 30
Finishing and inspecting 200* Cleaning and pressing industry
Bakeries 20 Checking and sorting 20
Banks Dry and wet cleaning and steaming 10
Lobby 20 Inspection and spotting 200*
Cages and offices 50 Pressing
Barber shops and beauty parlors 50 Machine 30
Book binding Hand 50
Folding, assembling, pasting, etc 20 Receiving and shipping 10
Cutting, Punching, and stitching 30 Repair and alteration 200*
Embossing 30 Cloth products
Breweries Cutting, inspecting, and sewing
Brew house 5 Light goods 30
Boiling, keg washing, and filling 10 Medium-dark goods 100*
Bottling 20 Dark goods 200*
* Although many of the levels shown are I.E.S.-approved (1947), the composite table still is being
studied and has not been submitted for official approval.
t Also see text, Section 10.
H Large area, low-brightness sources of diffuse illumination are necessary where specular surfaces
are in the field of view if annoying reflections are to be reduced.
** Supplementary luminaires often are used in combination with a general lighting level of not less
than 20 footcandles to provide the level required on the work.
A-2 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
FOOTCANDLES FOOTCANDLES
MAINTAINED MAINTAINED
AREA IN SERVICE AREA IN SERVICE
Pressing, cloth treating (oil cloth, etc.) Dark goods 200**
Light goods 30 Hat manufacturing
Medium-dark goods 50 Dyeing, stiffening, braiding, cleaning, and
Dark goods 100* Refining
Coa! tipples and cleaning plants Light 20
Breaking, screening, and cleaning 10 Medium 50
Picking 200* Dark 100**
Court rooms 20 Forming, sizing, pouncing, flanging,
Club and lodge rooms finishing, and ironing
Lounge and reading rooms 20 Light 30
Auditoriums 10 Medium 50
Dairy products 20 Dark 100**
Dance halls 5 Sewing
Drafting rooms Light 30
Prolonged close work, art drafting, and Medium 100**
designing in detail 50 Dark 200**
Electricalequipment manufacturing Homes
Impregnating 30 Dining room, living room, library, sun
Insulating and coil winding 100* room, entrance hall, stairways and land-
Testing 50 ings, bedrooms and bathrooms
Machining (see Machine shops) General illumination 5
Assembling (see Assembly) Supplementary illumination as follows:
Inspecting (see Inspection) Reading, casual periods 20
Elevators, freight and passenger 10 Reading, small type, prolonged
Engraving 200* periods 40
Explosives Writing 20
Hand furnaces, boiling tanks, stationary Children's study tables 40
driers, stationary and gravity crystal- Sewing
lizers :
• • 5 Average for casual periods 20
Mechanical furnaces; generators and stills; Average for prolonged periods 40
mechanical driers; evaporators; filtration Dark goods and fine needlework 100**
mechanical crystallizers 10 Mirrors
Tanks for cooking, extractors, percolators, Dressing table, light on face 20
nitrators 20 Bathroom, light on face 40
Farms Game tables
Milk house 10 Card tables 10
Fluid milk Ping pong 40
Boilers 10 Kitchen
Bottle storage 10 General illumination 10
Bottle sorting 50 Supplementary illumination for work
Cap washers 20 counter, range, and sink 40
Cleaning fittings and pipes Laundry
Cooling equipment 20 Supplementary illumination for ironer,
Filling and inspection 50 ironing board, and tubs 40
Gauges (on facet) 30 Work bench
Laboratories 50 Supplementary illumination 40
Loading platforms 10 Hospitals
Meter panels (on facet) 30
Corridors 5
Pasteurizers 20
Laboratories
Receiving room 20
30 General laboratory work 30
Scales
Separators 20 Close work 50
Storage refrigerator 10 Lobby and reception room 20
Thermometers (on facet) 30 Operating room
Vats 50 General 50
Weighing room Operating table
Forge shops 10 Major operations 1,000**
Foundries Minor operations 200**
Charging floor, tumbling, cleaning, pour- Private rooms and wards (supplementary
ing, and shaking out 10
illumination) 30
Rough molding and core making 10
Hotels
Fine molding and core making 20
Glass works
Lobby 20
Dining room 5
Mix and furnace rooms, pressing and Lehr,
Kitchen 20
glass-blowing machines 10
Guest rooms (supplementary illumina-
Grinding, cutting glass to size, silvering. . 30
tion) 30
Fine grinding and beveling 50
Corridors 10
Etching, decorating, polishing, and in-
Writing rooms (supplementary illumina-
specting 100*'
tion) 30
Glove manufacturing Ice making — engine and compressor room. . 10
Pressing, knitting, sorting Inspection
Light goods 20 Medium 20
Medium-dark goods 50 Medium fine 50
Dark goods 100*'
Fine 100"
Cutting, stitching, trimming, and in- Extra fine 200**
specting Jewelry and watch manufacturing 200**
Light goods 30 Laundries
Medium-dark goods 100*' Washing 10
APPENDIX A-3
FOOTCANDLES FOOTCANDLES
MAINTAINED MAINTAINED
AREA IN SERVICE AREA IN SERVICE
Flat work ironing, weighing, listing, Acid towers, beaters, deckers, digester
marking 20 house, knotters, drying cylinders, calen-
Machine and press finishing, sorting 30 dering, settling tank house, soda room,
Fine hand ironing 50 sulphur room, and pulp grinding 10
Leather manufacturing Bleachers, paper cutters, laybovs, trim-
Vats 5 mers, lappers, Thune press, and wood
Cleaning, tanning, and stretching 10 chipping 20
Cutting, fleshing, a^ stuffing 20 Hand counting, wet end of paper machine. 30
Finishing and scarfing 30 Paper machine reel, paper inspection, and
Leather working laboratories 50
Pressing, winding, and glazing Rewinder 100**
Light. 30 Storage 5
Medium 50 Plating io
Dark 100** Power plants, engine room, boilers
Grading, matching, cutting, scarfing, Boilers, coal and ash handling, storage
and sewing battery rooms 5
Light 30 Auxiliary equipment, oil switches, trans-
Medium 100** former", engines, generators, blowers,
Dark 200** compressors 20
Library Control room
Reading room 30 Switchboards and meters 30
Stack room 10 Post office
Locker rooms 10 Lobby 20
Macnine snups Sorting, mailing, etc 50
Rough bench and machine work 20 Storage 10
Medium bench and machine work, ordi- File room 30
nary automatic machines, rough grind- Corridors and stairways 5
ing,medium buffing and polishing". . . 30 Printing industries
Fine bench and machine work, fine auto- Type foundries
matic machines, medium grinding, fine Matrix making, dressing type 100**
bufBng and polishing *,', 100** —
Font assembly sorting 50
Extra-fine bench and machine work, Hand casting 30
grinding, fine work 200** Machine casting 20
Meat packing Photography
Slaughtering 10 Dry plate and film 2, 000**
Cleaning, cutting, cooking, grinding, can- Wet plate 3,000**
ning, packing 20 Printing on metal 2,000**
Milling —grain foods Electrotyping
Cleaning, grinding, and rolling 10 Molding, routing, finishing, leveling
Baking or roasting 20 molds 100**
Flour gTading 30 Trimming 50
Museums Blacking, tinning 30
General 10 Electroplating, washing, backing 20
Special displays (supplementary illumina- Photoengraving
tion) 50 Etching, staging 20
Offices Blocking 30
Bookkeeping, typing, and accounting 50 Proofing 50
Conference room Tint laying, routing, finishing 100**
General meetings 30 Printing plants
Stairways 10 Presses 30
Desk work Imposing stones *h 100**
Intermittent reading and writing 30 Proofreading 100**
Prolonged close work, computing, study- Composing 100**
ing, designing, reading blueprints and Professional offices
plans 50 Waiting rooms 20
Filing and index reference finding 30 Consultation rooms 30
Lobby 10 Examination rooms (supplementary il-
Mail sorting 30 lumination) 100**
Reception rooms 10 Dental chairs (supplementary illumina-
Stenographic work tion) 200**
Prolonged reading of shorthand notes... 50 Receiving and shipping 10
Vault 20 Restaurants, lunch rooms, cafeterias
Packing and boxing 10 Dining area 10
Paint manufacturing Food displays 50
General Kitchens 20
20
Rubber tire and tube manufacturing
Comparing mix with standard 100**
Stock preparation
Paint shops Plasticating, milling, and Branbury. ... 20
Dipping, spraying, firing, rubbing, ordi- Calendering 30
nary hand painting and finishing 20 —
Fabric preparation stock cutting and
Fine hand painting and finishing 50 bead building 30
Extra-fine hand painting and finishing Tube and tread tubing machines 20
(automobile bodies, piano cases, etc.). . 100** Tire building
Paper-box manufacturing Solid tires 20
Light
Pneumatic tires 50
20 Curing department
Dark 50 Tube and casing 50
Storage 5 Final inspection
Paper manufacturing Tube 50
. . .
FOOTCANDLES FOOTCANDLES
MAINTAINED MAINTAINED
AREA IN SERVICE AREA IN SERVICE
Casing 100* Small towns
Wrapping 20 General 100*
Warehouse 5 Feature displays 200*
Rubber goods — mechanical Cities —main business areas
Stock preparation General 200*
Plasticating, milling, and Branbury. ... 20 Feature displays 500*
Calendering 30 Minimizing daylight reflections 1,000*
—
Fabric preparation stock cutting and Soap manufacturing
hose looms 30 Kettle houses, cutting, soap chip and
Extruded products 30 powder
Molded products and curing 50 Stamping, wrapping and packing, filling
Inspection 100* and packing soap powder
Boxing 20 Stairways
Warehouse 5 Steel and iron manufacturing
Sheet metal works Billet, blooming, sheet bar, skelp, and
Miscellaneous machines, medium bench slabbing mills
work, punches, presses, shears, stamps, Boiler room, power house, foundry and
welders, spinning 30 furnace rooms
Tin plate and similar inspection H 50 Hot sheet and hot strip mills
Schools Cold strip, pipe, rail, rod, tube, universal
Auditoriums plate, and wire drawing*!
Assembly only 10 Merchant and sheared plate mills 1
Study halls 30 Tin plate mills
Class and study rooms — desk and chalk- Hot strip rolling and tinning machine
boards 30 dept lo
Drawing room 50 Cold strip rolling 20
Gymnasium Inspection
General exercising 20 Black plate, bloom, and billet chipping . 30
Exhibition games 30 Tin plate and other bright surfaces"... 50
Laboratories Repair shops
General laboratory work 30 Rough bench and machine work 20
Close work (supplementary illumina- Medium-fine bench and machine work. . 30
tion) 50 —
Fine work -buffing, polishing, etc 100*
Lecture rooms Extra-fine work 200*
General 30 Blacksmith shop 10
Local illumination 50 —
Laboratories chemical and physical. . 30
Manual training Carpenter and pattern shop (see Wood-
General 30 working
Close work(supplementary illumination) Storage
Sewing room (supplementary illumina- Stone crushing and screening
tion) 50 Belt conveyor tubes, main line shafting
Sight-saving classes 50 spaces, chute rooms, inside of bins,
Service space primary breaker room, auxiliary break-
Stairways 10 ers
Elevators, freight and passenger 10 Under bins
Corridors 5 Screens
Storage (see Storage and stock rooms) Storage battery manufacturing
Toilets and wash rooms 10 Molding of grids
Shoe manufacturing — leather Storage and stock rooms
Cutting and stitching Rough bulky materials 5
Cutting tables 20 Medium 10
Marking, buttonholing, skiving, sorting, Fine material requiring care 20
vamping, and counting Store interiors
Light materials 20 Circulation areas 20
Dark materials 100*' General merchandising areas 50
Stitching Show cases, wall cases, and open counter
Light materials 30 displays 100*
Dark materials 100* :
APPENDIX A-5
FOOTCANDLES FOOTCANDLES
MAINTAINED MAINTAINED
AREA IN SERVICE AREA IN SERVICE
Automatic tying-in, weaving 50 Dark goods 100*
Drawing-in by hand 100* Knitting machines 20
Silk and rayon textile mills Theaters and motion picture houses
Soaking, fugitive tinting, and conditioning Auditoriums
or setting of twist 10 During intermission 5
Winding, twisting, rewinding and coning, During picture 0.1
quilling, slashing 30 Foyer 1(1
EXTERIOR LIGHTING J
Building Dredging 2
General construction Flags, floodlighted 30
Excavation work Gardens
Building exteriors and monuments Statuary 1
SPORTS LIGHTINGS
Archery (on the target) Tournament 10
Tournament 10 Recreational 5
Recreational 5 Boxing or wrestling (ring)
Badminton Championship 500
Tournament 30 Professional 200
Club 20 Amateur 100
Recreational 10 Seats during bout 2
Baseball infield outfield Seats before and after bout 5
Major League 150 100 Clock golf 10
AA and AAA League 75 50 Croquet
A and B League 50 30 Tournament 10
C and D League 30 20 Recreational 5
Semipro and Municipal League. 20 15 Curling
On seats during game 2 Tournament 10
On seats before and after game 5 Recreational 5
Basketball Drill fields 5
College and professional 50 Gymnasiums
High school 30 Exhibitions and matches 30
Recreational 10 General exercising 20
Bathing beaches 1 Lockers and shower rooms 10
Billiards (on table) Handball
Tournament 50 Tournament 30
Recrational 30 Club 20
General area 10 Recreational 10
Bowling GENERAL ON THE PINS Football
Tournament 20 50 (Index: Distance from nearest sideline to
Recreational 10 30 farthest row of spectators)
Bowling on the green Class I Over 100 feet
FOOTCANDLES FOOTCANDLES
MAINTAINED MAINTAINED
AREA IN SERVICE AREA LN SERVICE
Class II 50 to 100 feet 50 Rink 5
Class III 30 to 50 feet 30 Park lagoon, or pond 1
Class IV Under 30 feet 20 Ski slope practice 0.5
Class V No fixed seating facilities 10 Soccer
Golf driving Professional and college 30
General on the tees 10 High school 20
On vertical surface at 200 yards 3 Athletic field 10
Practice putting green 10 Skeet shoot
Horseshoes —
Target vertical surface at 100 feet... 30
Tournament 10 Firing point, general 10
Recreational 5 Squash
Hockey Tournament 30
College or Professional 50 Club 20
Amateur League 20 Recreational 10
Recreational 10 Swimming pools
Playgrounds 5 General 10
Polo 10 Soft Ball
Racing INFIELD OUTFIELD
Bicycle 20 Professional and championship 50 30
Motor (midget auto or motorcycle) 20 Semipro 30 20
Horse 20 Industrial League 20 10
Do? 20 Recreational 10 5
Racquet 30 Tennis lawn TABLE
Rifle range outdoor INDOOR Tournament 30 50
On target 30 50 Club 20 30
Firing point 10 10 Recreational 10 20
Range 5 Toboggan slides 2
Roque
Tournament 20
Trap shoot
Recreational 10
Target — vertical surface at 150 feet
Shuffle board Firing point, general
Tournament 10 Volley ball
Recreational 5 Tournament
Skating Recreational
TRANSPORTATION LIGHTING I
INTERIOR WIRING
The use of electrical light sources requires that these be serviced by electrical con-
ductor networks which for interior installations usually are described by the single
word wiring.
Electric lighting evolved in the United States and Canada on 110-volt, secondary
distribution systems. Direct-current generators were used first but a-c generators
followed so quickly that only in the largest cities did direct current gain sufficient
foothold between 1880 and 1900 to remain in general use today. At present most
alternating current is supplied to the customer nominally at 115 to 120 volts and 60-
cycle frequencies, although voltages between 110 and 130 may be found as well as fre-
quencies of 25, 40, and 50 cycles. Except for the 25-cycle fluctuation noticeable in
the output of incandescent lamps, these variations were of little concern in lighting
application problems until gaseous-discharge lamps, which require auxiliary equip-
ment, became popular.
Wiring methods and systems, except as they directly affect the choice of the light-
ing installation, are beyond the province of the Illuminating Engineering Society.
Nevertheless, lighting and wiring are so inseparable that their interdependence must
be noted. Lighting installations that otherwise might be quite satisfactory may fall
short of their objective because of insufficient attention to wiring; many lighting
installations which are recommended are not made because of high rewiring costs
which in many cases reflect poor initial planning. Despite understandable prefer-
ences for minimum initial costs, it is necessary to evaluate the possible penalty of
such minimums. Good wiring practice stresses safety, efficiency, adequacy, and
convenience. Safety requirements are included in many local building codes, and are
established by the National Board of Fire Underwriters, but the other requirements
of good wiring are at the discretion of the designer, the customer and the industry.
Table A-2 shows the standard electrical symbols used on architectural plans.
longer and thinner at high voltages, and consequently are more fragile and less effi-
cient.
2. Although tungsten filaments reach their optimum strength and efficiency be-
tween 10 and 25 volts, the resulting high current for a given wattage results in (a)
more difficult lamp-sealing problems, especially in larger sizes, and (b) appreciably
heavier resistance losses in the wiring system, since the latter varies as the square of
the current.
3. The life-output performance of incandescent lamps is greatly affected by varia-
tions from design voltage. Therefore, a wiring system usually is designed to supply
and maintain voltage conditions within 2 per cent of the rated value.
4. Series operation of incandescent lamps requires extreme uniformity of filament
manufacture. Only a few different wattage ratings are available for each common
circuit-current rating.
5. Incandescent lamps, except in very large sizes, have only a minor thermal lag
in light output. Therefore, variations in voltage caused by the cyclic character of
alternating current are sufficient to cause a noticeable pulsing or stroboscopic effect
only at low frequencies (such as 25 cycles).
=
Ua b,c,etc
r
^3a,b,c,etc
above with the addition of a low- @ Watchman's
Horn.
central station.
6. Like other resistance elements, incandescent lamps have a unity power factor.
7. Since the resistance of cold tungsten is lower than that of hot tungsten, the
initial surge of current when voltage is applied to a lamp is many times greater than
the stabilized current a few seconds later; the transient current often is as much as
10 times normal current.
8. On series circuits, socket cutouts or other automatic devices may be used to
short-circuit individual lamps upon burnout.
9. Stand-by battery service can be used for both a-c and d-c systems, provided a
pure resistance load is supplied as in the case of incandescent lamps.
pensating features can be built into the ballasting equipment, the attainment of rated
line voltage is not as essential to good lamp performance as with incandescent lamps.
2. On direct current, the line voltage must be sufficiently higher than the voltage
drop of the lamp to permit arc stability.
3. Though incandescent lamps operate satisfactorily at reduced output and in-
creased life from almost to 100 per cent rated voltage, discharge lamps are more
limited. Sudden voltage drops, even if not a very large percentage of rated voltage,
may cause lamps to flicker or to cease operating. Similarly, low initial voltages may
prevent lamps from starting.
4. Series operation of some discharge lamps is quite feasible, provided they are
not of a type wherein there are appreciable characteristic differences between cold and
hot operation. On high-voltage series circuits lamps can be dimmed satisfactorily
to a small percentage of normal output by reducing the current in the circuit.
5. The light output of discharge lamps follows the input current very closely.
Therefore, cyclic variations caused by alternating current are quite noticeable on all
low frequencies. This stroboscopic effect is perceptible at 60 cycles when moving
objects are illuminated. Lead-lag ballasts or operation on different phases of mul-
tiple-phase circuits minimize this characteristic.
6. Discharge lamps have less than unity power factor. The combined power factor
of lamp and ballast will be less than unity also if a means for power factor correction
is not provided.
7. Except for lamps with preheat cycles or lamps that change characteristics
appreciably during warm-up periods because of pressure build-up, there is no basic
difference between starting and operating circuit requirements.
8. Many types of discharge lamps can be used on direct current, although d-c
operation is not as flexible as a-c operation.
9. Although discharge lamps operated on alternating current require ballast, the
latter may be simpler and cheaper if the supplied voltage can be used directly instead
of through a transformer.
10. Long, tubular, low-pressure, gaseous-discharge lamps can be operated in series
and, if mounted end to end, require no secondary wiring system, because the lamps
themselves act as the circuit conductors.
An system should take care not only of the existing known loads, but also
electrical
the foreseeable future loads. The voltage drop should be a practical minimum. Last
but not least, the electrical system should be installed in such a manner that safety
to life, limb, and property will be assured. See Fig. A-l.
A-10 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
Wiring Methods
A complete study must be made of the type of building construction and the type
of occupancy as well as code limitations of each system before a final choice is made.
Voltages
Interior-lighting circuits normally carry a 115- or 120-volt potential; industrial
plants sometimes utilize 230-volt circuits for lighting. Constant current, or series-
lighting, systems, using higher voltages such as are common for street lighting, are
not used in buildings but have been used in exterior protective lighting systems.
Power circuits normally are rated 230-volt or 460-volt. Small- and medium-sized
motors usually are operable on 230 and 460 volts, while motors of larger capacities
may be rated at 2,300 volts or higher.
Voltage Drop
When an electric current flows through a conductor, a part of the electrical energy
is dissipated as heat, and the conductor temperature is raised. The power P so
dissipated as heat (measured in watts) is equal to the resistance of the conductor R
(ohms) multiplied by the square of the current J (amperes) or (P = I 2 R).
For example, the resistance of 100 feet of No. 12 wire is approximately 0.16 ohm.
With a 10-ampere current flow in a No. 12 conductor, and a total length of wire of 100
feet, the energy lost in the form of heat will be 10 x 10 x 0.16, or 16 watts. If the
current is doubled to 20 amperes, the loss in watts will be 64 or (20 x20 x0.16). Thus,
when the curent is doubled, the energy loss and the heating effects are multiplied by
4. It is important to keep this in mind. (See Tables A-3 and A-4.)
Furthermore, voltage drop E is equal to the resistance of the conductor R (ohms)
multiplied by the current / (amperes) or (E = IR).
In other words, voltage drop is evidence of wasted electricity. With supply volt-
age below the voltage rating of the device the percentage decrease in heat produced
by any electrically heated device is approximately twice the percentage decrease in
the voltage delivered to the device.
APPENDIX A-ll
141 15 29
12 20 35
10 30 37
8 40 44
6 AWG 55 51
4 70 64
2 95 75
00 145 99
0000, 195 116
500,000 320 168
1,000,000 Cir.Mils 455 237
2,000, 000, 560 384
Power Factor
Power in a resistance circuit (no inductance or capacitance) is always equal to
volts x amperes. In this type of circuit, the alternating current is in phase or in
step with the voltage and the power factor is unity or 100 per cent.
Where both resistance and inductance are found in an a-c circuit, the current lags
behind the voltage, causing the apparent power (volts x amperes) to be greater than
the true power (volts x amperes x power factor). The ratio of true power to ap-
parent power in an a-c circuit is expressed by the power factor. When the current
lags it is described as a lagging power factor and, conversely, if the current leads,
as in a capacitive circuit, it is described as a leading power factor.
Systems
There are a number of systems that may be used as a means in distributing elec-
namely:
trical energy,
and each phase wire motors are connected to all three wires. The balancing of light-
;
ing circuit loads is important to assure equal loads on each side of the common wire.
Three-phase alternating current. The three-phase, three-wire system generally
is used for power loads, the voltage being 230 or 460 volts. Two-wire, single-phase
or three-wire, three-phase branch circuits may be taken from this system. Three-
phase, three-wire, 115-volt systems seldom are used today.
The three-phase, four-wire system is used both for power and light, the fourth wire
being a neutral. Power loads are taken from the three-phase wires, and lighting is
connected between any one of the phase wires and the neutral wire. The voltage
across the phase wires generally is 208 volts and between any phase wire and the
neutral it is 120 volts; however, this system may be expanded readily to three-phase,
four-wire, 240/415 volt grounded neutral, with the resulting economy accomplished
by the use of standard transformers.
In applying any of these systems to the loads they are to serve, it is well to remem-
ber that it is not good practice to supply lamps and motors with more than fractional
horsepower ratings from the same circuit. Reasons for this warning are:
1. A voltage drop is caused by the heavy starting current when motors are started.
One result is dimming or flickering of the light emitted by lamps in the circuit.
2. Interruptions caused by overloads on circuits are more common in motor cir-
cuits.
3. To render satisfactory service, lamps must operate within closer voltage limits
than motors, therefore lighting circuits should be designed for less voltage drop than
m^tor circuits.
4. Motor loads will operate more economically on higher voltage than will lighting
loads, and a variation of 10 per cent is permissible in motor circuits though it is not
economical for normal operation. A 2 per cent drop usually is allowed in lighting
circuits.
Material Standards
Specifications for construction and performance of electrical roughing-in fittings
and raceways and of finishing materials are found in the Standards of the Under-
writers Laboratory, Inc. (in Canada, in the specifications of the Canadian Standards
Association). In the use of materials for which there are Underwriters Standards,
it is important to be assured of compliance with such standards. The Underwriters
Laboratory, Inc., publishes at regular intervals a List of Inspected Electrical Materials
and all materials so listed bear evidence of Underwriters' approval. Permission to
use materials not "listed" must be secured. (See Tables A-5 and A-6.)
Aluminum conductors. Insulated aluminum conductors for building wires and
cables are proposed (1947) because of the acute copper shortage . The National Board
of Fire Underwriters has approved the use of such insulated conductors of No. 6
gauge and larger for installation in approved raceways or open work, in dry locations
'
'
only." Connectors or lugs for such aluminum conductors shall be of the "solderless
type applied by means of pressure or compression."
The foregoing restrictions surrounding the use of such conductors may be modified
later with the advent of more approved type of connectors for No. 14 gauge to No. 8
gauge.
Type RV (60C) insulation is being applied at present on No. 6 and No. 12 gauge
wire and Type RH (75C) insulation on No. 6 gauge and larger wire. The current-
carrying capacity of aluminum conductors shall be taken as 84 per cent of allowable
capacities for the same sizes of copper conductors with the same kind of insulation.
The conductivity of aluminum is 61 per cent, as compared with 97 per cent for
copper. The resistance is 1.59 times that of equal cross-sectional areas of copper.
This is important in application, since it increases the IR voltage drop and I 2 R power
loss.
The specific gravity of aluminum is approximately 31 per cent that of copper;
hence the weight of insulated aluminum conductors may be only 40 per cent that of
insulated copper, depending upon gauge sizes and type of insulation,
.
MAXIMUM
TYPE OPERAT-
TRADE NAME ING
LETTER TEMPERA- SPECIAL PROVISIONS
TURE
Table A -5 —-Continued
MAXIMUM
TYPE OPERAT-
TRADE NAME ING
LETTER TEMPERA- SPECIAL PROVISIONS
TURE
PAPER
RUBBER
TYPE R THERMO-
TYPE RW PLASTIC
TYPE RU ASBESTOS IMPREG-
(14-6)
TYPE TA ASBESTOS NATED ASBESTOS
SIZE RUBBER VAR-CAM ASBESTOS TYPE A
AWG MCM THERMO- TYPE RH
VAR-CAM
TYPE AVA TYPE AI (14-8)
PLASTIC TYPE AVL (14-8) TYPE AA
TYPET TYPE V TYPE AIA
(14-410)
TYPE TW ASBESTOS
(14-410) VAR-CAM
TYPE AVB
14 15 15 25 30 30 30
12 20 20 30 35 40 40
10 30 30 40 45 50 55
8 40 45 50 60 65 70
6 55 65 70 80 85 95
4 70 85 90 105 115 120
3 80 100 105 120 130 145
2 95 115 120 135 145 165
1 110 130 140 160 170 190
1. Aluminum Conductors . For aluminum conductors, the allowable current-carrying capacities shall be
copper conductor with the same kind
taken as 84 per cent of those given in this table for the respective sizes of
of insulation.
2. Bare Conductors. If bare conductors are used with insulated conductors, their allowable current-
carrying capacity shall be limited to that permitted for the insulated conductor with which they are used.
3. More Than Three Conductors in a Raceway. Table A-6 gives the allowable current carrying capacity for
not more than three conductors in a raceway or cable. If the number of conductors in a raceway or cable is
from four to six, the allowable current-carrying capacity of each conductor shall be reduced to 80 per cent of the
values in Table A-6. If the number of conductors in a raceway or cable is from 7 to 9, the allowable current-
carrying capacity of each conductor shall be reduced to 70 per cent of the values in Table A-6.
4. Neutral Conductor. A neutral conductor which carries only the unbalanced current from other con-
ductors, as in the case of normally balanced circuits of three or more conductors, shall not be counted in de-
termining current-carrying capacities as provided for in the preceding paragraph.
In a three- wire circuit consisting of two-phase wires and the neutral of a four-wire, three-phase system, a
common conductor carries approximately the same current as the other conductors and is not therefore con-
sidered as a neutral conductor.
5. Ultimate Insulation Temperature. In no case shall conductors be associated together in such a way
with respect to the kind of circuit, the wiring method employed, or the number of conductors that the limiting
temperature of the conductors will be exceeded.
6. Use of Conductors With Higher Operating Temperatures. If the room temperature is within 10 degrees
C of the maximum allowable operating temperature of the insulation, it is desirable to use an insulation with a
higher maximum allowable operating temperature, although insulation can be used in a room temperature
approaching its maximum allowable operating temperature limit if the current is reduced in accordance with
the table of correction factors for different room temperatures.
7. Voltage Drop. The allowable current-carrying capacities in Table A-6 are based on temperature alone
and do not take voltage drop into consideration.
1. Overcurrent Protection If the standard ratings and settings of overcurrent devices do not correspond
with the ratings and settings allowed for conductors, the next higher standard rating and setting may be used,
but not exceeding 150 per cent of the allowable carrying capacity of the conductor.
9. Deterioration of Insulation. It should be noted that even the best grades of rubber insulation will
deteriorate in time, so that eventually they will need to be replaced.
.
APPENDIX A-17
C F
40 104 .82 .88 .90 .94 .95 —
45 113 .71 .82 .85 .90 .92 —
50 122 .58 .75 .80 .87 .89 —
55 131 .41 .67 .74 .83 .86 —
60 140 — .58 .67 .79 .83 .91
70 158 — .35 .52 .71 .76 .87
75 167 — — .43 .66 .72 .86
80 176 — — .30 .61 .69 .84
Up to 1.000 3,500 60 70 60 60
To 1,500 4,200 65 70 100 70
To 3,000 8,800 85 90 100 90
To 4,000 9,500 100 100 100 100
* This table provides service sizes adequate for normal lighting and portable appliance loads and for a
range and a water heater in addition to the individual equipment load shown. If these wattages are to be
exceeded, service size should be increased accordingly. If, however, the initial wattages are less than those
shown, the service sizes should be at least those given here so that future growth in load may be accommodated
A-18 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
Residential Wiring
In the laying out of an electrical system for a residence, Table A-9 prepared by
the Industry Committee on Interior Wiring Designf should be followed.
i l i l i i i 3 3
18 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 4
1 1 1 1 1 1 3 3
16 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 4 4
1 1 1 1 3 3
14 4 1 1 1
2 2 2 2 4
12 1 1 1 3 3
1 1 1 li
2 2 2 4 4
10 1
2
3
4
3
4
3
i 1 1 1 H li
8 1
2
3
4
3
4 1 li li 11 H li
1 2
6 1 1 li li li 2 2
4 1
u *1 I
li li 2 2 2 2i
3 3
3
n li H 2 2 2 2| 2i
2 if 11 2 2 2 2i 2^ 2i
3
1 4 li li 2 2i 2i 2i 3 3
1 li 2 2 2i 2i 3 3 3
00 1 2 2 21 2i 3 3 3 3i
000 1 2 2 2i 3 3 3 3i 3i
0000 li 2 2J 3 3 3 3i 31 4
4i
250 U 2* 2i 3 3 3i 4 4 ^2
4i
300 11 21 2i 3 8i 4 4 4i *2
350 11 3 3 3i 3^ 4 4i 4i 5
400 li 3 3 31 4 4 4i 5 5
500 li 3 3 3| 4 4-4
^2 5 5 6
600 2 31 4 41 5 6 6 6
700 2
3i
3| 31 41 5 5 6 6 —
750 2 31 5 6 6 6 —
800 2
3i
4
4i
41 5 6 6 — —
900 2
3i
4 4 5 6 6 6 — —
1000 2 4 4 5 6 6 — —
—
.
1250 21 41 41 6 6 — — —
1500 3 5 5 6
1750 3 5 6 6
2000 3 6 6
* A neutral conductor that carries only the unbalanced current from other conductors, as in the case
of normally balanced circuits of three or more conductors, shall not be counted in determining current-carry-
ing capacities.
In a three- wire circuit consisting of two phase wires and the neutral of a four-wire, three-phase system, a
common conductor carries approximately the same current as the other conductors and is not therefore con-
sidered as a neutral conductor.
Where a service run of conduit or electrical metallic tubing does not exceed 50 feet in length and does not
contain more than the equivalent of two quarter bends from end to end, two No. 4 insulated and one No. 4
bare conductors may be installed in 1-inch conduit or tubing.
Living room, li- 1 Ceiling outlet, wall switch No point at wall line more than
brary, den, sun controlled; 2 outlets where 6 from an outlet; wall
ft
room room length exceeds width. spaces 3 ft or more to have
Wall, cove, or valance out- outlet; outlet in mantle shelf.
lets may be substituted Two or more outlets switch
controlled
Dining room, di- 1 Ceiling outlet, wall switch No point at wall line more than
nette, breakfast controlled 10 ft from an outlet; wall
room spaces 3 ft or more to have
outletf
Kitchen, kitchen- 1 Ceiling outlet, wall switch 1 outlet for every 4 linear foot
ette, pantry- controlled; 1 outlet at sink, frontage of kitchen work
switch controlled surface. 1 outlet at re-
frigerator locationf
Recreation 1 Ceiling outlet for each 150 sq No point at wall line more
ft of floorarea, wall switch than 10 ft from an outlet;
controlled. Wall, cove, or wall spaces 3 ft or more to
valance outlets may be sub- have outlet; outlet in mantle
stituted shelf
Reception hall 1 Ceiling outlet, wall switch No point at wall line more than
controlled. Wall, cove, or 10 ft from an outlet; wall
valance outlets may be sub- spaces 3 ft or more to have
stituted outlet
Halls 1 Outlet for each 15 linear feet, 1 for each 15 linear feet
wall switch controlled
Table A -9—Continued
SPACE LIGHTING OUTLETS CONVENIENCE OUTLETS
Covered porches 1 Outlet for each 150 sq ft of 1 for each 15 linear feet of
porch floor, wall switch house wall bordering porch
controlled
EXTERIOR WIRING
The principles of interior wiring in general will apply equally well for exterior
wiring. The problems of capacity, voltage drop, etc., should be calculated carefully
in order to ensure proper utilization voltage and system operation. The National
Electrical Code recognizes the special problems of "Outside Wiring" in Article 730.
Wiring Methods
Where wiring is run underground, in concrete walls, or on the exterior of buildings,
rigid conduit generally is used. All outlets and switches must be installed in
APPENDIX A-2l
Flood lighting
Festoon lighting
Open conductors on insulators
Advertising spot lighting
Highway lighting
(Flood lighting
Fiber conduit:
Class in concrete \
J direct burialj
Street u hti
Class II
Parkway cables:
Nonmetallic sheathed cable (Street lighting
{Airport lighting
Steel-taped sheathed cable (Flood lighting
For bridges, tunnels, and underpasses, wiring fixtures are the weatherproof type
with guards and wires generally run in conduit. All wires installed in these conduits
should have moisture-resisting insulation type RW, TW, or rubber and lead sheathed.
On bridges considerations should be given to vibration and all long vertical runs
should have the conductors supported at frequent intervals in junction boxes.
Where it is impractical to drain a conduit to the junction box, special drainage provi-
sions should be made at low points.
Floodlighting and sign lighting frequently are installed with open wiring. Flood-
lights are mounted on crossarms or poles and often are arranged with bushing-type
terminals to connect to open wires. The principal problems of this type of wiring are
clearances between wires, buildings, and other obstructions, and because of the
long runs frequently encountered, maintainance of proper socket voltage. The
matter of safe clearances is well defined in Article 730 of the National Electrical
Code and Part 2 of the National Electrical Safety Code. Wire size should be large
enough to ensure proper utilization voltage, which in sports lighting sometimes is
specified as 10 per cent over normal. (See Section 12.)
High-wattage floodlights may require separate circuits. In automobile parking
lots and on buildings rigid conduit systems generally are required. A parking lot
usually will have conduits run underground to floodlight standards. These standards
are often steel pipe, and underground conduits terminate just above ground level
in the standard. Signs often are so constructed that conduit can terminate directly
in the body of the sign. Some signs have complete fuse panels built into the sign body
and only a feeder of proper capacity is required to the sign. Care should be taken to
adhere to the provisions of Article 600 of the National Electrical Code which requires
A-22 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
Series circuits for street lighting have been predominate in the past for three
reasons: 1. When electric street lighting was first introduced it was almost entirely
arc lighting. The arc lamp is inherently a constant-current device and consequently
gives its best operation and greatest efficiency on the constant-current series circuit.
2. In many areas, the street lighting antedated the general use of electricity in homes
by a considerable period; the series circuit is the most simple and efficient method
of supplying energy to comparatively small units sparsely located over a wide area.
3. A separate system of distribution furnishes a convenient means of control from the
central station.
The advantages of the series system are as follow:
1. In the smaller sizes, incandescent lamps for series service are more efficient than
the multiple lamps. In all sizes, lamps operated on constant-current circuits have
better light-output maintenance characteristics.
2. The rated life of series lamps is about one-third longer than that of comparable
multiple lamps.
3. The smaller sizes of series lamps are more rugged than the multiple type.
4. The filament in a series lamp approximates more closely a point light source and
therefore the light may be controlled more accurately.
5. Since series lamps are rated in lumen output, this allows contracts with cities
to be made on a fixed output basis.
6. A properly installed series circuit affords freedom from voltage variations and
voltage drop.
Multiple circuits for street lighting are gaining in favor primarily because of
greater economies in installation. With the high density of transformers and low-
voltage networks now found in the modern city, short secondaries can be obtained at
most any point. The advantages of this type of circuit are as follows:
1. In the larger sizes the multiple lamps are slightly more efficient than even the
Step 3. Obtain separately the sums of the three columns xFr x yPrx, and zPr x ,
.
These equal X, Y, and Z, respectively, for the R 4/14 sample as it appears when
under Illuminant C to the I. C. I. standard observer.
Step 4- Solve for x and y by substituting values in the equations:
X Y 2yPr x 13,337
0.56 y = - = 0.31 Y = -^—* = ,„„' = 0.13
X+ Y+ Z " X+ Y+ Z XyP 100,000
(
X = 0.09804 X 2.465 = 0.24
When the number of ordinates used is 10 \ Y= 0.1 X 1.318 = 0.13
I Z = 0.11812 X 0.465 = 0.06
Step 4.
X = = = Y =
0.56 y = 0.31 Reflectance 0.13
X+ Y+Z X+ Y+ Z
Same as by more tedious method above.
Mechanical integrators eliminate almost all of the numerical work of the selected
ordinate method. It is necessary that the integrator scales fit the paper on which
the curves are plotted.
It should be noted that a more irregular curve would require use of a greater num-
ber of ordinates for equal accuaracy.
0.380 0.051 4 20 1
.390 .051 19 89 1 5
.700 .739 82 29 61 21
.710 .749 39 14 29 10
.720 .762 19 6 14 5
.730 .775 8 3 6 2
.740 .785 4 2 3 2
.750 .791 2 1 2 1
.760 .795 1 1 1 1
0.38 1 6 3 14
.39 5 23 13 60
.40 19 1 93 56 2 268
.41 71 2 340 217 6 1,033
.42 262 8 1,256 812 24 3,899
.43 649 27 3,167 1,983 81 9,678
.44 926 61 4,647 2,689 178 13,489
.45 1,031 117 5,435 2,744 310 14,462
.46 1,019 210 5,851 2,454 506 14,085
.47 776 362 5,116 1,718 800 11,319
.48 428 622 3,636 870 1,265 7,396
.49 160 1,039 2,324 295 1,918 4,290
.38 4 20 36 165
.39 19 89 99 3 473
.70 82 29 32 11
.71 39 14 15 5
.72 19 6 7 3
.73 8 3 3 1
.74 4 2 2 1
.75 2 1
.76 1 1 1
.77 1
REFLECTANCE OF R 4/14
SELECTED ORDINATE Selected Ordinates)
NUMBER
(From Table A 13)
X Y Z
30 ordinates. . . 0.03661 0.03333 0.01185 0.03303 0.03333 0.02S42 0.03268 0.03333 0.03938
APPENDIX A-29
dusky reddish
weak reddish brown 1.5YR 1.5/4.0
orange 9.5R 5.7/5.5
dark reddish
moderate reddish brown OR
9. 1.5/7.0
orange 9. OR 5.5/9.0
deep reddish
strong reddish brown OR
9. 1.5/11.0
9. OR 5.5/13.0
vivid reddish 9.0YR
very pale brown. 7.0/2.0
9. OR 5.5/16.0
pale brown 8.5YR 5.5/2.0
dark reddish light brown 5.0YR 5.3/5.0
orange 9. OR 4.0/10.0
deep reddish weak brown 8.5YR 3.5/2.0
orange 9. OR 4.0/13.0 moderate brown . 5.0YR 3.5/5.0
strong brown 4.5YR 3.5/9.0
very pale orange.. 9.0YR 8.5/2.0
dusky brown 8.5YR 1.5/2.0
pale orange 6.5YR 8.5/5.0 dark brown 5.0YR 1.5/5.0
light orange 5.5YR 8.5/9.0 deep brown 4.5YR 1.5/9.0
brilliant orange. . 5.5YR 8.5/13.0
light yellowish
brown 1.0Y 6.0/4.0
weak orange 5.5YR 6.6/5.4
moderate orange.. 4.5YR 6.5/9.0 moderate yellow-
strong orange 4.5YR 6.5/13.0 ish brown 10.0YR 4.5/5.2
vivid orange 4.5YR 6.2/16.0 strong yellowish
brown 10.0YR 4.5/9.0
dark orange 4.5YR 5.0/9.0
deep orange 4.5YR 5.0/13.0 dark yellowish
brown 10.0YR 2.5/5.2
pale yellowish deep yellowish
orange 0.5Y 9.0/5.1 brown 10.0YR 2.5/9.0
light yellowish
orange 10.0YR 9.0/9.0 light olive brown. 4.0Y 5.0/5.0
brilliant yellowish moderate olive
orange 10.0YR 9.0/13.0 brown 4.0Y 3.5/5.0
dark olive brown 4.0Y 1.5/5.0
weak yellowish
orange 0.5Y 7.5/5.1 YELLOWS AND
moderate yellow- OLIVES:
ish orange 10.0YR 7.5/9.0 yellowish white. . 7.5Y 9.0/1.1
strong yellowish yellowish gray. . . . 7.5Y 7.5/1.1
orange 10.0YR 7.5/13.0
vivid yellowish light olive gray. . 9.5Y 5.5/1.1
orange 10.0YR 7.5/16.0 olive gray 9.5Y 3.5/1.1
.
. .. ..
APPENDIX A-31
dark bluish green, 10. OG 3.0/4.8 very pale blue. . . 6.5B 8.5/2.9
deep bluish green. 10.0BG 2.5/9.0 very light blue... 8.5B 8.5/7.0
very brilliant blue 8.5B 8. 5/11.0
very dark bluish
green 10. OG 1.5/4.8 pale blue 6.5B 6.5/2.9
light blue 8.5B 6.5/7.0
very pale blue brilliant blue 8.5B 6.5/11.0
green 2.0BG 8.5/2.0
very light blue weak blue 6.5B 4.5/2.9
green 5.5BG 8.5/5.0 moderate blue. . . 8.5B 4.5/7.0
strong blue S.5B 4.5/11.0
pale blue green. . 2.0BG 6.5/2.0 vivid blue 8.5B 4.5/14.0
light blue green., 4.4BG 6.5/5.0
brilliant blue dusky blue 8. OB 2.5/3.1
green 5.5BG 7.0/9.0 dark blue 8.5B 2.5/7.0
deep blue 8.5B 2.5/11.0
weak blue green . 2.0BG 4.5/2.0
moderate blue very pale purplish
green 5.5BG 4.5/5.0 blue 6.0PB 8.0/2.6
strong blue green 5.5BG 4.5/9.0 very light purplish
vivid blue green. 5.5BG 4.5/12.0 blue 5.5PB 7.5/7.0
very brilliant
dusky blue green 8.0BG 3.0/2.0 purplish blue. . 5.5PB 7.5/11.0
dark blue green., 5.5BG 3.0/5.0
deep blue green.. 5.5BG 2.5/9.0 pale purplish blue, 6.0PB 5.5/2.6
light purplish
very dusky blue blue 5.5PB 5.5/7.0
green 8.0BG 1.5/2.0 brilliant purplish
very dark blue blue 5.5PB 5.5/11.0
green 5.5BG 1.5/5.0
weak purplish
BLUES: blue 6.0PB 3.5/2.6
bluish white 6. OB 9.0/1.0 moderate purplish
light bluish gray, 6. OB 7.5/1.0 blue 5.5PB 3.5/7.0
medium bluish strong purplish
gray 6. OB 5.5/1.0 blue 5.5PB 3.5/11.0
dark bluish gray, 6. OB 3.5/1.0 vivid purplish
bluish black 6. OB 1.5/1.0 blue 5.5PB 4.5/15.0
..
. ...
...
APPENDIX A-33
WAVE- WAVE-
LENGTH X y z LENGTH X y z
(microns) (microns)
ILLUMINATION
1 lumen = 1/650 lightwatt 1 watt-second = 10 7 ergs
1 lumen-hour = 60 lumen-minutes 1 phot = 1 lumen/sq cm
1 footcandle = 1 lumen/sq ft 1 lux = 1 lumen/sq M = 1 meter-candle
Equals Number of
BRIGHTNESS
1 stilb = 1 candle/sq cm
1 apostilb (international) = 0.1 millilambert = 1 blondel
1 apostilb (German Hefner) = 0.9 millilambert
Equals Number of
INTENSITY
1 international candle = 1 bougie decimale = 1.11 Hefner Kerze
.
Combustion sources:
Candle flame (sperm) Bright spot 3.1
Kerosene flame (flat wick) Bright spot 3.8
Illuminating-gas flame Fish-tail burner 1.3
Welsbach mantle Bright spot 20
Acetylene flame Mees burner 34
Blackbody 6500 K 922.000
4000 K 76,500
Fluorescent lamps:
40-watt
white T-12 tube 1.95
daylight T-12 tube '
1.67
15-watt
white T-12 tube 1.49
white T-8 tube 2.29
Calorie Kilogram
Amount of heat required to raise the 1000 grams
temperature of one gram of water 1 2.2046 pounds
degree C 35.274 ounces
0.003969 Btu
3.087 foot-pounds Kilowatt
0.001163 watt-hour 1.341 horsepower
44,257 foot-pounds per minute
Circular Mil 56.89 Btu per minute
Area of circle whose diameter is 1 mil
or .001 inch Liter
0.000000785 square inch 0.001 cubic meter
0.000005067 square centimeter 1.057 quarts
0.2642 gallon
Degree (arc) 0.03531 cubic feet
60 minutes
3600 seconds Miles per Hour
0.01745 radian 1 mph = 1.467 feet per second
1 mph = 88 feet per minute
Foot-Pound 1 mph = 44.7 centimeters per second
0.001285 Btu
1.356 joules Ounce
0.0625 pound
Foot of Water 28.35 grams
0.0295 atmosphere 437.5 grains
62.43 pounds per square foot
0.4335 pound per square inch Pound (Avoirdupois)
2.242 centimeters of mercury 16 ounces
0.4536 kilogram
Gallon 7000 grains
0.1337 cubic foot 1.2153 pounds Troy
231 cubic inches
Quart
3.785 liters
2 pints
8.336 pounds of water
0.25 gallon
0.9464 liter
Grain
2.084 pounds of water
0.06481 gram
0.002286 ounce Radian
57.296 degrees
Gram 57° 17' 44.81"
15.43 grains 360° -7- 2tt
0.03527 ounce
0.002205 pound Watt
44.26 foot-pounds per minute
Gravity 0.001 kilowatt
32.1740 feet per second per second 0.00134 horsepower
A-38 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
A a Alpha N V Nu
B Beta w £ Xi
r 7 Gamma Omicron
A 5 Delta n 7T Pi
E e Epsilon p P Rho
Z r Zeta 2 a, s Sigma
H V Eta T T Tau
e 9 Theta T V Upsilon
i i Iota * 4> Phi
K K Kappa X X Chi
A A Lambda * f Psi
M M Mu a CO Omega
0.0 0.0000 0.5730 1459 7189 2918 2.8648 4377 0107 5837 5.1566
0.1 5.7296 6.3025 8755 4485 0214 8.5944 1673 7403 3132 10.8862
0.2 11.4592 12.0321 6051 1780 7510 14.3239 8969 4699 0428 16.6158
0.3 17.1887 17.7617 3346 9076 4806 20.0535 6265 1994 7724 22.3454
0.4 22.9183 23.4913 0642 6372 2101 25.7831 3561 9290 5020 28.0749
0.5 28.6479 29.2208 7938 3668 9397 31.1527 0856 6586 2316 33.8045
0.6 34.3775 34.9504 5234 0963 6693 37.2423 8152 3882 9611 39.5341
0.7 40.1070 40.6800 2530 8259 3989 42.9718 5448 1178 6907 45.2637
0.8 45.8366 46.4096 9825 5555 1285 48.7014 2744 498473 4203 50.9932
0.9 51.5662 52.1392 7121 2851 8580 54.4310 003955 5769 1499 56.7228
c -15 -10 -5 5 10 15 20
F 5 14 23 32 41 50 59 68
C 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
F 77 86 95 104 113 122 131 140
C 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
F 149 158 167 176 185 194 203 212
APPENDIX A-39
eo -<* -H
i>
in
CI
00
©
©
fS
Os 1.9713 1.9851 1.9988 2.0122 2.0255 2.0386 2.0516 2.0643 2.0769
© 2.1017 2.1138 2.1258 2.1377 2.1494 2.1610 2.1725 2.1838 2.1950
CO 2.2170 2.2279 2.2386 2.2492 2.2597 2.2701 2.2803 2.2905 2.3006
CO CO
as as
© CO
© 2885
O LO
OS 1.9685 1.9824 1.9961 2.0096 2.0229 2.0360 2.0490 2.0618 2.0744
OC
© 2.0992 2.1114 2.1235 2.1353 2.1471 2.1587 2.1702 2.1815 2.1928
Ol 2.2148 2.2257 2.2364 2.2471 2.2576 2.2680 2.2783 2.2986
1— CO eo
N.
j
2.
2865
4 .9516
1 CO CO
2.
as "<f
os
« OS
1.9629 1.9769 1.9906 2.0042 2.0176 2.0308 2.0438 2.0567 2.0694
X
© 2.0943 2.1066 2.1187 2.1306 2.1424 2.1541 2.1656 2.1770 2.1883
os
rH 2.2105 2.2214 2.2322 2.2428 2.2534 2.2638 2.2742 2.2844 2.2946
1— Ol CO
OS CO 2.261S
OS N.
o OS 1.9601 1.9741 1.9879 2.0015 2.0149 2.0281 2.0412 2.0541 2.0669
o
© 2.0919 2.1041 2.1163 2.1282 2.1401 2.1518 2.1633 2.1748 2.1861
as 2.2083 2.2192 2.2300 2.2407 2.2513 2.2721 2.2824 2.2925
eo CO
*
© i-H CO CO -+! LO CD o.ooo © i-H CO CO -HH LO CD N. 00 o © r-H co co -rH LO CO
N- N- N- N NN- N-N N 00 oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo a; OOO OOO OOO
co
co
>0
MfflN
'HHCO CO
©
LO
CO
t-h
*hh CO
N- CO
NO
X^o t-H
LO CO LO
lO CO O OOOO
O T-H T*HCO T*
N. LO CO
O
O 00 LO
t-H t-H
.4012
(Nt*N CO -HHCO N- O t-h CO LO CD X ©
1 ^tT^ 1
-^
1.4951 1.5173 1.5390 1.5602 1.5810 1.6014
© CO CD CD CO N. N N- N- t> X 1.8181 1.8342 1.8500 1.8656 1.8810 1.8961 1.9110 1.9257 1.9402
O •*!>
o
OONo -* i-HCO CO
N- CD lO N H -tH X LO r-H
OONN
Ol N. CO
O t-h x co
>o n. o
4 CD COlCN
XXXO OOOOCO
CD N-
.3962
CO "rf 1-H ^h CO 00 as CO
1
1.4907 1.5129 1.5347
LO LO LO © CD CO CO 1.6938 1.7120 1.7299
N-N N- l>
1.8148 1.8310 1.8469
co O 00 CO
lOCBCO
t-H
O LO
OOO
^H 00 00 CO co »o >o t-h
O x£ CO i—l -+<
O O© T-H
cs as
to
t-h CO CD 00 O CO
Tft LO LO
i-H CO CO
IQNO
LO LO LO
CO
©
CO CO t-h
COiON
CO CD CD
OO 00 CO
CONN Ol 1.7440 1.7613 1.7783
'0
as
N.
1.8116 1.8278 1.8437
LO N- O
XXX
-HH
CO CO CD CO CO N- N- -f N 00 lOOO 00 CO LO LO
© N00O1 as OOON CO
ooo
CO -+I O N LO
tHION X Ol O
O Tfi
o 1 1.4110 1.4351 1.4586 1.4816 1.5041 1.5261
TfHCO 00
LO lO «o i CO
CO
CO t+i
© CD co
N. N N-
as
XXXT« 1.8563 1.8718 1.8871 1.9021 1.9169 1.9315
o
N. CO
1O00C5
CO N r-H
as
^*
NODM
O LO t-H
OOOo CO >o X
1878
N. CO Ol LO eo
00
© 0.1655 0.2469 0.3221 0.3920 0.4574 0.5188 0.5766 0.6313 0.6831
N. 0.7793 0.8242 0.8671 0.9083 0.9478 0.9858
1-H
1.1569
.
1.2179 1.2470 1.2754 1.3029
CO CO CO
© © 1
eo
oo
N,
CO X X LO
CO
HCON
LO eo 1-H CO O
-rjf
© o
CO
OS
as
eo
© 1442 1756
co
-*
© 0.1310 0.2151 0.2927 0.3646 0.4318 0.4947 0.5539 0.6098 0.6627 0.7608 0.8065 0.8502 0.8920 0.9322 0.9708 1.0080 1.0438 1.0784
1-H . .
1.2060 1.2355 1.2641 1.2920 1.3191 1.3455 1.3712
d © 11
CONCO
O co X
n T« o
oo CD LO lO
OXX
2 0.0198 0.1133 0.1989 0.2776 0.3507 0.4187 0.4824 0.5423 0.5988 0.6523
co
© 0.7514 0.7975 0.8416 0.8838 0.9243 0.9632
OWN
OOO
t-H CO lO
o
1-H
CO CO o
i-H r-H Ol
CO LO
CO
CO CO CO
1.3137 1.3403 1.3661
©
o
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co
©
X XXo
o
CO CO
COOO
X LO t-H
o ©
© 0.0953 0.1823 0.2624 0.3365 0.4055 0.4700 0.5306 0.5878 0.6419
as
© 0.7419 0.7885 0.8329 0.8755 0.9163 0.9555 0.9933 1.0296 1.0647
as
© 1.1314
1632
.
1.1939
X
CO lO
CO CO CO
O co CD
CO CO CO
d o 1
fe;
© t-h co co -* iC CD N00O5 © t-h CO CO •* to CD N- 00 O © i-H co co t* LO © N. XO
1-H CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO Ol CO co CO CO CO CO CO CO co co co
a
The natural logarithm of a number is the index of the power to which the base e
(2.7182818) must be raised in order to equal the number.
To find the natural logarithm of a number larger than 10 or smaller than 1, add
or subtract the natural logarithm of the proper power of 10. For example:
The natural logarithm of 123
log, 123 = log* 1.23 log, 10 2 = 0.2070 + 4.6052 = 4.8122 -
log, 0.123 = log, 1.23 log, 10 = 0.2070 -
2.3026 - -2.0956 -
log, 10 = 2.302 585 log, 10 4 = 9.210 340
log, 10 2 = 4.605 170 log, 10 5 = 11.512 925
log, 10 3 = 6.907 755 log, 10 6 = 13.815 511
To obtain the common logarithm, multiply the natural logarithm by logioe, which
is 0.434 294.
£3
4> 0?
V
Cosines so Sines bo Cotangents 00 Tangents si
Q Q O a
H
(Straight line)
a b
-- a —
y =* x tan + b.
Circle.
x2 + y
2 = R*
Ellipse.
*- 4-
"*"
t- 1
a2 62
Parabola (Vertical).
y = /ex 2
where k is a constant.
Parabola (Horizontal).
y = k Vi
where k is a constant.
Catenary.
y = r cosh &x — 1
A = — ab
Equilateral Triangle
p = 3a
h = - \/z = .866 a
A = a2 —
V3 =
4
.433 a2
General Triangle
_ x
=
a + b + c
Let s
2
p = a + b + c
Square
a = b
p = 4a
A = a 2 = _.5e 2
e = a y/2 = 1.414 a
Rectangle
p = 2 (a + b)
e = Va 2
+b 2
b = Ve - 2
a2
A = ab
Trapezoid
p=a+b+c+d
Aa = —+
( a b) y-
h
A-44 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
Circle
P = 27rr = Trd = 3.1416d
Trd 2
A = 71-r
2
.7854d 2
4
= .07958p 2
47T
A = - (d, 2 - d, 2 ) = .7854(d, 2 - d,
4
= 7r(r. 2 - n 2
)
d, +d.
Tx)
= 7r(ri + r 2 )(r 2 - n)
Ellipse
p = 7r(a + b) approximately
= jr[1.5(a + b) - Vab]
more nearly
A = irab
Parabola
A = £ab
Arc >
l = 7^7 " 0.017453 r 6°
- I— ,
let (J
180° I I
Angle, e = =57.29578-
7iT r
„ ,.
= —8b— Diameter, d =
4b —+c 2 2
4 b2 + c2
Radius, r
4b
1 c
Rise, b = r — -\/4 r 2 -^ c 2 = - tan ; 2 r sin 2
2 2 4
Rise, b = r + y — Vr — 2
x2 y = b — r + Vr 2
x = Vr 2 - (r + y - b) J
APPENDIX A-45
OC = OB = OE = 1
AB = Sin a
G F OA = Cos a
CD = Tan a
EF = Cot a
OD = Sec a
A C OF = Cosec a
AC = Vers a = 1 — Cos a
BG = Covers a = 1 — Sin a
Radius 1 = sin 2
a + cos 2
a = sin a cosec a = cos a sec a = tan a cot a
cos a 1 ,
cot a cosec a
= cos a tan a = v 1 — cos 2 a
sin a 1
= sin a cot a = \/l — sin 2 a
tan a sec a
sin a 1 tan a-
tan sin a sec a
cos a cot Sin a COS a
cot a
COS
= —
a
=
1
= cos a cosec a cosec a =
COt a
--
-— 1
tan a ± tan /3
sin (a. ± |8) = sin a cos /3 ± cos a sin /3 tan (a ± /3) =
1 =F tan a tan /3
cot a cot /3 =F 1
cos (a ± j8) = cos a cos /3 =F sin a sin /3 cot (a ± 0) =
cot /3 ± cot a
COS a COS (3
1 — cos 2c
sin 2a = 2 sin a cos a sin \a = a/ -
2
cot 2
a — 1 sin a 1 + COS 2a
cot 2c cot fa = COt 2 a =
2 cot 1 — COS a 1 — cos 2a
sin 2 a — sin 2 /3 = sin(a + P) sin(a — /3) cos 2 a — sin 2 /3 = cos(a + /3) cos(a — /3)
:
—
VALUE OF 6
15- , -FOUND
UJ ©20 KNOWN' ^-
111
u_ (0*25
Ul
z uj 30
a. ,
U> 35
UJ
o g40 5 z
z 45 •
2
,< z
2 50 -6 2
55-* Q
uj
•
7 _l
C36O-H <
165- •a z
_,70- 9 N
> 3 -- -10 g
^75-
•25
.30
FIG. A-2. Nomogram for determining angle of incidence (9) when height (h)
above reference plane and horizontal distance (I) from point of incidence are known.
-
APPENDIX A-47
•1000
85: 1000^ :
900
.65- 800 = -800
600- -700
;45 500 =
-600
400-
.35'
300 = -500
10 1
25-
in 200 f -400
O -
N Z
-
111
w 100- -300^
.KNOWN O
Z 15- —
Q 60-
7
Z 50- 200gj
LU —
H 40- LUMEN VALUE
til
o
Z~ 3 °-5
**».»
m 20^ ""•»„
z =
-
*•«.
^
uj
5 r
3 100 *
_ —
_l
10- KNOWN 90 I-
8^ 80 g
6= 70
5- £
4- 60 H
LU
5
50 o
_
=£ Q-
-40 Q
Z
<
(J
IE- 30
0.8 :
;h20
jo
FIG. A-3. Nomogram for obtaining zonal lumens when average candlepower at
center of ten degree zones is known.
A-48 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
SPACING 0. VERTICAL
0.1° HORIZONTAL 1.1 0091 5.9 6079 6.5 6054
1.3 6091 4.1 6077 6.7 6051
1.5 6090 4.3 6076 6.9 6049
0.05 0.53046 2.75 0.^3043 5.45 0.53032 1.7 6089 4.5 6074 7.1 6046
0.15 3040 2.85 3042 5.55 3032 1.9 6089 4.7 6073 7.3 6044
0.25 3046 2.95 3042 5.65 3031
0.35 3046 3.05 3042 5.75 3031 2.1 6088 4.9 6071 7.5 6041
0.45 3046 3.15 3042 5.85 3030 2.3 6087 5.1 6069 7.7 6038
2.5 6087 5.3 6067 7.9 6035
0.55 3046 3.25 3041 5.95 3030 2.7 6086
0.65 3046 3.35 3041 6.05 3029
0.75 3046 3.45 3041 6.15 3029
0.85 3046 3.55 3040 6.25 3028
0.^ HORIZONTAL
0.95 3046 3.65 3040 6.35 3028
0.2 0. -11219 3.0 0. *1217 5.S 0.11212
1.05 3046 3.75 3040 6.45 3027 0.0 1218 3.4 1216 6.2 1211
1.15 3046 3.85 3039 6.55 3026 1.0 1218 3.8 1216 0.6 1210
1.25 3045 3.95 3039 6.65 3026 1.4 121S 4.2 1215 7.0 1210
1.35 3045 4.05 3039 6.75 3025 1.8 1218 4.6 1215 7.4 1208
1.45 3045 4.15 3038 6.85 3024
1217 5.0 1214 7.8 1207
1.55 3045 4.25 3038 6.95 3024 2.6 1217 5.4 1213
1.65 3045 4.35 3037 7.05 3023
1.75 3045 4.45 3037 7.15 3023 o.e HORIZONTAL
1.85 3045 4.55 3037 7.25 3022
1.95 3044 4.65 3036 7.35 3021
0.3 0.11827 3.3 (M1825 5.7 0.11819
0.9 1827 3.9 1824 6.3 1816
2.05 3044 4.75 3036 7.45 3021
2.15 3044 1.5 1827 4.5 1822 6.9 1814
4.85 3035 7.55 3020
2.25 3044 4.95
2.1 1827 5.1 1821 7.5 1810
3035 7.65 3019
2.35 3044 5.05 3034 1826
7.75 3018
2.45 3043 5.15 3034 7.85 3018
0.! ° HORIZONTA L
2.55 3043 5.25 3033 7.95 3017
2.65 3043 5.35 3033 0.4 0. 42437 3.6 0.-12432 6.0 0.12424
6.8 2420
2.0 2435 5.2 2427 7.6 2416
2° HOR IZONT. iL 2.8 2434
0.' HORIZONTA L
0.2 0.49747 3.0 0.49734 5.8 0.49698 0.5 HORIZONTAL
0.6 9747 3.4 9730 6.2 9691
1.0 9747 3.8 9726 6.6 9683
1.4 9744 4.2 9722 7.0 9675 0.4 0. n949 3.6 0.31946 6.0 0.31939
1.8 9743 4.6 9717 7.4 9667 1.2 1949 4.4 1944 6.8 1936
2.0 1948 5.2 1941 7.6 1932
2.2 9741 5.0 9710 7.8 9658 2.8 1947
2.6 9738 5.4 9704
0.55 3046 3.25 3041 5.95 3030 1.1 6092 3.9 6078 6.5 6053
0.65 304f 3.35 3041 6.05 3029 1.3 6090 4.1 6077 6.7 6051
0.75 304f 3.45 3041 6.15 3029 1.5 6090 4.3 6075 6.9 6048
0.85 304f 3.55 3040 6.25 3028 1.7 6090 4.5 6074 7.1 6046
0.95 3046 3.65 3040 6.35 3028 1.9 6089 4.7 6072 7.3 6043
1.05 304C 3.75 3040 6.45 3027 2.1 6088 4.9 6770 7.5 6041
1.15 3046 3.85 3039 6.55 3026 2.3 6088 5.1 6068 7.7 6037
1.25 304t 3.95 3039 6.65 3026 2.5 6086 5.3 6066 7.9 6035
1.35 304S 4.05 3039 6.75 3025 2.7 6086
1.45 3046 4.15 3038 6.85 3024
0.4° HORIZONTAL
1.55 3045 4.25 3038 6.95 3024
1.65 304t 4.35 3037 7.05 3023 0.2 0.31218 3.0 0.31217 5.8 0.31212
1.75 304c 4.45 3037 7.15 3023 0.6 1218 3.4 1216 6.2 1211
1.85 3045 4.55 3037 7.25 3022 1218 3.8 1216 6.6 1210
1.0
1.95 3044 4.65 3036 7.35 3021 1.4 1218 4.2 1215 7.0 1209
1.8 1218 4.6 1215 7.4 1208
2.05 3044 4.75 3036 7.45 3021
2.15 3044 4.85 3035 7.55 3020 5.0 1214 7.8 1207
2.2 1218
2.25 3044 4.95 3035 7.65 3019 2.6 1217 5.4 1213
2.35 3044 5.05 3034 7.75 3018
2.45 3043 5.15 3034 7.85 3018
0.6 HORIZONTAL
2.55 3043 5.25 3033 7.95 3017
2.65 3043 5.35 3033 0.3 0.81828 3.3 0.»1825 5.7 0.'1819
0.9 1828 3.9 1824 6.3 1817
1.5 1827 4.5 1822 6.9 1815
2.1 1827 5.1 1820 7.5 1812
2.7 1826
APPENDIX A-51
SPACING 2° VERTICAL
2 '
HORIZONTAL 118 45 086 75
116 47 083 77
0. 2 122 31 0. 2 104 61 0.359
115 49 080 79
122 33 102 63 55
114 51 077 81
121 35 100 65 51
112 53 073 83
121 77 097 67 48
110 55 070 85
120 39 095 69 44
108 57 066 87
120 41 092 71 40 j
107 59 063 89
119 43 089 73 36
5 '
HORIZONTAL
10° HORIZONTAL
2.5 0.23046 32.5 0.22570 62.5 0.21406
7.5 3020 37.5 2416 67.5 1166
12.5 2970 42.5 2246 72.5 0918
17.5 2906 47.5 2060 77.5 658 O.26O66 35 0.24986 65 0.22572
22.5 2814 52.5 1856 82.5 396 5876 45 4306 75 1576
27.5 2702 57.5 1638 87.5 134 5576 55 3494 85 0530
SPACING 5° VERTICAL
5
C
HORIZONTAL
10° HORIZONTAL
2.5 0.2760 32.5 0.2642 62.5 0.2352
7.5 755 37.5 604 67.5 291
12.5 744 42.5 562 72.5 229 0.26430
0.015165 35 0.012465 65
17.5 726 47.5 514 77.5 165
14690 45 10765 75 3940
22.5 704 52.5 463 82.5 099
13790 55 08735 85 1325
27.5 676 57.5 409 87.5 033
The data contained herein has been provided by the individual contributors of this section. The
authenticity and accuracy of such data are the responsibility of each company.
INDEX
Colonial Electric Prod. Co., Inc. M-20 The Miller Company M-114
Colonial -Premier Company M-22 Mitchell Manufacturing Co M-107
Compco Corporation M-23 Modern Light & Equipment Co. M-112 . .
CONSTRUCTION
Cores of annealed silicon steel. Coils
impregnated with polymerizing varnish.
£%" type HR leads. Assembled case is
potted with bituminous compound hav-
ing thermal conductivity of 0.0045
watts/OC/CM. Softening point of compound 255°F. Write for Bulletin FL.
M-4
ADVANCE TRANSFORMER CO.
1136 W. Catalpa Ave.
Chicago 40, 111.
POWER LINE
CAT. NO. SIZE & NO. LAMPS FACTOR* CUR-
RENT
RSL-122 1—22 Watt (Circline) N .39
L-115 1—15 Watt N .32
L-120 1—20 Watt N .36
L-215 2—15 Watt N .70
L-220 2—20 Watt N .72
RSH-115 1—15 Watt H .19
RSH-120 1—20 Watt H .23
RSL-130 1—30 Watt N .72
RSH-130 1—30 Watt H .36
L-140 1—40 Watt N .75
RSH-140 1—40 Watt H .50
RSL-132f 1—32 Watt** (Circline) N .60
S-240 2—40 Watt H .85
RSH-240f 2—40 Watt H .85
RSH-232 2— 32 Watt (Circline) H .70
The above list of ballasts are also made in the following combinations:
XSH
220 (208-236) ft 50 XTL
XTH
208 (199-216) ft 60 WSL
WSH
208 (199-216) ft 50 WTL
WTH
236 (225-245) ft 60 YSL ....
YSH
236 (225-245) ff 50 YTL
YTH
* N—Normal P. F. t ETL certified.
H—90% or better P.
** In long
F. tf Also include High P F. 2-30.
can same as 1-40.
M-5
ALL-BRIGHT ELECTRIC PRODUCTS COMPANY
Manufacturers of Fluorescent Lighting Fixtures
3917-25 N. Kedzie Av«. Chicago 18, Illinois
M-6
AMERICAN CONCRETE CORPORATION
4727 North Lamon Avenue
Chicago 30, Illinois
ENGINEERING DATA
AGGREGATE: Crushed black and white granite or marble to
CURING: Warm moist steam curing not exceeding 175 deg. Fahr-
enheit.
M-7
APPLETON ELECTRIC COMPANY
1751 Wellington Avenue, Chicago 13, Illinois
14 Branch Offices and 7 Resident Representatives in All Principal
Markets
EXPLOSION-PROOF FLUORESCENT
•
"
jStfr-
;
,
'
LIGHTING FIXTURES
TWO SIZES:
Two 40-Watt, 48- Inch T-12 Lamps
Two 100-Watt, 60-Inch T-17 Lamps
Underwriters' Laboratories Approved BALLAST
for allhazardous locations in Class I.
Ballast mount-
Groups C and D, and Class II, Groups E,
FandG. ed in explosion-
Used in oil refineries, hospital surgeries, proof housing at center of unit, under
chemical plants, grain elevators, wher- outer dust cover, is quickly accessible.
ever flammable gases or dusts are Flexible coupling relieves any possible
present. strain on Pyrex glass tubes.
Lamps are located inside Pyrex glass
tubes, which are internally sealed at the LAMP SUSPENSION
factory for complete, permanent explo- Lamps are held in position in center of
sion-proof protection. Equipment in-
Pyrex tubes by springs which also facili-
cludes high power-factor, two-lamp
tate re-lamping.
ballast; all necessary auxiliary equip-
ment, and two-piece steel reflector —in- Workmanlike hanging is
side white, outside gray. Detailed light jj"~ facilitated by use of Ap-
distribution data sent on request. pleton flanged ceiling
End wiring chambers are cast aluminum "Unilets" with fixture
{«_
with completely explosion-proof screw canopy, "dead-end" ceil-
covers for access. ing supports, and union connectors.
Appleton Types "ESD" and "ESS"
LINE CONNECTION Swivels permit hanging in conformance
Connecting block for line connection lo- to all code requirements. Two hubs for
cated conveniently inside 45° suspension are provided.
upper explosion-proof For complete data and other informa-
screw cover. No other Engineering Department at
tion, contact
above address.
electrical connections are
made on the job. COMPLETE LINE
The Appleton Explosion-Proof Fluores-
STARTERS cent Lighting Fixture is only one of the
Starters just in- complete Appleton line, including all
side lower ex- types of Explosion-Proof, Dust-Tight
plosion - proof and Vaportight Lighting Fixtures. Al-
screw covers together, Appleton manufactures more
can be replaced than 15,000 types and sizes of conduit
without remov- fittings, outlet and switch boxes and
ing lamps. Re- other wiring materials. Complete cata-
lamping is quick and easy. log on request.
M-8
—
M-9
BRIGHT LIGHT REFLECTOR CO.
Fairfield & State, Bridgeport 5, Conn.
Atlanta, Ga. Kansas City, Mo.
Baltimore, Md. Los Angeles, Cal.
Boston, Mass. Minneapolis, Minn.
Chicago, 111. New York, N. Y.
Cleveland, Ohio Philadelphia, Pa.
Dallas, Texas Pittsburgh, Pa.
Denver, Col. San Francisco, Cal.
Detroit, Mich. Seattle, Wash.
Indianapolis, Ind. St. Louis, Mo.
COMMERCIAL UNITS
The Vanguard "Fleur-o-lier ap-
proved"
2148 GL (4 lamp 40 watt)
GERMICIDIAL UNITS
GR 18C (15 watt) GR 36C (30 watt)
INDUSTRIAL UNITS
(RLMjSpecification
7152 P (2 lamp 40 watt)
8152P (3 lamp 40 watt)
^RLMj Specification
7160P (2 lamp 100 watt)
Available in a wide range of ratings
—
and mounting types for hanger,
conduit, cr chain suspension either—
individually or in rows.
M-10
BRIGHT LIGHT REFLECTOR CO.
INCANDESCENT LIGHTING EQUIPMENT
Standard Dome Reflectors Shallow Dome Reflectors
Reflector
Wattage
Dia.
Reflector
t75/100* 12"
Dia.
tl50* 14"
16" 12"
t200* 14"
300/500 18"
20" 16"
750/1500
18"
Tested by ETL Tested by ETL
\r&
f-T\ \ \9S'
^5C~ 1
— sr
"/ i;
7~^(>i
Y\{
'
/ B
Reflector
Wattage
Wattage Dia.
/ 45
t75/100* 8"
flOO* 10"
t 100/200*
tl50* 300/500 12"
f200 •
r IS' 25' 35' 750/1500 16"
300/500
750/1500
Tested by ETL
All of theAbove Units are Available with Speed-lox Necks
* The above units are available with shades-holders necks
t The above units are available with pull-chain sockets
M-ll
Benjaniin Electric Manufacturing Company
Des Plaines (Chicago Suburb) Illinois
Divisional Sales Office
20 North Wacker Drive 230 West 17th Street 448 Bryant Street.
Chicago 6, Illinois New York 11, New York San Francisco 7, Calif.
Room Index
J .35 .30 .25 .35 .30 .25 .29 .25
I .43 .39 .35 .43 .38 .34 .38 .34
H .47 .44 .40 .46 .43 .40 .43 .40
G .52 .48 .44 .50 .47 .44 .46 .43
F .55 .52 .47 .54 .50 .47 .49 .46
Typical Curve
Spacing distance be- E .60 .57 .53 .59 .56 .53 .55 .53
tween reflectors should D .64 .61 .58 .63 .60 .58 .60 .58
never exceed one and C .66 .63 .60 .65 .62 .60 .62 .60
one-half times the
B .69 .67 .65 .68 .66 .64 .65 .63
mounting height. A .71 .69 .67 .69 .68 .66 .67 .65
Room Index
J .32 .27 .23 .32 .27 .23 .26 .23
I .39 .35 .32 .39 .33 .31 .34 .31
H .42 .40 .36 .41 .39 .36 .39 .36
G .47 .43 .40 .45 .42 .39 .41 .39
F .50 .47 .42 .49 .45 .42 .44 .41
AA, BB and CC. A .64 .62 .60 .62 .61 .59 .60 .59
M-12
B£M
"STEELITE" ARMOR-CLAD LIGHTING UNITS
Benjamin vapor tight, "Steelite" lighting units accom-
modate 750 to 1500 watt incandescent lamps and are
designed to provide general illumination in high-
bay areas, where units are subjected to mechanical
strain and severe atmospheric conditions. Three types
of Alzak aluminum reflectors are available with the
following efficiencies: Narrow beam 71%; Concentrat-
ing 66%; Spread 11\%. Unit housing is porcelain
enameled steel with a hinged, impact-resisting plate
glass cover; fittings are separable, "Socket-Reflector"
type.
Room Index
J .38 .36 .34 .38 .36 .34 .37 .34
I .45 .43 .42 .44 .43 .42 .43 .41
H .48 .48 .47 .47 .47 .46 .47 .45
G .52 .51 .50 .51 .50 .49 .50 .48
F .55 .53 .52 .52 .52 .51 .52 .50
Typical Curve * Data in the above table is based on the concentrating type unit with an
Concentrating Refl. incandescent lamp. For IfiO-watt Mercury, concentrating type "Steelite"
multiply figures by 1.02.
Room Index
J .35 .30 .25 .35 .30 .25 .29 .25
I .43 .39 .35 .43 .38 .34 .38 .34
H .47 .44 .40 .46 .43 .40 .43 .40
G .52 .48 .44 .50 .47 .44 .46 .43
F .55 .52 .47 .54 .50 .47 .49 .46
M-13
RLM "STREAM -FLO 40'
Benjamin "Stream-Flo
40" units are available
in either two or three 40
watt Type F lamp ar-
rangements. The porce-
lain enamel reflector has
a high reflection factor of
79%, and is resistant to
deteriorating atmospheric conditions. Efficiency of two lamp units is 79% and of
three lamp units is 72%; shielding angle is 13° below the horizontal. The steel clad
safety type Springlox lampholder eliminates the hazard of lamps dropping out.
Room Index
J .37 .32 .28 .37 .32 .28 .31 .28
I .46 .41 .38 .45 .40 .37 .41 .37
H .50 .46 .43 .49 .46 .43 .45 .43
G .54 .50 .47 .53 .50 .47 .48 .47
This type unit is avail- F .58 .54 .50 .56 .52 .50 .52 .50
able in a continuous
line as the Benjamin E .62 .59 .56 .61 .58 .56 .57 .56
"Lite-Line 40", and D .67 .64 .60 .65 .63 .60 .62 .60
with open end reflec- C .69 .66 .63 .67 .64 .63 .64 .62
tors as the "Twin-Flo B .72 .69 .67 .70 .68 .66 .67 .65
40"and"Triple-Flo40." A .74 .71 .69 .72 .69 .68 .68 .67
* Figures shown are for twin-lamp unit; for triple-lamp unit multiply
these by 0.91.
with Benjamin contin- E .57 .55 .52 .56 .54 .52 .53 .52
uous channel "Lite-Line D .59
.61 .58 .56 .57 .56 .57 .59
40 System", and with
open end reflector "Twin-
C .63 .60 .57 .61 .59 .57 .58 .57
B .65 .62 .61 .63 .61 .60 .60 .59
Flo 40." A .66 .64 .62 .64 .82 .61 .62 .60
M-14
"ELLIPTO-LITE" FLOODLIGHTS
Benjamin "Ellipto-Lite" Play-Area Floodlights
consist basically of a large diffusing porcelain
enameled steel elliptical shaped reflector with an
inner reflector of processed oxidized aluminum.
This inner reflector takes a portion of the light
from the lamp and directs it to points farther for-
ward, improving illumination in more distant
areas. The deep overhanging front sec-
tion of the "Ellipto-Lite" floodlight pro-
vides effective shielding of the light
source so that candlepower values fall off
by. 50% at a point less than 15° above the
angle of maximum candlepower, which is
well out of the normal line of vision,
usually considered to be approximately
75°. Benjamin "Ellipto-Lite" Flood-
lights are designed for either 300-500 watt
lamps or 750-1500 watt lamps. They are
available with a choice of four types of mounting braskets for convenient installation.
Lighting Characteristics
Below are candlepower distribution curves of the Benjamin 750-1500 Watt "Ellipto-Lite" Floodlight.
These curves are through perpendicular planes marked A-A, B-B, C-C and D-D.
.23 .09
—
NOTE The dotted lines and curves in 50 feet
750
1000
.94
1.3 .94
.7 .41
.57 .32 .12
the diagram above indicate the area effec- I 1500 2.1 1.5 .91 .51 .19
tively covered by a single unit mounted at
a height of 40 feet, with a lamp in a vertical * NOTE— Intensities for these mounting heights
position For the areas effectively illu- are for points on the line X-X only, as shown in Dia-
minated at other mounting heights, refer to gram 2. Footcandle values in the above table are for
Table 3 for dimensions A, B and C. one unit only.
t Values based on 14,550 lumens for 750-watt, 20,000 for 1000-watt and 33,000 for 1500- watt lamps.
M-15
.
Bugr^MiN
"ALZO-LITE" FLOODLIGHTS
Benjamin "Alzo-Lite" floodlights, with
Alzak aluminum reflectors, are made in two
types of coverage. Long-Range "Alzo-Lite",
as illustrated at left, is for use on poles located
55 to 150 feet away from area to be lighted, and
the Benjamin Medium-Spread "Alzo-Lite" is
for use on poles located from 30 to 55 feet away
from area to be lighted.
The Long-Range "Alzo-Lite" accommodates
an Alzak aluminum deflector which redirects a
portion of spill light downward to provide
additional useful illumination.
Benjamin "Alzo-Lite" floodlights are avail-
able with a water-proof, hinged glass cover
which eliminates any possibility of rain, mois-
ture, mist or fog penetrating to the interior of
the floodlight and causing lamp breakage.
Floodlights can be supplied with a choice of
four styles of mounting brackets.
The coverage data below, applies to a single
Long-Range type floodlight with deflector.
Typical Curves
Curve A- A above the scale of B-B.
is io Dotted line curve
is at 90° to plane A-A and at angle of maximum candle-
power.
t Intensities based on 14,550 lumens for 750-watt, 21,000 for 1000- watt and 33,000 for 1500-watt lamps.
Data on RLM units obtained from tests of Eltctrical Testing Laboratories Inc.; balance of data from tests made at
Benjamin's Testing and Development Laboratory
M-16
THE CAPACITRON COMPANY, INC.
849 North Kedzie Avenue, Chicago 51, Illinois
Rectangular
—
BALLASTRONS High Power Factor Correction Units to be used on Fixtures
Having Low Power Factor Ballasts
Mounts Inside of Fixture Housing . . . Only Two Wires to Connect . Can be Used
on Fixtures Already Wired
BALLASTRONS are designed to fit all Standard fixtures and come complete
with mounting hardware. They connect in parallel across the A.C. Line
Sizes 15 to 40 Watts at Voltages of 118 and 236, for 25, 50 and 60 Cycles.
M-17
CHAMPION LAMP WORKS
LYNN, MASSACHUSETTS
A DIVISION OF CONSOLIDATED ELECTRIC LAMP CO.
CHpPION
offices, schools, factories and institutions. Designed for use on 115-120-125 volt
circuits in sizes 15 to 1500 watts, and for 230-250 volt circuits in sizes 25 to 1000
watts.
INSIDE FROSTED lamps (15 to 1000 watts) are used in most fixtures for lamps up to
100 watts in size. In higher wattages, inside frosted lamps are generally used
with direct, semi-indirect, or indirect fixtures when diffusion and soft shadows
are desired.
CLEAR lamps (150 to 1500 watts) are used where some control of light distribution
isrequired such as in fixtures having polished or lightly etched reflecting surfaces
or in prismatic glass fixtures to obtain designed light distribution.
INSIDE WHITE BOWL lamps (150 to 500 watts) are for use in open type reflectors.
The white bowl shields the filament and reduces glare.
SILVERED BOWL lamps (60 to 500 watts) are designed for indirect lighting in fixtures
designed especially for use with these lamps.
DAYLIGHT lamps (60 to 500 watts) are of special blue glass to produce light approxi-
mating average daylight quality.
Champion Incandescent Lamps include lamps for rough service, vibration service,
floodlight, spotlight, projection service, street series, street railway, traffic signal,
train, locomotive and country home service. Tubular and lumiline lamps, reflector
floodlight and spotlight lamps, colored, decorative and sign lamps are also available.
Instant start 3500° White lamps are available in the 40 watt size.
Slimline lamps in 42", 64", 72" and 96" lengths for operation at 100 or 200 milli-
amperes current and Circline lamps in 8£", 12" and 16" diameters will be announced
when available.
Call your nearest Champion distributor or write the factory for Manufacturers'
Schedule and complete information on any or all lamps.
M-18
CHICAGO MINIATURE LAMP WORKS
1500 North Ogden Avenue
Chicago 10, Illinois
cent lamps; miniature glass enclosed switches; heating units; electronic devices and
1 to 200 lumens
amber, opal, et cetera, and particular shape desired. Size: standard miniature sizes
or to desired specification.
BULB SIZES:
Tubular — 0.070" to 0.750" diameter
BASE SPECIFICATIONS
Either standard miniature: candelabra, auto, miniature or midget screw and
bayonet, or special size bases using standard threads 2-56 and larger.
The Colonial
WOODWORTH
Specifications
TVie Colonial
JOHNSON
M-20
COLONIAL
Manufactured by
COLONIAL ELECTRIC PRODUCTS, INC.
Paterson 4, New Jersey
Specifications
The Colonial
Aluminum sides, louvred
FIDELITY bottom
6 or 8 ft. long, 15" wide, 8" high
4 lamps—750 or 900 volts
Stem mounted
Individual or continuous
Distribution curves on request
Aluminum and baked enamel
finish
The Colonial
Specifications RECESS
Glass louvred or open bottom
Individual or continuous
6 or 8 ft. long-llf" wide-8|" high
—
2 or 4 lamps 900 volts only-
Distribution curves on request.
COLONIAL
Our laboratory and field reports indicate 10,000 hours average life
No moving parts.
Quality workmanship.
COLONIAL-PREMIER COMPANY
466 W. Superior St., Chicago, Illinois
PHONE: SUPERIOR 0351
MANUFACTURERS
CERTIFIED LAMPS AND SHADES
PORTABLE LAMPS WALLETTES DESK LAMPS
CERTIFIED LAMP
Circline lamp in combination with 100-200-300
watt incandescent used in mogul socket.
The
Circline has precision three-point suspen-
sion placed correctly in the shade to spread
maximum area of light without glare.
Wired for fast starting and permits clear radio
reception. Ten feet of rubber covered cord from
base to plug.
All parts machined for accurate alignment.
Bases and shafts pressure die cast of zinc alloy.
Triple-grit polished, buffed, plated and covered
with polymerin, then oven-baked to insure long-
lasting finish.
All lamps meet Underwriters Laboratories
specifications. Standards set up by Electrical
Testing Laboratories are «rlV.preH t.n ^o-JHlv. -^nd
Illuminating Engineering Society recommenda-
tions are followed.
Shade dimensions conform to Certified Lamp
Specifications. All linings white for good diffu-
sion. Frames are cadmium-plated so shades can
be washed repeatedly without a trace of rust.
Entire shade, including decorative trim, is sewn.
WALLETTES
Wallette, an adjustable lamp, suitable for bed,
sewing machine, dressing table, desk, chairs and
studio couches.
The Wallette has a braided cord running through
a curved arm. The arm brings the lighting ele-
ment away from the wall so that the light falls
over the shoulder of the user reducing shadows
and specular reflection.
The cord is inserted into a precision-balanced
counterweight which maintains the lighting ele-
ment and shade
in any position
desired by the
reader. The
user can adjust
the shade height into any position by just rais-
ing or lowering the cord without changing position.
Raising the shades widens the area of light and
lowering it increases the foot candle reading on
the printed page. A diffusion bowl reduces glare
and increases general illumination in the room
for more comfortable seeing.
All parts are triple-grit polished and plated,
then covered with polymerin and oven-baked to
insure long-lasting beauty of finish.
Each shade has white lining for good light
diffusion from its ten inch diameter. Each frame
is cadmium plated and all shades are sewn so that
they may be washed repeatedly.
An eight foot rubber covered cord extends from
the counterweight and may be plugged into the
wall in any standard outlet.
M-22
COMPCO CORPORATION
2251 West St. Paul Ave.
Chicago 47, Illinois
@amfica
LENS PANELS
are Fresnel-type lenses for line light
sources. One to four rows of lamps
may be used and beam spreads up to
90° and fixture efflciences up to 64%
may be attained. Lens panels are
available in lengths up to 60", and ac-
commodate the regular and slimline
fluorescent lamps.
LENSLITES
are Fresnel-type lenses for filament
sources. Beam spreads up to 72° and
concentrations to 8.5° may be ob-
tained by the use of general service
lamps at various lamp positions.
All Lenslites are made of a PYREX
brand heat-resisting glass and will
accommodate up to 1000 watt lamps.
LIGHTING BOWLS
are pressed crystal glass ware deco-
rated with fired-in ceramic enamel
colors. In lens-bottom dining room
bowls a Fresnel-type lens is pressed
integrally in the bottom of the bowl
(risers in gold). These concentrate
a light beam onto the table while the
balance of the room is evenly lighted.
M-24
CROUSE-HINDS COMPANY
Syracuse 1, N. Y.
Offices: Birmingham — Boston — Buffalo — Chicago— Cincinnati — Cleveland — Dallas — Denver — Detroit
Houston — Indianapolis — Kansas City — Los Angeles — Milwaukee — Minneapolis — New York
Philadelphia — Pittsburgh — Portland, Ore. — San Francisco — Seattle — St. Louis
Washington. Resident Representatives: Albany — Atlanta — Charlotte
New Orleans — Richmond, Va.
CROUSE-HINDS COMPANY OF CANADA, LTD.,
Main Office and Plant: TORONTO, ONT.
Floodlights
Acomplete line of light-duty sheet aluminum and heavy-duty cast aluminum
floodlights from 100 watts to 2000 watts, explosion-proof floodlights 200 watts and
500 watts, special units for pits, tunnels, underpasses, viaducts, underwater swim-
ming pool lighting, etc. See data below and Floodlight Catalog 316.
Searchlights
Searchlights for hand control, pilot house control, and remote control, sizes
8", 12", 18", 24" and 36"; also, 12" signalling searchlights. See Floodlight Catalog 316,
section 205.
Airport Lighting Equipment
A complete line of lighting equipment for small and large airports including
rotating and flashing beacons, runway marker lights, taxi lights, obstruction lights,
wind indicating devices, traffic control equipment, control desks and panels, ceiling
projectors, ceilometer. See Airport Catalog 317.
Explosion-proof Industrial Lighting Equipment
Explosion-proof fixtures with and without porcelain enamel and high bay alum-
inum reflectors, sizes 60 watts, 100 watts, 150 watts, 200 watts, 300 watts and 500
watts for Class I, Groups C and D, hazardous locations. See Condulet Catalog 2500,
section 85.
Dust-Tight Industrial Lighting Equipment
Dust-tight fixtures with and without reflectors, sizes 100 watts, 200 watts, 500
watts for Class II, Groups E, F and G, and Class III, hazardous locations. See Con-
dulet Catalog 2500, section 85.
V aportightIndustrial Lighting Equipment
Fixtures with and without reflectors, sizes 100 watts, 150 watts, 200 watts, 500
watts. See Condulet Catalog 2500, section 25.
ADE-14 181* 16J* 25H' 16|' 17f* in* 24 A' 151' 81'
21^
Dimensions— Types ADE-14 and ADE-16 Dimensions— Type LCE-1120
500 and 1000- Watt 1500-Watt
M-25
CROUSE-HINDS COMPANY
FLOODLIGHT ILLUMINATION DATA*
TYPES FLOODLIGHTS
ADE-12, ADE-14, ADE-16, LCE-1120
• This information ia approximate and is given for estimating purposes only. If more detailed informa-
tion is needed, apply to the Illumination Department of the Crouse-Hinds Company, Syracuse, N. Y.
M-26
CROUSE-HINDS COMPANY
Types MDB-14 and MDB-16 Floodlights
MDB-14 MDB-16
A 141' 16|*
B 151* 17|*
C 16F' 19?'
D 12 141'
E I' f
F H* V
G 15f" 18
'
-BOLT-
4 HOLES -jg-DIA.
• This information is approximate and is given for estimating purposes only. If more detailed information
is needed apply to the Illumination Department of the Crouse-Hinds Company, Syracuse, N. Y.
M-27
CROUSE-HINDS COMPANY
Pit and Tunnel Lights
Pit Lights
The drawings below show dimensions of type RCD-8 vaportight and weather-
proof lighting unit for mounting on the surface or flush in concrete for lighting of
underpasses, tunnels, wash racks, and pits where non-explosion-proof equipment is
permissible. Type RCD-8 is also available in a model designed for mounting in the
floor. Standard spacing for pits is 12 feet staggered, 200 watts each. Wash racks
two rows, one 7 to 8 feet high and one near the floor, both on 4 to 6-foot centers.
Type RCDE-8
Explosion-proof for hazardous areas. Can be set flush in concrete or on
surface. Also available with floodlight mounting.
M-28
CURTIS LIGHTING, INC.
6135 W. 65th Street, Chicago 38, Illinois
CURTIS "Anniversary" LTJMINAIRES
For four 40-watt lamps per section. Rec- The "Anniversary" Luminaire is of the
ommended for both store and office light- general diffusing type with the top com-
ing, the "Anniversary" Luminaire can pletely open for better utilization of the
indirect component. The direct com-
be used either as an individual unit or
ponent is shielded 30° lengthwise and
in continuous runs. It is an all-metal
crosswise by the attractive one piece
unit with a very shallow body of 3 inches. louver.
Side panels are designed so that lamps Material and Finish: Made of Steel with
are louvered and reflected light is uti- reflecting surfaces and louver finished
lized to illuminate and create a decorative white "Fluracite". End plates and
pattern. hanger finished light gray.
Installation and Mainte-
REPORT nance: Curtis hangers per-
Electrical Testing Laboratories, Inc.
mit simplified installation.
.J21047 Ord»r No. U674-L fef, No .5> Dtf, July Z, 1V47
Lamps and starters can be
CANDUPOTIDt
51 reUR-40-WATT SUSPmSION-JBXJNTED changed from above with-
Type - General
out opening the louver.
Louver is hinged on both
Lupi - Four - 11B Volti ^300 Lu-aana; T-12 4hi
owing, reflection f»c -
0.86; ynthetie onuelled eggs rate sides and is easily removed.
T«t - Candlepowor distribution In three vertl Dimensions: Width, 18";
plane a Intersecting In the center of U
unit; A-A ncrml, B-B parallel and C-C overall depth, 44"; depth of
Light output 1
'
tare Lajspe
w-iao" - i.
body, 3"; length, inch end
C;
0°-180" - 7
ipwiriad i
ornament, olf". Standard
suspension is 12", but stems
P
for 18", 21", 36" and 48" sus-
if^T^"'
Itt He. 1335
pensions are carried in stock.
Plan-.
CAKDLKFUinJl
PL&n. Pluu
Net weight is 33 lbs.
ȣtua;
— as:
CwU X-^V
X
J2J~j
E
C
B
51
1
IS
51
4S
IS
43
I!
40
43
19
; -
.34
36
13
335
M-29
CURTIS LIGHTING, INC.
CURTIS "Forty-Sixty" LUMINAIRES
FOUR-FOOT
Units for two 40-watt
lamps.
FIVE-FOOT
Units for two 100- watt
lamps.
The "Forty-Sixty" is designed for eye are readily attained with this luminaire.
comfort. The low brightness of the
luminaire blends with the illuminated Finish: SatinAluminum. Alzak Alumi-
ceiling, producing a comfortable field num and louver fins. White
reflectors
of vision. High levels of illumination "Fluracite" wiring channel and end
without distracting and harmful glare plates. Ornamental star in Ivorytone.
CWDLIPOmB DISTEIBimai
ornaments; stem hanger
CAT. N0.4040-C THO-40-5IATT SUSPIMSICH-lDaiTH) PLPOHESCDIT WIT «ITH LOTTOS
suspension 12" ceiling to
TISTED IK ACCORDANCE eTTH SPECIFICATIOHS POS PL0OHK8C31T LUlfBArjffiS - TIP! - SDn-IUKK' top of body. Weight in-
Rendered to Curtla Lighting, Inc. stalled, approximately
Ujapa - Two - 40 «atta; 120 Volte; 2300 Luoena; T-12 *hlto Fluorescent.
«T »<*"-
25 lbs.
Unit - Synthetic enamel channel, reflection factor 0.96; ildea and croc* loueera Alioi
Test - Candlepoa-or distribution In three vertical Continuous Luminaires:
piaji&a lnteraeetlng In the center of the unit; A-
noraal, B-B parallel and C-C 45" to the tubal. 4060-C can be used in con-
Light output In per cent of bare laapo -
0°-60° - 42.0 90'-180° - 32.2 tinuous runs with two-
0*-90' - 46.9 0°-180* - 79.1
rature rlae - 55.0 C; stem hangers. Connec-
peel-
tied
55.0
t
teir
/^^ tors are included. For
continuous runs with sin-
c,
180*
A-A
650
B-B
640
C-C
645
CATALOG NO. 4061-C
175* 650 635 640 Dimensions: 60|" long.
145' 625 615 620
155* 525 570 560 Weight installed, ap-
145* 372 500 446
135" 252 418 300 proximately 33 lbs.
125* 138 322 191
115* 124 219 128
105* 68 113 6B.5
95* 31.5 24.5 26 Light Control: The ceiling
90* 22 6.5 Id
85" 23.5 21 19 is illuminated by an in-
75' 35 93.5 48
65* 69 217 148 direct component of 40%
55* 251 368 390
4}* 600 499 630 of the light output The
35*
as*
885
930
610
700
745
815 60% direct component is
15*
5*
905
840
770
820
830
830
louvered to provide 35°
0* 830 630 830 crosswise and 25° length-
wise shielding. Less
than 5% of the bare lamp
-JXC fa.
output is in the 60°-90°
zone.
M-30
CURTIS LIGHTING, INC.
for OFFICE, SCHOOLS, DRAFTING ROOMS, ETC.
Continuous Lumi-
naires: For continu-
ous fixtures with
single-stem hangers,
one Basic Unit is used
with as many Exten-
sion Sections as nec-
essary to complete
run.
Illumination Data:
Coeficients of Utiliza-
tion calculated from
E.T.L. photometric
curve are given below
for the "Forty-Sixty"
unit only. If"Forty-
Sixty-ONE" is to be
used decrease coeffi-
cients by approxi-
mately 10%.
Construction: Louver is hinged and will to collect dust. Simplified hanger de-
swing down for cleaning and relamping sign permits easy installation. Stems
or for access to the wiring channel. are carried in stock for 18", 24", 36" and
All metal with no horizontal surfaces 48" suspension.
COEFFICIENTS OF UTILIZATION
"FORTY. SIXTY" LUMINAIRE
REFLEC- CEILING 75% 50% 30%
TION
FACTOR WALLS 50% 30% 10% 50% 30% 10% 30% 10%
J 32 28 a 29 :; 25 26 .23
R
1 3/ 36 34 36 33 32 31 29
H 43 40 38 .39 36 35 34 33
O
G 46 44 42 42 40 3-3 2? 36
M
F .49 .47 .44 44 43 40 39 38
1
E -53 51 43 43 45 44 42 .40
N
D 5/ 53 51 50 43 47 44 43
D
C .59 .56 53 52 50 48 45 44
E
B 61 53 56 54 52 51 .47 46
X
A 63 60 58 56 .54 .52 48 47
M-31
CURTIS LIGHTING, INC.
CURTIS "Low Brightness" SKYLUX
"Low Brightness" Sky Lux for t\vo40-\vatt naire brightness. It is pleasingly lumi-
lamps per section, Catalog No. 980-C. nous when lighted, the Alzak Aluminum
Recommended for both store and office reflecting surfaces having a soft silvery
lighting. Primarily for ceiling mount- appearance.
ing as individual four-foot units or in The side reflectors shield the lamps in
continuous runs. Hangers are available the zone from 60° to 90°. There are no
for pendant mounting. horizontal reflecting or diffusing surfaces
"Low Brightness" Sky Lux is character- to collect dust. Maintenance costs are
ized by high utilization and low lumi- low.
Unit
- Two - 40 tettni 118 Volts; 2100 Uawnn; T-12 Shite Fluorescent.
- Aleak aluninua reflectore end sides, reflection factor 0.82; opacified aln. 0.75.
Dimensions: Overall height,
suspension mounted.
Test - Cvutleponer distribution In U 6|"; width, 11|"; length,
planes Intersecting in the center of the 5'
unit; A- a normal, B-3 parallel and C-C 4
to the tubes. 48x£" Extra sections add
•
2'
75' 59 149 57
65' 110 299 153 iS 3! :t .38 It .35 36 34
55' 250 465 375 O
45'
35'
540
865
620
760
695
890 O J 2 « 40 Pll 4t 39 .39 38
M-32
4
TWO-SECTION TROFFER
For two or three 40- watt lamps per section
Oat. 890423
lis v. 60 Osrolea .89 i.
High P.I. spaa. Ho. 6
i/M
HI
109 lies
£14 £12.4
60S 366.0
70S 944.6
I 993 622.8
z- U60 637.0
l£84 363.9
1400 133.6
MIS 1 *_J
COEFFICIENTS OF UTILIZATION
ABOVE DAta S3! UTILITIES RIBE.1P.0H LAB0R1T0BLT, CBI0A0O, XXLQDIB. A SO 59. V 53 53 .56 56 55
M-33
CURTIS LIGHTING, INC.
FLUORESCENT CURTISTRIP. Wired units.
Individual one-lamp units or
continuous strip lighting. Flu-
orescent CurtiStrip is applica-
ble to a variety of commercial
and industrial lighting tasks.
Supplied in lengths as required
(multiples of two feet only).
Channel made of steel with dec-
orative end ornaments and fin- Illustrated above is Deep Reflector Type Cata- :
COEFFICIENTS OF UTILIZATION
DEEP REFLECTOR (ALZAK ALUMINUM)
m
REFAC- CEILING 75% 50% 30%
TION
FACTOR WALLS 50% m:. 10% 50% w% 10" 30% 10% CUiDlZPOKR
P3vmao Plan. Plana
J 42 !9 17 « 3! 37 38 36
R
O
1 51 if. 47 .49 .47 K 47 .45 JO"
85'
A-A
7
— B-B
o—
31
C-C
a
H 54 S3 5 7 53 5: 51 Si 54) 75* 7 U) 33
65' _ 13- 236 83
G 58 57 56 57 56 64 55 .54 55* u> 357 «9
«• 3*5 491 458
F 51 50 .58 60 .59 57 53 56 35' 570 60) 620
1
25" 730 700 715
E .64 65 61 63 6; 60 61 69 15* 785 770 775
5* 805 80} 80)
D .68 65 f-l 66 65 .63 6J 53 0* no 810
810
D
C 10 68 .66 .68 66 65 .65 (1
E
E n 69 68 69 .68 6.'
.66 65
X
A n 70 69 70 69 68 68 66
M-34
CURTIS LIGHTING, INC.
INCANDESCENT RECESSED LIGHTING
Deep type recessing units bear Under- ing glass lens alone, louver alone or with
writers' Recessing Label and are fitted glass lens and louver. Pattern louvers
with "X-Ray" Silver Mirror Reflectors are used with square units, concentric
for high efficiency. Shallow types louvers with round units. Two type re-
have an aluminum interior finish and flectors (concentrating and distributing)
two sockets arranged to hold lamps in a are available in the "deep" units.
horizontal position. Shallow types and s
METAL HOUSED
RECESSING UNITS
Large Round Deep Units — For 300-watt
medium base lamps. 15j" required for
recessing. Dimensions: Housing, 14£"
dia.; rim, 17|" overall. Available for
500-watts with louver only.
Large Round Shallow Units For two —
150-watt lamps. 6" required for re-
cessing. Dimensions: Housing, 14|"
dia.; rim, 17|" overall.
—
Small Round Deep Units For 200- or
300-watt medium base lamp. 12J" re-
quired for recessing. Dimensions:
Housing, HiV' dia.; rim, 12f" overall.
Small Round Shallow Units For two —
100-watt lamps. 6" required for reces-
sing. Dimensions: Housing, 11^" dia.;
rim, 12f" overall.
Square Deep Units—For 200- or 300-watt
medium base lamp. 13|" required for
recessing. Dimensions: Housing, 10f"
square; rim, 13J" square.
Square Shallow Units —
For two 100-watt
lamps. 6" required for recessing. Dimen-
sions: Housing, 10|" square; rim, 13 \"
square.
All of the above can be had with diffus-
M-35
CURTIS LIGHTING, INC.
"X-Ray" SHOW WINDOW REFLECTORS
"X-Ray" Show Window Reflectors are made of
crystal glass mirrored with pure silver and pro-
tected from deterioration by the "Golden Armor"
backing.
Use Nos. 420 or 530 for shallow windows, No. 500
for deep windows; for large windows or for super
ighting, No. 1010.
These reflectors can be installed on CurtiStrip
Wiring Channel or may be recessed on finishing
flanges.
No. 420— Reflector for 150- or 100-watt lamp.
Louver, extra accessory, is No. 12420 (U-Type).
Dimensions Diameter, 8f ". Height with Holder,
:
7—".
No. 500— Reflector for 300-, 200- or 150-watt
medium base incandescent lamp. Dimensions:
Width, 10"; depth, front to back, 10§". Height
with Holder, 10".
No. 530— Reflector for 300-, 200- or 150-watt
medium base incandescent lamp. Louver, extra
accessory, is No. 12531 (U-Type). Dimensions:
Diameter, 9|". Height with Holder, 9ts" .
CURTIS "Eye-Comfort"
LUMINAIRES
—
"Discus" Luminaires For Silvered
bowl lamps, low priced and efficient.
Catalog No. 1020— For 300- or 500-watt
lamp. Bowl diameter 20". Suspension
CAT. NO. 1020 to top of bowl, 36". Finish: Alzak Alu-
minum. Also available for 750- or 1000-
watt lamps, Cat. No. 1024.
Showrooms
Chicago: American Furniture Mart
Los Angeles: Los Angeles Furniture Mart
San Francisco: Western Merchandise Mart
High Point, N. Carolina: High Point Furniture Mart
Dallas, Texas: 1303 J, Elm Street
1. Visual
CONSTRUCTION
Comfort
Deena Lamps are mechanically con-
2. Durability structed to withstand any damage that
may be encountered during average home
3. Decorative
use. Concealed reinforcing has been
Styling
:
:
.; ,'t incorporated into most designs to pro-
vide added protection to the internal
connections and electrical wiring.
FLOOR LAMPS
Deena Floor Lamps are furnished in a
choice of 3-way or 6-way lighting. SHADES
Lamps are electroplated in our own plat-
___^_____ Rayon shades are
ing division and equipped with hand-
'%m^ hand -sewed and per-
sewn rayon shades made in our modern
Chicago plant. fmanently fastened at
—
Construction Chassis of die-formed
steel,press-welded together and finished
in baked white enamel. Removable
wireway cover snaps into position.
Enclosures are of press-welded construc-
tion of die-formed steel parts. Center
V-shaped louver is of specular Alzak with
lateral louvers of steel finished in baked
VIZ-AID white enamel. Enclosure frame is fin-
Suspension Type Unit ished in baked lustre aluminum enamel
with side panels of ribbed diffuse glass.
Lamps — Single units and single sections All hangers are supplied with swivel fit-
of continuous runs available for two 40- tings and hanger assemblies are finished
watt and two 100-watt fluorescent lamps. in baked lustre aluminum enamel.
Mounting —Surface type units mounted Single stem hangers for continuous in-
stallations have hand-operated fittings
direct to Continuous fixtures
ceiling.
attached to pre-installed mounting providing over one-inch of vertical ad-
straps. Suspension type units sup- justment.
ported by twin stem hanger assembly. —
Servicing The enclosures are held in
Continuous fixtures supported by adjust- position on the chassis by two spring ten-
able single stem hangers at section sion clips and can be removed and re-
coupling points and ends. placed without the use of tools. Service
—
Dimensions 40-watt fixture body is 13" chains support the enclosures when they
wide by 6i" deep by 4S§" long. 100-watt are released from the chassis for cleaning.
fixture body is 16j" wide by 8" deep by Chains can be unhooked for complete re-
60£" long. Single unit hangers measure moval of enclosures if desired.
27" from ceiling to top of fixture. Ad- —
Wiring All fixtures are wired and in-
justable hangers for continuous runs pro- clude NO-BLINK type starters and High
vide li" adjustment to 28^" maximum Power-Factor ballasts for 110-volt, 60-
length. cycle, A.C. operation.
All Illumination data from tests by Electrical Testing Laboratories Inc. except for data on Coronado unit which
is from Company Laboratory.
M-38
DAY-BRITE LIGHTING, INC.
5411 Bulwer Ave. „a^ St. Louis 7, Mo.
M-39
EAST SIDE METAL SPINNING & STAMPING CORP.
Est. 1892
Linden N.J.
Manufacturers
of
to the
ILLUMINATING INDUSTRIES
BRASS
COPPER
ALUMINUM' S3
STEEL r\
tit:
BRANCH OFFICES
ATLANTA CLEVELAND
619 Peachtree Street, N.E, Union Commerce Building
BOSTON DALLAS
1019 Commonwealth Avenue 2812 Gaston Avenue
CHICAGO PHILADELPHIA
2100 Elston Avenue 1616 Walnut Street
SAN FRANCISCO
235 Second Street
—
finely interwoven each is largely dependent upon the other for proper results.
Paint colors should reflect light to the area where it is needed, in a form that will
be acceptable to the human eye, in "seeing light" rather than glare this is the —
hypothesis on which the Du Pont "Color Conditioning" program is based.
"Color Conditioning" is the result of research carried out over a period of years
Mr. Arthur A. Brainerd,* Philadelphia Electric Company, and
in collaboration with
Mr. Faber Birren, color consultant. It begins at the machine. The traditional
light-absorbing Dark Tool Gray has been replaced by a middle-shade tone on the
body of the machine and a "spotlight" color in the lighter range around the actual
working area. As a result, light at the point of focal concentration is measurably
increased.
• IES Report #9, "Salvaging Waste Light for Victory", by Arthur A. Brainerd & Robert A. Messey; IES
Report #16, "Improved Vision in Machine Tool Operations by Color Contrast", by Arthur A. Brainerd &
Matt. Denning.
M-41
E. I. du Pont de Neinours & Co., (Inc.)
Finishes Division Wilmington 98, Delaware
SPOTLIGHT GREEN
M-42
E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co., (Inc.)
Finishes Division Wilmington 98, Del.
<®MB>
—
direct light downward toward the critical seeing area; soft, light colors blue, green,
ivory, sunlight or gray on upper walls provide an area of visual relaxation and main-
tain the proper balance of brightness engineering. Dados, being below the level of
necessary high light reflection and within the area where maintenance becomes the
most pressing problem, are painted in darker values of the upper wall color, or of
complimentary colors.
Not only does scientific painting increase lighting efficiency, it increases the
efficiency of the eye as well,by achieving correct brightness engineering and hence
contributing to a more uniform seeing condition. It is this aspect of "Color Condi-
tioning" that extends it far beyond the industrial plant, where it first came into being.
For proper brightness engineering and uniform seeing conditions are desirable in any
area where good seeing is a factor.
DuPont has felt it best to recommend that, for proper results, each "Color
Conditioning" installation be the result of a survey by a trained DuPont color
engineer, and not the outcome of selection from a color card. The use of end-wall
treatments to take advantage of a special lighting situation, the degree of gloss
advisable in any one area and to maintain the preferred brightness ratio of 1 to 5 or 1
to 10 (the maximum allowable), and similar problems, call for individual, specialized
surveys. A letter to the nearest branch office will be sufficient to secure advisory
services on "Color Conditioning" in connection with any illuminating engineering
project.
HELPFUL SERVICES
REFERENCE DIVISION
Coefficient of Utilization
APPLICATION DIVISION
CtAtiLuiiL
Fleur-o-lieR
CERTIFIED
, _ in occo'rfo/iif
Starters Fixtures
M-45
ELECTRO MANUFACTURING CORPORATION
2000 W. FULTON ST., ^=^ J CHICAGO, ILL.
COMMERCIAL LUMINAIRES
FA'STi¥^ easier suspension
PATENTS DEVICE EMA»U<S ONI MAN TO BO WORK OF TWO
fixture to wires from outlet
STEP 2. Attach tempo- box. You don't have to
rary clips to shoulder remove cover from the !
STEP 1.Attach Speedy pins on each side of unit, channel to make splice.
Hanger to outlet hor, then suspend unitasshown STEP 4. Remove tempo-
Speedy hanger. stud, to ceiling or top in illustration. Leaves both rary clips and hook fixture
pendent rods. hands free for splicing. into hanger. THAT'S ALU
Temporary suspension clip.
There is an
Electro industri-
al fluorescent lu-
minaire for every
location and re-
'
quirement.
Model B101. - 2-40 watt. length 62§"; channel width 8"; shipping
SPECIFICATIONS: Overall reflector weight 45 lbs. Easily accessible starters
width 12£"; overall height including re- on channel, reflector; surface white
flector, 6|"; length 49j"; channel width "Liquid Plastic"; channel of 20 gauge
6f"; shipping weight 26 lbs. Reflector metal for lifetime use. Operating volt-
surface white "Liquid Plastic". Out- ages 110-125 volts. 60 cycle. A.C. only.
side finish grey "Liquid Plastic"; chan- Model B105.* - 3-40 watt.
nel of 20 gauge metal for lifetime use. SPECIFICATIONS: reflector width
Operates 110-125 volts, 60 cycle, A.C. 12|"; overall height including reflector
only. Has new type captive latch fasten- 6|"; overall length 49^"; channel width
ing for attaching reflector. Couplers join 6|"; shipping weight 34 lbs. Easily
any number of units end to end. Entire accessible starters on side of top channel.
unit can be easily converted to B105* Captive latch arrangement for attaching
Model B201. - 2-100 watt. reflector. Couplers join any number of
SPECIFICATIONS: Reflector width units end to end. Other features Same
16f"; height with reflector Sfg"; overall as BIOL
All industrial units also available with porcelain reflectors.
M-47
ELECTRIC SERVICE ,
MANUFACTURING CO.
Designers of Transportation Lighting
M-48
762 NORTH OODEN AVENUE • CHICAGO 22, ILLINOIS
1M°i;S°ltS°ISS°l<S° I3S°
Averoge Footcondlet
Areo Mounting Finiih
Fixture per Height Room Proportion!
Spacing Finture Above
Sq. Floor
Woll. & large Medium Small
Ft.
Ceiling W = 4xM.H. W=2«M.H. W= l WxM.H.
Underwriters Laboratories
INDIVIDUAL OR GROUP SPACING approved
6'x6' 36 S'-IO'
light**
Medium*
125
115
121
112
106
.96
BALLAST— High power
Light 92 89 78 —
factor correction 95% plus
7'x7' 49 8'.10' Medium 85 82 71 —60 cycle A. 110 C—
125 .
8'«8' 64 8'-IO'
Light
Medium
70
65
68
63
59
54 —
volts four 40 watt lamps
9'.9' 9'.11'
light
Medium
55
51
51
47
45
41
HEAVY gauge all steel con-
10'xlO'
SI
100
light
Medium
45
42
42
38
37
33
struction — white
baked en-
I0'-I2'
amel end plates and reflector
ITxIl' 121 I2M4'
Light
Medium
36
33
33
31
28
25 — completely wired
CONTINUOUS ROW SPACING Length 48J" Width 11"—
light 99 92 80 Shipping weight 35 #
11' 44 ll'-13' Medium 92 84 72
Light 91 84 70
12' 48 12'-14' Medium 84 77 63
13' 12'.14'
Light 84 78 64 Fluorescent
52 Medium 78 71 58
Light 78 72 55 Chrome Bracket
U* 56 14'-16' Medium 72 66 47
light 73 67 52 Model No. C-115-14 Watt C-118-15
15' 60 I4'-16' Medium 67 62 44 Watt or C-124-20 watt
Light 68 63 48
16' 64 14'- 16' Medium 63 58 41
Footcondlet shown ore lor WHITE lamps: For Daylight Lampi, multiply Hi* voluei by 0.85. BALLAST— High or low
"light: Ceiling Reft. 80%, Wall 60% 'Medium: Ceiling Ren. 60%, Wall 40% power factor — 60 cycle A. C.
Compiled by Famous Fluorescent Light Co. —110 125 volts one 14-15 or
.
20 watt lamp
Chrome finish on copper
over steel — rustproof guar-
anteed
Equipped with or without
convenience outlet and de-
flectors
Length 19£" width S\"
OCCASIONAL lighting in kitchen, bathroom, work room and many commercial uses
M-49
FEDERAL ELECTRIC COMPANY Inc.
8700 S. State St., Chicago 19, 111.
Ceil-
ing 75% 50%
Walls 50 30 10 50 30 10
Catalog No.
% % % % % %
Utilization Factors
Index
No. lamps
STRIPLITE LD 934B1 55 18* MF = .37 .31 .28 .37 .31 .29
LD 9346110" 105 * 34 .75 .45 .41 .37 .44 .40 .38
LD 934B2 105 21* t .49 .46 .43 .48 .45 .42
LD 939B2** Ill.i 35* 6 .54 .50 .46 .52 .50 .47
LD 939B3 160 40* — .57 .53 .49 .55 .53 .49
LD 939B316* 315 74* 80 .61 .59 .54 .61 .57 .55
LD 939B4 210 43* 1 .66 .62 .59 .65 .61 .59
LD 939B6 315 60* .69 .65 .60 .66 .63 .60
**LD 939B2 has 9" raceway as .71 .67 .65 .69 .65 .64
distinguished from the LD934B2 •Two 8' ed in
fixtures used .73 .79 .67 .71 .68 .65
which has a 4" raceway. tandem.
STREAMLITE LD 922B8* 11051 22* MF = .28 .22 .19 .24 .20 .17
LD 924B8* 2101 32* .75 .35 .29 .25 .30 .26 .22
T .39 .33 .30 .34 .30 .26
•Last number designates 50 .44 .38 .34 .38 .33 .30
length of continuous run .48 .42 .37 .41 .36 .32
in eight foot multiples, 50 .53 .47 .42 .46 .41 .37
e.g. Cat. *LD 922B4S I .58 .52 .46 .49 .45 .41
would designate a 2 lamp .61 .55 .50 .52 .47 .44
Streamlite in a 48' con- .66 .61 .56 .56 .51 .48
tinuous line. .69 .64 .59 .59 .54 .51
M-50
FEDERAL ELECTRIC COMPANY Inc.
CANDLE POWER
DISTRIBUTION OUTLINE DRAWINGS
CURVES
M-51
The Fostoria Pressed Steel Corp.
Fostoria, Ohio
ioigia
lor Light ON the Job MODELS WITH NO. 12 "U" TYPE REFLECTORS
Uses Inspection
and tool machines.
Uses Small presses, Do-all combinations and other tool machines where small
reflector size is desirable.
MODEL 13-G-512
IF lamp.
Data by
Fostoria laboratory
8 9 10 II 12
The Fostoria Pressed Steel Corp.
MODEL 10-F-512
perpendicular to beam.
Standard finish. 100
Foot ^*T***
perpendicular to beam.
Candles
Standard finish. 100
200 •
150
100
Data by
Fostoria Laboratory
Inches 2 J | 2 3 4 5 G 7 8 9 10 II 12
M-53
THE FRINK CORPORATION
and subsidiaries
STERLING BRONZE COMPANY, INC.
BARKON-FRINK TUBE LIGHTING CORPORATION
PLANNED LIGHTING SINCE 1857
FOR THE NAME OF YOUR NEAREST JOBBER, WRITE TO THE FrINK CORPORATION,
27-01 Bridge Plaza North, Long Island City 1, New York
The Frink Corporation provides a manship associated with the Frink name
complete engineering and manufacturing since 1857. All fixture designs are care-
lighting service. All Frink L-I-N-O- fully pre-tested in our own laboratory to
L-I-T-E fluorescent fixtures are designed insure many years of efficient, trouble-
to provide the "Ultimate in Fluorescent free service with minimum maintenance.
Lighting." For special application The Frink engineering department is
either fluorescent or incandescent fix- available to custom engineer the ulti-
tures can be Frink custom built to suit mate in lighting to suit all requirements
your requirements. for light intensity, brightness, contrast
All Frink fixtures are representative maintenance and architectural fitness.
of the efficient design and quality work- Inquiries are invited.
3-248 8i"
)'—40W
5\° 48f?
3-348 8i" 5|"
-40W48!"
3-448 4S"— 40W Si" 5|* 481*
For a continuous run, order one individual unit
type 3 and the remaininY
, units type 3 CR.
Fixture Distribution Coefficient of Utilization
3-248 28 56 .66 .57 .51 .57 .49 .43 .44 .37 .32
3-348 26 54 .63 .54 .49 .54 .47 .41 .42 .35 .31
3-448 23 51 .58 .51 .46 .51 .44 .39 .40 .32 .29
Lam ps Dimensions
Type a
Number Per
Size ^
-d
-m
Fixt. c
0>
o
Q
4-248 2 48"— 40W ill" 7i" 4S|"
4-348 3 48"— 40W 111" 7i" 48f"
4-448 4 48"— 40W 13J" 8" 45|"
,. ,,:,'
Fixture Distribution Coefficient of Utilization
Large Rm. (\\ = 4H) Med. Rm. (W = 2H)
] Small Rm. G V = H)
Series
:
% % Light Med. Dark Light Med. Dark Light Med. Dark
Up Down i
4-248 32 47 .57 1 .47 .41 .46 .37 .32 .28 .22 .19
4-348 29 43 .52 .42 .37 .42 .34 .29 .25 .20 .17
4-448 26 41 .48 1 .39 .34 .39 .31 .27 .24 .18 .15
M-54
L
Lamps Dimensions
wU& Type Description
Number
P->^
Lamps Dimensions
Type _ -fl
J3
Description
+J
Number u - -d
Size
jg: Q J
6-248 2 48"—40W 12i" 6f 48!" Center glass
6-348 3 48"— 40W 12J" 6f" 48|" Center glass
6-448 4 48"—40W 14" 7" 48f" Center glass
6-248- 2 48"—40W 12J" 7\" 48|" Center louvered
6-348-L
6-448-L
3
4
48"—40W
48"—40W
12£"
14"
71"
lh" w
48f" Center louvered
Center louvered
Lamps D imensions
Type
Number Per
Size Width Depth Length
Fixt.
M-55
THE FRINK CORPORATION
FRINK LINOLITE SERIES 8
An enclosed semi-direct unit with hinged glass sides
and decorative molding. The fine appearance of
this fixture makes it especially adaptable for banks,
showrooms, libraries, etc. The fixture can be in-
stalled either singly or in continuous runs.
Type Lamps
Dimensions
Number Per
Size
Fixt. Width Depth Length
8-248 2 48"— 40W 151" 71"
8-348 3 48"— 40W 151" 71" 48|"
8-448 4 48"— 40W 151' 71" m"
Fixture Distribution Coefficient of Utilization
Large Rm. (W = 4H; Med.Rm. (W = 2H) Small Rm. (VV=H)
Series % % Light Med. Dark Light Med. Dakr Light Med. Dark
Up Down Finish
1
Finish Finish
; ,
FRINK LINOLITE SERIES 11 The distinctive side molding and depth of only 3
inches combine to make this fixture an outstanding
example of modern Frink engineered lighting.
Provided with a hinged louver or glass bottom.
The fixture can be readily installed either ceiling
mounted or on hangers, singly or in continuous runs.
Lamps Dimensions
Type
Number XI A Descrip-
"3 tion
"2 a a
©
Pi Q k3
11-248-G
~2 48"— 40W ~3" 491" Gl. bot.
lit"
11-448-G 4 48"— 40W 15|" 3" 491" Gl. bot.
11-248-L 2 48"— 40W lit" 3" 491" "Lou. bot.
11-448-L 4 48"— 40W 3" 491" Lou. bot.
Fixture Distribution 1
Coefficient of Utilization
Large Rm. (W=4 Med.Rm. (W = 2H)
'
s
Small Rm. (W=H)
Series % % '
Type Descrip-
Number X
A A tion
ft
a
M
a
o
m is H A
12-248-G 2 48"—40W lit" 3" 49J" Gl. bot.
12-448-G 4 48"— 40W 154" 3" 491" Gl. bot.
12-248-L 2 48"— 40W llf 3" 491" Lou. bot.
12-448-L 4 48"— 40W 15J" 3" 491" Lou. bot.
M-56
THE FRINK CORPORATION
FRINK SHALLOW TROFFERS
LINOLITE SERIES 10 FOR J. M. CEILING
LINOLITE SERIES 15 FOR PLASTER CEILING
These fixtures are equipped
with either louvers, glass diffu-
ser panels or lenses to "con-
dition" the quality of illumina-
tion to suit the particular
requirements. Fixtures com-
pletely assembled and wired for
easy installation.
Lamps Dimensions
Type Description
Number g A J3
60
K.2 2 a 3
."fa 1
02 Q
10-148L 48"— 40W 12" 71" 48" [Hinged Louver
10-248L
10-348L
48"— 40 W
48"— 40 W
12"
12"
W
7|"
48"
48'
)
I
Hinged Louver
Hinged Louver
10-148G 48"—40W 12" 1\" 48" Laid-in Fluted Glass
I
n\"
48'
48"
Laid-in Holo. Lens 11F12
Hinged Holo. Lens 11F12
I
10-248HOH 48"— 40W 12" n" 48" IHinged Holo. Lens 11F12
10-348HOH 48"—40 W 12' 7g" 48' [Hinged Holo. Lens 11F12
M-57
THE FRINK CORPORATION
ENGINEERING AND SPECIFICATION
DATA
LIGHT DISTRIBUTION. Frink-engi-
neered fixtures are exhaustively
tested for effective light distribution and
high efficiency consistent with good de-
sign.
ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS.
All Frink fixtures are provided with
startersand high power factor ballasts.
Standard fixtures are available for cper-
ating voltages of 110-125, 199-215, 220-
225 volts A. C. 60 cycles. For a slight
additional cost fixtures may
be wired for
50 cycle operating. Instant start bal-
lasts which eliminate the need for
starters, provided at small extra cost.
N0.7718H.L.
Fluorescent Unit
No. 8000* Adda-Strip Series
Designed for four forty-watt fluores- 1 Removable splice boxes and covers for
cent lamps in 49 x 16 x 4 inch frame, with each end. Splice chamber is 1|" long.
light distribution of 22% uplight and 7S%
downlight. Also furnished for ceiling 2. Couplings for connecting strips in con-
mounting. Fixture is designed for con- tinuous runs, extend 2" into each
tinuous runs as well as single unit instal- channel, brings sockets back to back.
lation. 3. Embossed screw holes in end of strip
Application — Commercial lighting.
match similarly embossed holes in
couplings and end boxes. Stripsare
Exterior is of heavy gauge aluminum aligned perfectly straight and rigid.
with natural polished extruded alumi- 4. Metal socket covers prevent end
num trim. Interior and louvers are sockets being bent backwards, allow-
finished in Garlite white enamel, baked
ing lamps to fall. Covers prevent
under 350° temperature and providing sockets from breakage in handling and
high reflectivity in laboratory tests. lamping.
—
Louvers Hinged for ease of installation 5. Rolled edge channels and covers
of lamps and ready access to interior of Covers can be snapped on and off
fixture. without screws.
Wired — Complete with two high power 6. —
Snap Covers Furnished assembled
factor two-lamp ballasts and starters for with ballast and sockets completely
60 cycle, 110-125 volts AC. Total watts wired with extra wire lead at each end.
191.
Designed and constructed for simple in-
Also furnished in combination with Garcy stallation.
Accent (double pivot) lighting, for mount-
ing at end or between fixtures. Write for complete catalog section illus-
trating multiple-lamp Adda-strip, slim-
(Write for literature) line strips etc.
GENERAL $ ELECTRIC
SCHENECTADY, N. Y.
PHOTOMETRIC DEVICES
Projection Light Meter Used mainly for demonstration purposes in projecting scales
of light-responding instruments on screens. The projector can also be used to pro-
ject 2 by 2 in. slides. Same range as DW-40 light meter.
GENERAL f| ELECTRIC
SCHENECTADY, N. Y.
M-61
APPARATUS DEPARTMENT
w s Z
z o <
< y
H K H
*
VERY LIGHT TRAFFIC (UNDER I50VEH PER HR.H LIGHT OR NO PEDESTRIAN )
m °
re ,-. w w o
a j B o
79-VR 200
4000L. Lamp
79-SO 165 0.21
.2 FOOTCANDLES AV'G BETWEEN CURBS
I
2500L. Lamp
i u
.4-6 FOOTCANDLES AV'G BETWEEN CURBS
<r^
— (1200
~rr
a UP VEH PER HR [( MEDIUM PEDESTRIAN )
n Ti
70" fOAQQ LU«£N LAMP i«;., ,.....„„„. tfQ' ~~~ ™ 79-R
(#4110 Refr.)
III 120
ni
15,000
#232Diff using
Globe
79-AD TV 115
16.000L.
-
ft
Merc'y
1.2 FOOTCANDLES
..
(5) Data under heading "Most Effective G-E Equipment" was prepared by G-E engineers, and IES
approval is not implied.
(6) Copies of IES Recommended Practice of Street & Highway Lighting 191,5 can be obtained from the —
Illuminating Engineering Society, 51 Madison Ave., New York City.
M-62
.. .
APPARATUS DEPARTMENT
Mount-
Floodlights Kw Load at
No. ing Application
Sport of Height 10 per Drawing for
Poles (In Num- Type Lamp Rated cent Bulletin
Feet) ber Voltage Over-
voltage
•Badminton .
4 L-49* M-25395-N
•Baseball
Municipal— Semi-pro. 80 120 L-69 1500 209.0 M-25452Q&Q-1
Minimum 60-80 100 L-69 1500 174.0 M-25452E
•Football
Class A . 60-80 128 L-69 1500 215.0
60-80 L-69
Class B..
Class
Six-Man
C 40-60
96
72
36
L-69
L-69
1500
1500
1500
167.0
125.0
62.7
GET-1374
•Golf Driving
One 30 -ft pole for each 50 ft
of tee with the following
per pole: 3 L-69 1500
3 L-31f 10001
M -25395-0
Handball —Playground
1 pole for 2 courts with the
following per pole: 2 L-69 M-25452-U
Tournament Play
1 pole per court with the
following per pole: 2 L-69 1500 M-25452-V
'
Horseshoes
1 to 3 Courts. 2 L-43* 750 1.5
L-43*
M-25415-L
4 to 8 Courts. 4 750 3.0
Shooting —Archery
*30-ft Range 1 L-29f 250J 0.25
*50-ft Range 1 L-30t 500 1 0.50 M-25452-Y
*75-100-ft Range. 1 L-31t 1000 j: 1.00
•Trap 8 L-43* 1000 9.3 M-25368-S
Skeet 10 L-43* 1000 11.6 M-25415-0&P
Shuffleboard
1 to 3 Courts . 2 L-43* 750 1.5
L-43* M-25376-X
4 to 8 Courts . 4 1000 4.0
•Softball
Class A. 40-60 24 L-69 1500 36.0 42.8
Class B 40-60 18 L-69 1500 27.0 31.3 GEA-2918-C
Class C . 40 14 L-69 1500 21.0 24.4
•Swimming Pools
Underwater See text section 12
Overhead 6-8 L-69 1500 GEA-2909-A
•Tennis —Playground
One Court L-69 1000 8.0 9.3
GEA-3310-A
Two Courts L-69 1500 12.0 13.9
•Tennis— Tournament
One Court L-69 1000 12.0 13.9
GEA-3310-A
Two Courts L-69 1500 1S.0 20.9
4
•Volley Ball 20-25 L-49 500 2.0 M-25452-Z
Denotes general-purpose floodlight, t Denotes heavy-duty floodlight. All floodlights otherwise are
*
sports type, t Denotes floodlighting service lamp. All lamps otherwise are general service.
Layout in accordance with NEMA
Recommended Practice.
M-63
CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT
GENERAL ELECTRIC
Pittsfield, Mass.
SALES OFFICES
Illustrated is one type of G-E plastics lighting diffuser in use. For a complete
description of the 11 available types for a wide variety of uses, write for the bulletin,
"G-E Plastics For Light Conditioning".
M-64
—
CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT
GENERAL ELECTRIC
Pittsfield, Mass.
M-65
GENERAL W ELECTRIC
APPLIANCE AND MERCHANDISE DEPARTMENT
Bridgeport, Connecticut
Accessories for Fluorescent Lighting Equipment
GENERAL ©ELECTRIC
LAMP DEPARTMENT-NELA PARK, CLEVELAND 12, OHIO
TECHNICAL DATA on standard lamps, special lamps and
their applications, are as near as your mail or telephone. A
call to any of the Sales District offices below will bring you
up-to-date, ready-to-use facts and information and, per-
. . .
M-67
GENERAL® ELECTRIC
The standard G-E line includes wattages ampcres. Start instantly, without star-
from 6 to 100-watts, in white and colors. ters. G-E CIRCLINE lamps will be
G-E SLIMLINE lamps range from 42 to made in three diameters —8|, 12 and 16
96 inches in length. Designed to operate inches, as soon as conditions permit.
SEALED
REFLECTOR LAMPS
These include a broad group of G-E
Lamps with built-in reflectors —an inte-
gral part of the bulb. Hermetic seal ex-
cludes moisture, air and dirt, Reflector
and Projector Spot and Flood Lamps,
Sealed Beam Headlamps and Infra-Red
Drying Lamps are included in this ver-
satile type.
M-6S
.
GENERAL® ELECTRIC
MERCUKY LAMPS
"High-efficiency" sums up the features
of General Elec trie 's MERCURY Lamps
Widely used for industrial lighting in
high and medium-high bays, these arc-
source lamps are made in 100, 250, 400 and
3,000-watt sizes. Thel,000-watt (water-
cooled) lamp finds many uses in search-
lights, studios, photo-engraving.
MINIATURE LAMPS
General Electric's complete line includes
a wide selection of miniature lamp types.
Shown here are several representative
types, including flashlight, hand lantern
and bicycle lamps; glow lamps, indicator
lamps and miniature automotive lamps.
Other types and sizes available for both
general and specialized uses.
PHOTOGRAPHIC LAMPS
All types and sizes for nearly every kind
of photographic work. G-E Photoflash
Lamps give a split-second, high-intensity
flash. G-E Fhotoflood Lamps provide a
constant light source for portrait and
still-life pictures. G-E Projection Lamps
M-69
GENERAL® ELECTRIC
HEALTH LAMPS
G-E Germicidal Lamps supply short-
wave ultraviolet energy which kills
—
germs. Made in four sizes 4, 8, 15 and
30 watts. Must be used in properly de-
signed and installed fixtures to keep ra-
diation away from eyes and skin.
—
G-E Sunlamps S-4 and RS provide —
ultraviolet energy that produces Vitamin
D and has same tanning effect as mid-
summer sun.
G-E Heat Lamps — supply soothing, pen-
etrating infra-red heat for relief of aches
and pains. Also for wide variety of
drying uses.
STREET,
RAILWAY LAMPS
Full range of lamps for street and railway
lighting. For street lighting, lamps are
available for both series and multiple
service. For railway service, G-E Head-
lamps operate in series with four lamps
of corresponding wattage and voltage.
Lamps for street car lighting operate
similarly, five-in-series.
SPECIAL
PURPOSE LAMPS
Over 9,000 different G-E Lamps are made
to every type of specialized applica-
fit
tion. Available are G-E Lamps for sign
lighting, spot lighting and flood lighting;
showcases, railroad, aircraft, and air
ports; vibration and rough service. Ful 1
data upon request.
M-70
GENERAL |f| ELECTRIC
SUPPLY CORPORATION
General Offices, Bridgeport, Connecticut
Gesco, through its nation-wide group of offices and warehouses provides a quick,
dependable source for the products of America's leading Electrical Manufacturers
. plus an advisory service to Contractors, Engineers, and Architects through its
. .
staff of Specialists, trained in the most modern and efficient application of lighting,
power apparatus and other electrical materials. Call the Gesco house most conven-
ient to vou.
Cold Cathode, lamps and fixtures for commercial and industrial installations.
COLOVOLT cold cathode fluorescent lamps, designed to operate on standard
120 m. a. 750 volt ballasts, are 93" long and 25 MM. in diameter. These lamps are
manufactured in four standard colors: 3500° White; Soft White; Daylight and 4500°
White. Table one (1) furnishes engineering data for operation of two COLOVOLT
lamps on a two-tube brick type, cold cathode ballast. The resultant light from a
system of two or more lamps operating on duo-ballasts is essentially free of strobo-
scope effect. Standard COLOVOLT ballasts are designed to operate from a 118 volt
line but COLOVOLT lamps will operate from a 230 or 440 volt line when properly
designed ballasts, which can be made available for that purpose, are used. Though
designed for average secondary voltage operation of 420 volts, COLOVOLT lamps
will operate effectively in high voltage series circuits. Secondary voltages up to
15,000 volts may be used if the proper number of lamps is placed in the series circuit.
In a standard installation, primary voltage variations from 105 to 125 volts will not
cause any lamp failure or nicker. However, the light output will be affected and in
occasional cases there may be a difference in brightness between the capacitive and
the inductive lamp when the primary voltage falls below 108 volts.
COLOVOLT lamps are highly practical for continuous line lighting because they
are long light sources (standard length 93" plus or minus \") and because the number
of sockets and connections needed are substantially reduced.
Every COLOVOLT lamp is guaranteed for one year except for failure due to
breakage.
Table two (2) gives a curve of light output during lamp life.
Data given in the following tables has been compiled in the laboratories of Gen
eral Luminescent Corporation at Chicago, Illinois.
ENGINEERING DATA
TWO COLOVOLT 3500° K.
DETAILS W HITE LAMPS ON ONE COLD CATHODE
BALLAST (93 INCH. 25-MM. LAMPS)
TABLE 1
M-72
GILL GLASS AND FIXTURE CO.
Philadelphia 34, Pa.
Glass-Metal Reflector
Combinations
for
"Certified" Lamps
M-73
GLEASON-TIEBOUT GLASS COMPANY
Main Office and Plant New York Office and Showroom
59-50 54th Street, Maspeth, N. Y. Avenue, New York 10,
200 Fifth N, Y.
Mailing Address: Sales Offices: Los Angeles,San Francisco, Seattle,
P. O. Box 132— Station "G" Denver, Chicago, Detroit, Richmond, Va., Greens-
Brooklyn 22, N. Y. boro, N. C.
12359
11290
12176
Recommended for hospitals, schools and wherever eye comfort is of prime consideration.
12176 globe made 20", 18", 16", 14", 12", 9".
L. S. B. glass Mfr. licensed under U. S. Pat. 1778305.
M-74
GLOBE LIGHTING PRODUCTS COMPANY
East Coast Plant—7th Avenue and 12th Street, Brooklyn, N. Y.
West Coast Plant—21st and Main Street, Los Angeles
New York Showrooms— 16 East 40th Street
Insert indicates
hinge bottom may
be swung open to
permit easy clean-
ing and tube re-
placement.
ILLUMINATION CHART
rT CAUOLtS lOUARt FtST PER. FIXTURE INSTRUCTIONS
FIXTURE Obtain from the table the square feet per fixture
NltlAL MAIMT
for the given room size, finish and desired level
KGI288-40 10 7 540 450 400 460 390 330 350 280 240
of illumination. To determine the number of
<$T> 20 14 270 225 200 230 195 1 65 175 140 120 fixtures required, divide the square feet per
fixture (obtained from the table) into the floor
30 21 180 150 135 155 130 1 10 120 95 80
area.
50 35 1 10 90 80 90 80 65 70 55 50 EXAMPLE: Find the number of fixtures re-
70 49 77 64 57 66 55 47 50 39 34 quired to obtain 50 foot candles initially in a
large sized room (50' x 100') with a light finish,
100 70 54 45 40 46 39 33 35 28 24 mounting height 12'. From the table the re-
s
COEF. OF U ILIXA 59
B
.49
B
43
E.
50 .42
t E J
36 L .36 .30 .26
J quired sq. ft. per fixture is 110. The total num-
ber of fixtures required is 50 x 100/110 = 45.
KG1286-40
KG1288-40
KG1286-40
4
4
40
40
15"
15"
w 49"
49"
Flush cont.
Flush
50 lbs.
50 lbs.
M-75
GOODRICH ELECTRIC COMPANY
4600 Belle Plaine Avenue
Chicago 41, Illinois
THE STOCKLITE
Finished in vitreous fired porcelain enamel.
The Goodrich Stocklite is designed for The Goodrich Separable hood permits
illuminating shelves and bins in nar- instant removal for easy cleaning.
row stockroom aisles. The Stocklite is available with pen-
Mounted even with the top of shelves dant, right-angle, or feed-thru hood,
or bins, this reflector directs maxi- tapped for £-inch conduit; or with
mum light to the shelves to provide hood that fits 4-inch standard outlet-
uniform illumination from top to box. Width 8§ inches; length, 12£
bottom row. Curved V-shaped inches; height varies from 8| inches
flanges cut off aisle glare, directing to llj inches to accommodate lamp
still more light to build up intensities sizes from 60 to 200 watts. Furnished
in bin interiors. with keyless or pull-chain socket.
M-76
GRAYBAR ELECTRIC COMPANY
Executive offices: Graybar Building, New York 17, N. Y.
The MAZELITE
Direct type Industrial
Luminaire. Bump-
proof ends, side-of-
channel starters,
grooved for sliding
hangers, heavy
gauge steel-construc-
tion. Exterior finished
Industrial Gray; Reflector, 300° White
Enamel. K.O.'s in ends for wiring and lock-
ing in rows. Lamp shielding 15° from hor-
Guth Mazelite
izontal in 2 and 3-40W, and 14% in 2-100W.
M3075 2-40W 484' X 134' X 64 25 lbs.
Efficiencies, 2-40W, 85%; 3-40W, 82%; 2-
M3076 3-40W 484' X 134' X 64' 29 lbs.
M3077 2-100W 604' X 164' X 74' 39 lbs. 100W, 81%. Maintenance Factor .70. :
Light Distribution Curves from test in company laboratories Performance Data from tests by Electrical
Testing Laboratories
M-78
tfJlN
iDWIN F. GVTH GtJMUKNY
Representatives Conveniently Located, Coast to Coast
The ARISTOLITE
Semi-Direct Lumi-
naire. Diffusers are
configurated glass
(86.4% T.F.) attached
with "sliding groove"
and hinge. Reflectors,
panelled die-cut ends
and channels, finished
300° White Enamel. K.O.'s in ends for wir-
ing and locking in continuous rows. Efficien-
Guth Aristolite
cy: 2-40W, 79.5%, (61% down-light, 18.5%
M3030 2-40 VV 4S|» X 121' X 6J* 36 lbs-
up-light); 3-40W, 75.5%, (61.5% down and
M3031 3-40W X 12$" X 61" 39 lbs.
48J»
M3032 4-40W X 17$' X 6$* 50 lbs.
481' 14% up-light) 4-40W, 73%, (54.5% down and
;
Note: For suspending from ceiling, use Guth
M3333 Hanger. 18.5% up-light). Maintenance Factor: .65.
EGGCRATE ARISTOLITE
Companion design of
unit above. Eggcrates
finished 300° White En-
amel and seat in "step-
locks" in ends. Glass
Panels, keyed in sliding
grooves. Efficiency: Light Curve
68%, (48% down and 20% Eggcrate Aristolite
up-light). Maintenance Factor: .65.
Guth Eggcrate Aristolite
M3040 2-40W 481' X 12$' X 7' 46 lbs-
M3041 3-40W 481° X 12$" X 7' 49 lbs.
M3042 4-40W 481" X 17$" X V 60 lbs. The FUTURLITER
Shielded-Direct Lu-
minaire. Eggcrates
scat in "step-locks"
and shield lamps at
normal seeing angles.
Finished in 300°
White. Ends trimmed
with polished alumi-
num flutings which
Light Curve, Futurliter
Guth Futurliter
are removed for con- with Eggcrates
tinuous rows. Knock-Outs under flutings
M2500 2-40W 48§" X 121* X 8|* 39 lbs. for wiringand locking. Efficiency 2-40W, :
M-79
GRUBER BROTHERS INC.
72-78 Spring Street
New York 12, N. Y.
DESIGNERS MANUFACTURERS
Since 1922
Gruber Fresnelites are designed (1) to shield the lamps; (2) to reduce glare;
(3) to provide a wide diffused candle power distribution; (4) completely enclosed for
low maintenance; (5) so that profile of lens helps to spread light across the
ceiling to
HOLDENline CO.
2301 Scranton Road
Cleveland 13, Ohio
M-81
—
OUNIING ANGLE
OSCv' , rr .,
--:\X\
\
^ SN^ \~~\ i
V
.
ro> ~-ra°
//7tT\ xX s
4/yC
/sty
*o° 4C
pfV^
Candlepower distribution (4 t
RECESSING DEPTH-ALL FLUORESCENT UNIT-SECTI0NS-6%"
fluorescent unit-section) 2-40
W. "F" lamps— 4200 lumens. HOW TO SPECIFY RECESSED HOLOFLUX
Units or runs comprise four basic elements: (1) unit-
All Holophane flu- sections; (2) end pieces; (3) cross-framing members; (4)
orescent unit-sections mounting brackets. Where layout calls for individual 4'
are wired. fixtures specify: (1) one unit-section per fixture; (2) two
end pieces per fixture; (3) two cross-framing members per
fixture; (4) two pairs of brackets per fixture.
Where layout calls for runs specify: (1) number of
unit-sections by dividing length of run in feet by four;
Basic unit sections (2) number of end pieces, two to each run; (3) cross-
take a choice of lamp, framing members, two to the first unit-section of any run
ballast, and switching and one to each additional unit-section completing the
accommodations. run; (4) mounting brackets, one pair per cross-framing
member. Note: Special-purpose 2f and 8' unit-
sections available.
All photometric data is secured from the Holophane Photometric Laboratories in Newark, Ohio.
M-82
—— i
HOLOFLUX IN COMBINATION
WITH INCANDESCENT INSERTS
Photograph showing incandescent inserts used with a run of Holoflux Xumber 9100 fluorescent unit- sections.
total output in
upward towards
to 60° zone and 19%
Spacing ratio
ceiling.
to'C /
7
7-400-v
/
— —Y
I
600
\ V
\
\
)<\ /»
o: — f ^\
Lamp holders are wired to the ballast
and length of wire provided to reach Candlepower distribution Number 9111 across axis
from ballast to outlet box. of lamps. S-40 w. F lamps— 6S00 lumens.
M-83
—
t: qU
trolens d Tefl£°^
and
froiel an reflector BASIC OPTICS of the symmetrical intensive
combination Units consist of a square Controlens and a
square reflector. Brightness is distributed
uniformly over the lens surface and glare at
normal viewing angles is reduced to a minimum.
Number 1774 series uses 12" Controlens with
At right Diagram
showing li ght con-
300 w. lamp maximum per lens.
trol action Number 1748 series uses 85" Controlens with
150 w. lamp maximum per lens.
SPECIAL-PURPOSE CONTROLENS
UNITS
.75* 7~"~-75
\
Other control forms, having concen- l-Z5or\
trating and/or asymmetric distributions 60°^
750
vertical surfaces; 3. store display and
counter lighting; 4. special applications
— surgical, artistic, ecclesiastical. /
30 15°
1000
0° 15 30
u
-75
\
£,<K
A
/ // Vy\\ YJ /
'T
60.
5
M —\\A/
^3000-
— fooco-
—^ T'^
r\ /i
30* I5^_
uooo---^3/
o- . .16 ^ ii
Intensive type.
Lobay.
Cranelite.
DISTRICT REPRESENTATIVES
R. H. Witherspoon, Atlanta, Ga. Hawkins Electric Sales Co., St. Louis & Kansas
City, Mo.
D. K. Post & Co., Syracuse, N. Y.
Fred H gimmer Cq _ Dallas Tex
_
Wm. E. Hawley, Pittsburgh, Pa. Fred E Staible & Sons, Denver, Col.
Wagner-Green Co., Cleveland, Ohio O. W. Coombs, Los Angeles & San Francisco, Calif.
ABolite
—
Industrial Lighting Reflectors RLM Standard Dome, Shallow Dome, Deep
Bowl, Symmetrical and Elliptical Angle, in standard sizes GO-1500 watts. Formed
Neck (Socket type), Threaded Neck (R.R. type), Heel Neck (Shade Holder type),
Easy Detachable, Separable Socket and Duo-Move Maintenance System.
Open Type Floodlights, 500-1500 watt, with open and concealed wiring brackets
for cross-arm, pole, pipe, or wall mounting.
Member of:
—
RLM Standards Institute
National Electrical Manufacturers Association.
M-S6
JOSLYN MFG. & SUPPLY CO.
Chicago, 111.
INCANDESCENT RECESSED
With alzak GlasSurfaced aluminum reflectors
RECTANGULAR INCANDESCENT
414 40w-T8 1amp, 141 x deep 3f x 4
508 100 8| x deep 5| x 6
Alba-lite glass; finish, satin stainless door, white
ground coat frame.
r N. /'-•'-..
»•> f r
-* *° ^"*"te-——_i_
Typical wide angle curve
A
...'.
J
M-88
THE KIRLIN COMPANY
3435 E. Jefferson Ave., Detroit 7,
RECESSED FLUORESCENT
Mich. K
Designed for wide distribution of light using Alba-
lite glass.
KIRLIN DISC-LOUVER
White baked enamel on steel.
M-89
LEADER ELECTRIC MFG. CORP.
6127 North Broadway, Chicago 40, Illinois
West Coast Factory: 2040 Livingston Street, Oakland 6, California.
45° 31°
CUT-OFF CUT-OFF
DIRECLITE
LS-70
Available for 4 light fixtures. Mount the Leader Adjustable Spotlight over display
merchandise and you get an inconspicuous yet effective lighting source.
Easily installed to any "Officer" unit whether at the end of a single unit or between
units in a continuous run.
VL-440 Installations
Cat. No. LS-70 takes P.A.R. 38 Bulb. Both ends open for VL-440 continuous run.
Cat. No. LS-71 takes P.A.R. 38 Bulb. Open one end for VL-440 single unit.
Dimensions: Length 10|" (side) Width 16^ (end) Height 5§".
Packed in individual cartons. Shipping weight 10 lbs,
M-90
LEADER ELECTRIC MFG. CORP.
6127 North Broadway, Chicago 40, Illinois
West Coast Factory: 2040 Livingston Street, Oakland 6, Caijfornia.
45° 31°
CUT-OFF CUT-OFF
DIRECLITE
LS-60
VL-240 Installations
Cat. No. LS60 takes P.A.R. 38 Bulb. Both ends open for VL-240 continuous run.
Cat. No. LS61 takes P.A.R. 38 Bulb. One end open for VL-240 single unit.
Dimensions: Length 101" (side) Width 10&" (end) Height 6|".
Packed in individual cartons. Shipping weight 9 lbs.
M-91
LEADER ELECTRIC MFG. CORP.
6127 North Broadway, Chicago 40, Illinois
West Coast Factory: 2040 Livingston Street, Oakland 6, California.
GL-440
Specifications
—
Model No. GL-440 Designed for four T-12 40-watt lamps. Tulamp high power
factor ballast and replaceable FS4 starters. Over-all length 48^". Over-all
width 13|". Height 7f". Frame 18 gauge, housing 20 gauge cold rolled prime
quality steel. Finished in satin aluminum, reflector finished in white high gloss,
chip proof baked enamel. Skytex Ribbed Glass Panels are used for low surface
brightness at normal viewing angles. Stem and canopy assembly No. C-450 available
for pendant mounting.
110 volts — 60 cycle, ac operation wired complete, ready to install. Other voltages
on request. Also available for instant start operation. Shipping weight 48 pounds.
M-92
LEADER ELECTRIC MFG. CORP.
6127 North Broadway, Chicago 40, Illinois
West Coast Factory: 2040 Livingston Street, Oakland 6, California.
STRATOLINER SERIES
IUO-240
Open End Reflector (Finished Baked Enamel or Porcelain Enamel).
All-steel heavy duty lighting unit for two, 40-watt, T-12 fluorescent lamps. Encloses
all auxiliary equipment in accessible channel. This unit can be installed individually
or in continuous rows. For direct-to-ceiling or suspension mounting by means of
various accessories. Knock outs in channel are placed at convenient intervals.
Choice of Baked Enamel or Porcelain Enamel Reflectors. All reflectors are equipped
with captive knurled nut for easy servicing. Closed end reflectors available in
porcelain only.
Completely wired and reday to install, including Underwriters' Laboratories and
E.T.L. approved 95% p.f. corrected ballasts, twist lock sockets, and replaceable
starters. Available also for instant start operation. Conventional 110-125 volts,
60 cy., ac. Other voltages and frequencies on request.
Housing and exterior finished gray baked synthetic enamel, highly efficient, white
reflector surface. Auxiliary mounting holes provided for future conversion to 3-lamp
unit. Shipping weight 31 lbs.
Also available for 2-100 watt lamps; both open and closed end reflectors.
Candlepower Distribution Curve
(Electrical Testing Laboratories)
\^i3o-\\\\te
tyy J^r-X—^\
—jjjrrn-— — °"
^kjl \\ \ \/\\v*
—^f^i
'
T
AN£ A A
PLANE BB« •
\ PLANE C-C • .
JO^\j f < \ 30
M-93
PLASKON DIVISION, Libbey-Owens-Ford Glass Company
2125 Sylvan Avenue • Toledo 1, Ohio.
OFFICES:
Chicago, New York, C. D. LaMoree in Los Angeles, San Francisco and Seattle:
Rochester in Canada: Canadian Industries, Ltd., Montreal, P. Q.
Location
Candlepower per sq in.
ABC
0.5 0.5 1.1
Location G H I
Candlepower per sq. in. 1.2 1.1 1.3 0.5 1.3
M-94
LIGHT CONTROL COMPANY
3217 Casitas Avenue
Los Angeles 26, California
COMMERCIAL
The LCS Series of three and four lamp
office fixture. This fixture may be used
singly or in continuous runs, surface
mounted or stem hung. Sides and top:
Lucite diffusing medium. Lower hinged
panel: Four prismatic lenses. Length
49", Width 16", Height 7".
COMMERCIAL
The LCW series of two, three and four
light fixtures is effective in single or con-
tinuous rows with or without the Flex-a-
Lite spot feature, and is provided with
all-metal louvre which swings downward
for relamping. Length 49", Width 16",
Height 7".
TROFFER
For incandescent or fluorescent lamps,
troffer lighting methods permits the use
of two, three, four or more lamps, or a
combination of incandescent and fluo-
rescent; provides a flexible lighting sys-
tem of maximum adaptability; custom-
made to specification. Also available in
six standard types.
INDUSTRIAL
Two and three lamp type. This unit has
an construction with white por-
all-steel
celain enamel reflector and grey baked
enamel exterior. Length 48", Width
12|", Height 7". (For single unit instal-
lation or continuous runs.)
The above illustrations are typical examples of a complete Light Control lighting
equipment manufacturing service. At the request of users of the I.E.S. Lighting
Handbook, we will be pleased to supply a 60-page General Catalog, containing essen-
tial data on lighting equipment manufactured by us.
Established 1929
M-95
LINE MATERIAL COMPANY
Executive Office • Milwaukee 1, Wisconsin
Canada— Canadian Line Materials Ltd.— Toronto 13
M-96
© LINE MATERIAL
Airport Lighting Division— East Stroudsburg, Pa.
—
COMPANY
Canada Canadian Line Materials Ltd. Toronto 13
ROTATING BEACON FOR SMALL AIRPORTS
—
Approximate net weight 55 lbs; overall height 15^4"; overall width 18%"
M-97
LIGHTING PRODUCTS, INC.
Highland Park, Illinois
Distributed nationally
through leading electrical wholesalers.
All fixtures are wired completely and include starters (removable without dis-
turbing lamps), butt-on lamp holders, and HPF ballasts for 110 volt, 60 cycle, A. C.
operation. Ballasts and wireway are completely enclosed in the top housing.
Side panels are ceramic ribbed glass with a transmission factor not exceeding
30%. Bottom glass assembly consists of two pieces of bent, clear, ribbed glass
with brightness and transmission factors as specified by the Utilities Research Com-
mission.
On louvered units, the louvers are of egg-crate design finished in "Klasium White."
Louvers are hinged at the ends of the unit and meet at the center where they are held
by a spring clamp. The light cut-off of these louvers meets the specifications of the
Utilities Research Commission.
M-98
LUMINALL PAINT DIVISION
National Chemical & Manufacturing Co.
Chicago-3617 S. May St. BrookIyn-25 Forrest St.
Dealers located in 8,500 leading cities
opened
_
i f , ^
from the floor. r (g) Two double 40 watt
factor ballasts.
high power
Panels hinged in such manner that
panels may be installed and re- (h) Union wired— Underwriters Labora-
moved without use of tools. tory approved.
M-100
LITECONTROL CORPORATION
36 Pleasant St., Watertown, Mass.
CANDLEPOWER
Angles
Plane Plane Plane
A-A B-B C-C
165°
155° 34.5 10.5 22.5
145° 57 10.5 31.5
135° 75 12.5 46.5
125° 115 13 59
115° 348 15.5 95.5
105° 470 16.5 298
95° 456 17.5 292
90° 474 15 292
85° 530 61 327
75° 720 211 490
65° 910 387 615
55° 985 585 865
45° 1230 795 1060
35° 1320 995 1200
25° 1380 1170 1290
15° 1410 1290 1350
5° 1370 1360 1360
0° 1360 1360 1360
M-101
MARKEL ELECTRIC PRODUCTS, INC.
145 Seneca St., Buffalo, N. Y.
Suspension type 15|" dia. Bowl of inch occurs within a radius of 18 inches.
beige glass. Five 40 watt A-19 inside Illumination values obtained in stand-
frosted bulbs. Maximum brightness of
ard test room as specified in I.E.S.
1.2 candles per square inch occurs in the
to 77.5° zone. Maximum ceiling Lighting Performance Recommendations
*
brightness of T -
candles per square for Residential Luminaires.
2l6
a
g12
u
5 8
o
u.
4
2 3 4
FEET FROM LUMINAIRE
a i6
o
V
u
2
S 8
o
4
2 3 4
FEET FROM LUMINAIRE
M-102
MARKEL ELECTRIC PRODUCTS, INC.
145 Seneca St., Buffalo, N. Y.
Incandescent and Fluorescent luminaires for residential and commercial interiors.
ALZAK PROCESSED
ALUMINUM REFLECTORS
the complete manufacture of, and the proper processing of, ALZAK
(Satin) finish.
COAST TO COAST
M-104
JULIAN A. McDERMOTT CORPORATION
40-22 National Street, Corona, L. I., N. Y.
Representatives in Principal Cities
COLD CATHODE LIGHTING. This source offers a full range of colors in-
cluding reds, blues, whites and pastels. Tubing is available from £ inch to 1 inch in
diameter in either straight lengths or curved sections. From 50 to 450 lumens per
foot can be obtained. Operating voltages range from 700 to 15,000 volts depending
upon the number and types of tubes used in the secondary circuits. This form of
lighting used either alone or as a background for incandescent highlighting would
serve for many thousands of hours before replacement would be necessary. With the
Underwriters' Laboratories' approval of our Model P-4 Protector, this becomes one
of the safest forms of illumination. Both fire and personnel protection is obtained
because a ground arc in the high voltage wiring, an open circuit on the secondary, or a
grounded person touching a live high tension contact cuts off the power within 3
Manufacturers of
The *MAGNA-LITE LINE of Slimline and
Fluorescent Fixtures.
SLIMLINE FIXTURES: 1, 2 and 4 lamp channels and Commercial units for the
96T8 lamp are available from stock, wired to provide lamp current of 100 or 200
milliamperes. Ballasts for higher brightnesses will soon be available. Write for
bulletin %SL-100.
M-106
MITCHELL MANUFACTURING COMPANY
2525 North Clybourn Avenue
Chicago 14, Illinois
1200
These Units Represent Only a Part of the Complete Mitchell Commercial Line
M-107
MITCHELL MANUFACTURING COMPANY
COMMERCIAL FLUORESCENT LUMINAIRES
>
i
No. 3004. Shielded Type Unit No. 3007 & 3008. DeLuxe Shielded Unit
180° 175° 165° 155°. 145° 135° 125° 180' 175° 165 155° 145° 135° 125°
//jk
250
500 ® \/^\
s
750
1000
\$\ N.
1250
1500
0° 5° 15° 25°
These Units Represent Only a Part of the Complete Mitchell Commercial Line
M-108
MITCHELL MANUFACTURING COMPANY
INDUSTRIAL FLUORESCENT FIXTURES
These Units Represent Only a Part of the Complete Mitchell Industrial Line
M-109
—
>8SSSss-
MITCHELL MANUFACTURING COMPANY
ACCESSORIES FOR MOUNTING OR HANGING
MITCHELL INDUSTRIAL FIXTURES
The accessory fittings illustrated and described below, are available for every con-
ceivable modern method of mounting or hanging MITCHELL fixtures. Illustra-
tions on next page show the complete versatility of MITCHELL Industrial Fixture
design and methods for employing the wide variety of available mounting and hang-
ing accessories.
£T\
"INSTANT-LATCH"— Mitch-
ell's aircraft engineered "In-
stant-Latch," a strong cam-type
Reflector instantly released by fastener secured on reflector, Reflector fastened back to chas-
quarter turn of "Instant-Latch." speeds cleaning and servicing. sis by quarter turn of "Instant-
Two latches on each reflector Latch "
M-110
MITCHELL MANUFACTURING COMPANY
METHODS FOR MOUNTING OR HANGING INDUSTRIAL UNITS
it-'—' ^
CHAIN SUSPEN- SURFACE ROD SUSPEN- MESSENGER
SION (WitA Cord MOUNTING SION CABLE
and Plug) Bolt through small Rod (f diam.) is For messenger cable
—
All units open end knockouts at end of held securely to suspension, use
or closed end may — channel. For con- Slide Hanger Clamp Messenger Cable
be hung with tinuous rows, use
by threaded nut, Hanger No. 314.
chains. "S" hooks top and bottom.
fit securely into pipe separators 1" Knockouts pro- Mount directly to
holes of flange on long over mounting vided for wiring to channel or to Slide
end piece. bolts. outlet. Hanger Clamp.
MODERN -LITE
INDUSTRIAL FLUORESCENT UNIT
SPECIFICATIONS
FIXTURE Ballast
No. of
Lamp Size
Approx. Line
Lamps Ship. Wt. Voltage
Factor
Long Wide High
>»" **•
INSPECTED
ELECTRIC FIXTURE
ISSUE 53,837
DIFFUSE-O-LITE
COMMERCIAL FLUORESCENT UNIT
S^JT Box type metal louver bottom diffusion panel and
translucent ribbed glass side panels.
Two or four lamp arrangement with large reflector
4-LAMP ARRANGEMENT
area. Reflector and the bottom diffusion panel fin-
ished in white Porcelite Baked Enamel.
Bottom louver and side diffusion panels removable
i
fn f i
All fabricating, assembling, wir- for surface, stem or continuous row mounting.
ing, spraying and packing of Hand hole and heavy iron strap are provided for
Modern-Lite Fluorescent Fix-
tures is done by members of The surface mounting; also knockouts for stem mounting
International Brotherhood of with threaded stem support flanges inside the
Electrical Workers, A. F. of L.
housing.
SPECIFICATIONS
FIXTURE Approx.
Model No. No. of
Lamp Approx Line
Mounting Size
Lamps Ship. Wt Voltage
Fctr.
Long Wide High
ML-440 |
Stem 4 48"— 40W 48" 16" 6i" 62 Lbs. 110-125 1 95-100%
ML-241 1 Surface 2 48"— 40W 48" 16" 6J" 46 Lbs. 110-125 95-100%
ML-240 Stem 2 48"— 40W 48" 16" 6*" 51 Lbs. 110-125 95-100%
© 9
Applicable with ceiling surfaces of plaster, unit panels, or acoustical tiles, the use
of Miller Troffers gives complete freedom in the selection of ceiling material best
suited for individual requirements.
M-114
OVERBAGH & AYRES MFG. CO.
411 So. Clinton Street
Chicago 7, Illinois
llliflf
l[ [MFO
REFLECTORS
urn
OAMCO fluorescent fixtures for recessed mounting are available in the open type or
with diffusing glass or an egg crate louver. The open type fixture is furnished with
or without a center baffle: the baffle is 2\" high running the entire length of the
fixture to provide a 45 degree concealment normal to the lamp. The glass bottom
fixture can be furnished with ribbed or fluted panels or with Flur-O-Guide lens. The
egg crate louver fixture provides a 45 degree normal and 30 degree parallel conceal-
ment to the lamp: louver is attached to the fixture by means of hooks.
Fixtures are made of steel, finished grey outside, white plastic enamel inside. The
inner or reflecting surface has a mean reflection factor of not less than 82%. The
design of the fixture is such that the mean light output of the complete unit is 76%
or more of the combined lamp outputs.
Fixtures are made for continuous rows or individual mounting and are furnished wired
including lampholders, starters and high power factor ballasts.
>
\
M-116
THE PHOENIX GLASS CO.
Monaca, Pa.
New York - Chicago Los Angeles - Atlanta - Dallas - Winnipeg
"Phoenix - Quality"
PHOENIX 6653
FOR CORRECT SEMI-INDIRECT LIGHTING
PHOENIX-6653 typifies the finest in semi-indirect lighting equipment. The conical
bowl has beauty and modern simplicity. Dense white Sterling glass provides a flood
of uniform subdued light, free from objectionable glare, at high foot candle
level.
Semi-indirect lighting combines the best characteristics of direct and indirect il-
lumination. This type of lighting provides uniformly distributed illumination which
assists in maintaining the low brightness conducive to seeing comfort and visual
efficiency.
PHOTOMETRIC DATA
The photometric test made by
The Electrical Testing Laborato-
ries shows a total light output of
86%. Of this amount 90% is di-
rected upward to the ceiling and
only 10% filters through No. 6653.
The ceiling becomes a secondary
light source to provide a flood of
shadowless and glareless lighting.
0-60° 5.5
0-90° 8.0
(Downward)
86%
90-180° 78.0
(Upward)
0-180° 86
WE RECOMMEND
Ceiling finish Mat White. Wall
Finish light Tan or Green.
Sizes Available
14" 150 Watts
16" 200 Watts
18" 300-500 Watts
22" 750-1000 Watts
M-117
—
branch offices
Chicago 3, III. Seattle 1, Wash. New York 19, New York
R. O. Williams, Mgr. Lyman D. Morgan Pittsburgh Reflector Co.
37 S. Wabash Ave. 1012 Securities Bldg. 1775 Broadway
factory representatives
Atlanta 3, Ga. Cleveland 14, Ohio Kansas City 6, Mo. New York 17, N. Y.
M. L. Whitman Handel- Davies Co. H. M. Curfman Brannin & Kelly
Bona Allen Bldg. 686 Union Commerce 946 New York Life 551 Fifth Ave.
Bldg. Bldg.
Baltimore 17, Md. Philadelphia 6, Pa.
Los Angeles 21, Calif. Hopkin Bros.
W. B. Masland Co. Dallas, Texas F. E. Hastings
625 W. North Ave. Frank Peabody 120 N. 7th St.
2045 E. 7th Street
Birmingham 3, Ala. Santa Fe Bldg. Unit 2 Mexico City, Mexico Salt Lake City 1 Utah ,
Fluorescent Units are furnished complete with FS-4 Starters for 110-125 volt, 60 cycle
current or 220-250 volt, 60 cycle current. No lamps provided. Units are available
for 50 cycle current at additional cost; No-Blink Starters at additional cost.
M-118
PITTSBURGH REFLECTOR COMPANY
Home office — Oliver Building, Pittsburgh 22, Pa.
PERMAFLECTOR LUMINAIRE NO. N-592-C
This luminaire predominately indirect, but a portion
is
of its light is directed downward through the louvered
bottom. This louver-type unit is used in installation
requiring secondary direct illumination. It is spun of
heavy-gauge, first quality sheet aluminum. An efficient
Permaflector controls the light distribution. Bowl 21" —
diameter. This indirect unit, with direct component,
is one of a series available in 300-500-watt and 750-1000-
watt mogul-base lamp sizes. Other units are available
in 750 and 1000-watt medium bi-post lamp sizes.
Cat. No.
Lens Beam Permaflector
Wattage Base
Diameter Spread Number
M-119
RAILLEY CORPORATION
2910 Taft Avenue, Cleveland 8, Ohio
61 W. 55th St. 12-113 Merchandise Mart
New York 19, N. Y. Chicago, Illinois
Other offices in Detroit, Denver, San Francisco and other principal cities
M-120
REVERE ELECTRIC MANUFACTURING CO.
6009-17 Broadway, Chicago, 40, 111.
Manufacturers of
SERVICE STATION • SPORTS • AIRPORT • INDUSTRIAL
AND MARINE LIGHTING EQUIPMENT
Convertible
Area Flood,
in all alumi- No. 3650-S, in all aluminum or
num or any porcelain enamel colored porcelain enamel. Does
color. Weather-proof accommo- a fine area lighting job plus spot-
dates one, two or three top floods. lighting.
M-121
RAMBUSCH
40 West 13th Street, New York 11, N. Y.
DOWNLITES
Rambusch Downlite
Reg. U. S. Patent Office
Library, College of the City of New York. Downlighting from Approved by Underwriters up to 1000-Watt for
16 1000-Watt Rambusch Downlites. fireproof, 750-Watt for on-fireproof construction.
,.
RAMBUSCH DOWNLITES are suitable for use in lofty interiors, producing efficient
illumination on the horizontal plane — in an inconspicuous manner.
PRINCIPAL FEATURES OF RAMBUSCH DOWNLITES:
1. The small ceiling aperture is inconspicuous, and emits no light beyond 45°.
All spill light is trapped in annular baffles above aperture.
DIMENSIONS
Gold recommended where decorative quality is important. Efficiency reduced about 20%.
reflectors are
Special mounting arrangements for slanting ceilings, rosettes, etc., manufactured to fit requirements.
M-122
:
KAMBUSCH
DOWNLITES
According to the nature of the seeing tasks, down-
lighting should be furnished for single, double, or
triple beam coverage of the area to be lighted.
Single coverage is recommended only where strict
economy necessary and critical seeing is not
is
essential. Double coverage is recommended for
Churches, Auditoriums, Public Buildings and
triple coverage or better for all installations in-
volving critical seeing, such as Banks, Libraries
and Offices. Often the number of Downlites to be
used is indicated or even dictated by architectural
considerations, such as architectural bays, ro-
settes and coffers.
The approximate number and wattage of Ram-
busch Downlites required for a given application
may be determined through the following
formulas
Approximate number of Downlites required, n,
For single beam coverage n = 1.25 (^ a)
te)
Where a =
area to be downlighted, h 2 = square
of the distance from working plane to Downlite.
Double, triple, or quadruple coverages are de-
termined by multiplying by 2, 3, or 4. Spacing of
Downlites should be as uniform as the building
construction will permit.
Having determined the number, n, the wattage
of each individual Downlite may now be estab-
lished through the following formula:
/ Ixa
Wattage per Downlite, Wdl = (0.182) (2)
j Vertical Candlepower Distribution VmxN,
Right— 200-Watt Rambusch Shovel Where I = Desired footcandles on working plane
Downlite. 42% light output. in service,
Left— 200-Watt Rambusch Downlite. a= Total area to be downlighted.
31% light output. m = Maintenance factor. Normally .75.
Electrical Testing Laboratories Report Wdl = should be reconciled to nearest available
No. 148667. standard lamp. (Formulas are based on the
average lumen output of 300 to 1000-Watt
standard inside-frosted General Service
lamps).
For pleasing effect we recommend supple-
menting the downlighting installation with
a small amount of general or indirect light.
Our Engineering Department will gladly
look over your proposed layout and give you
the benefit of its experience in the planning
of Downlite installations.
Where, in addition to Downlighting it is
desired to illuminate an adjacent wall, this
can be accomplished by mounting an auxil-
iary "shovel" reflector inside the Downlite.
See distribution curve above.
—
At left Unretouched photograph shouting light from
Downlites falling on chairs and lower walls, and light
from "shovel" reflectors falling on mural painting. Note
that the light pattern reaches to within an inch or so of the
ceiling in spite of aperture being flush with ceiling.
M-123
—
RAMBUSCH
ANNULITES
v
"-.
._ ^r- '
~ _^'" .
Polar distribu-
tion from 150-
W'att Annulite.
Light output 54%
of silver bowl
lamp. From
Electrical Test-
ing Lab. Report
No. 150,580.
, .... a
For Simplified Method of specifying number and wattage of ANNULITES, see pre-
ceding page, formulas (1) and (2). In place of multiplying factor of 0.182 (formula 2),
use 0.111. For uniform lighting, spacing should not exceed .75h (h = distance from
working plane to unit).
Like RAMBUSCH DOWNLTTES (see preceding page), are all-metal, ANNULITES
precision-built, especially suitable for locations where soft downlighting is desired
and where space for recessing is limited. The main features are:
1. The unusual annular (ring-shaped) aperture permits complete concealment of
lamp and reflector brightness beyond the 45° sightline.
2. The vertical inside walls may be colored to customer's specification.
3. Utilize standard silver bowl lamps.
4. Easy installation and maintenance from below or above.
5. All parts are metal.
6. Fixed focus, precision reflectors, predictable performance.
7. Beam efficiency over 50% (ETL Test Report #150,5S0).
8. Reflectors are Alzak Aluminum for white light. Gold reflectors for soft,
warm light.
DIMENSIONS
Wattage Catalog No. Diameter of Body Height Overall Diameter of Flange
60
100
AL-47
AL-48
w
or
7"
sr
11!"
111*
150 AL-49 111* 9f* 13**
200 AL-50 13 J" 101* 16"
300 AL-52 16' lit' 18*'
ANNULITE specifications should include desired color of inner vertical walls as well as reflector color
white or golden. The ANNULITE
principle is not limited to the recessed fixture form, but is adaptable to
cases where partially recessed, surface mounted, or suspended fixtures are desirable. In such instances, the
ANNULITE body is incorporated in a housing designed to harmonize with the general decorative motif.
M-124
.
RAMBUSCH
CHURCH LIGHTING
NAVE LANTERN
No. R-43
Overall Height 31". Overall Width
Diameter of Glass 10".
OUTSIDE
LANTERN
No. O-110
Overall Height 31".
Maximum Projection 11"
Diameter of Glass 6".
CEILING FIXTURE
No. C-62
Overall Height 6%".
Extreme Diameter 13".
Diameter of Glass 12".
Alzak* Processed
APPLICATIONS
Recreational Industrial Commercial
Residential Construction Emergency
Advertising Protection Portable
Outdoor Sales Black Light Storage
Photography Mercury Vapor Animal Husbandry
TYPES
Weatherproof Semi -weatherproof Open
Portable Or Stationary
GENERAL SPECIFICATIONS
(Depending upon type and capacity)
/75-2000 Watt PS
Capacities
\250-1500 Watt G
Efficiency 34% to 78%
Beam C. P. 6000 to 600,000
Beam 10 degrees to 120 degrees
Diameter 1\" to 20" symmetrical reflectors
Reflectors Matte or Specular finish
Mounting — —
Cross Arm Pipe Clamp Pipe Slip Fitter
Adjustment Universal
Plain or spread type glass, heat resisting or heat and shock
Lenses J
\resisting
Parts Rust resistant
Illumination Data from tests by Electrical Testing Laboratories and by F. W. Maxstadt, California Institute
of Technology
.-
M-126
S&M Lamp Co.
119 W. 36th Place Los Angeles 54, Calif.
Alzak* Processed
Reflectors of wide, medium or narrow beam spread, are interchangeable for any one
series group of Flood-Lites.
All Flood-Lites are suitable for suspension mounting by using "Thompson" hanger
and requisite accessories.
All open and semi -weatherproof types of 500 watt and larger capacity, as well as
all weatherproof types of Flood-Lites, have angular adjustment quadrants and
stops.
Used
No. 2020-ST for No. 1801-ST
38% Efficiency Industrial 78% Efficiency
750-1500 Watts Liteing 500-1000 Watts
Manufacturing Facilities,
5. Ease of cleaning
—Excellent
10. Odor —None
Greatly increased aesthetic design
6.
possibilities.
11. Color — Unlimited
12, Finish
7. Increased over-all lighting efficiency. -High Gloss if Desired
M-129
SEGIL CO.
L. J.
2500 W. NORTH AVE., CHICAGO 47
Manufacturers of
FLUOR DE LE FLUORESCENT LIGHTING
THE LIGHT
DIRECTOR A good popular combination of
FULS side diffusing glass and efficient bot-
tom louver.This affords adequate
illumination with minimum glare and
light loss. Glass panels and louver
easily removed for cleaning. Body
and ends finished with baked Duro-
white enamel. Equipped with pol-
ished chrome stems.
Length 49" Width 17" Height 7"
Same style available with diffusing
glass bottom #FHGS and FUS.
Numerous sizes, wattages and voltages of light sources produced by lamp manu-
facturers carefully engineered and processed by Silvray to provide a variety of light
distributions offer effective, efficient and economic light control for nearly all fields
of lighting application.
Consult your local utility or lamp company lighting engineer or contact Silvray
direct for assistance in your application problems.
APPLICATION IDEAS
WITH INTEGRATED LIGHT CONTROL
M-132
SILVRAY LIGHTING, INC.
NO. 1500
Sturdy steel construc-
tion. Three concentric rings
designed to provide com-
plete shielding of the Sil-
vered Bowl lamp. For
totally indirect illumination.
Vertical plane of rings pre-
vents collection of dirt,
insects, etc. Design mini-
mizes interception of re-
flected light from ceiling.
Lamps may be replaced from floor with lamp changer.
Luminous appearance eliminates objection to con-
ventional opaque indirect fixtures. A solution for
hard-to-light areas, such as natural coffer ceilings,
low-ceiling areas, mezzanines.
For 300 or 500 watt Silver Bowl Lamps
Length 14" Diameter 19"
Light Output * {in terms of unprocessed lamp)
0° 60° 3%
0° 90° 5%
90° 180° 82.5%
Adaptable for the Semi-Silvered Bowl Lamp for high-lighting displays.
Also available in other sizes ranging from 75 watt to 500 watt, with 2-3-4 ring
construction.
NO. 1500-S
This is the standard # 1500 body but furnished with a stem suspension which
permits its use in applications that are not suited to close-to-ceiling fixtures. The
% 1500-S is particularly well adapted for use with the recently announced Semi-
Silvered Bowl lamp. The wide cone of direct downward light from the semi-silvered
bowl lamp is particularly valuable in building up the illumination on merchandise on
store counters, tables and cases, and in adding life and sparkle through reflections of
the bright bowl from some types of merchandise. Because of their brightness, the
Semi-Silvered Bowl lamps, in direct contrast to the Silvered Bowl Lamps, are in no
case recommended for use in school rooms or in offices.
Also available in 4-ring construction for 750 w. and 1000 w. lamps.
NO. 207/PL
SMOOT-HOLMAN
PLASCOLIER
IP|-T
The adaptation of plastics as a dif-
fusing medium results in reduction both ;'-1
of weight and hazards of breakage. The
technique used in the forming of the plas-
"M
tic,together with the method of support-
ing the diffuser, reduces framing to a
>
minimum and eliminates barriers to the
'
W- '" '"
free flow of light.
,s4-^ llllllll
Sfc«iK?3?#<#*2»ai
t*-<i.rvf
r»^- ,
: <i
%i..
FleurPSeR
M-134
SMITHCRAFT LIGHTING DIVISION
Chelsea 50, Mass.
Smithcraft Dawn
Opening permits
softglow to light
frame bar
Ornament and louver
may be removed fingers
for continuous
mounting Pressing against
Scalloped louvers ^this frame bar
give efficient shielding permits louver to
swing down as shown
SPECIFICATIONS
No. of Lamps Dimensions Louver Finish Cat. No.
17J wide x49§ long x3F' Hinged in two sections Supercoat white Bakedi A-4
deep lengthwise and re- Enamel & aluminum!
movable
Smithcraft Vision
^
be quickly and easily mounted flush
LIGHT CURVE
using ceiling plate as shown in diagram
or hung pendant or continuous. Hous-
ing of rigid die-formed steel construction,
contains ballasts, wiring etc., and are
handily accessible for maintenance.
Listed by Underwriters' Laboratories
Supporting straps for
glass are keyed
for positive locking yet Without With
can be easily removed
Reflectors Reflectors
Illuminated ends
T
Diffusing ribbed glass
panels swing down
and hang
permitting
Central baffle prevents eye
easy maintenance
view into unit while still
permitting dust to fall through
E.T.L. data available on request
Celling plate
provides all
essential
knockouts and
Knockout for mounting holes
Sprinq catch outlet stud
and safety accessibl
clip at each t
Holes for surface mounting
J
SPECIFICATIONS
No. of Lamps Dimensions Glass Finish Cat. No.
Smithcraft Skylite
Parabolic
side
|v reflector's
Hinges
/*^2=?
Diffusin g Shallow
/ ^^2
^^^^^^^ ^Th umb
^^^^^^^D.^
screws
release
glass decorative
side louver Easy torelamp louvers
panels 136 openings and clean quickly
SPECIFICATIONS
No. of Lamps Dimensions Louver Finish Cat. No.
4 40-watt 17 ' wide x 49" long x 6£ " Hinged steel \\" deep, Supercoat white Baked YE-4
deep 136 openings Enamel & aluminum
A complete line of commercial and industrial units including troffers.
M-137
SMITHCRAFT LIGHTING DIVISION
Smithcraft Louverlite
LIGHT CURVE
Housing provides
Parabolic side and necessary Housing does Starters
top reflectors mounting holes and not extend accessible
give efficient tapped bushings above unit without
down lighting with for pendant stems letting
small upward vers down
— Slim
3" deep
SPECIFICATIONS
No. of Lamps Dimensions Louver Finish Cat. No*
40-watt 16"wide x 51" long x 2 J* Hinged steel two sec- Supercoat white Baked 00-4
deep (at frame) tions Enamel & aluminum
A complete line of commercial and industrial units including trofir••<?.
M-138
SMITHCRAFT LIGHTING DIVISION
Smithcraft Horizon
Slim Starters
natural wood easily
"""""
frame accessible
accessible llumination
SPECIFICATIONS
No. of Lamps Dimensions Louver or Glass Finish Cat. No.
40-watt 17i" wide x 52J" long x Steel eggcrate or glass Wood natural lac- HG-4
2f ' deep sand blasted glass quered; steel super-
panel coat white Baked HE-4
Enamel (louver)
Smithcraft Dayliter
Polished
aluminum strip
End caps
bolted
for perfect
alignment where
Light spill from mounting continuous
polished aluminum Combination DAYLITER
ornament illuminates end reflector and
cap of fixture Caps are removable E.T.L. data available
wiring channel on request
for continuous wiring
Louver hinges from either side
SPECIFICATIONS
No. of Lamps Dimensions Louver Finish Cat. No.
40-watt 15J" wide x 48" long x Hinged in one section Supercoat white Baked D-2
3f deep lengthwise Enamel & aluminum
A complete line of commercial and industrial units including troffers.
M-140
SOLA ELECTRIC COMPANY
4633 West 16th Street, Chicago 50, Illinois
THINLINE TRANSFORMERS
Single and two lamp transformers designed specifi-
cally for the proper operation of 96T8 long, thin hot
cathode fluorescent lamps. Gives instant starting
and incorporates the SOI A Constant Voltage Prin-
ciple for constant light output. For 29 Watt lamps
(approx. 100 MA), 750 V. Listed by Underwriters'
Laboratories, Inc.
Write for Bulletin 40FL-110
FLUORESCENT BALLASTS
Available for operation of one 40 Watt (T-12), twc
40 Watt (T-12) or two 100 Watt (T-17) fluorescent
lamps. Constructed and designed for high operating
efficiency, long lamp life, and silent operation.
Listed by Underwriters' Laboratories, Inc.
Write for Bulletin 40FL-108
COLD CATHODE
TRANSFORMERS
Designed for operation of 93
inch low pressure cold cath-
ode lamps. Available in
single and two lamp sizet,.
SOLA Constant Voltage
Principle incorporated to
give constant light output
regardless of line voltage
variations. Underwriters'
listed.
M-141
SOLAR LIGHT MANUFACTURING CO.
IJVCfek 1357 S Jefferson Street, Chicago 7, 111.
wws
-
FLUORESCENT
Research Luminaire 5000 Series
Catalog Lamps Length Width Height Weight
Developed from Original U.R.C. design Luminaires of low surface brightness. Side panels are white ce-
ramic ribbed glass, light transmission approximately 30%. Bottom panels are "Skytex" a clear prismatic
ribbed glass of high light transmission, low surface brightness. An efficient reflector, finished in baked white
enamel improves the downlight component and reduces the ceiling brightness above the fixture. Efficiency
of the #5448 is 69%.
M-142
SOLAR LIGHT MANUFACTURING CO.
1357 S. Jefferson Street, Chicago 7, 111.
FLUORESCENT
Recessed Troffer Fixtures
Catalog Lamps Length Width Height Weight
6148 1/40 W 12" 9f" 25 lbs
6248 2/40W 12" 9f" 30 lbs
7248 2/40W 48" 12" 7" 45 lbs
The #6148 and 6248 are deep troffers made of Alzak Alumi-
num. Louvering is of wide egg crate design and material is
steel finished in blue white baked enamel. Shielding is 35°
crosswise and 25° lengthwise. Efficiency of the 6148 is 65%
and for the 6248 is 55.9%.
The #7248 is a shallow troffer made of steel with blue white
baked enamel reflecting surfaces. Bottom panel is of "Alba-
lite" glass, metal edged and piano-hinged to swing down for
relamping.
Mounting straps to fit any type ceiling, finishing end flanges and louvers are to be specified separately.
INCANDESCENT
Gimbal Ring Type Fixtures For 150 Watt Par -38 Bulbs
Diameter Diameter
2915 150/200W 12}" 8" 10§" 5 lbs
2916 300/500W. 14}" 11}" 12}" 8 lbs
Material is aluminum with specular Alzak reflector-
Lens is prismatic Pyrex glass mottled back for diffu-
sion. Hinged lens swings down for relamping.
Use wherever downlight from ceiling is required.
Efficiency of #2915 is 62% and for the #2916 it is
60%.
M-143
Norwood Station, Cincinnati, 12, Ohio.
Sperti, Inc. is a company whose principal product is invisible, weightless and
formless. Its effects are both useful and varied, however, ranging from erythemal
(tanning), bactericidal, anti-rachitic, to color-corrected lighting. The reference is,
of course, to the ultraviolet spectrum and its many functions.
Of principal interest to Illuminating Engineers is the use of the near-ultraviolet
spectrum in combination with the incandescent to obtain high quality, color-
corrected illumination together with the air sterilizing and hygienic properties of
the germicidal ray. This lighting fixture is made in both direct and indirect ceiling-
suspended fixtures, as well as an indirect type Torchere Floor Lamp. A combina-
tion of ultraviolet and fluorescent lighting in a single fixture is also planned.
Other products of the company make use of the tanning and healthful properties
of its various model Sunlamps. Still others are in the germicidal ultraviolet field
including wall mounted sanitizers, seat sterilizers, glass sanitizers, units for meat
cooler boxes, air-duct fixtures, and other special applications. Other divisions of the
company make products not in the lighting field.
COLOR CORRECTED GERMICIDAL LIGHTING
A combination of mercury arc and incandescent lighting in either direct
or indirect fixture, designed for the purpose f obtaining color corrected
lighting as well as simultaneous germicidal action of the associated ultra-
violet lamps. Particularly suitable for schools, hospitals, restaurants,
churches, window displays or where merchandise must be displayed to best
advantage. Minimized stroboscopic effect. High power factor. Thealumi-
num reflector 22 inches in diameter. Standard length is 43 inches. The
two ultra-violet tubes (standard intermediate base) and one incandescent
lamp (mogul base, 110 volt) are wired independently. Either or both
ultraviolet and incandescent may be used. Operation is at 115 volts
AC
and only two wires are used for connection. Approximate weight
5 lbs. Two wattages are available in the incandescent lamp 300 or 500. —
Forty-five watts are expended in each of the ultraviolet lamps. No addi-
tional ballast is required. Installation is usually on 10 foot centers. In
the 300 watt direct fixture, maximum downward illumination is about 520
candlepower at 10 feet; and maximum upward at about 35 degrees from the
vertical is about 690 candlepower at 10 feet. In the 300 watt indirect fixture, there is essentially no direct
illumination downward while the upward maximum is at 45 degrees from the vertical at about 820 candle-
power. Measurements were made by E.T.L.
M-144
—
SPERTI, INC.
Norwood Station, Cincinnati, 12, Ohio
BSj II
\w
f
I
/
*
fill
JH*
\-_i
s ' on °^ others. When no more than
3 lamps are required, the
and the installation is effective up to 100
2605 ballast is used,
square feet, depending upon the degree of bacterial reduction
' required. When 3 to 8 lamps are required, the 2S99 ballast is
used, being effective up to about 300 sq. ft.
The units are tapped for operation at any line voltage from 105
to 130 AC only. Wattage consumed per lamp is about 50. The
2605 ballast unit dimensions are 13J long and 4^" wide and 4|" high. The larger 2899 ballast dimensions
are 14| x 6 x 4J — weight approximately 40 lbs. The lamps require a standard intermediate screw base, and are
about 6" long.
A 15-watt Sperti 53QZ lamp is used, IS" in length, with suitable re-
flectors incorporated into the design of the unit. Operation is at
standard line voltage of 115, at 60 cycles.
M-145
STEBER MANUFACTURING CO.
2700 Roosevelt Road, Broadview (Maywood P.O.), 111.
A complete line of economical lighting units for Display, Flood, Utility, Farm
and Industrial illumination requirements.
Data Sheet Information
The 3600 Series
Large efficientenclosed flood units with low maintenance factor. Available in
Medium, Broad and Narrow beam for Airports, Shipyards, Docks, Outdoor Recrea-
tions, and for all purposes requiring flood illumination.
Economical for type and size.
Listed by the Underwriters' Laboratories, Inc.
The 1600 Series
Medium size efficient enclosed flood units with low maintenance factor, for all
purposes requiring a smaller unit than the 3600 series.
Economical for type and size.
Listed by the Underwriters' Laboratories, Inc.
Catalogs on full line may be had upon request.
The above chart, combined with the typical data sheets of Steber units, will give
the foot candle intensity at various points, at various distances from the center of a
Steber light source for the normal average mounting heights or distances of 10, 20,
30 and 100 feet.
For convenience, the spread points from center are derived from angles inter-
cepting the horizontal plane increasing by 5 degrees up to 45 degrees, and from then
on, in 10 degree progressions.
Illumination data compiled at the Steber laboratory (Broadview, Illinois).
Data Calculated from a Point Source with Photo Cell Perpendicular to Normal.
M-146
8 5
2
4
7 « 3 2
3 12 2
122
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a O^M 4i 41
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3 M rf c3 13 -^
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m ^ 02 fa (. fa 03 fe
No. 3601
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«*hQ
BROAD BEAM
1500 WATT s e
4)
fa£ a as
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n*= 1s*§
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en fa CO fa 03 fa CO
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-3 o Oo T3 Oo "^S Tl o Oo
0) u •- u
NARROW BEAM &•£
fa co
a*-
03
1000 WATT fa
17 '4" — 46 '8"—
351 7'— 16 14 —4 21' -1.7 57 '%"—
40 8 '5"— 16 16 '9" —4 25 '2" —1.7 70'—
45 10'— 12.7 20 — 30' —1.4 84 '2"—
55 14 '3"— 4.6 28 '6" — 1 42 '10" .0 —
M-147
SUNBEAM LIGHTING COMPANY
777 E. 14th Place, Los Angeles 21, Cal.
Designers and M anufacturers of Fluorescent Lighting Fixtures
The Sunbeam Lighting Company manufactures a complete line of glass panel,
strip, window display, industrial, recess, fully enclosed — with curved glass lenses or
hinged louvre bottoms, commercial, showcase and kitchen unit fluorescent fixtures
with incandescent spotlights to match. Also fluorescent bed lamps in various colors
and swivel head desk lamps.
'i
Models L-1502 & L-1504. 2 and 4 lamp 40 watt fully enclosed, hinged louvre bottom and remote starters, with
150 watt spotlights to match. Also furnished for individual mounting— flush or suspended.
Models 4003 and 4004. 3 and 4 lamp 40 watt fully enclosed, with curved Gleason Tiebout or Corning albalite
lenses. Hinged frame and remote starters for easy maintenance. Also furnished for individual mounting—
flush or suspended.
M-148
SYLVANIA ELECTRIC PRODUCTS, INC.
w
500 Fifth Avenue, New York 18, N. Y.
Merchandising Headquarters
Lighting Division
'AH Illumination Data, Maintenance Factors, from test by Sylvania Electric Products. Inc. Laboratories.
M-149
SYLVANIA ELECTRIC PRODUCTS, INC.
SYLVANIA ELECTRIC FIXTURES FOR HOMES, STORES,
OFFICES, SCHOOLS, FACTORIES, INSTITUTIONS
Reflectors. 20-gauge steel with baked white enamel Miracoat finish; reflection factor
86%. No
screws to remove when cleaning reflector which is held in alignment by
retaining grooves in top housing.
Lamps. All models employ Sylvania fluorescent lamps.
Starters. All fixtures are supplied with one replaceable Sylvania Starter per lamp.
Starters are located in the top housing of the fixtures for easy access.
High-Power Factor Ballasts. The power factor of all the 40-watt lamp-type ballasts
supplied with these fixtures is not less than 95% in 2-lamp and 90% in 3-lamp fixtures.
Ballasts are enclosed in top housings and operate the lamps out of phase to minimize
stroboscopic effect.
Operating Voltage. Standard models are available for 110-125 v., 60-cycle A.C., or
for 220-250 v., 60-cycle A.C. Other standard voltages and frequencies to order.
Mounting. All commercial and industrial models shown can be mounted singly or
end-to-end in continuous rows. All industrial models can be surface mounted or
pendant suspended. Pendant suspension may be direct, with chain or conduit; or
adjustable with Sylvania Slide Grip Hangers which can be attached at almost any
point along the channeled top housings to overcome ceiling obstructions.
Equipment. All models bear the underwriter's inspection label and come to you
equipped with Sylvania Fluorescent Lamps; Rotary Lock Type Lampholders,
Starters, and Ballasts, completely wired and ready for installation.
* The ratio of distance between units or continuous rows of units to the mounting height of the unit (from
the floor)
—
C-440 same design with four 40-watt lamps. Shipping weight. . .27 lbs.
M-150
— ,
1if^t>
C-240 or C-440 fix-
tures. One 150-watt Par 38 Pyrex incan-
descent spot or floodlight lamp. Overall
length, 14f". Overall width, 10t". Over-
all height Shipping weight, 7 lbs.
7f".
Pendant set available for suspension.
50 lbs.
3 fixture for continuous-row surface
mounting only. Accessories for suspension available.
—
C-100 J same fixture for continuous-row
pendant suspension only. C-113and C-113
J same fixture design for individual or
continuous-row surface mounting only.
M-151
SYLVANIA ELECTRIC PRODUCTS, INC.
FLUORESCENT FIXTURES
HF-100 With
streamlined top
housing, for indi-
vidual and con-
tinuous row sur-
face mounting or
suspension. Two
40-watt Sylvania
fluorescent lamps.
Overall length,
49f. Overall
width, 14%". Overall height, 6x1" Shipping weight, 28 lbs.
• Also available are
units of similar design, HF-150, with three 40-watt lamps, and HF-235, with two 100-
watt lamps.
HFF-308 With
double-length
channel top-
housing and two
slide grip hangers.
Recommended for
continuous-row use. Six 40-watt Sylvania fluores-cent lamps. Overall length,
104f Overall width, 14%". Shipping weight, 80 lbs.
. Total wattage, 300.
HFF-308 J— same unit, for continuous-row use only.
M-152
J
(B)
Lamp (A) Burning Rated
Ordering Approx. Hours Average Approx.
Abbre- Lamp Per Life Initial Starter
viation Watts Bulb Base Start Hours Lumens Required
Cat. No. For Use With Std. Pkg. Cat. No. For Use With Std. Pkg-
COP-20 14, 15 and 20 watt lamps 100 FS-2 14, 15 and 20 watt lamps 100
COP-30 30 watt lamps 100 FS-4 13, 30 and 40 watt lamps 100
COP-40 40 watt lamps 100 FS-5 4, 6 and 8 watt lamps 50
COP-6 100 watt lamps 50
COP-64 100 watt lamps 50
(4-contact type) Cat. No. For Use With Std. Pkg.
M-2 15 and 20 watt lamps 100
M-4 30 and 40 watt lamps
LAMPHOLDERS M-6 100 watt lamps
100
50
M-64 100 watt lamps 50
The new, improved Sylvania Fluores- (4-contact type)
M-7 65 watt lamps 20
cent Lampholders are completely inter-
changeable with other rotary lock-type
holders. There is a type for every size of fluorescent lamp.
S-201 Medium black S-275 Medium black separate S-500 Long-slim —single con-
starter socket with 6" tact spring end
S-202 Medium white combina-
tion with starter socket No. 18 leads S-502 Cold cathode— Single
S-300 Mogul white lamp- contact spring end
S-203 Medium black combina- holder with mounting
tion with starter socket bracket S-510 Long -slim — Double
contact
S-210 Medium channel-white S-302 Mogul white combina-
(for 15 and 30-watts. T-8 tion with starter socket S-512 Cold cathode— Double
only) and mounting bracket contact
SYLVANIA
INCANDESCENT LIGHT BULBS
BULB DESIGNATIONS. Bulb shapes
are indicated by a letter and a number.
The letter shows the shape of the bulb,
while figures show the diameter of the
bulb at its widest part in eighths of an
inch. (G-30, for example, means a
globe-shaped or round bulb 30-eighths of
an inch, or 3f" in diameter.)
40 T- 8 Med. in 24 C
* For mine lighting the 50 watt lamp is supplied 25 T- 6| Inter. 5i 60 C
in 285 volts at a list price of 33 cents. SYLVANIA
BIRDSEYE INFRARED HEAT
115-125 volts
LARGE WATTAGE Standard
115, 120 and 125 volts Watts Bulb Base Package Finish
Overall Standard
Watts Bulb Base Length Package Finish
250 R-40 Med. 12 IF
Designed for intermittent burning in household
150 PS-25 Med. 6H 60 C-WB-IF application. Also complete line of Infrared bulbs
200 PS-30 Med. 8rV 60 C-WB-IF for Industrial use.
300 PS-35 Med. 8i 24 C-IF
300 PS-35 Mo?. 9f 24 C-WB-IF COUNTRY HOME
500 PS-40 Mog. 9f 12 C-WB-IF *30 volts
750 PS-52 Mog. 13 A 6 C-IF Overall Standard
1,000 PS-52 Mog. 13^ 6 C-IF Watts Bulb Base Length Package Finish
1,500 PS-52 Mog. 13rV 6 C
The clear 750, 1,000 and 1,500 watt 115-125 volt
lamps are also suitable for floodlighting service. 15 A-17Med. 31 120
25 A-19Med. 120 IF
50 A-21Med. 4ii 120
3-LIGHT 100 A-23Med. 6A 120
* 34 volt lamps take a list price of 4 cents, addi-
Give three levels of illumination. Requires spe-
cial socket. Particularly built for I.E.S. reading tional.
lamps. Inside frosted. VIBRATION SERVICE
115, 120 and 125 volts For use in industrial service to combat jar or
vibration. Should be used only where standard
Overall Standard Fin-
Watts Bulb Base Length Package lamps fail to stand up.
ish
115, 120 and 125 volts
Overall Standard
50-100- PS-25 3-contact 6fi 60 Watts Bulb Base Length Package Finish
150 Mogul IF
100-200- G-30 3-contact 6i 24
300 Mogul 50 A-19 Med. 3fl 120 IF
100 A-23 Med. 6A 120
M-155
SYLVANIA ELECTRIC PRODUCTS INC.
INCANDESCENT LIGHT SYLVANIA BIRDSEYE
BULBS (cont.) REFLECTOR LAMPS
DAYLIGHT SPOTLIGHT
Give light of a quality which will ordinarily make Standard
colors appear about as in daylight. Especially use- Class Pkg.
ful in show windows, department stores, printing
Bulb & Fil. Life Base Quan.
offices, or wherever colors have to be matched. BR32i C-M 1000 Med. 24
115, 120 and 125 volts
100(1) BR40 C-M Med.
Overall Standard I
Watts Bulb Base Length Package Finish 150(1) BR40 C-M 1000 Med.
ERROR
Catalog 47, Page 8, 2nd Line of Table Column headed "Indoor Models" ModeliNo.|L-341 should be L-321.
Please correct.
M-157
VOIGT COMPANY
1649 North Broad Street, Philadelphia 22, Penna.
VOIGT
COMPANY/
»gHf|.AnripmA.JPgL
Lighting Equipment
Voigt Company offer design and engineering service as well as manufacturing facili-
ties for the production of special Architectural Lighting Equipment for Public
Buildings. Sketches below illustrate typical designs, each using a different light
source. Inquiries Solicited.
—
No. 10185 Semi-Indirect, Cold Cathode, Contin- —
No. 10257 Semi-Indirect, Hot Cathode, Continuous
uous fluorescent ceiling luminaire for 96" lamps; bent fluorescent wall luminaire for 96"T-8 Slimline lamps;
white alabaster glass. bent Corning Alba-Lite glass.
dw&Mdh
—
No. 10143-B Indirect Semi-Indirect, Incandescent —
No. 10242 Indirect Mercury and Incandescent com-
Pendant Luminaire. Ornamental Bronze, Holo- bination luminaire. Spun Aluminum housing; Al-
phane Controlens and flashed opal bent glass. Sec- zak reflectors with dust tight cover glass for 2 A-Hl
tion shows arrangement of PS-30, 200 watt lamps 400 watt mercury lamps and 2 PS-52, 1500 watt in-
with prismatic reflector and Controlens for down- candescent lamps. Mercury transformer housed in
lighting; R-40 Reflector lamps for upward illumina- ceiling canopy of luminaire.
tion.
M-158
VOIGT COMPANY
1649 North Broad Street, Philadelphia 22, Penna.
Designers
Voigt Company offer standard lighting equipment for Churches, Theatres Banks,
Hotels, restaurants, stores, institutional buildings, etc. Sketches below illustrate
typical designs. Standard design data available on request. Specify requirements
No. 122
Modern
Wall Brack-
et for thea-
tres, etc.
Semi-in-
No. 9976-E Gothic Church Lantern. Art direct illum-
glass panels in sides; prismatic glass in bot- ination thru
tom. half cylin-
ders of bent
white ala-
HO
Cross-section view baster glass.
of lighting arrange- Cross-sec-
ment, 2 circuit wir- tion illus-
ing; *1 circuit with trates 2 cir- ltd)
reflector furnishes cuit wiring.
down light; #2 cir- #1 circuit
cuit, soft dim light- provides bright white or toned
ing. Bottom panel amber light for general lighting;
on drop hinge for #2 circuit (alternating lamps)
easy cleaning and soft color lighting during show.
relamping.
M-159
The Union Metal Manufacturing Co.
Canton 5, Ohio
The Star
THE STAR
Desirable illumination for offices, drafting rooms and schools is provided by
indirect illumination wherein the brightness of the reflector is approximately equal
to the brightness of the ceiling. This kind of lighting is provided by the STAR, a
new luminous indirect lighting unit. The STAR makes use of a molded translucent
Plaskon reflector of such density that the lighted luminaire is of almost the same
brightness as the illuminated ceiling. When STAR units are used continuously,
mounted and spaced in accordance with our engineering specifications, an evenly
lighted ceiling is achieved, with no deep shadows or sharp contrasts and without
distracting glare from the light source. This is the new "Over-ALL Lighting" by
Wakefield.
The STAR makes use of two 40-watt fluorescent lamps, which are accessible from
the top of the reflector. The reflectors are held in place by illuminated satin alum-
inum supporting bands.
The molded reflectors and end caps are made from Plaskon. The reflectors are
light in weight, non-electrostatic, non-shatterable, uniform in appearance and will
not support combustion. All visible metal parts are finished in satin aluminum.
Typical Results
Drafting Room: 38' x 28' Reflection! Ceiling 75% Acoustic Tile
Factor /Walls 60% Light Yellow
Lamps: 3500° White
Brightness:
Loading: 4.7 Watts per sq. ft. Luminaire
Reflector 120 foot-lamberts
Spacing 5' on centers Ceiling over
Luminaire 170 foot-lamberts
Average Illumination: Ceiling between
65 fc. I.E.S. Standard Method Luminaire 70 foot-lamberts
Side wall at eye level 40 foot-lamberts
End wall 25 foot-lamberts
THE STAR
Minimum Requirement for Satisfying Lighting Performance.
The STAR is a fine piece of engineered lighting equipment but misapplication will
result in dissatisfaction. Therefore, the same consideration should be given its
installation as when any other important addition or investment is made to the
office, drafting room, or school. The following table sets up the minimum require-
ments for fine lighting results:
If the above conditions are present, the following table may be used in determining footcandle results:
Room
Index A
Large Room
48' x 96'
Room
Index D
M
2
£
^7
m
S
,
Room
Index G
Small
12' x
Room
24'
Spacing No. of Rows Footcandles No. of Rows Footcandles No. of Rows Footcandles
Light distribution
1\%
i
REFLECTOR*-
SUPPORT
CROSS SECTION
MAINTENANCE
All lightingequipment requires regular maintenance for efficient performance.
The STAR should not be installed in any interior unless regular maintenance is avail-
able. Reflector sections may be easily removed from the unit for dusting, at intervals
to be determined by the type of interior in which the equipment is used. The reflec-
tors should be taken down and washed in warm water with mild soap as needed.
Lamps and reflecting surfaces should likewise be kept clean.
M-162
THE F. W. WAKEFIELD BRASS COMPANY
Over -AH Lighting by Wakefield, Vermilion, Ohio
J
J
SPECIFICATIONS
Continuous runs of the STAR may be made from parts consisting of bodies and
reflectors, stems and end caps. When ordering continuous rows for a specific installa-
tion, the number of units in a run should be indicated by a numerical prefix to the
catalog number; for example No. 6ST-248; No. 8ST-24S. Necessary parts will be
supplied to complete such a run from stock by using the following catalog numbers:
No. 12 Double Stem Assembly, No. 14 Single Stem Assembly, No. ST-248-B Body,
No. 15 End Caps, Clamps, Reflector Support and Lampholder, Housing Cap..
Units used singly in corridors or small rooms for matching design installation are
equipped with twin stem suspension.
PHOTOMETRIC CHART
The flux or light of any lighting unit is plotted on a curve as
a result of tests made by Electrical Testing Laboratories.
Shown here is the distribution curve resulting from such a
test of the STAR unit. A careful study of this data will
demonstrate just what may be expected from an installation
of STAR Units.
Standard Weight
Catalog Number Std. Package
Description Quantity
No. of Lamps Susp. Un-
Packed packed
M-163
THE F. W. WAKEFIELD BRASS COMPANY
Over-All Lighting by Wakefield. Vermilion, Ohio
THE GRENADIER II
The Grenadier is a louvered unit with translucent plastic side panels utilizing two
40 W. fluorescent lamps in each 4' section. It is made in three types: Stem (illustrated),
Canopy and On Ceiling. All types interconnect for continuous runs. Louver pro-
vides 35° shielding normal to the lamp and 25° parallel. On the Stem and Canopy
types, distribution of light may be regulated by selection of optional designs of top
plate reflectors.
STEM CONNECTOR
END CAP
M-164
THE F. W. WAKEFIELD BRASS COMPANY
Over -All Lighting by Wakefield, Vermilion, Ohio
(I N H
J1
m
IJI | | 1 1 1 1 1
I
1 1
i
°'1
I
ll
II II
T] No GRl- 248-B (Includes Plastic Side Panels
If J
— , 1 r %) -i i
CAT No 27
CAT. No. 30
GQCCDcXD I
CAT. No. 24
W
CAT. No. 21
•
i i li
CAT. No. 25
CATALOG NUM3ERS
CAT. No. 22
CAT. No. 23
CAT. No. 16
± CdUa~c^i
CATALOG SPECIFICATIONS
Wt. Pkg.
Catalog No. Std.Susp. Description
of Lamps Pkd. Unpkd. Quan.
20
21
W
W On
On
Ceiling Strap Assembly
Ceiling Outlet Box Cover
Assembly
1
1
1
1
*
*
Standard Weight
Catalog No.
Number Overall
Description
Package
of Lamps Susp.
Un-
Quantity
Packed packed
When ordering continuous units for a specific installation, the number of units in a run should be indi-
cated by a numerical prefix to the catalog number, for example, No. 6-B-44S-W, etc. Single stems (Catalog
No. 10) for continuous mounting are available.
LUMINAIRE SQUARE FEET PER LUMINAIRE
Large Room Medium Room Small Room
Width 4 times Width 2 times Width equals
Average height height height
Catalog No. Lamps M.F. Fes. In
Service Me-
Me- Me- Light
Light Light dium
Finish
dium Finish
dium Finish Finish
Finish Finish
I I I
ft
M-166
THE F. W. WAKEFIELD BRASS COMPANY
Over -AH Lighting by Wakefield, Vermilion, Ohio
•JSC
^C
vK.
Le
CROSS SECTION
ic
M-167
THE F. W. WAKEFIELD BRASS COMPANY
Over -All Lighting by Wakefield, Vermilion, Ohio
THE COMMODORE
The full line of COMMODORE
units with Plaskon reflectors embrace wattages from
200 to 1,000. Nos. 265, 369, 763 and 106 are patterned after each other so that an
installation requiring units of various size lamps and reflectors will conform in ap-
pearance. Hangers are made from aluminum with satin finish. Reflectors vary in
diameter from 15" to 26".
WATTAGE, COLOR AND DIMENSION DATA
Standard
Dia.
Package
Length
Cat. Reflec-
No.
Wattage Color
tor,
Socket Overall, 2 •
a
C3
inches a
inches
Of
-
265 200-300 "White 15 Med. 28 24 4
369 300-500 White 19 Mog. 34 8* 1
No. 768-White
No. 3^8
Cream SQUARE FEET PER LUMINAIRE
Large Room Medium Room Small Room
Width 4 times Width 2 times Width equals
Ave. height height height
Catalog Lamp M. F. Fes. In
Number Service Light
Me-
Light
Me-
Light Finish
Finish
dium Finish
dium Me-
Finish
Finish Finish dium
369 500-W .65 20 133 86 99 64 74 46
I.F. 30 97 63 76 46 53 31
40 73 47 57 35 40 23
50 58 38 46 28 32 19
348 500-W .65 20 136 88 101 66 76 48
I.F. 30 100 65 78 48 55 33
40 75 49 59 36 41 24
50 60 39 47 29 33 20
WATTAGE, COLOR AND DIMENSION DATA
Surface Bright-
ness Candle- Distribution of
Catalog Diameter Lamp power per Luminaire Overall '
M-168
Westinghouse Electric Corporation
PLANTS IN 25 CITIES — OFFICES EVERYWHERE
The complete luminaire consists of a sheet steel with ballast, twist-turn type
continuous wireway channel with indi- lamp holders and starter sockets
vidual reflectors for two or three 40-watt mounted as a part of the channel assem-
or two 100-watt fluorescent lamps, and bly. A"V" groove is formed in each
necessary lamp operating auxiliaries. side of the channel to accommodate con-
The heavy duty channel is provided in tinuously adjustable slide hangers for
unit sections of single and double reflec- messenger cable, rods or ceiling brackets.
tor lengths. Where reflectors are not End plates are available to close the ends
required in a continuous strip, double of all complete strips and are provided
sections with single blank channel pro- with a |-inch knockout and switch
vide continuous wireway. knockout. Accessory louvers and cover
Channel assembly is fabricated from doors are available.
(RLM, Open-End, Individually Mounted) watt and FPR-100 with two 100-watt
fluorescent lamps.
Hood is of heavy gauge steel, with
twist-turn type lamp holders and lamp
starters in the hood assembly. Reflector
is of heavy gauge steel porcelain enam-
FPR type open-end luminaires consist eled. Mounting may be rigid conduit,
of a completely wired hood, plus the flexible conduit or chain suspension.
reflector and necessary auxiliary parts. Unit completely wired. Finish of
is
They are designed for general and sup- hood is black baked-on enamel. Two-
plementary lighting in industrial plants. lamp, 40-watt unit (Type FPR-40) is also
FPR-40 is used with two or three 40- available with instant start ballast.
and necessary auxiliary parts. They are Unit is completely wired. Finish of
designed for general and supplementary hood is black baked-on enamel. Acces-
lighting in industrial plants where pre-
sory louver and cover doors are avail-
cision set-up work is performed.
able. Two-lamp, 40-watt unit (FPQ-40)
FP-40 is used with two or three 40-watt
and FP-100 with two 100-watt fluorescent is also available with instant start
amps. ballast.
Millite Luminaires
Enclosed Luminaire, designed for heavy duty service
in high bay areas. Available for use with incandescent
or mercury vapor lamps. Especially adapted to extreme
service conditions such as steel mills, foundries, chemical
plants. Approved as vapor-tight by Underwriters'
Laboratories, Inc. Also weather-proof, can be installed
outdoors.
Concentrators
Designed for lighting horizontal and vertical surfaces
from any angle. Provide supplementary lighting where
high intensities are required over relatively small areas.
Focalaire
Supplementary local lighting reflectors shield light
from worker's eyes and direct maximum intensity on the
critical area. Wide variety of base attachments, exten-
\j|sion arms and reflector heads available.
M-174
Westinghouse industrial lighting
Locklite Reflectors and Hoods
(For 75 to 1500-watt Incandescent Lamps)
LOCKLITE LUMINAIRES are of the two-piece detachable
disconnect type, and are designed to reduce installation and
maintenance expense to a minimum. Reflector, socket and
lamp assembly removable from hood by simple twist-turn
without de-energizing line. Locklite finds ready use in
all types of industrial applications.
THE COMPLETE LUMINAIRE consists of a hood and a
detachable reflector with socket. Hoods are available for
either |-inch or f-inch conduit or for 4-inch outlet box
mounting. Attachment of reflector and hood is accom-
plished by the three lugs on the reflector engaging in the
three slots in the hood. Any reflector fits any hood for
complete interchangeability.
THE HOOD consists of a steel housing enclosing a contact
receptacle. Three slotted grooves in the hood engage the
reflector assembly. A £-inch square head slotted set screw
is provided in the hexagonal cap of the conduit type hood
to lock hood to conduit. The outlet box hood is furnished
with a steel cover for direct attachment to a standard 4-inch
outlet box. The hood is also provided with a water drip-
skirt to make the unit weather-proof. The receptacle is
front connected, provides straight through wireways and
is flexibly mounted on two heavy duty springs assuring
positive electrical contact with reflector socket assembly.
REFLECTORS are of highest grade porcelain-enameled
steel. The socket in the reflector is a standard keyless type
with all metal parts protected. Standard Dome, Deep
Bowl, Symmetrical Angle and Glassteel Luminaires con-
form strictly to the specifications of the RLM
Standards
Institute and are so labeled.
—
FINISH Reflectors are finished with porcelain enamel,
white inside and green outside in accordance with the
requirements of the RLM Institute. The outside coat of
Glassteel Diffuser reflector is white. Locklite hoods are
finished green.
GLASSTEEL DIFFUSER GLOBES are available in opal
or color correction types. The fitter section of the globes
is protected by a suitable metal band.
Symmet- Glassteel
Standard Shallow Concen- Deep rical
Dome Dome tric Bowl
Angle
Diffuser
Locklite x X X X
Bayonet Heel X X X X
Snap-in X X X X
Vapor-Tight X X X X
Dust-Tight X X X X
M-175
Westinghouse flood lighting
INCANDESCENT FLOODLIGHTING
A complete line of ground area, general fusing or spread type lenses; and a full
purpose, heavy duty, and special service assortment of mounting arrangements.
floodlights is available, with wide or nar- Many units in addition to those shown
row beam Alzak aluminum reflectors; here are available. See Catalog 61-030
porcelain enameled reflectors; plain, dif- for complete information.
M-176
Westinghouse street lighting
STREET LIGHTING
first step in a program of good pub-
The lighting engineers will recommend types
licsafety lighting is the preparation of a of luminaires, lamp spacing and
sizes,
sound basic plan which takes into ac- mounting heights best suited to efficient
count all traffic conditions peculiar to
the locality. Based upon facts uncov- —
and economical lighting all tailored to
ered by such a survey, Westinghouse fit any unusual local conditions.
OV-20 Luminaires
The new OV-20 Luminaires mark another ellipsoidalshape reflector contour and a
important contribution by Westinghouse shallow, oval-shaped refractor gives
to better street lighting ... at lower more effective light control than has
costs. been provided with conventional mer-
A new optical system consisting of an cury luminaires.
1.2 Footcandle —
Primary Business Streets - Vehicular Traffic , Heavy - Pedestrian
Traffic, Heavy
1.0 Footcandle —
Secondary Business Streets -Vehicular Traffic, Medium - Pedestrian
Traffic, Heavy
1.0 Footcandle —
Heavy Traffic Streets - Vehicular Traffic, Heavy - Pedestrian
Traffic, Medium
.6 —
Footcandle Light Traffic Thoroughfare - Vehicular Traffic, Medium - Pedestrian
Traffic, Light
50 feet AK-10 Type II 10,000 30 125 staggered
40 feet AK-10 Type II 6,000 25 140 staggered
30 feet AK-10 Type II 6,000 25 100 staggered
M-178
Wfestinghouse
Bloomfield, New Jersey
Jellevtlle, N. J. Trenton, N. J. Fairmont, W. Va.
INCANDESCENT LAMPS
NSIDE FROSTED. These lamps are designed to The bowl area of these lamps is covered with a
aeet the widest variety of requirements for general translucent milk-white coating which shields the
mrpose illumination. Inside frosted finish reduces direct rays of the filament from the eyes. 150, 200,
:Lare, provides a softer, more diffused light and 300 and 500 watt sizes; 115, 120, 125 volts.
listributes it over a wide area. Light output rating
ame as for clear glass. 15 to 1000 watts, 115, 120, SILVERED BOWL. Designed particularly for
25 volts. indirect lighting from specially designed fixtures or
built-in coffers. The coating of mirror silver on the
}LEAR. Sizes from 150 to 1500 watts; 115, 120,
bowl shields the direct rays of the filament and
For use where light must be controlled by
25 volts.
forms a highly efficient reflecting surface. Burn
reflector, as in certain industrial and commercial
base up only. Sizes 60 to 500 watte; 115, 120, 125
i
Vatts 10 10 25 50 50 100
finish White Inside Natural Vibration Rough Service
Color Color Service
NDICATOR. Red, Green VIBRATION. These lamps are ROUGH SERVICE. Built to
,nd Blue lamps, inside colored specially designed and con- withstand the severe jars and
inish and natural colored bulbs. structed to withstand vibration shocks such as found in exten-
such as on high speed ma- sion cord use in garages and
and 25 watts. Other lamps: chinery. They are not suitable other similar applioitions.
i watt clear; 7 J watt white; 7 for use on portable extension Available in 50 and 100 watt
vatt clear or white; 10 watt cords. 50 watts, inside frosted. sizes with inside frosted finish.
lear, (115, 120, 125 volts). 115, 120, 125 volts. 115, 120, 125 volts.
M-179
A^festinghouse
* FLUORESCENT LAMPS
« Continuing development of the fluorescent lamp
has brought marked improvement in the all-around
efficiency of this form of lighting. Its shape plus the
many available sizes lends
itself to modern design and
the provision of even distribution of light. The
efficiency and soft quality of fluorescent lighting
make it desirable for use in factory, home or office.
Westinghouse makes a complete line of
standard fluorescent lamps from six watts
**s^ 9" long to 100 watts 60" long. The sizes
shown in the table below are most widely
used.
SLIMLINE LAMPS
Lamp Rated Initial Lumens
Base
4500 White
Slimline lamps, longer
and more slender than 16W 1 880
standard fluorescent 25W } 42' T-6 Single Pin 1320
lamps, give an almost con- 33W J 1620
CIRCLARC LAMPS
The Circlarc lamp is a curved fluorescent lamp made
in the form It can be
of a half circle 12" in diameter.
used singly or in multiple arrangements to provide a
wide flexibility of application. Two of these lamps can
be combined to form a complete circle where desired.
This 18 watt lamp may be operated directly from
110-125 volt 60 cycle alternating current circuits with
a small low cost choke as a ballast.
M-180
Wfestinghouse
The high output and long life of these lamps recommends their use for
highbay mounting where areas are large and a high degree of color discrimi-
nation is not required.
Westinghouse
INDUSTRIAL INFARED
LAMPS
Speed up many Drying,
Baking and Heating jobs
M-181
—
A^stinghouse
STERILAMPS
for Destroying Harmful Bacteria in the Air
M-182
WHEELER REFLECTOR COMPANY
275 Congress Street, Boston 10, Mass.
New York Office - 120 West 18th Street Representatives in principal citj'e
WILEY SPOTS
Wiley Spots are used to "high-light" Adjustable type (60° on. all directions)
featured articles and to blend incandes- uses G E (Spot or Flood) PAR 38 150-
cent and fluorescent color values. watt or R 40 150 or 300-watt or equiva-
They may be used individually or com- lent. Louver or color screen optional.
bined with Wiley Niagaras, Beams or Fixed Lens Type with Corning Lenslite
Troffers; between units, at ends, corners> No. 545720 wide angle round lens (60°);
crosses or Tee forms, permitting unusual uses G E PS-25 150-watt, PS-30 200-watt
ceiling patterns. or PS-34 300-watt or equivalent.
Construction details, engineering data, candle power distribution, charts and photo-
graphs of installations are available from. District Sales Engineers or Factory.
M-185
WILMOT CASTLE COMPANY
1191 University Ave., Rochester 7, New York
HOSPITAL LIGHTS MEDICAL LIGHTS DENTAL LIGHTS
Castle No. 12 Operating Light for Major
Room
Surgery. Mounted on a
6-foot rotating track,
lamphead can be positioned at any angle at any
point in a 6-foot circle. Depth of focus eliminates
vertical adjustment.
Castle No. 17-0 Twinlile
'for Major Surgery. Two
self-focusing reflectors
provide light at many
angles to penetrate the
deepest incision. Dis-
tance between lamp-
heads causes further
~*~S-
angulation of light rays
for good shadow reduc-
tion.
M-186
Tnb W§ntti§®yi Gmmmmw
Hartford 10, Connecticut
Sales Representatives in
Atlanta, Chicago, Dallas, Detroit, Elmira, N Y.. Los Angeles,
Minneapolis, New York, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, San Francisco, Seattle.
Manufacturers of Surface Metal Raceway Wiring Systems and Fittings; " Plugmold"
Plug-in-anywhere Multi-Outlet Systems; "Pancake" Overfioor Wiring Systems;
Fluorescent Lighting Equipment; "Wireduct" Non-Metallic Flexible Conduit.
#6 #8 #10 #12 #14 #16 #18 #6 #8 #10 #12 #14 #16 #18
200 2 2 4 4 .
2 2 8
500 — — 2 3 4 6 — 2 4
fi
10 10
700 — 2 3 4 5
fi
10 10 — 3 fi
fi
8
fi
8 16 18
1000 4 5 6 10 10 24 24 5 8 8 10 10 40 50
1100
1500 —3 —5 —8 10
4
10
4
24
6
24
8 —6 104 104 10
6
10
8
40
10
50
14
MOO
1900 — — — 2 2 10 10 — — — 2 2 10 10
2100
•2100 —4 —6 —
10 10
6
10
6
24 24
—5 86 108 10
10
10
10
40
— 50
—
2600 Two 26-pair telephone cables I BOO
3000 8 10 10 10 10 ,100 il00 100
•3000 8 10
1
|
10 10 |
II 8
8
|
10
10
|
1
10
10
10
10
10
10 — 100
—
* With receptacles or devices in place.
1900
M-187
,
INDEX
Pages are numbered consecutively within each section. In this index each page number
is preceded by its section number in bold face type.
1-1
1-2 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
headlighting inspection code, 13-10 lighting layout, 12-22; 12-25 lighting design, for alleys, 12-13
interior illumination, 13-1 recommended illumination, 12-5 recommended illumination, 12-5
lamp aim, 13-12 survey procedure for, 5-8 Boxing
power supply, 13-1 viewing distances, 12-2 lighting design, 12-13
reflex devices, 13-29 Bases. 6-19 recommended illumination, 12-5
S. A. E. recommendations, 13-4 to for fluorescent lamps, 6-33 Box Making for candy, 10-123
13-13 for incandescent lamps, 6-19 Brewster's Law, 7-17
sealed-beam specifications, 13-6; for miniature lamps, 15-1 Bridges
13-7 Basketball. 12-2 illumination of, 1342
standardization of, 13-2 characteristics of ball, 12-2 Brightness (See also Average
Auxiliary Equipment recommended illumination, 12-5 Brightness, Background Bright-
for discharge lamps, 6-26 viewing distance, 12-2 ness, Brightness Ratios), 2-11
for fluorescent lamps, 6-46 Bath rooms adaptation levels, maximum com-
Average Maintained Illumina- lighting of, 1043 fortable for, 2-25
tion, 8-1 recommended illumination, 10-34 of advertising signs, 11-2; 11-10;
constants for calculating, in show Batteries. 15-1 11-11
windows, 8-30 discharge curves for, 15-2 attraction, relation to, 10-65
of luminous elements, 8-34 dry cells, standard sizes, 15-3 of background, for maximum
methods of computing, 8-1 to 8-16; for flashlight lamps, 15-1; 15-2 acuitv, 2-8; 2-10; 2-12; 2-28
8-34; 8-38 lamp drain on, 15-9 of blackbody, 1-8
point by point calculation, 8-38 types of, for miniature lamps, calculations, 8-17
table of, for various spacing, main- 15-1; 15-2 comfortable limits of, 2-25; 2-26
tenance and utilization condi- Beam Lumens at comfort-discomfort threshold,
tions, 8-3 computing rating of, 8-26; 8-27 for various luminaires, 2-23
Average Brightness, 8-17 form for calculating, 8-28 contrast, relation to, 2-9; 2-10; 2-12;
brightness ratio tables, 8-18 to Bedrooms 2-28
8-22 lighting of, 1042 contrast sensitivity, relation to,
calculation sheet, 8-17 recommended illumination, 10-34
2-10; 2-12; 2-13; 2-19
of luminous elements, 8-37 B-Hl Mercury Discharge Lamp, control, 9-4; 9-5
method of computing, 8-17 to 8-22; 6-22
defining equations for, 3-5
8-37 auxiliary equipment for, 6-26
rectangular luminous area, characteristics of, 6-23 definition of, 2-11; 2-12; 2-13; 3-6
of
-46 Bicycle Lighting. 15-9 glare, relation to, 2-20
INDEX 1-3
Brightness (cont'd) nomograph, for 98% performance, Capacitance, definition of, 3-11
of glare-source, comfortable, 2-22; 2-14 Capacitors, for discharge lamps,
2-23 recommended illumination levels, 6-21
of high-intensity arcs, 1-16 2-13; 2-14 Carbon, vaporization of, 1-14;
I. E S. recommended, 8-17 British Thermal Units 6-5
I. E.S. Standards, 10-19; 10 51; 10-76 per tons of air-conditioning, 10-28 Carbon Arc, 1-14
illumination, relation to, 2-11; Built-in Luminaires, 10-12 compounds used, for various colors,
2-12;2-13 Bulb Blackening. 6-2 1-15
of international candlepower base-burning position, relation high-intensity, 1-16
standard, 1-8; 3-2 to, 6-12 lamps, 6-20
of light sources, various, A-36 filament evaporation, relation to, low-intensity, 1-14
of luminous signals 2-28 , 6-12 temperature of, 1-14
maximum acuity, relation to, of gas-filled lamps, 6-12 Carbon Arc Lamps, 6-20
2-8; 2-9; 2-10; 2-12 of incandescent lamps, 6-11 characteristics of, 6-20
maximum attainable, 1-12 fight output, relation to, 6-2; color temperatures of, 6-21
measurement of, 5-1; 5-13 6-11 history of, 6-1
meter, 5-13 reduction of, 6-12 photometry of, 5-21
of moonlight, 1-22 of series lamp, 6-12 spectral energy distribution curve
of motion picture screens, 14-24 of vacuum lamps, 6-12 of, 6-20
of nonspecular surface, 2-13 Bulbs. 6-14 Carbon Filament, 1-10
office, levels of, 10-51; 10-52 blackening of, 6-11 emissivity of, 1-10
photochemical theory, relation to, coating, 6-15; 6-16 graybody, 1-10
2-25 colors of, 6-15; 6-16 lamps, candlepower standard,
of platinum, at freezing point, designations of, 6-15 1-8
1-12 diffusion of light, by various Carbon Filament Lamps, candle-
recommended level, 8-17 finishes, 6-15; 6-16 power reference standard, 1-8
reflectance of objects, relation to, finish, 6-15 Carbon Vapor, 1-14
2-13 loss of light, relation to color and electrical conductivity, 1-14
schools, levels of, 10-75; 10-76 finish, 6-15; 6-16 temperature of, 1-14
sky brightness, international shapes, 6-14; 6-15 Cathode-Ray Tube, 1-20
standard of, 9-2 Bunsen Disk screen potential vs. brightness,
speed of vision, relation to, 2-11; description of, 5-23 1-20
2-12; 2-13; 2-28 Buoy Heads zinc sulphide screen light output,
standard units of, 3-5 reflex reflectors for, 13-29 1-20
of sunlight, 1-22 Bus Lighting. 13-14 Cathodolumlnescence, 1-21; 16-8
symbols for units of, 3-5 destination signs, 13-14 Ceiling Projector, for airports,
of test object, for maximum devices required, 13-7; 13-14 13-50; 13-53
acuity, 2-8; 2-11 fare boxes, 13-16 Ceilings. 4-3
visual acuity, relation to, 2-12; fluorescent lamps, in, 13-14 average maintained brightness
2-13 rear signs, 13-15 of, 8-21
of white light source, 1-12; 1-16 recommended illumination, 13-14 color of, for greater illumination,
of windows, control of, 9-4 step lights, 13-16 4-3; 4-4; 4-5
for 95 and 90% of maximum
acuity, stop lights, 13-16 reflectance of, 4-3; 4-4; 4-5
2-8; 2-9; 2-10; 2-12 tail lights, 13-16 Characteristic Curve, 3-8
Brightness Control, 9-4 windshield reflections, 13-14 Chemiluminescence. 1-21; 16-8
methods of, 9-4 Chemical Compounds, 1-14
painting, relation to, 9-4 band spectra of, 1-16
of window light. 9-4; 9-5 Cadmium Borate Phosphor, 1-21 for flame arcs, 1-14
Brightness Levels, 10-19 Cadmium Silicate Phosphor, 1-21 for high-intensity arcs, 1-16
I. E.S. standards, 10-19 Calcium Carbonate, reflectance of, ionization potential of, 1-15; 1-16
in offices, 10-51; 10-52 16-2 for low-intensity arcs, 1-14
Brightness Ratios, 2-25 Calculated Footcandles, meas- for red light, 1-15
color of surfaces, relation to, 4-4 urement basis of, 5-9 for ultraviolet output, 1-15
comfortable limits of, 2-26 Calculations (See Lighting Calcu- for white light, 1-15
of direct lighting installations, lations) for yellow light, 1-15
8-18 to 8-22 Calcium Phosphate Phosphor, Chalkboards, lighting of, 10-75
of general diffuse lighting installa- color characteristics of, 1-21 Child Development, researches in,
tions, 8-18 to 8-22 Calcium Tungstate Phosphor, 2-1
I. E. S. recommendations, 8-17 1-21 Chord of circle, A-44
of indirect lighting installations, Calibration, 5-12 Chromaticity, 3-10
8-18 to 8-22 of photometers, 5-12; 5-16; 5-17 definition of, 3-10
maximum comfortable, for various of standard laboratory lamp, 5-16; diagram, 3-10; 4-12
adaptation levels, 2-25 5-17 method of evaluating color
method of computing, 8-17 Canadian Standards Associa- samples, 4-11; 4-13
photochemical theory, relation to, tion, A-14 Churches, lighting of, 10-88
2-25 Candle (Unit), 3-6; A-35 Ciliary muscles (Eye), 2-17
for schools, 10-75; 10-76 Candle/sq cm, A-35 accomodation, relation to, 2-17
tables of, 8-18 to 8-22 Candlepower, 3-2
age, effect on, 2-17
values of, for best seeing condi- of automobile headlamps, 13-3;
focal distance, relation to, 2-2;
tions, 8-17 13-6
2-17; 2-18
Brightnesses (See Average Bright- defining equation for, 3-5
ness, Brightness, & Brightness definition of, 3-6 Circle, properties of, A-44
Ratios) distribution curves, of asym- Circuits, 6-48
values recommended, for critical metrical luminaires, 8-40 for battery generator systems, 13-
Color Temperature (con't) definition, 2-10; 2-12 clear and cloudy days, number of,
definition, 1-11; 4-13 disability glare, relation to, 2-19; 9-1
diagram for obtaining nearest, 4-13 2-21 2-22
; dirt collection rate of window
filters for altering, 5-21; 5-22 maximum attainable, 2-12 glass, 9-3
ofincandescent lamps, 1-11 minimum perceptible, 2-10; 2-12 duration of sunlight, on architec-
luminescent sources, as specifica- speed of vision, relation to, 2-12; tural surfaces, 9-1
tion for, 1-11; 4-13 2-13 footcandle values, 9-1
measurement of, 5-1 5-22 ; variations in, with changes in sur- height of window, effect on, 9-3;
method of determining, 4-13; 5-1 round factor, 2-22 9-6; 9-7; 9-8; 9-9
mired scale, 5-22 visual acuity, relation to, 2-10; illumination provided by win-
for photography, 14-13 2-12 2-13' 2-19
-
dows, 9-7; 9-8; 9-9; 9-10
selective radiators, 1-11 Cotton'Mill'Lighting, 10-110 lamps, 6-15
standard for measuring, 5-22 Conversion Tables of multistory buildings, 9-6
of sun, 1-22 brightness units, A-35 roof windows for, 9-5
Color Terminology, I. S. C. C— heat, A-37 for schools, 10-75
N. B. S. system of, 3-10; 4-1; 4-6; illumination units, A-35 sill height of windows, relation to,
4-7 power, A-37 9-7; 9-8; 9-9
Commercial Fronts, 11-17 temperature, A-38 sky brightness, international
brightness values, 11-18 units of measure, A-37 standard, 9-2
design, 11-18 weights, A-37 for sports, 12-4
illustrations of, 11-17 work, A-37 window design, 9-1; 9-2
luminous elements for, 11-18 for units of length, 1-3 window glass, 9-3
Common Logarithms, of numbers, Cooper Hewitt, gaseous discharge, Daylight Lamps
A-40 invention, 6-1 Color temperature, 6-15; 6-16
Compensated Wattmeter, 5-27 Copper Wire, characteristics of, light loss in, 6-15
Compensator Lamps, 6-13 A-ll Dehydration, by infrared, 16-28
Complete Radiator, 1-8 Corpuscular Theory (Newton's) Destination Signs, illumination
Compound Reflection, 7-7 concept of Radiant energy, 1-1 of, 13-14
explanation of, 7-7 Cosmic Rays Diazo Printing
reflectors with, 7-7 frequency, 1-2 process data, 14-23
Concentrated Arc Lamps, 6-29 wavelength, 1-2 sensitivity curves for paper, 14-3
Conductors, allowable current ca- Cosines, A-41 Diffuse Reflection, 7-6
pacity, A-16 Cos2, A-40 Diffuse Reflectors, 7-7; 7-14
Conductors, classification and uses Cos8 A-40
, Diffusion, 7-18
of, A-14 Cosine Law, 5-3 Diffraction, 7-18
Conduit Sizes, A-18 definition, 5-3; 8-38 Dining Rooms. 10-39
Cones (eye), 2-3 error in photometry, correction lighting recommendations, 10-39
adaptation, relation to, 2-5 for, 5-12 recommended illumination, 10-34
color discrimination, relation to, error in photometry, relation to, Direct Colorimetry, 4-27
2-5; 2-5 5-11 Direct Lighting, 10-6
critical seeing, relation to, 2-3 2-5 ; equation, 5-3; 8-38 characteristics of, 10-7
day vision, relation to, 2-4; 2-5 point by point calculations, 8-38 in railway cars, 13-18
neurone, function, 2-5 Cost Direct and Reflected Glare. 2-27
photopic vision, relation to, 2-4; lamp life and depreciation, rela- angle of light, relation to, 2-27
2-5 tion to, 6-2 brightness in field of view, relation
Conference Rooms, renewal rate, relation to, 6-3 to, 2-27
fighting for, 10-55 Cotangents, A-41 definition, 2-27
recommended illumination, 10-51 Cove Lighting, 10-12 diffuse surface, relation to, 2-27;
Contact Printing (photographic) Crater Lamps, 6-28; 6-29 2-28
process data on, 14-22 Croquet, recommended illumina- method of determining, 2-27
Constants tion, 12-6 source position, relation to, 2-27
Birge, R. T., 1-8 Curling, recommended illumina- specular surface, relation to, 2-27;
for converting beam candlepower tion, 12-6 2-28
into lumens, A-48 Current (Electric) Direct Current
luminosity coefficients, 3-10 alternating, 3-11 description, 3-11; 5-27
Planck's, 1-1; 1-6; 1-7; 1-8; 1-9; 1-10 direct, 3-11 measurement, 5-27
Stefan-Boltzmann, 1-10 measurement, 5-28 Disability Glare, 2-19
Stiles-Crawford effect, 2-17 Current Practice (See Illumination adaptation level, effect on, 2-19;
Stake's law, 1-20 Levels) 2-20
Wein's, 1-9 Crystalline Lens (Eye), 2-2 conditions causing, 2-20; 2-21
Wensel, H. T., 1-8 accommodation of, 2-17; 2-18 contrast, effect on, 2-19
zonal, A-46 distant vision relation to, 2-2; 2-17
, contrast sensitivity, effect on, 2-19;
Containers (See Box Making) focal length, 2-2; 2-17; 2-18 2-20; 2-21
Contrast (See also Contrast Sensi- near vision, relation to, 2-2; 2-17; Holladay-Stiles formula for, 2-19
tivity, Color Contrast), 2-9 2-18 means of determining presence of,
background brightness, relation Curves, equations of, A-42 2-20; 2-21; 2-24; 2-25; 2-26; 2-27;
to, 2-9; 2-12; 2-13; 2-14; 2-19; 2-20; Curve of Light Distribution, defi- 2-28
2-28 nition, 3-8 non-uniform field, 2-20
color, 2-28 Cutout, socket, A-9 uniform field, 2-20
definition, 2-9 veiling brightness equation, 2-20
equation, 2-9 D Discharge Lamps, 6-20
minimum perceptible, 2-10 for advertising signs, 11-14
observer's position, relation to, Dairies (See Fluid Milk) capacitors, 6-21
2-28 Dark Adaptation, 2-5 characteristics, 6-21
orientation of sources, 2-28 definition, 2-5 concentrated-arc lamps, 6-29
sensitivity, 2-10 maintenance of, 13-24 crater lamps, 6-28; 6-29
speed of vision, relation to, 2-12; time required for, 2-5; 2-6 elements used in, 6-20
2-13; 2-28 Darkroom Lighting, 14-21 flashtubes, flash lamps, 6-30
visual acuity, relation to, 2-9; 2-10; process data, 14-22 fluorescent lamp, 1-17; 1-18; 6-32
2-12; 2-13; 2-14; 2-19; 2-28 recommendations, 14-24 effect of frequency on output of,
Contrast Sensitivity (See also Vis- Davy, electric arc, invention of, 6-1 A-9
ual Acuity), 2-10 Davis, R., filter, for color temper- glow lamps, 6-27
brightness, for 95% and 90% of ature, 5-22 mercury vapor, 6-21
maximum, 2-10; 2-12 Daylighting (See also Natural for photoprocesses, 14-5
brightness, relation to, 2-12; 2-13; Light), 9-1 power factor of, A-9
2-19 brightness control for, 9-4; 9-5 lessoning period for, 5-5
1-6 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
Discharge Lamps (cont'd) Electrical Circuits (Pee Circuits) Ergosterol. absorption of, 16-13
series operation of, A-9 Electrical Distribution Systems, Erythema, production of, 16-13
soilium vapor, 6-26 A-9 Ery themal Exposure, definition of,
warm-up period for, 5-5 building interiors, A-9 3-11
Discomfort Glare. 2-22 early types, A-7 Erythemal Flux, 3-10
brightness of luminaire, relation Electrical Measurements, 5-27 density, unit of (finsen), 3-11
to, 2-23 light source circuits meter connec- unit of, definition, 3-11
definition, 2-22 tions for, 5-29 Erythemal Ultraviolet Radia-
of filament-lamp luminaires. 2-23 precautions renuired, 5-29 tion. 16-13
of uorescent-lamp luminaires,
I Electrical Outlets, for homes, A-19 Excitation Purity, definition, 3-10
2-23 Electrical Symbols, for architec- Exposed Incandescent Lamp
height of luminaire, relation to, tural plans, A-8 Signs, 11 3
2-23 Electrical Terms. 3-11 dimensions of letters, 11-4
illumination level, relation to, 2-23 abbreviations, 3-12 lamp types, 11-6
intolerable, criteria for, 2-23; 2-24; definitions, 3-11 lamp wattage rating, 11-4; 11-5
2 25; 2-26 list of. 3-11; 3-12; 3-13 letter spacing, 11-4; 11-5
maximum brightness of glare- Electrical Units. A -38 reflector signs, 11-6
source, to avoid, 2-22; 2-23; 2-25 Electric Discharge Lamp relative wattage, colored and white
methods of determining presence in advertising signs, 11-14 lamps, 11-6
2-25:2-26
of, definition, 3-9 Exposure Meters (See Photoelectric
ratings for, 2-24; 2-25 Electric Discharge Lamp Signs, Exposure Meters)
size of room, relation to, 2-23 11-14 Exterior Floodlighting, (See
theories, 2-22; 2-23 color of luminous element, 11-14; Floodlighting), 11-18
threshold luminaire brightness for, 11-15 Exterior Lighting. See also Adver-
2-23 construction, 11-14 tising Lighting, 11-1
Dispersion effective range of, 11-14 buildings, flrodlighting. 11-21
of light, 7-10 gases employed, 11-14; 11-15 commercial fronts, 11-17
by prisms, 7-10 legibility, 11-15; 11-16 emergencies, 11-32
of white light into component operating current, 11-14 of farms, 10-46
colors, 7-11 transformers, 11-14; 11-16 floodlighting, 11-18
Doll Houses tubing sizes, 11-14; 11-15 gardens, 11-25
illumination of, 15-9 voltages, 11-14 luminous tubing, 11-16
miniature lamps for, 15-9 winter operation, 11-15 monuments and statues, 11-25
Dominant Wavelength Electric Filament Lamp (See In- pool, fountain and waterfall, 11-27
appearance of color, relation to, candescent Lamp) protective lighting, 11-28
4-12 Electric Signs (See Advertising sign brightness recommended,
definition, 3-10 Lighting) 11-11
Donaldson, Colorimeter, 4-28 Electrode, of fluorescent lamps, 6-32 transportation, 13-1
Down Lighting, 10-12 Electrode Potential Series, 1-5 waterfronts, 11-32
Drafting Rooms. 10-55 Electromagnetic Spectrum, 1-2 Exterior Wiring, A-20
lighting of, 10-55 graphical representation, 1-2 Eye (Human \ 1-4
recommended illumination, 10-51 relationships of various parts, 1-2 adaptation of, 2-2; 2-5; 2-10; 2-17
Drude Equation, for spectral emis- Electromagnetic Theory, concept accommodation of, 2-17
sivity, 1-10 of radiant energy, 1-1 age, effect on, 2-15; 2-17
Dry Cells (See Batteries) Electromotive Force, definition, ciliary muscles, description, 2-2;
Dry Cleaning, lighting for, 10-117; 3-11 2-17
10-118 Electron, 1-6 color discrimination of, 2-4; 2-5-
Drying Lamps, applications, 16-23 atom, 1-13 2-28
Dual Installations, 10-12 cloud, of mercury atom, 1-17 cones, 2-3; 2-4; 2-5
energy of, 1-6 cornea, 2-3
energy levels, 1-14 crystalline lens, 2-2; 2-17
light production, relation to, 1-14; dark adaptation of, 2-5; 2-17
e (2.7182818), A-40 1-16 day vision, 2-4; 2-5; 2-17
Edge Lighting, of clock dials, 15-5 mass of, 1-6 focal length of lens, 2-2; 2-17
Edison, Thomas A., incandescent orbits of, 1-13 focusing mechanism, 2-2; 2-17
lamp of, 6-1 ultraviolet generation, relation to, fovea, 2-3; 2-4
Efficiency, 1-11 1-16; 1-17 function, 2-1; 2-2; 2-5
definition, 1-11; 3-8 velocity of, 1-6 graphical cross-section, 2-3
of flashlight lamps, 15-2 visible radiation, relation to, 1-13; industrial hazards, 2-1
of fluorescent lamps, 6-35; 6-36; 1-16; 1-17; 1-19 iris,description, 2-2
6-37 Elevator Annunciator nerve structure, 2-3
fluorescent us incandescent, 13-17 illumination of, 15-6 night vision, 2-4; 2-5; 2-17
of incandescent lamps, 1-12; 3-8; miniature lamps for, 15-6 pupil, function, 2-2; 2-19
6-5; 6-9 Emergencies, lighting for, 11-32 reception characteristics, 1-4; 2-1;
lamp relation to, 6-8
life, Emissivity 2-2; 2-4; 2-5
of light source, 1-11; 1-12; 3-8; 6-8 spectral, 1-10 rods, 2-3; 2-4; 2-5
of luminaires, 8-4; 8-5; 8-11 total, defining equation, 1-11 resolving power, 2-3
of luminous elements, 8-34; 8-35; Emmetrope, 2-17 response of, to infrared, 1-4
8-36 accomodation curves, of, 2-18 response of, to light, 1-1; 2-1; 2-2;
phosphor impurities, relation to, definition, 2-17 2-4; 2-5; 2-17; 2-28
1-18; 1-19 visual acuity of, 2-18 response of, to ultraviolet, 1-4
of photoflood lamps, 6-8 Empirical Colorimeters. 4-28 retina, description, 2-2
spectral distribution, effect on, Enamel, reflectance of, 16-2 structure of, 2-2; 2-3; 2-4; 2-5; 2-18
1-12 Energy Spectrum Eye Specialist, objectives of, 2-6
temperature, relation to, 1-12; 1-19; graphical representation, 1-2
6-9 relationships of various parts, 1-2
theoretical maximum, 1-12; 3-8 Enclosed Signs, construction of,
visual, 2-19 11-6 Factory (See Industrial Lighting)
voltage, relation to, 6-8 Enlarger Lamps, 14-2 Fading, 16-6
Egg Production Enlarging, process data, 14-22 rate of, under various light
cod liver on, 16-17
oil, effect Entrances (Industrial Plants), sources, 16-7
ultraviolet, effect on, 16-17 lighting of, 11-31 Farm Lighting, 10-46
E-Hl Mercury Discharge Lamp, Entrances, Halls and Closets, farm shops, 10-50
6-24 fighting of in houses, 10-35 silo, 10-50
auxiliary equipment, 6-26 Equations, of common curves, A-42 poultry houses, 10-49
lumen output, 6-24 erg, A-35 barns, 10-47; 10-48
; ; 1
INDEX 1-7
Farm Llght'ng (cont'd) beam lumens rating, method of characteristics of, 1-17; 1-18; 1-19;
milk house, 10-47 computing, 8-26; 8-27; 8-28 6-32; 6-33
exteriors, 10-46 of buildings, 11-21; 11-22 circuits for, 6-44: 6-48; 13-21
Fascia Signs. 11-12 calculations, 8-24; 8-25 cold cathode, 6 36
recommended brightness, 11-13 color in, 11-20 color characteristics, 6-34
Fencing, lighting for, 12-8 column floodlighting, 11-24 crass-section of, 1-17; 6-32
Fermat's Principle, of light refrac- cover glasses, 11-20 current in. 6-38; 6-39
tion, 7-8 design procedure, 11-19 efficiency of, 1-19; 2-23
Field of View, 2-19 dimensions and areas of illumin- electrode, cross section, 6-^2
Figures, areas of, A -43 ated spots, with various types fluorescent process in, 1-18; 6-33
Filaments (Pee also Tungsten Fila- and arrangements of floodlights, history of, 6-1
irentl, 6-5 8-26:8-27 humidity, effect on startine, 6-42
bulb blackening, relation to, 6-11 equipment for, 8-24; 8-25 incandescent lamp, comparison
burning positions for various, 6-5 of fountains, 11-27 with, 13-17
carbon, 6-5 lamp characteristics, 6-18; 11-20 initial light output, 6-34; 6-35; 6-36;
designations, 6-5 methods of, 8-24; 8-25; 11-24; 11-25 6-37; 6-41; 8-4
evaporation, effect on lamp oper- monuments and statues, 11-25 life, 6-34; 6-35; 6-36; 6-42
ation, 1-12; 6-6; 6-11 mounting height of units, 8-24; life, per start, 6-42
u I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
Foundry Lighting, 10-107; 10-108; Glare Source, 2-19 luminaire height, relation to glare,
16-109 index of comfort of, 2-23; 2-26 13-33
Fountains, illumination of, 11-27 glare factor of, formula, 2-24 recommended illumination, 13-34
Fovea (Eye), 2-3 maximum comfortable brightness luminaire placement, 8-48; 13-33;
adaptation of, 2-5; 2-10; 2-20 of, 2-22; 2-25; 2-26 13-36; 13-39; 13-40; 13-41
Frequency, 1-2 methods of determining discom- undivided highways, 13-40
of alternating current, 3-11 A-7 ; fort of, 2-24; 2-25; 2-26; 2-27 utilization curves, 13-37
effect of, on lamp output, A-7 position of, in relation to reflected Highway Lighting, Wiring for.
of various types of energy, 1-2 glare, 2-27 A-22
wavelength, relationship between, shock concept, relation to, 2-22; Hockey Rink, fighting of, 12-20
1-3 2-23 characteristics of puck, 12-2
Fresnel Lenses, 7-10; 7-12 veiling brightness, equation for, recommended illumination, 12-6
Fundamental Electrical Units, 2-20 viewing distances, 12-2
3-11 Glow Lamps, 6-27; 15-1 Holladay-Stiles Formula, dis-
applications of, 15-1; 15-3; 15-4; ability glare, 2-19
15-6; 15-7; 15-9 Home Freezers, miniature lamps
light output of, 6-28 for, 15-4
Gamma Rays, 1-2 Golf, lighting for, 12-20 Home Lighting (See Residence
Ganglion Cells (Eye), 2-3 characteristics of ball, 12-2 Lighting)
Garage (Home), lighting of, 10-40 recommended illumination, 12-6 Homes, electrical outlets for, A-19
Garden Lighting, 11-25 viewing distances, 12-2 Horizon Lights, for airports, 13-49;
pool, fountain and waterfall illu- Gonio Photometer, 5-25 13-50
mination, 11-27 Goodeve, 1-4; 1-5 Horticulture
recommended illumination, 11-26 Graphical Symbols for Architec- insect control, 16-7
Gas, in incandescent lamps, 6-4; 6-7 tural Plans, A-8 plant growth, 16-5
Gaseous Discharge Lamps, 1-16; Graybody, 3-8 use of light in, 16-3
6-20 Graybody Radiation, 1-10 Hospitals, lighting of, 10-91
argon, 6-28 comparison with blackbody and air sterilization, 16-21
concentrated arc, 6-29 selective radiator, 1-10 Hospital Annunciator Systems,
Cooper Hewitt, 6-1 curves of, 1-9 15-6
crater, 6-29 Greek Alphabet, A-38 Hue (See Color)
flash lamp, 6-30 Green Light, wavelength of great- Human Skin, Characteristics of,
fluorescent, 1-16; 1-17; 6-32 est luminosity, 1-12 16-15
fundamental processes of, 1-16 Guide Number System, 14-7 Humidity, effect of, 10-29
mercury, 1-16; 1-17; 6-21 for flash photography, 14-7; 14-8 Huygen's Principle, 7-2; 7-5
neon, 6-29 Guild, J., three-color colorimeters, Hydrogen Gas, heat-conductivity
seasoning period for, 5-5 4-28 of, 6-8
sodium, 6-26 Gymnasiums, lighting of, 12-8; in incandescent lamps, 6-4
ultraviolet radiation from, 1-16; 12-15
1-17 recommended illumination, 10-76
warm-up period for, 5-5
wiring design for, A-9 H Identification Beacon, for air-
Gas-Filled Lamps (Type C), 6-7 ports, 13-50
base-burning position, relation to, Handball, lighting for, 12-10 Illuminants, for color match, 4-11:
6-12 Harrison, Ward, lighting calcula- 4-17
bulb blackening of, 6-12 tion method, of, 8-1 for color photography, 4-22
gas pressure in, 6-8 Hazardous Locations, lighting of, for color work, 4-19; 4-20
history of, 6-1 6-7
; 10-100 I.C.I, standard, for colorimetry.
lumen maintenance of, 6-12 Headlamps, 13-4 3-10; 4-11
performance data on, 6-10 for automobiles, 13-3 measurement of, 5-1
special purposes of, 6-7; 6-8 auxiliary driving lamp, 13-4 natural daylight substitutes, 4-23
temperature, effect on, 6-8; 6-9 beam candlepower of, 13-3; 13-7 Illuminant A, 3-2
thermal characteristics of, 6-9 for bicycles, 15-9 I.C.I, colorimetry standards for,
wattage of, gas loss of, 6-8 color specifications, 13-9 3-10; 4-11
General Lighting (See also specific inspection code, 13-10 tristimulus data for, A-26
application area), 10-3 history of, 13-3 Illuminant B, 3-3
localized, 10-3; 10-4; 10-9 for locomotives, 13-22 I.C.I, colorimetry standards for,
General Diffuse Lighting, 10-7 multiple-beam, 13-4; 13-5 3-10; 4-11
characteristics of, 10-7 S. A. E.-I. E. S. recommendations, tristimulus data for, A-26
Generators, for railway cars, 13-20; 13-4 to 13-13 Illuminant C, 3-3
13-21 sealed-beam specifications, 13-6 color co-ordinates, for, 4-6; 4-11
Germs testing specifications, 13-4; 13-5; I.C.I. Colorimetry standards for,
ultraviolet lethal effectiveness, 13-6; 13-10 3-10; 4-11; 4-22
16-19; 16-20 Headlighting (See headlamps) tristimulus data for, A-27
Gibson, K. S., filter, for color tem- Heat, units of, A-37 "
Illuminant S, tristimulus data for,
perature, 5-22 Hefner, A-35 A-27
Glare Factor, of potential glare Hertzian Waves, frequency, wave- Illuminating Engineering So-
source, 2-24 length, 1-2 ciety
Glare (See also Disability Glare, Helium Atom, 1-13 average brightness values, recom-
Discomfort Glare, Direct and High Intensity Arc mended by, 8-17
Reflected Glare, Glare Ratings), characteristics of, 1-16 footeandle survey form, 5-5
2-18 Highway Flares, reflex reflectors, illumination measurement pro-
comfortable limits of nature, 2-26 13-29 cedures of, 5-4
contrast sensitivity, effect on, 2-21 Highway Lighting, 13-32 industrial fighting studies, 10-97
definition, 2-19 color of light, 13-36 publications of, ii
direct and reflected, 2-27 design considerations, 13-32; 13-36; Recommended Practices, list of,
methods of determining, 2-23 2-24 ; 13-37 10-28
2-25; 2-26; 2-27 discernment, 13-33 Illumination (See also Illumina-
physiological and psychological divided highways, 13-40 tion Levels (Recommended) and
effects of, 2-19 flares, 13-29 Light), 3-6
source position, relation to, 2-27 glare, 13-33 of advertising signs, 11-1 to 11-17
theories of, 2-19; 2-24; 2-25; 2-26 intersections, 13-41 of airplanes, 13-23
visual efficiency, effect of, 2-18; light distribution curves, 13-35 of airports, 13-43
2-19; 2-21 luminaire arrangements, 13-39; forA.M.A. Chart, 2-7
Glare Ratings, 2-24 13-40 of appliances, 15-3; 15-4; 15-5
for discomfort-glare effect, 2-24 luminaire characteristics, 13-35 of automobiles, 13-1
INDEX 1-9
Illumination (cont'd) window height, effect on, 9-3; 9-6; photometric standard lamps, 6-18
average, calculated, 8-2; 8-3; 8-30; 9-7; 9-8; 9-9 power factor of, A-9
8-34; 8-38 Illumination Levels Recom- rated life of, 6-2
of bicycles, 15-7 mended, master table, A-l reflector type, 6-16
brightness, relation to, 2-11; 2-12; for A. MA. chart, 2-7 renewal rate of, 6-3
2-14 for aircraft hangers, 13-61 requirements of series operation,
of buses, 13-14 for art galleries, 10-92 A-7
of call systems for hospitals, 15-6 British I.E.S. code of, for in- for rough service, 6-4; 6-18
of clock dials, 15-5 teriors, 2-13; 2-14 seasoning period for, 5-5
control of, 7-1 for exterior lighting, A-5 short life in, cause of, 1-12; 6-11
color of surface, relation to, 4-3; for floodlighting, 11-19 showcase, 6-19
4-16 for fluid milk industry, 10-135 for signs, 6-19
color selection and match, rela- for gardens, 11-26 for specialized service, 6-18
tion to, 4-17; 4-19; 4-20 for highways, 13-34 specification of lightfrom, 1-8; 1-11
from daylight, 9-1; 9-2; 9-7; 9-8; for homes, 10-34 spotlight, 6-18
9-9 for industrial lighting, 10-97; A-l standard operating voltages of,
denning equations for, 3-5 for interior lighting, A-l 6-12
definition of, 3-6 for offices, 10-51 sunlamp, 16-13
of elevator annunciators, 15-6 for photo- processes, 14-22 temperature, effect on efficiency,
exterior floodlighting levels of, for protective lighting, 11-29 1-12; 6-5; 6-9
11-19 for schools, 10-76 three-light, 6-19
exterior lighting levels of, A-5 for shoe manufacturing, 10-131 tungsten filaments for, 6-5
floodlighting calculations, 8-25 for sports, 12-5 to 12-7; A-5 ultraviolet radiation from, 16-1
floodlighting, recommended, 11-19 for stores, 10-61 vacuum, 6-7
of gardens, recommended, 11-26 for streets, 13-34 for vibration service, 6-4; 6-18
of hangars, 13-61 for transportation lighting, A-6 voltage variation, effect on
of highways, 13-32 for underpasses, 13-42 performance of, 5-8; 6-8; 6-11;
of instruments, 15-6 wiring capacity required for A-7
of interiors, 10-18; A-l various, A-10 warm-up period for, 5-5
inverse square law of, 5-2; 8-38 Illumination Meters, 1-5; 1-6; 1-10 Incidence, angle of nomogram for
of juke boxes, 15-7 accuracy of readings of, 5-12 determining, A-46
Lambert's cosine law of, 8-38 adaptation level of,' 5-11 Indicator Panels, lighting of, 15-6
line source, calculation of, 8-41 angle of incidence, relation to, 1-5 Indirect Colorlmetry, 3-10; 4-27
from luminous elements, 8-34 Macbeth illuminometer, 5-13 Indirect Lighting, see also specific
measurement of, 5-1 microammeter in, 1-6 application area, 10-7; 10-8
meter, photoelectric, 1-5 photoelectric effect, relation to, Inductance, 3-11
of microscopes, 15-7 1-5 Industry Committee on Wiring,
for photography, 14-2 recommended calibration of, 5-10 A-18
of pinball games, 15-7 temperature effect on, 5-12 Industrial Lighting, 10-94
point sources of, 2-28; 8-38 Incandescence, 1-7 assembly line production, 10-107
point by point calculation of, color temperature of, 1-11 candy manufacture, 10-120
8-38; 8-39; 8-40 of quick flashing lamps, 6-8 cleaning and pressing, 10-117
polarized, 1-5 Incandescent Lamp, 6-4 color control, 10-104
of pool, fountain and waterfall, for advertising signs, 11-2 color, relation to, 10-96
11-27 air-conditioning load, 10-32 engraving, 10-124
protective lighting, recommended bake-oven type, 6-18 entrances, 11-31
levels for, 11-29 bases for, 6-19 factors of good illumination, 10-95
of radio dials, 15-7 bulb blackening, cause of, 1-12; flaws, detection of, 10-102; 10-103
of railway cars, 13-16 6-11 floor space utilization, 10-94
recommended levels of, British, bulb shapes and finishes of, 6-14 fluid milk, 10-134
2-13; 2-14 characteristics important in wiring foundry, 10-107
reflector length, relation to, 8-45 design, A-7 furnaces, 10-129
of ships, 13-25 color temperature of, 1-11: 6-15 general lighting, 10-97
of show-windows, calculations, comparison with fluorescent lamp, hazardous locations, 10-100
8-29; 8-30 13-17 heavy industry, 10-104
oi show-cases, calculations, 8-32 construction of, 6-4 I.E.S. studies in, 10-97
size, relation to, 2-15; 2-17; 2-18 daylight type, 6-15 inspection, 10-101; 10-102; 10-103
for Snellen Chart, 2-7 definition of, 3-9; 6-1 instrument boards, 10-128
speed of vision, relation to, 2-11; depreciation of, 6-2; 2-11; 8-2 luminaire spacing and layout,
2-12' 2-28 efficiency of, 1-12; 3-8; 6-5; 6-8 10-97; 10-98
for sports, 12-3; 12-5 to 12-7; A-5 evaporation of filament, 1-12; 6-6; machine tools, 10-106
subnormal vision, effect on, 2-1; 6-11 metal working, 10-104
2-17; 2-18 filament forms, 6-5 mounting height, 10-99
from surface sources, 8-44 floodlight type, 6-18 moving parts, 10-104
of surgical instruments, 15-10 gas-filled, 6-6; 6-7 outdoor areas, 10-129
standard nomenclature for, 3-7 gas used in, 6-4 petroleum products, 10-127
standard unit of, 3-5 for general service, 6-4; 6-18 polished surfaces, 10-101
of streets, 13-32 history of, 6-1 printing, 10-124
of store fronts, 11-17 infrared radiation from, 16-1 production and quality control,
symbols for units of, 3-5 low-voltage, 6-13 10-94
of telephone switchboard, 15-6 lumen maintenance of, 6-11; 8-2 protective lighting, 11-28
threshold of, for circular objects lumens per watt of Edison's, 6-1 recommended levels, discussion,
of different sizes, 2-28 Lumiline, 6-19 10-96; A-l
threshold of, for point sources, 2-28 luminaire maintenance with, 10-20 safety, relation to, 10-95
of tools, 15-6 luminaires, threshold brightness shoe manufacturing, 10-130
of toys, 15-7 of, 2-23 special equipment, 10-129
uniform, luminaire spacings for,
miniature, 15-1 supplementary lighting, 10-99
8-4 to 8-11; 8-22; 8-23
mortality curve of, 6-2 textiles, 10-110
values of, from windows, 9-7;
operating temperatures of, 6-9 tower platforms, ladders, 10-129
9-8; 9-9
performance data of, 6-10 Infrared Energy, 1-2; 1^; 16-22
visual activity, at various levels permissible variation in operating miscellaneous applications, 16-1;
of, 2-18
voltage, A-7 16-22; 16-24; 16-28
vision, relation to, 1-1; 2-1; 2-11;
photoflash, 14-4 molecular activity, relation to, 1-7
2-12; 2-13; 2-14; 2-15; 2-17; 2-18;
photo-enlarger, 14-2 emitted by filament lamps, 16-1
2-28
visual performance, relation to, photoflood, 14-1 photographic application of, 14-1;
2-14; 2-15; 2-17; 2-18 photographic, 14-1 14-3
; ;
MO I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
Infrared Energy (cont'd) for shoe manufacturing, 10-130 bulb shapes, 6-14
sources of, 16-26; 16-27 standard I.E.S. survey form carbon arc, 6-20
Insect Control, light for, 16-7; (IS-10) for, 5-5 color temperature of, 1-11; 6-16
16-8 of stores, 10-00 daylight, 6-15
Inspection Code, headlighting, survey procedure for, 5-5 definition, 3-9
13-10 of textile mills, 10-110 depreciation of output, 6-2; 6-11
Instant Starting, fluorescent of theaters, 10-84 discharge, 6-20
lamps, 6-42 of theater stages, 10-85 efficiency of, 1-12; 3-8; 6-5; 6-8
Instrument Boards, lighting of, for vehicles, 13-1 en larger, 14-2
10-128 window design, relation to, 9-1 to filaments for, 6-5
Instruments 9-7 for flashlights, 15-1; 15-2
ammeter, 5-2; 5-28 Interior Wiring, A-7 fluorescent, 6-32
brightness meter, 5-13 International Candlepower gas-filled (Type C) incandescent,
Bunsen disk, 5-23 Standard, brightness of, 1-8; 6-5; 6-6
colorimeters, 4-27; 4-28 3-1; 3-6 development, history of, 6-1
color comparators, 4-28 International Commission on incandescent, 6-4
color densitometer, 4-28 Illumination infrared, 16-22
densitometer, 5-2 color designation system of, 4-1 for insect control, 16-7
flicker photometer, 5-23 4-11; 4-14 krypton-filled, 6-7
galvanometer, 1-5; 15-7 chart, for conversion to other life of, 6-2; 6-8
goniphotometer, 4-24; 5-25 designation systems, 4-15 for locomotive headlights, 13-22
illumination of, 15-7; 15-10 luminosity curve, 1-5 low-voltage, 6 13
illumination meters, 1-5; 1-6; 5-10; luminaire distribution classifica- miniature, 15-1
5-11; 5-12 tions, 10 5 motion picture studio, 14-3
Leeson disk, 5-23 luminosity factors, table of, 1-4 photochemical, 16-17
Lovibond tintometer, 4-28 standard illuminants, 3-10; 4-11 photoflash, 14-4
Lummer-Brodhun Cube, 5-23 Inter-reflection photoflood, 14-1
Marten's polarization photometer, method of computing brightness, photographic, 14-1
5-23 8-17 railroad signal, 13-59
Macbeth Illuminometer, 5-8; 5-13 per cent of light, after successive reflector-type, 6-17
neutral filters, 5-24 reflections, 4-5 renewal Rate of, 6-3
pyrometer, 5-2 Intersections, streets, lighting of, seasoning period for, 5-5
radiometer, 5-2 13-41 spotlight lamps, 14-11
reflectometer, 4-27; 5-2; 5-14 Inter-Society Color Council sunlamps, 16-13
resistance cell, light sensitive, 5-24 color designation system of, 4-1; ultraviolet, 16 13
sector disk, 5-24 4-5; 4-7; 4-11; 4-14; 4-15; A-29 vacuum (Tvpe B) incandescent,
surgical, lighted, 15-10 Insulation, approved for alumi- 6-6
spectrometer, 5-2; 5-26 num conductors, A-13 warm-up period for, 5-5
spectroscope, 4-24 Inverse-Square Law, 5 2; 5-3; 8-38 for series circuits, A-23
spectrophotometer, 4-24; 4-25; point by point calculation rela- Lamp Depreciation, 6-2; 6-3; 6-S;
5-2; 5-26 tion to, 14-6 6-11; 6-12; 6-35
sphere photometer, 5-25 Ionizing Potentials, 1-15; 1-16; Lamp Holders (See Bases)
visibility meter, 2-15 1-17 Lamp Life, economical practice,
voltmeter, 5-2; 5-28 Iris (Eye). 2-2 relation to, 6-2
wattmeter, 5-2; 5-27; 5-28 Irradiancy, 3-4; 3-6 efficiency, relation to, 6-8
Interference (Phenomenon), 7-17 Irridescence, cause of, 7-17 filament evaporation, effect on,
Interior Lighting, 10-1 I.S.C.C.-N.B.S. Color Names, 6-11
air-conditioning, relation to, 10-28 A-29 of fluorescent lamps, 6-34; 6-35;
architecture, relation to, 10-8; Isocandle curves and lines, 3-9; 6-36; 6-42
10-10 8-47 of incandescent, 6-2; 6-8
application techniques, 10-18 Isolux curves and lines, 3-9; 8-49 lumen-per-watt ratings, relation
average brightness for, 8-17 Isotopes, of atom, 1-13 to, 6-11
average illumination for, 8-1 of miniature lamps, 15-1; 15-2
of banks, 10-90 renewal rate; relation to, 6-3
building codes, 10-28 voltage, relation to, 5-8; 6-S; 6-10;
built-in luminaires, 10-12 6-11
calculations for, 8-1 Jacobson, E. G., Color Harmony Landing Lights, for airports, 13-43
of churches, 10-88
Manual, 4-10 13-48; 13-52
for candy manufacture, 10-120
Judd, D. B., colorimeter, 4-28
Lanterns, railroad signal, 13-56
for cleaning and pressing, 10-117
Juke Boxes, illumination of, 15-7
Laundry (Home), lighting of, 10-40
of commercial and public build- Laundry and Wet Cleaning,
ings, 10-82 K lighting for, 10-120
dual installations for, 10-12 Layouts, luminaire, 8-23
for engraving, 10-124 Kilo, definition, 3-7 Leather (See shoe manufacturing)
of farms, 10-47 Kinetic Energy, of photoelectron, Leeson Disk, 5-23
for fluid milk industry, 10-134 1-6 Length, Units of, 1-3
of hospitals, 10-91 Kitchen, lighting of, 1040 Lens Aberrations, 7-12; 7-13
of hotels, 10-93 Krypton Gas. for incandescent Lenses, 7-9; 7-12; 7-13
I.E.S. Recommended Practices, lamps, 6-4; 6-7 photographic, 14-6; 14-11
list of, ii; 10-28 in railroad signals, 13-58
industrial, 10-94 Lens Spots, for photography, 14-11
methods, 10-2 Lens Systems, light control by,
luminaire classification, 10-5 7-10; 7-12; 13-58
luminaire distribution character- Laboratory Measurements, 5-14 Lens-Mirror Reflex, 13-31
istics, 10-5; 10-6; 10-7; 10-8 of color temperature, 5-22 Light, 1-1; 3-6
luminaire layouts for, 8-23 standard procedures for, 5-14; absorption of, 7-18; 8-2; 11-20
luminaire spacing for, 8-4; 8-11; 5-15; 5-16 from Aurora Borealis, 1-22
8-22 Lambert (Unit), 3-7; A-35 bleaching, relation to, 16-6
maintenance of, 10-20 Lambert's Law, 7-13; 8-38 from Carbon arc, 1-14; 6-20
of museums and art galleries, Lamps (See also Carbon Filament, color of, after reflection, 4-5
10-92
10-91; Incandescent, Tungsten Fila- control, 7-1
of offices. 10-50 ment, Arc, Gaseous Discharges), definition of, 1-1 3-6
;
INDEX 111
Light (cont'd) Light Production. 1-1 maintenance factor, for typica
eye, response to, 1-1 2-1 2-2; 2-4;
; ; activators, effect on, 1-20 luminaires, 8-4 to 8-11
2-5; 2-17; 2-28 atomic activity, relation to, 1-14 method of computing coefficient of
fading, relation to, 16-6 1-17 utilization, 8-14; 8-15
filament temperature, relation to atmospheric conditions, effect on mounting heights of luminaires,
output, 6-5 7-1; 9-1 relation to, 8-22; 8-23
from fluorescence, 1-18; 1-21; 6-32 devices for, 1-7 point by point method, 8-38
in horticulture, 16-3 by fluorescence, 1-17; 1-18; 1-20 room index, for range of room
from incandescent lamps, 1-8; 6-4 1-21 ; 6-32 sizes, 8-11: 8-12
for insect control, 16-7 by gaseous discharges, 1-16; 6-20 searchlighting, 8-28
interference phenomenon, 7-17 by incandescence, 1-7; 6-4; 6 show-case lighting, 8-32
from lightning, 1-22 15-1 show-window lighting, 8-29
light path phenomena, 7-1 by luminescence, 1-7; 1-14; 1-21 spacings for luminaires, 8-4 to 8-1 1
by luminescence, 1-7; 1-17; 1-19; molecular activity, relation to, 1-8 8-22; 8-23
1-21 by phosphorescence, 1-18; 1-19 street lighting, 8-47
from moon, 1-22; 9-1 1-21 ; 6-32 forsun and sky, 8-46
measurement of, 5-1 physics of, 1-1 with surface sources, 8-44
miscellaneous uses of, 16-1 16-3 ; Light Sources (See also Illumi- Lighting Design (see also, Lighting,
per cent received, after successive nants, Lamps), 6-1 Illumination)
reflections, 4-5 brightness of, A-36 advertising signs, 11-1
from phosphorescence, 1-18; 1-19; carbon-arc lamp, 6-1; 6-20 airplanes, 13-23
6-32 choice of, in building, 10-2 airports, 13-43
photo-cell operated relavs, using, circular sources, 8-45 art gallery and museum, 10-92
16-4 development of, 6-1 calculations for, 8-1 to 8-50
physics of, 1-1; 1-17 discharge lamps, 6-20 —
color harmony relation to, 4-17
polarization of, 7-15; 7-16; 7-17 filament lamps, 6-1; 6-8 comfort criteria of, 2-24; 2-25; 2-26
production of, 1-1; 1-7; 1-14; 1-16; fluorescent lamp, 1-17; 6-1; 6-32 floodlighting, 8-24; 11-19
1-17; 1-18; 1-19; 1-21; 1-22 gas-filled lamps, 6-7 glare ratings for, 2-24; 2-25
quantity of, units for, 3-5 headlamps, 13-4 hangars, 13-61
reflection, 7-3; 7-4; 7-5; 7-6; 7-7; incandescent lamps, 6-1; 6-8 highways, 13-32; 13-36
7-10 line sources, calculations with, luminaire spacings, relation to,
refraction, 7-7 8-41 8-4 to 8-11; 8-22; 8-23, 8-29
signals, range of, 8-28; 13-26; 13-27; luminescent materials, 16-8 luminous elements, 8-34
13-57; 13-58 maximum possible efficiencv of, luminous reflectance, relation to,
from sky, 1-22; 9-1 3-8 4-2
spectrum, 1-2 measurement of output of, 5-2 man's normal habitat, relation to,
speed of vision, relation to, 2-11; mercury lamp, 1-17; 6-21 2-26
2-28 miniature lamps, 15-1 railway cars, 13-16
standards and nomenclature for, moonlight. 1-22; 9-1 ships, 13-25
3-1; 3-5 northern lights, 1-22 for spatial brightness equilibrium,
from sun, 1-22: 9-1 photographic, 14-1 2-26
transmittance, 7-13 pictorial history of, 6-1 sports, 12-9 to 12-15
velocity, 1-3; 3-2; 7-10 point sources, 2-28; 8-38 for stores, 10-65
vision, relation to, 1-1; 2-1; 2-5; radiant-energy sources, 16-1 store fronts, 11-18
2-11; 2-18 renewal rate of, 6-3 streets, 13-32; 13-36
wavelengths, 1-2; 3-2 slection, 10-19 window design, 9-1
Light and Air-Conditioning, surface sources, calculations with, Lighting Methods. 10-2
10-28 8-44 application techniques, 10-18
comfort limits, 10-30 for television studios, 14-1 general lighting, 10 3
Light and Architecture, 10-8; vacuum lamps, 6-7 localized general, 10-3
10-10 Light Terms, 3-6; 3-12; 3-13 local lighting, 10-3; 10-4
Light Control, 7-1 Light Velocity, 1-3 luminaire classification, 10-5; 10-6;
by absorption, 7-18; 8-2 Lighting (See also Floodlighting, 10-7
by diffraction, 7-18 Street Lighting, Residential luminaire layout, 10-3
by diffusion, 7-18 Lighting, Interior Lighting, Ex- supplementary lighting, 10-3; 10-5
by interference phenomenon, 7-17 terior Lighting). 3-5 Lighting Systems,
by lens systems, 7-10 calculation methods, 5-6; 8-1 direct, 10-6: 10-7
louvers for, 7-14; 7-15 standard nomenclature, 3-6; 3-8 general diffuse, 10-7
by polarization, 7-15 standard units, 3-5 indirect, 10-6; 10-7
by prisms, 7-10 Lighting Calculations, 8-1 semi-direct, 10-7; 10-8
by reflection, 7-3; 7-6; 7-7; 7-10 average brightness, 8-13; 8-17 to semi-indirect, 10-7; 10-8
by refraction, 7-7; 7-8; 7-9; 7-10 8-22; 8-37 Lighting Terms, 3-8; 3-12; 3-13
transmitting materials for, 7-12; average illuminatibn, 8-1 to 8-16; Lightning, 1-22
7-13; 7-14 8-34; 8-38 Lightwatt (unit), A-35
window design, relation to, 9-1; advertising sign lighting, 11-4 Limit Blue Sky, tristimulus data
94; 9-7 beam lumens of floodlights, spot- for, A-27
Light Output, 6-8 lights and searchlights, 8-28 Line Sources, calculations with,
base-burning position, relation to, brightness of fluorescent lamps, 8-41
6-12 8-43 Liquid Sterilization, 16-22
bulb blackening, relation to, 6-11 brightness ratio tables, 8-18 Living Rooms, lighting of, 10-34;
of fluorescent lamps, 6-35; 6-36; circular sources, 8-45 10-37
6-37; 6-41 coefficients utilization,
of for Lobbies, lighting of, 10-83; 10-S4
of incandescent lamps, 6-8 typical luminaires, 8-4 to 8-11 Local Lighting, 10-3
loss of, with bulb finishes and cosine law, relation to, 5-3; 8-38 Locomotive Headlights, 13-22
color, 6-15; 6-16 distribution characteristics, for Locus of Whites, 3-10
loss of, with dust collection, 8-2 typical luminaires, 8-4 to 8-11 Logarithms, natural of numbers,
of low-voltage lamps, 6-13 efficiencies of typical luminaires, A-39
maintenance factor, relation to, 8-4 to 8-11 Logarithm, common of numbers
8-2 floodlighting, 8-24 A -40
of mercury vapor discharge lamps, inverse square law, relation to, Louvers, 7-14
6-23; 6-24; 6-25; 6-26; 6 27 5-2;8-38 Low Intensity Arc, 1-14
of miniature lamps, 15-1 15-2 ; with line sources, 8-41 Low Reflectance Films, 7-17
reduction in, during lamp life, lumen method of, 8-1 Low Voltage Lamps. 6-13
6-8 luminaire spacings, relation to, Lovibond, J. W., 4-7; 4-28
of series lamp, 6-12 8-22 Luckiesh, M., brightness meter,
voltage, relation to, 5-8; 6-8 luminous elements, 8-34 5-13
1-12 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
Lumen (See also Luminous Flux), for ahips, 13-28 Material Standards, for wiring,
3-5;3-6;A-35 sketches of typical, 8-4 to 8-11 A-13
measurement of, 5-1 spacing for uniform illumination, Mathematical Symbols, 3-13; 3-14
I umen-Hour, 3-6 8-4 to 8-11; 8-22; 8-23 Mean Horizontal Candlepower,
Lumen Maintenance for sports lighting, 12-15 3-7
efficiency of light source, relation for stores, 10-61 10-66; Mean Spherical Candlepower, 3-6
to, 1-11; 1-18; 6-8 street lighting, 8-47; 13-35; 13-37 Measurements
of fluorescent lamps, 6-35; 6-36; street lighting, spacing and of brightness, 5-13
6-37; 6-42; 6-43: 8-2 mounting of, 8-48; 13-33; 13-36; of color temperature, 5-22
of incandescent lamps, 6-11; 6-12; 13-39; 13-41 electrical, 5-27
8-2 street lighting, utilization curves, of floodlight illumination, 5-8
Lumen Method, of calculating illu- 8-48; 13-35 general method of, 5-20
mination, 8-1 Luminescence of interior lighting, 5-5
Lumen Output anode material in arc lamps, effect laboratory procedure for, 5-14
of fluorescent lamps, 6-35; 6-36; of, 1-11 of light, 5-1
6-37; 6-42; 8-41 atomic activity, relation to, 1-13; of ultraviolet energy, 5-11
of incandescent lamps, 6-S 1-17 Measurement of Light (See also
of mercury vapor lamps, 6-23; bioluminescence, 1-21 Photometry)
6-24; 6-25 definition of 1-12; 16-8
, calculated footcandles, relation to,
of miniature lamps, 15-2 light production by, 1-7; 1-17; 1-19; 5-9
Lumens per Watt, see lumen out- 1-21 characteristics of light measured,
put miscellaneous forms of, 1-7; 1-21 5-1; 5-2
Lumiline Lamps, 6-19 of fluorescent lamps, 1-17; 1-18; equipment for, 5-2; 5-4; 5-9; 5-10;
Luminaire Spacing 1-21 5-11; 5-12; 5-13; 5-22; 5-23; 5-24;
street lighting, 8-4S; 8-49 Luminescent Materials, 16-8 5-25; 5-26
industrial lighting, 10-97 fluorescent, 16-8; 16-9 errors encountered, 5-10; 5-11; 5-12
layouts, 8-23 phosphorescent, 16-S; 16-10 floodlighting survey procedure, 5-8
mounting height, relation to, 8-22 radium-luminous, 16-8; 16-10 flux of light method, 5-6
for uniform illumination, 8-4 to Luminosity, 3-2 general photometric methods, 5-20
8-11; 8-22 curves, 1-5 location of measurement stations
variation factor of, 8-22 factors, table of, 1-4 for, 5-7; 5-9
Luminaire Luminosity Coefficients, 3-10 standard laboratory procedure for,
architectural elements, 10-8 Luminosity Curve, I. C. I., graph- 5-14; 5-15; 5-16; 5-17; 5-18; 5-19;
architectural motif, relation to, ical representation, 1-5 5-20
10-9 Luminosity Factors, 3-5; 3-8 standard record form for, 5-5
of asymmetrical distribution, 8-40 table of, 1-4 standardized field procedures of,
Beam lumens rating of, method of maximum,
wavelengths of 1-4; 1-12 5-4; 5-5; 5-6; 5-7; 5-8; 5-9; 5-11;
computing, 8-26; 8-27; 8-28 Luminous Beams, 10-15 5-12
brightness values for, 2-23 Luminous Cornices, 10-12 Measure, units of, A-37
built-in, 10-12; 10-3S; 10-40 Luminous Efficiency, 3-8 Mechanical Equivalent of Light,
candlepower distribution of, 8-40 of light source, 1-11: 1-12 definition of, 3-8
classifications, 10-5; 10-6; 10-7; 10-S of radiant energy, 1-8; 3-8 Mega, definition of, 3-7
coefficients of utilization of, 8-4; Luminous Elements. 8-34; 10-15 Melting Point, of carbon, 6-5
8-5; 8-6; 8-7; 8-8; 8-9; 8-10; 8-11; for advertising signs, 11-11 highest known, 1-12
8-14 average maintained brightness of, of iron, 6-5
definition of, 3-9 8-37 of osmium, 6-5
depreciation, 10-21 calculations for, 8-34 of tantalum, 6-5
direct, 10-6; 10-7 efficiencies of typical, 8-34; 8-35; of tungsten, 1-12; 6-5
distribution characteristics of, 8-36 Mercury Atom, 1-18
84; 8-5 to 8-11; 8-40; 10-5; 10-6; for store fronts, 11-18 Mercury Vapor Discharge Lamp
10-7; 13-35 Luminous Flux (See also Lumens), auxiliary equi pment for, 6-26
effect of, on fluorescent lamp bulb 3-6 characteristics of, 6-21; 6-23; 14-5
wall temperatures, 6-41 defining equation for, 3-5 color of objects under, 6-21
efficiencies of, 8-4; 8-5 to 8-11 8-34; ; definition of, 1-2; 3-6 cross-section of, 1-17
8-35; 8-36 efficiency of light source, relation high-pressure, 16-12
for floodlighting, 8-24; 8-25; 8-26 to, 1-11 low-pressure, 16-14
general-diffuse, 10-7 measurement of, 5-1 lumen output of, 6-23; 6-24; 6-25;
glare from, 2-27 obtained from candlepower data, 6-26
for gymnasiums, 12-15 A-46 photometry of, 5-21
for hangars, 13-62 standard unit of, 3-5 for photoprocesses, 14-5
for hazardous locations, 10-101 Luminous Intensity, 3-6 physical activity in, 1-17
indirect, 10-7; 10-8 defining equation for, 3-5 type A-H 1,6-22; 6-23
layouts, 8-23 Luminous Signals, 2-28; 2-29 type A-H 4, 6-23; 6-24
light output, 10-5 Luminous Tubing, 10-15 type A-H 5, 6-24
luminous elements, 8-34 Lummer-Brodhun Cube, 5-23 type A-H 6, 6-23; 6-25
maintenance, 10 20 Lux (unit), 3-6; A-35 type A-H 9, 6-23; 6-25; 6-26
maintenance factors of, 8-2; 8-4; type B-H 1, 6-22; 6-23
8-5; 8-6; 8-7; 8-8; 8-9; 8-10; 8-11 type C-H 6-23
mounting heights of, 8-12; 8-14; M type E-H
5,
1, 6-23; 6-24
8-22; 8-23; 10-99; 13-33; 13-36 type F-H
Macbeth Illuminometer, 5-13 1, 6-23
photography of, 14-15; 14-18 thermopile, 5-24 ultraviolet output of, 16-12
photometric test procedures, 5-18; Machine Tools, lighting of, 10-106 Metal Working, lighting for,
5-19
Macula of retina, 5-21 10-104; 10-106
placement of, in homes, 10-45 Manganese, fluorescence of, 1-20
portable, recommended character- Meter-candle (unit), A-35
Magnesium Oxide, reflectance of, Meter Dials, illumination of, 15-7
istics of, 10-44 16-2
projector type, determination of Micro, definition of, 3-7
Maintenance, 10-20
Micromicron, 1-2
output of, A-48 dirt collection on window glass,
protective lighting, curves of, 9-3
Microammeter, in illumination
11-30; 11-31 equipment for, 10-22; 10-24; 10-26 meter, 1-6
for railway cars, 13-17; 13-20 methods of, 10-23 Micron (unit), 1-2; 3-7
for residence fighting, 10-36; 10-37 Maintenance Factor, of luminares, Microscopes, illumination of, 15-7
10-39; 10-41; 10-42; 10 43; 10-44 8-2; 8-4; 8-5 to 8-11 Milk, (See Fluid Milk)
selection, 10-19 of window glass, 9-3 Milk House, lighting of, 10-47
semi-direct, 10-6; 10-7 Marten's Polarization Photom- Milli, definition of, 3-7
semi-indirect, 10-7 eter, 5-23 Millilambert (unit), A-35
;
INDEX 1-13
Millimicron (unit), 1-2 Multiple circuits, advantages of, angle of incidence; height, or
MUUphot (unit), A-35 A-23 distance, A-46
Miniature Lamps Multiplying Factors, to com- zonal lumens, A-47
applications of, 15-1 to 15-10 pensate for absorptance of Non- Uniform Field, 2-20
bases for, 15-1 various color filters, 11-20 Normal Vision
batteries for, 15-1 15-2 ; Munsell Color System age, effect on, 2-17; 2-18
bead color of, 15-1 chart, for comparison with sur- A. M. A. rating for, 2-6
operating characteristics of, 15-1 face color, 4-10 emmetrope, 2-17
15-2 correlation between other methods illumination levels, effect on,
reflectors for, 15-3 of color designation, 4-14; 4-15 2-18
types of, 6-13; 15-1 to 15-10 diagramatic view of color solid, Snellen rating for, 2-6
voltages for, 6-13 ; 15-1 4-9 test objects, for, 2-6; 2-7; 2-13; 2-14
Miniature Lamp Applications luminous reflectance, relation to visual acuity, 2-6; 2-7; 2-17; 2-18
annunciators, 15-6 Munsell value, 4-8; 4-10 Northern Lights (See Aurora
appliances, 15-3; 15-4; 15-5 standardized color chips, 4-9; 4-10 Borealis)
bicycles, 15-9 symbols for color designation, 4-9
flashlights, 15-1; 15-2; 15-3 system of surface color desig- O
indicator panels, 15-6 nation, 4-7; 4-8; 4-9; 4-14
Observer, Standard
juke boxes, 15-7 Museums, lighting of, 10-91; 10-92 feasibility of, 1-4
microscopes, 15-7 lighting design guide, 10-92
I. C. I., 5-1
pinball games, 15-7 Myope, 2-17; 2-18
Obstruction Lights, for airports
radios, 15-8
13-46; 13-50; 13-52
surgical instruments, 15-10
switchboards, 15-6 N Oculist (See Eye Specialist)
Office Buildings, lighting of, 10-83
tools and instruments, 15-6 National Board of Fire Under- Office Lighting, 10-50
toys, 15-9 writers, A-7 brightness levels, 10-51; 10-52
Mirrors National Bureau of Standards conference rooms, 10-51; 10-55
bathroom, 10-43 candlepower standards, 3-1 3-2 ;
drafting rooms, 10-51; 10-55
bedroom, 10-42 color designation system, 4-5; 4-7; files, 10-51; 10-58
reflection characteristics of, 7-4 4-14; A-29 general offices, 10-51 ; 10-52
store, 10-69 National Electrical Code, 10-100 lobbies, 10-83
Molecules, 1-7
approved wiring methods, A-10
Monuments, floodlighting of, luminaire spacing, 10-53
exterior wiring, A-20; A-21 office machines, 10-57
11-25
National Electrical Manufac- private offices, 10-51 ; 10-54
Moonlight turers Association (N. E. reception rooms, 10-51 ; 10-55
brightness, 1-22
M. A.) recommended illumination, 10-50
illumination level, 9-1 floodlighting survev procedure, service areas, 10-51; 10-60
Moon, Parry, nomenclature pro-
5-8
posals of, 3-5 supplementary lighting, 10-53
Natural Light (See also Day- Office Machines, lighting of, 10-51;
Mortality Curve, of lamps, 6-2
lighting), 1-22; 9-1 10-57
lamp renewal rate, relation to, 6-3
Motion Picture Photography
brightness control of, 9-4 Ohm, definition of, 3-11
color match, 4-19; 4-20 Ophthalmologist (See Eye Spe-
exposure time, 14-7 daylight values of, 8-1; 9-7 cialist)
lamps and equipment employed for multistory buildings, 9-6
14-3; 14-7; 14-11; 14-20; 14-21
Optical Society of America, no-
.substitutes for, 4-23 menclature proposals of Color-
lighting requirements of, 14-21
window design for 9-1; 9-2; 9-3; imetry Committee, 3-5
Motion Picture Projection 9-4; 9-5; 9-6; 9-7
A. S. A. standards for, 14-28
Optical Systems, 7-9; 7-13
Natural Logarithims, A-39 Optic Nerve, 2-3; 2-5
projection booths, 14-27
Naval Vessels, illumination for, Optometrist (See Eye Specialist)
basic requirements, 14-24
13-28 Orthocrhomatic Materials (pho-
brightness levels, 14-24; 14-28
Navigational Lights, for ships, tographic), 14-3; 14-23
for classrooms, 14-28
dimensions of screens, 14-27;
13-26 Osmium, melting point, 6-5
14-28
Neon Lamp, photometry of, 5-21 Ostwald, system of color designa-
picture sizes, at projection dis-
Neon Tubes, 11-14; 11-15; 11-16 tion, 4-7; 4-9; 4-10; 4-11
tances, 14-30
Neurone (See Rods and Cones) Overpasses, lighting of, 13-42
Radiant Energy (cont'd) fluorescent lamps in, 13-16; 13-19 total, 7-10
atomic activity, relation to, 1-13 illumination levels, 13-16 wavelength, relation to, 16-2
bleaching, relation to, 16-6 lighting for, 13-16 Reflectometers, 4-27; 5-14
corpuscular theory of, 1-1 lighting systems, comparison, Reflectors'
defining equation for, 3-4 13-17 for advertising signs, 11-7; 11-17
definition of, 3-5 power sources, 13-20; 13-21; 13-22 diffuse, 7-7
electromagnetic theory of, 1-1 ; 3-5 voltage employed, 13-20; 13-21 diffuse-specular, 7-7
evaluation of, 1-1; 3-5 Range (kitchen), lamps for, 15-4 for flashlights, 15-3
fading, relation to, 16-6 Range Lights, 13-46 length and size of, relation to il-
from blackbody, distribution of, data on, 13-50; 13-51 lumination produced, 8-45
1-8, 1-9 for airports, 13-46 materials, 14-10
luminosity of, 1-4 Reactance, 3-11 for photographic fighting, 14-9;
luminous efficiency of, 1-8 Recommended Footcandles, See 14-10
magnetic theory of, 1-1; 3-5 Illumination Levels reflex devices, 13-29; 13-54
measurement of, 1-2 Recommended Practices, of shape, 14-11
miscellaneous applications of, 16-1 I.E.S., 10-28 specular, 7-3; 7-4
nature of, 1-1; 3-5 Reception Rooms, 10-55 spread, 7-6
photography by, 14-1 lighting of, 10-55 triple, 13-30
quantum theory of, 1-1 recommended illumination, 10-51 Reflector Lamps, projector, re-
reflectance of, 16-2 Record Copying (photographic), flector, sealed beam, silvered
solar, 16-2 process data, 14-22 bowl, 6-16; 6-17; 8-29
sources of, 16-1 Reference Standards (labora- Reflex Devices, 13-29
spectrum, 1-2 tory), list of, 3-1; 3-2 effect of divergence, 13-29
speed in vacuum of, 1-3 Reflection Factor (see also Re- in railroad signals, 13-29; 13-54
standard units for, 3-4 flectance), 3-8 in transportation lighting, 13-29
symbols for, 3-4 surface colors, relation to, 4-2; 4-3; Refraction, 7-7
transmittance of, 16-2 4-4; 4-5; 4-10 Fermat's Principle of, 7-8
units of length in, 1-2 Reflecting Prisms, 7-12 index of, for transparent material,
visual sensation, relation to, 1-5 Reflectance (see also reflection), 3-8 7-11
wave theory of, 1-1 of aluminum, 16-2 lens systems, using, 7-10
Radiant Energy Density, 3-5 appearance of color, relation to, reflectors and materials, 7-9; 7-11;
defining equation for, 3-4 4-12 7-12; 7-13
Radiant Flux, 12; 3-5 brightness of objects, relation to, Snell's law of, 7-8; 7-10
defining equation for, 3-4 2-13; 2-14 spectacles, relation to, 7-10
Radiant Flux Density, 3-5 brightness of objects, relation to, velocity of light, relation to, 7-7
defining equation for, 3-4 2-13; 2-14 Relative Erythemal Factor, 3-11
Radiant Heating Lamps, 16-26 of calcium carbonate, 16-2 Renewal Rate (lamp), 6-3
characteristics, 16-26 human skin, 16-15 Reproduction Lighting, 14-1
drying and baking with, 16-24 of luminous elements, 8-34; 8-35; lamps employed, 14-1; 14-4; 14-11
spectral distribution, 16-27 8-36 process data, 14-22
Radiant Intensity, 3-6 of magnesium oxide, 16-2 Rise, of circle, A-44
defining equation for, 3-4 of motion picture screens, 14-25 Residence Lighting. 10-33
Radiation, 3-4 Munsell color value, relation to, bathrooms, 10-34; 10-43
standard nomenclature for, 3-5; 3-6 4-8; 4-10 bedrooms, 10-34; 10-42
Radiation Constants, 1-8 of new plaster, 16-2 ceiling fixtures, 10-37
Radiation Curves, 1-8 of oil paints, 16-2 dining rooms, 10-34; 10-39
of blackbody, 1-8; 1-9 Ostwald color designation, rela- entrances, halls and cloeete, 10-34;
of gray body, 1-9; 1-10 tion to, 4-11 10-35
of selective radiator, 1-9; 1-10 for schools, recommended, 10-75 garage, 10-34; 10-40
of tungsten, 1-9; 1-10 spectral curves, for various kitchen, 10-34; 10-40
Wein displacement of, 1-9 painted surfaces, 4-26 lamp shades, 10-45
Radiation Equations, Planck, speed of vision, relation to, 2-11; laundry, 10-34; 10-40
Wein, Stefan-Boltzman, 1-11 2-12 living rooms, 10-36
Radiation Terms. 3-5; 3-6 of sports equipment, 12-2 luminaire placement, 10-45
abbreviations for, 3-12; 3-13 of stainless steel, 16-2 luminaires recommended, 10-36;
Radio Interference, 6-34 store lighting, relation to, 10-65 10-37
of fluorescent lamps, 6-34; 6-35; surface colors, relation to, 4-2; mirrors, 10-42; 10-43
6-36; 6-44 4-3; 4-4; 4-5; 4-10 portable luminaires, recom-
miniature lamps, relation to, 15-8 of tin plate, 16-2 mended, 10-44
Radiometry.3-4 of water paints, 16-2 recommended illumination, 10-34
standard nomenclature and units of white baked enamel, 16-2 wall brackets and urns, 10-38
for, 3-4; 3-5 of zinc oxide, 16-2 Residential Wiring. A-1S
Radio Receivers, 15-8 Reflection (see also Reflectance), Resistance Cell, 5-24
glow lamps for, 15-9 angle of incidence, 7-3; 7-10 Resistivity, electrical, 1-10
miniature lamps for, 15-8 color of light after, 4-5 Retina (eye), 2-2; 2-3
noise in, cause of, 6-34; 15-8 compound, 7-7 macula of, 5-21
Radium-Luminous Materials, diffuse, 7-6 photosensitive chemicals, com-
16-10 from front-silvered mirrors, 7-4 pared with, 2-2
Railroad Crossings, illumination from glass, 7-4; 7-10 Retinene, 2-4; 2-5
of, 13-42 from half-silvered mirrors, 7-4 Rhodopsin (visual purple), 2-4; 2-5
Railroad Signals (visible), 13-53 light absorbed by reflector, 7-5; Ribbed and Prismed Surfaces, 7-
color, range of, 13-57 7-10 11
color specifications, 13-59; 13-60 light control by, 7-3 RifleRange, lighting of, 12-6; 12-9
electric switch lamp, 13-54 light received, after successive re- Rods (in retina of eye), 2-3; 2-4; 2-5
kerosene switch lamp, 13-54 flections, 4-5 color discrimination, relation to,
lamp data, 13-59 mat surface, effect on, 7-6 2-3; 2-5
lanterns, 13-56 polarization of light, relation to, dark adaptation, relation to, 2-5
locomotive cab signals, 13-56 7-5; 7-15; 7-16; 7-17 neurone, function of, 2-5
locomotive classification fight, by prisms, 7-10; 7-12 night vision, relation to, 2-4; 2-5
13-54 of radiant energy, 16-2 Purkinje effect, relation to, 2-4;
power sources, 13-56 from rear-silvered mirrors, 7-4 5-21
range of, 13-57; 13-58 reduction in, by low reflectance scotopic vision, relation to, 2-4;
reflex switch marker, 13-29; 13-54 films, 7-17 5-21
traffic control, 13-57 in reflex devices, 13-29 Roof Windows,
wayside signals, 13-54 specular, 7-3; 7-4 effect of design on daylight ilium.
Railway Cars, 1316 spread, 7-6 jnation, 9-5 9-6 ,
1-16 I E S LIGHING HANDBOOK
Room index Shades, for portable luminaires, polarization, 1-22; 7-16
coefficient of utilization, relation 10-45 roof windows, 9-5
to, 8-15 Shelf and Garment Case Light- Skylights (See Roof Windows)
equation for, 8-11 ing, 8-33 Sky. Limit Blue, tristimulus data
luminaire mounting, relation to, calculations for, 8-33 for, A-27
8-4 to 8-11 Ships, lighting of, 13-25 to 13-28 Sleeping Cars, fighting of, 13-20
table, 8-12 Shock Concept Snellen Chart. 2-6; 2-7
Roque, recommended illumination, of discomfort glare, 2-22; 2-23 Snell's Law
12-7 Shoe Manufacturing, lighting for, of light refraction, 7-8; 7-10; 7-11
Rough Service Lamps, 6-18 10-130; 10-131; 10-132; 10-133 Soccer, lighting for, 12-7; 12-25
Roundels, for railroad signals, 13- Show-Case Lamps, 6-19 Society of Automotive Engineers
59; 13-60 Show-Case Lighting, calculations head lighting recommendations,
Runway Lights, 8-32 13-4 to 13-13
for airports, 13-44; 13-45; 13-48; Show Window Lighting, 8-29 Society of Motion Picture
13-50; 13-51; 13-52 calculation of average illumina- Engineers
Roadway Curves, illumination of, tion, 8-29; 8-30; 8-31 motion picture projection stand-
13-42 fading rate, 16-7 ards, 14-24; 14-27
glass surface orientation, 10-74 Socket, cut out, A-9
illumination at various lamp Sodium D-iines
distances, 8-29 wavelength of, 1-3
Safety, lighting, relation to, 10-95 lighting recommendations, 10-71 Sodium Lamp, 5-21; 6-26; 6-27
Sealed Beam Lamps, beam candle- veiling glare, 10-74 Sodium Tube, response of, to
power, 6-17; 13-3; 13-7 Shuffle Board, recommended il- different wavelength, 16-3
School Lighting, 10-74 lumination, 12-7 Softball, 12-7; 12-1S; 12-23
art rooms, 10-80 Signs (Advertising), 1-11 floodlight spotting diagrams, 12-18
auditoriums, 10-81 colored lamp wattages, 11-6 Solar Energy, 16-2
brightness limits, 10-79 effective range of, 11-3; 11-8; 11-10 Solid of Light Distribution, 3-9
brightness ratios, 10-75; 10-76; electric discharge lamp signs, 6-19 Sources
10-78 enclosed lamp signs, 11-6 brightness of light, A-36
cafeterias and restaurants, 10-81 exposed incandescent lamp signs, Spacing (see also Luminaire Spac-
chalkboards, 10-75 11-2 ing)
_
classrooms, 10-75 lamp spacing and wattage recom- advertising sign letters, 11-4; 11-5
corridors, 10-S1 mended, 11-5 highway luminaires, 13-40
daylighting, 10-75 legibility of, 11-3; 11-8; 11-9; 11-11 industrial luminaires, 10-97
design standards, 10-77 poster panels and wall signs, 6-19 street lighting luminaires, 8-4S;
dormitory rooms, 10-82 recognition, distance of, 11-10 13-33; 13-36; 13-39; 13-40; 13-41
drafting rooms, 10-80 reflector equipment for, 11-7 Spatial Brightness Equilibrium.
gymnasiums, 10-76 silhouette signs, 11-0; 11-8; 11-9; 2-26
laboratories and shops, 10-81 11-10 Spectral Distribution, measure-
layout data, 10-78; 10-79 size of letters, 11-1; 11-3; 11-4; 11-9; ment of, 5-1
lecture rooms, 10-79 11-10 Spectral Emissivity, 1-10; 3-8
libraries and reading rooms, 10-79 wedge signs, 11-11 Spectral Radiant Energy, 3-4;
locker rooms, 10-81 Sigma (a), 1-10 3-5
maintenance, 10-77 Signaling Devices. 15-6 Spectral Radiant Intensity, 3-4;
recommended illumination, 10-76 airport beacon, 13-44 3-6
reflectances recommended, 10-75 elevator annunciator, 15-0 Spectral Transmittance Curves,
seating, 10-75 hospital annunciator, 15-6 of various glasses, 4-26
sewing rooms, 10-80 pinball games, 15-7 Spectrophotometer, 4-24; 4-25;
sight-saving classes, 10-75 railroad signals, 13-53 4-26; 4-27; 5-26
stairway, 10-81 reflex devices, 13-29; 13-54 Spectrophotometry, 4-24
swimming pools, 10-76 searchlights, 13-26 color specification, relation to,
Scientific and Engineering Terms telephone switchboard, 15-6 4-1; 4-6; 4-14; 4-24
(see also nomenclature), 3-5 to Sign Lamps, 6-19; 11-2 Spectrophotometers, 4-24; 4-25;
3-13 Sign Letters, 11-1 5-26
Scotopic Vision, 2-4; 2-5 block letters, 11-8; 11-13 Spcctrophotometric curves, use
Screen Surfaces (Movie), 14-25 to brightness of, 11-2; 11-11; 11-13 of in obtaining color Specifica-
14-30 dimension for different ranges, tions, A-24
Schrodinger, theory of wave 114 Spectrum Locus, 3-10
mechanics, 1-1 etched letters, 11-8 of northern lights, 1-23
Searchlights, 13-26; 13-27 height, effect of, 11-10 radiant energv, 1-2
beam lumen calculations for, 8-28 legibility of, 11-3; 11-8; 11-9; 11-11; of skylight, 1-23
color-light signals, 13-57; 13-59 11-14; 11-15 units of length, 1-2
useful range of, 8-28; 13-26; 13-27; metal letters, 11-8 tristimulus values of, A-34
13-58 painted letters, 11-8 Spectrum Locus, 3-10; 4-12
Seasoning Period, for light recognition distance, 11-10 Specular Reflection. 7-3; 7-5
sources, 5-5 size of, 11-1; 11-3; 11-9; 11-10 application of, 7-4
Sector Disk. 5-24 spacing calculations for, 11-4 Speed of Vision
Secondary Standard, 3 1 translucent letters. 11-8 age, effect on, 2-17
Seeing (See Visual Performance; Silhouette Signs. 11-8 to 11-11 brightness of background, relation
Visual Efficiency; Visual Skills) Silo, lighting of, 10-50
to, 2-10; 2-11; 2-12
Selective Radiators. 1-9; 1-10; Silvered-Bowl Lamps, 6-16
contrast, relation to, 2-12; 2-13
1-11 Sines. A-41
Sin2, A-40 for flashing signals, 2-28
Selected Ordlnates. Illuminants
Sin 3 . A-40 illumination, relation to, 2-11;
A, B C, A-28
Selected Ordinate method for Size of Object (Detail), relation to 2-12; 2-13
obtaining color specification, visibility, 2-11 to 2-15 for luminous signals, 2-2S
A-24 Skating, recommended illumina- reflectance, relation to, 2-11; 2-12;
Semiconductor tion, 12-7 2-13
in barier layer cell, 1-6 Skcet Shooting. 12-7; 12-9 size of object, relation to, 2-11;
Semi-Direct Lighting, 10-7 Skin CSee Human Skin'' 2-12; 2-13
Semi-Indirect Lighting. 10-6; 10-7 Ski Practice surrounding brightness, relation
Series Circuits, A-23 recommended illumination, 12-7
to, 2-12
Service Entrance Conductor, Sky Brightness, 9-2; 9-4; 9 6; 9-7
Spotlight, 6-18
A-17 Skylight, 1-22
Sewing Machines footcandle levels, 9-1 beam lumen calculations, 8-28
illumination calculations, 8-46 for floodlighting, 8-24
miniature lamps for, 15 4
INDEX I 17
Spotlight (cont'd) Street Lighting, 8-48; 13-32 color temperatures of, 1-22
lighting performance of, 14-11 alleys, 13-42 control of, at windows, 9-4
in theaters, 10-88 basic photometric data, 8-47 duration of, on architectural sur-
Sports Lighting, 12-4 bridges, 13-42 faces, 9-1
arenas, 12-8 calculations, for installations of, footcandle values of, 9-1
background brightness for, 12-2 8-47; 8-48 Surface Sources, 8-44; 8-45
day lighting for, 12-4 candlepower distribution of Surgical Instruments, lighting of,
design recommendations, 12 S luminaires for, 8-47; 13-35 15-10
floodlight equipment, 12-16 color of light, 13-36 Surround Factor, 2-19; 2-20
gymnasiums, 12-8 curves in roadways, 13-41 Survey Procedures,
indoor illumination, 12-4 design considerations, 13-36; 13-37 baseball field, 5-8; 5-9
lighting layouts, 12-18 to 12-25 forestation, 13-40 floodlighting, 5-8
location of sources for, 12-3 glare, relation to luminaire height, football field, 5-8; 5-9
low level sports, 12-8 13-33 instruments for, 5-2; 5-8; 5-9
maintenance for, 12-8 isocandle diagram for luminaire, interior lighting, 5-5
N.E.M.A. standards, 12-1 8-47 Standard I.E.S. report form (IS-
outdoor illumination, 12-16 isolux curves for, 8-49 10), 5-5
recommended levels for, 12-4 to installations, 13-38 N.E.M.A. recommended practice,
12-7 intersections, 13-41 5-8
viewing distances and objects to luminaire arrangement for various Swimming Pools, lighting of, 12-
be seen, 12-2 values, 13-39 14
Spread Reflector, 7-6 luminaire characteristics, 13-35 insect control, 16-8
Spread Transmittance Materials, fight distribution curves, 13-35 recommended illumination, 10-76;
7-14 mounting height, calculation of, 12-7
Squash, lighting for, 12-7; 12-10 8-48; 8-49 Symbols, 3-4; 3-5; 3-13; 3-14; 4-9; A-8
Stainless Steel, reflectance of, 16-2 overpasses, 13-42 Synapses (Eye), 2-3
Standards (See also Standard underpasses, 13-42
Illuminants, Reference Stand- uniformity, 13-33
ards, Standard Units), 3-1 urban streets, 13-32; 13-39
forairport lighting, 13-43; 13-50 utilization curves for, 8-48; 13-37 Table Tennis, lighting for, 12-2;
American interior lighting, 2-15; railroad crossings, 13-42 12-12
A-l recommended levels, 13-34 characteristics of ball, 12-2
of American Standards Associa- silhouette discernment, 13-33 recommended illumination, 12-7
tion, 3-1; 4-1 street classifications, 13-32 Tail Lights, 13-16
A.N.C. Aeronautical Standards, surface detail, 13-33 for bicycles, 15-9
13-43 spacing of luminaires, calculation for buses, 13-16
A.SA.Z44-1942, 3-1; 4-1 of, 8-48; 8-49; 13-41 for trains, 13-54
British interior lighting, 2-13 traffic safety, 13-41 Talbot's Law, 5-24
candlepower, 3-2 tunnels, 13-42 Tangent Table, A-41
film speeds, 14-6 vehicles per hour, 13-32 Tantalum, melting point of, 6-5
of Fluorescent Lighting Associa- viaducts, 13-42 Task (Glare Criteria), definition
tion, 6-36 wiring for, A-22 of, 2-29
hue names, 4-7 Street-railway Lamps, 6-13 Taylor, A. H., Brightness meter of,
illuminants, 3-2 Street Series Lamps, 6-13 5-13
Illuminant A, 3-2; 4-11 Strip Lights, for airports, 13-44; Reflectometer of, 5-14
Uluminant B, 3-3; 4-11 13-48; 13-50; 13-53 Taxiway Guidance Lights, for
Illuminant C, 3-3; 4-11 Store Fronts (See Commercial airports, 13-46; 13-48; 13-50; 13-52
international candlepower, 1-8; Fronts) Telephone Switchboard, lighting
3-2 Store Lighting. 10-60 of, 15-6
of International Commission on buying, influence on, 10-63 Television (See also television stu-
Illumination, 3-1; 3-10 color, in, 10-65 dios), 1-2
I.C.I, illuminants for colorimetry, customer attention, relation to, 10- frequency, 1-2
3-10; 4-11 62 lamps employed, 14-1
marine searchlight regulations, design factors, 10-65 studios, 14-31
13-26 directional signs, 10-71 10-72
; tube brightness, 1-21
motion picture screen brightness, display, interior, 10-68; 10-69 wavelength, 1-2
14-28 evaluating merchandise, 10-62 Television Studios, lighting of,
of National Bureau of Standards, general fighting, 10-66 14-31
3-1 highlights, 10-66; 10-6S color requirements, 14-1
nomenclature, 3-4; 4-7 luminaires, 10-61 iconoscope tube, 14-32
primary, 3-1 luminaire brightness, 10-60 image orthicon tube, 14-33
S.A.E. Headlighting Code, 13-4 luminous elements, 8-34 general illumination of, 14-33
to 13-13 maintenance, 18-67 lighting methods, 14-31; 14-33
of safety, 2-1; 3-1 mirrors, 10-69 spotlight lamps for, 14-11
secondary, definition, 3-1 niches, 10-70; 10-71 tube sensitivity curves, 14-32
S.M.P.E. projection standards, . reflectances, 10-65 Temperature, 5-12
14-24 shadows, value of, 10-67; 10-69 color, 1-11
sky brightness, international shelf-case calculations, 8-33 conversion table for, A-38
standard, 9-2 show-case calculations, 8-32 effect of on advertising signs, 11-15
for sports lighting, 12-1 show-window calculations, 8-29 effect of on gas-filled lamps, 6-8
transparent color systems, 4-1 store fronts, 11-17 effect of on lamp efficiency, 1-12;
velocity (of radiant energy), 3-2 Window lighting, 10-71 6-5; 6-9
wavelength, reference standard, Store Windows (See Show Window effect on photocells, 5-12
3-2 lighting) of filaments, 6-5
working, definition, 3-1 Stroboscopic Effect, of fluorescent lamp bulb wall, 6-40
Statues, floodlighting of, 11-25 of fluorescent Lamps, 6-35; 6-36; operating of incandescent lamps,
Stefan-Boltzmann Law, 1-10; 6-43; 6-44 6-9
1-11 of gas-filled incandescent lamps, radiator, 3-7
Step Lights, 6-9
still air comfort chart, 10-31
for buses, 13-16 Subnormal Vision, See also pres- Temperature Radiator. 3-7
Steradiancy, 3-4; 3-6 byopia and myopia, 2-1; 2-17;
Sterilization, with bactericidal 2-18
Tennis, lighting for, 12-2; 12-11;
12-24
ultraviolet, 16-19; 16-21 Sunlamps. 16-13,16-16
Stokes Law, basis of, 1-20 Sunlight appearance of ball, under different
Stilb (unit), A-35 brightness of, 1-22 lighting, 12-3
Stiles-Crawford Effect, 2-17 calculation of illumination, 8-46 characteristics of ball, 12-2
1-18 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
of A. M. A. Chart, 2-6; 2-7; 2-8 lamps, A -9 mounting height for, 8-22; 8-23
brightness of, for maximum acu- Transparent Color Standards, Units of Length, 1-3; 3-4; 3-7; 3-12
ity, 2-8; 2-10 4-7 Units of Lighting, iA; 3-5; 3-12
British code, 2-13 Transportation Lighting. 13-1 Urban Streets, lighting of, 13-32;
illumination (in footcandles) re- airplane hangers, 13-61 13-34
quired for, 2-7 airplanes, 13-23 luminaire arrangement, 13-39
international, 2-11; 2-14 airports, 13-43 mounting height, 13-36; 13-39
maximum acuity of, 2-8 automobiles, 13-1 to 13-15 spacing, 13-39
normal vision, 2-6; 2-14 busses, 13-14 U. S. Coast Guard, searchlight
of Snellen Chart, 2-6; 2-7; 2-8 highways, 13-32 regulations, 13-26
sine of, for maximumacuity, 2-6 locomotives, 13-22 Utilization Curves, Type III
2-7; 2-13 railroad signals, 13-53 street lighting luminaire, 8-48
speed of vision, relation to, 2-11 railway cars, 13-16 Ulbricht Sphere, 5-25; 5-26
2-12 reflex devices, 13-29
Tetrahedron, for airports, 13-50 streets, 13-32
13-53 Trap Shooting, lighting for, 12-7;
Textile Mill Lighting, 10-110 12-9
Vacuum Cleaners, lighting of, 15-4
cloth, burling table, 10-116 Triboluminescence, 1-21; 16-8 Vacuum Incandescent Lamps
conditioning, 10-113 Trichromatic Coefficient, 3-10; (Type B), 6-7
coning, 10-113 4-12
performance data on, 6-8; 6-9; 6-10;
cotton mill lighting, 10-110 Trichromatic Co-ordinates, defi- 6-12
rate of fading, 16-6; 16-7 nition of, 3-10 special purposes of, 6-7; 6-8
inspection, 10-102; 10-112 Trigonometric formulas. A-45 Veiling Brightness (See also Dis-
looms, 10-1 lo Trigonometric functions, A-40 ability Glare), 2-20
quiiung, 10-113 Triple reflectors, 13 30
Velocity of light, 1-3; 3-2; 7-7
rewinding, 10-113 Tristimulus data on spectrum, Vertical Footcandles, procedures
silk and synthetic fabric, 10-112 A -34 for determining, 8-39
silk hosiery knitting, 10-116 Tristimulus data, Illuminants A, Viaducts, illumination of, 13-42
warping, 10-114 B, C, and S, A-27 Vibration Service Lamps, 6-18
weave shed, 10-112 Tungsten, 1-9; 1-12 Visibility. 2-9
winding or spooling, 10-113 Tungsten Filament, 6-5
Visibility, American criteria for,
woolen and worsted mills, 10-116 first used, 6-5 2-15
Thalofide Cell, response of, to dif- hot and cold resistance, effect on brightness, relation to, 2-9; 2-10;
ferent wavelengths, 16-3 current, 6-7 2-15; 2-20
Theaters. 10-84 light output, relation to tempera-
British criteria for, 2-14
auditorium, 10-84 ture of, 6-5; 6-11 color contrast, relation to, 2-3; 2-5;
foyers, 10-84 melting point of, 1-12; 6-5 2-6; 2-29
lighting control systems, 10-88 optimum strength and efficiency, contrast, relation to, 2-9; 2-10;
lobbies, 10-84 A-7. 2-15; 2-19; 2-28
motion picture, 10-85 radiation characteristics of, 6-6
of flashing signals, 2-28; 2-29
stage lighting, 10-85 ratio of hot-cold resistance of, A-9
glare, effect on, 2-19
Theater Stages, lighting of, 10-85 resistance of, at various tempera-
locomotive headlight distance,
to 10-88 tures, 6-6 13-22
Thermoluminescence, 16-8 strength of, 6-6
of luminous signals, 2-28; 2-29
Thermopile Photometer, 5-24 Tungsten Filament Lamps, 1-9;
means of measuring, 2-15
Three-Color Colorimeters, 4-28 1-12: 6-5
meter, 2-15; 2-16
Three-Color Mixture, 3-10 Tunnels, illumination of, 13-42
photographic duplication of, 14-19
Three-Light Lamps, 6-19 size, relation to, 2-11; 2-12; 2-13;
Threshold Lights for airports, U 2-15; 2-28
13-50; 13-51
threshold, 2-9; 2-10; 2-15; 2-16; 2-28
Threshold Visibility, 2-9 Ultraviolet Radiant Energy, 1-2
Visibility Meter, 2-15; 2-16
background brightness, relation atomic energy, relation to, 1-16 Visible Radiant energy, photon,
to, 2-28 in automobiles, 13-2
1-18
of circular objects of different bactericidal output, of sources,
Visible Spectrum, 1-2; 1-9
sizes, 2-28 16-12; 16-14
Vision (See also Normal Vision,
contrast and brightness for, 2-9; biological, 16-13
Subnormal Vision, Photopic,
2-10 effect on human skin, 16-15
Scotopic), 1-1
of flashing source, 2-28; 2-29 energy sources, 16-11 age, relation to, 2-15; 2-17; 2-18
measurement of, 2-15; 2-16 erythemal, 16-13 brightness of surface, relation to,
of point sources, 2-28 erythemal output, of sources, 2-11; 2-12; 2-13; 2-28
Tin Plate, reflectance of, 16-2 16 12; 16-14
contrast, relation to, 2-9; 2-10
Toasters, miniature lamps for, eye protection from, 16-13
distant, 2-2; 2-17
15-4 excitation of, in fluorescent lamps,
Tools, lighting of, 15-6 1-17; 16-9 eye, relation to, 2-2; 2-6; 2-17; 2-18
Total Emissivity, 3-8 eye, response to, 1-4 factors of, 2-6; 2-28
Total Reflection, angle of inci- fluorescent materials, 16-8; 16-9 illumination levels, relation to,
dence, relation to, 7-5; 7-10 generation of, 1-16; 1-17 2-18; 2-28
Toys, lighting of, 15-9 measurement, 5-11 lightrelation to, 1-1; 2-1; 2-11; 2-12;
Toy Trains, lighting of, 15-9 mercury-vapor characteristics, 2-13; 2-14; 2-18
Transient, definition of, 3-11 16-12 near, 2-2; 2-17
Transmission Factor, 3-8 miscellaneous uses of, 14-1; 16-1; photochemical theory of, 2-4; 2-25
Transmittance, 7-12 16-11
photopic, 2-3; 2-17
Bouger's law of, 7-13 near U.V. output of sources, 16-14
scotopic, 2-3; 2-4; 2-17
diffuse materials, 7-14 nomenclature, 3-10
size of objects, relation to, 2-11;
of human skin, 16-15 per cent sources, 16-1
of, in light
interference phenomenon, relation phosphor crystals,
1-17 2-12; 2-14; 2-15; 2-28
of
to, 7-17 phosphorescence, 16-9 speed of, 2-10; 2-11; 2-12; 2-13; 2-28
Lambert's law of, 7-13 photochemical output of sources, visual skills, development of, 2-2
lens abberations, relation to, 7-13 16-12 wavelength, relation to, 1-5
1
INDEX M9
Visual Efficiency. 2-6 lumen maintenance, relation to, Wein Displacement. 1-9
glare, relation to, 2-18; 2-19; 2-21; 6-11 Wein Radiation Law, 1-9; Ml
2-22 measurement of, 5-28 Wensel. H. T., luminous efficiency
ratings of, 2-6; 2-7 of miniature lamps, 15-1; 15-2 of radiant energy, 1-8
Visual Efficiency Rating, 2-6 per cent population using various radiation constant of, 1-8
A. M. A. Chart of, 2-6; 2-7 classes, 6-12 Wind Cone, for airports, 13-44;
Snellen Chart of, 2-6; 2-7 variation, effect on lamp charac- 13-45; 13-48; 13-50; 13-52
Visual Acuity (See also Contrast teristics, 6-11; 6-42; 13-17 Window Design, 9-1
Sensitivity), 2-3 Voltage drop, A-10; A-12 brightness control methods, 9-4
age, effect on, 2-17; 2-18 daylight, average, at various times
A. M. A. rating for, 2-6; 2-7 and planes, 9-2
American criteria for, 2-15 W dirt collection rate on glass, 9-3
background brightness, relation evaluation and comparison, 9-3;
to, 2-8; 2-9; 2-12 Waffle Irons, miniature lamps for, 9-4
15-4 factors of, 9-2
brightness of task, relation to, 2-8;
2-9; 2-12; 2-13
Wall Surfaces. 4-3 glass efficiencies, 9-3
brightness, for maximum acuity, average maintained brightness of glass types for, 9-3
8-20 height of window, effect on illumi-
2-8; 2-9; 2-10
British criteria for, 2-14; 2-15 color of, for greater illumination, nation, 9-3; 9-6; 9-7; 9-8; 9-9
4-3; 4-4 illumination values at various
contrast, relation to, 2-9; 2-10
curves of, under various bright- reflectance of, 4-3; 4-4; 4-5 distances from window, 9-7
nesses, 2 8 Warning Signs, reflex reflectors in, roof windows, 9-5; 9-6
definition of, 2-6; 2-7 13-29 rules for, 9-4
glare, effect on, 2-20; 2-21; 2-22
Waterfalls, illumination of, 11-27
sill height variations, illumination
human eye, relation to, 2-3; 2-4; Waterfronts, lighting of, 11-32
values for, 9-7; 9-8; 9-9
2-5; 2-6; 2-17; 2-18 Watt (unit), 3-11 sky brightness, international
illumination levels, relation to, Watt-second (unit), A-35 standard, 9-2
2-11; 2-12; 2-13; 2-14; 2-17; 2-18 Wave Fronts, 7-1; 7-2 Window Glass. 9-3
increases in, at various illumina- Wavelength, 3-2
Wind Tee, for airports, 13-44; 13-45;
adaptation of eye, relation to, 2-6 13-48; 13-50; 13-52
tion levels, 2-18
maximum achievable, 2-8; 2 10 for bactericidal results, 16-17; 16-18 Windshield, reflections from, 13-14
maximum acuity, curve of, 2-8 of blackbody radiation, 1-9 Wiring, A-21
normal vision, 2-6; 2-7; 2-13 color discrimination, relation to, bridge, tunnel and underpass, A-21
2-5 building interiors, A-9
2-17; 2-18
photopic vision, relation to, 2-4 complementary, for color match, common voltages, A-10
3-9
2-5; 2-17 effect of, on lighting, A-7
scotopic vision, relation to, 2-3 dispersion of light, 7-10 exterior, A-20
2-4; 2-5; 2-17 dominant, of a color, 3-9 floodlighting, A-21
Snellen rating for, 2-6; 2-7 for erythema, 16-12; 16-15
interior, A-7
of subnormal vision, 2-1 2-17; 2-18
;
and frequency, relationship be- methods, A-10; A-21
test object, 2-6; 2-7; 2-14 tween,
1-3
objectives, A-7
visual efficiency rating, relation to, infrared, 1-2 underground, A-22
2-6; 2-13; 2-14 measurement of, 1-3
overhead, A-22
Visual Performance, 2-1 photoelectric effect, relation to, practices, A-10
American criteria for, 2-15 1-5; 16-2 residential, A-18
British criteria for, 2-14; 2-15 of power transmission, 1-2 sign lighting, A-21
color of working area, effect on, 4-2 of radar, 1-2 and highways, A-22
street
color, relation to, 4-2 of radio broadcast, 1-2 systems, A-12
glare, effect on, 2-20; 2-21; 2-22 range of, 1-2 Wiring Methods. A-10
illumination levels, relation to, reflectance, relation to, 16-2 armored cable (BX)
2-11; 2-12; 2-13; 2-14; 2-17; 2-18 of shortwave radio, 1-2 knob and tube
Visual Process, 2-1 skylight color, relation to, 1-22 nonmetallic sheathed cable
age, effect on, 2-17 standard, 3-2 open
eye, relation to, 2-2; 2-4; 2-17 for tanning skin, 16-14 electric metallic tubing
photochemical theory of television, 1-2
of, 2-4 flexible metal conduit
"
seeing skills, relation to, 2-2 transmittance, relation to, 16-2 rigid metal conduit
Visual Skills, development of, 2-2 of ultraviolet, 1-2 surface metal raceway
Visual Task, 2-19 units of, 1-2; 1-3 underfloor raceway
comfortable brightness limits, velocity, 1-3 Wiring Practices, common volt-
2-26; 2-27; 2-28 of visible spectrum, 1-2; 1-9
ages, A- 10
disability glare, effect on, 2-19 visual sensation, relation to, 1-5; objectives of, A-7
discomfort, glare, effect on, 2-22 16-2 Woolen and Worsted Mills. 10-116
Visual Purple (See Rhodopsin) of Wein displacement, 1-9
Work, units of, A-37
Vitamin A, 2-4; 2-5 Wave Mechanics, theory of, 1-1 Working Standard, definition of,
Vitamin D, production of, 16-13 Wave Theory, of radiant energy, 1-1 3-1
Volley Ball, recommended illumi- Weather, 9-1 Wrestling, lighting for, 12-5; 12-13
nation, 12-7 clear and cloudy days, number of,
lighting design, 12-13
Voltage, 5-8 9-1
duration of sunlight, on architec-
recommended illumination, 12-5
filament lamp efficiency, relation Wright. W. D., colorimeter, 4-28
to, 6-8; 13-17 tural surfaces, 9-1
filament size, relation to, 6-12 footcandle values, under various
fluorescent lamp starting, relation conditions, 9-1
to, 6-42 Weber-Fechner Law, equivalent
lamp life, relation to, 6-8; 6-10 sensation, 4-11 X-Rays. 1-2; 14-1
lamp temperature, relation to, Wedge Signs, construction of, 11-11 X-Unit, definition of, 3-7
6-9; 6-42 Weight, unite of A-37 ,
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