UNIVERSIDAD DE LAS FUERZAS ARMADAS ESPE SEDE

LATACUNGA

DEPARTAMENTO DE ELÉCTRICA Y ELECTRÓNICA

INGENIERÍA ELECTRÓNICA E INSTRUMENTACIÓN

FUNDAMENTOS DE REDES – NRC 7780

SOLUTIONS MANUAL OF “DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND

NETWORKING” - BEHROUZ FOROUZAN, 5th EDITION, CHAPTERS
2 & 3

6th LEVEL

PREGRADO S-I MAY20-SEP20

INDEX
CHAPTER 2 ......................................................................................................................................1
1. QUESTIONS ...........................................................................................................................1
2. PROBLEMS .............................................................................................................................4
CHAPTER 3 ....................................................................................................................................12
1. QUESTIONS .........................................................................................................................12
2. PROBLEMS ...........................................................................................................................14
CHAPTER 2
1. QUESTIONS
Q2-1. What is the first principle we discussed in this chapter for
protocol layering that needs to be followed to make the communication
bidirectional?

To make the communication bidirectional, each layer needs to be able

to provide two opposite tasks, one in each direction. Such as
physical, data link, net-work, transport, and application layers.

Q2-2. Which layers of the TCP/IP protocol suite are involved in a

link-layer switch?

The network support layers are the physical and data link.

Q2-3. A router connects three links (networks). How many of each of

the following layers can the router be involved with?

a. physical layer b. data-link layer c. network layer

The router is involved in three links. The router is always involved

in one network. Each link may be using different link-layer and
physical-layer protocols. So we have:

a. Three Physical layer

b. Three Data-link layer

c. Only one Network Layer

Q2-4. In the TCP/IP protocol suite, what are the identical objects
at the sender and the receiver sites when we think about the logical
connection at the application layer?
 Identical objects are the two messages at the application
layer: one sent and one received.

Q2-5. A host communicates with another host using the TCP/IP protocol
suite. What is the unit of data sent or received at each of the
following layers?

a. Application layer: The unit of data is a message.

b. Network layer: The unit of data is a datagram.
c. Data-link layer: The unit of data is a frame.

1
Q2-6. Which of the following data units is encapsulated in a frame?

a) a user datagram
b) a datagram (pag. 39)
c) a segment

Q2-7. Which of the following data units is decapsulated from a user

datagram?

The MESSAGE is decapsulated from a user datagram.

Q2-8. Which of the following data units has an application-layer

message plus the header from layer 4?
a. A frame
b. a user datagram
c. a bit

Q2-9. List some application-layer protocols mentioned in this

chapter.

 The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

 The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
 The File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
 The Terminal Network (TELNET) and Secure Shell (SSH)
 The Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
 The Domain Name System (DNS)
 The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP)

Q2-10. If a port number is 16 bits (2 bytes), what is the minimum

header size at the transport layer of the TCP/IP protocol suite?

The minimum header size will be (2 x 16 bits) 32 bits to contain the

send and receive port address.

Q2-11. What are the types of addresses (identifiers) used in each of

the following layers?

a) Application layer Names

b) network layer Logical address

2
 c) data-link layer Link-layer addresses

Q2-12. When we say that the transport layer multiplexes and

demultiplexes application layer messages, do we mean that a
transport-layer protocol can combine several messages from the
application layer in one packet? Explain.

Multiplexing/demultiplexing at the transport layer does not mean

combining several upper-layer packets (from the same or different
applications) into one transport-layer packet. It only means that
each of the transport-layer protocols (such as TCP or UDP) can carry
a packet from any application-layer protocol that needs its service.
However, a transport-layer packet can carry one, and only one, packet
from an application-layer protocol. For example, UDP can carry a
message from FTP in one user datagram and a message from HTTP in
another user datagram.

Q2-13. Can you explain why we did not mention

multiplexing/demultiplexing services for the application layer?

The application layer is the top layer in the suite; it does not
provide services to any layer, which means
multiplexing/demultiplexing does not exist for this layer.

Q2-14. Assume we want to connect two isolated hosts together to let

each host communicate with the other. Do we need a link-layer switch
between the two? Explain.

Do not need a link-layer switch because the communication in this

case is automatically one-to-one. A link-layer switch is needed when
we need to change a one-to-many communication to a one-to-one

Q2-15. If there is a single path between the source host and the
destination host, do we need a router between the two hosts?
We do not need a router in this case because a router is needed when
there is more than one path between the two hosts; the router is
responsible for choosing the best path at each moment.

3
2. PROBLEMS
P2-1. Answer the following questions about Figure 2.2 when the
communication is from Maria to Ann:

Figure 2.2 A three-layer protocol.

a. What is the service provided by layer 1 to layer 2 at Maria’s

site?

Layer 1 pulls the cipher text from layer 2 and inserts it in an

envelope before sending it.

b. What is the service provided by layer 1 to layer 2 at Ann’s

site?

Layer 2 encrypts or decrypts the cipher text to plaintext and send

it to layer 3 so they it could understand easily.

P2-2. Answer the following questions about Figure 2.2 when the
communication is from Maria to Ann:

4
 FIG 2.2 PROBLEM 2.3

a. What is the service provided by layer 2 to layer 3 at Maria’s

site?
Layer 2 takes the plaintext from layer 3, encrypts it into ciphertext
and delivers it to layer
b. What is the service provided by layer 2 to layer 3 at Ann’s
site?
Layer 2 receives the ciphertext from layer 1, decrypts it and
delivers the plaintext to layer 3

P2-3. Assume that the number of hosts connected to the Internet at

year 2010 is five hundred million. If the number of hosts increases
only 20 percent per year, what is the number of hosts in year 2020?

𝑟 20
𝐴 = 𝑃 (1 + ) 𝑛 = 500𝑀 (1 + ) 10
100 100
𝐴 = 500𝑀(1.2)10 = 500𝑀(6.19)

𝐴 = 3100𝑀 = 3.1𝐵

P2-4. Assume a system uses five protocol layers. If the application

program creates a message of 100 bytes and each layer (including the
fifth and the first) adds a header of 10 bytes to the data unit,
what is the efficiency (the ratio of application layer bytes to the
number of bytes transmitted) of the system?

The system transmits 150 bytes for a 100-bytes message.

100
The efficiency is ∗ 100% = 66.66%
150

5
P2-5. Assume we have created a packet-switched internet. Using the
TCP/IP protocol suite, we need to transfer a huge file. What are the
advantage and disadvantage of sending large packets?

ADVANTAGE DISADVANTEGE

It is designed for routing,

It is more difficult to
and has a very high degree of
configure.
reliability.

It is suitable for large

It is slower on networks with
networks to send and receive
low average traffic volume.
information.

It is used both in business

networks and in university
It supports standard tools to
fields, where they use many
analyze network performance.
routes and connections.

Supports multiple technologies

A must for internet

P2-6. Match the following to one or more layers of the TCP/IP

protocol suite:
 route determination: data-link, network.
 connection to transmission media: network, physical.
 providing services for the end user: Physical.

P2-7. Match the following to one or more layers of the TCP/IP

protocol suite:

a. creating user datagrams

b. responsibility for handling frames between adjacent nodes
c. transforming bits to electromagnetic signals

Solutions:

a. Transport and Network.

b. Datalink.
c. Physical layer.

6
P2-8. In figure 2.10, when the ip protocol decapsulates the
transport-layer packet, how does it know to which upper-layer
protocol (UDP or TCP) the packet should be delivered?

A protocol needs to have a field in its header to identify to which

protocol the encapsulated packets belong.

P2-9. Assume a private internet uses three different protocols at

the data-link layer (L1, L2 and L3). Redraw Figure 2.10 with this
assumption. Can we say that, in the data-link layer, we have
demultiplexing at the source node and multiplexing at the destination
node?

Figure 10. Multiplexing and demultiplexing.

7
 At the source node At the destination node

No, we cannot say that. Both multiplexing and demultiplexing are

dealing with several next higher layers, but in this case, the data-
link layer is divided into three different protocol rather than
dealing with several next higher layers. Therefore, we couldn’t say
“in the data-link layer, we have demultiplexing at the source node
and multiplexing at the destination node”.

P2-10. Assume that a private internet requires that the messages at

the application layer be encrypted and decrypted for security
purposes. If we need to add some information about the
encryption/decryption process (such as the algorithms used in the
process), does it mean that we are adding one layer to the TCP/IP
protocol suite? Redraw the TCP/IP layers (Figure 2.4 part b) if you
think so.

Application Application Layer 5

Transport Transport Layer 4

Internet Network Layer 3

Network Data Link Layer 2

Interface

Hardware Devices Physical Layer 1

8
 a. Original Layers b. Layers used in this book

Figure 2.4 Layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite(parte b)

No it does not mean that we are adding another layer to the protocol
suite, it just means that the transport layer has taken another
function and now contains the encryption/decryption process. This
process could be contained and handled within the transport layer to
be able to encrypt and decrypt data.

P2-11. Protocol layering can be found in many aspects of our lives

such as air travelling. Imagine you make a round-trip to spend some
time on vacation at a resort. You need to go through some processes
at your city airport before flying. You also need to go through some
processes when you arrive at the resort airport. Show the protocol
layering for the round trip using some layers such as baggage
checking/claiming, boarding/unboarding, takeoff/landing.

The following shows the layers.

Source/destination
Source/destination
airport airport

Baggage Baggage
checking/claiming
checking/claiming

Boarding/unboarding
Boarding/unboarding

Takeoff/Landing Takeoff/Landing

Flying

9
P2-12. The presentation of data is becoming more and more important
in today’s Internet. Some people argue that the TCP/IP protocol suite
needs to add a new layer to take care of the presentation of data.
If this new layer is added in the future, where should its position
be in the suite? Redraw Figure 2.4 to include this layer.

Presentation Presentation
Layer 6
Application Application
Layer 5
Transport Transport Layer 4

Internet Network Layer 3

Network Data link Layer 2

Interface
Layer 1
Hardware Physical
Devices
a. Original layers b. Layers used in this book

Figure 2.4: Layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite.

Adding extra functionality like presentation of user messages must

be done after the application layer, as application layer purpose is
to transfer the data between source and destination by applying
communication protocols. Application layer simply transfer the
message it received to the transport layer.

P2-13. In an internet, we change the LAN technology to a new one.

Which layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite need to be changed?

If you want to change to one, the ones that will be modified will
be the data link layer and the network layer. The transport layer
does not need modification.

P2-14. Assume that an application-layer protocol is written to use

the services of UDP. Can the application-layer protocol use the
services of TCP without change?
No, the application-layer needs to change two layers that are the
data-link layer and the physical layer.

10
P2-15. Using the internet in Figure 1.11 (Chapter 1) in the text,
show the layers of the TCP/IP protocol suite and the flow of data
when two hosts, one on the west coast and the other on the east
coast, exchange messages.

Fig 1.11.- An internetwork made of two LANs and one point-to-

point WAN

The layers that intervene when two hosts, one on the west coast and
the other on the east coast, exchange messages are:

 Physical Layer
 Data-link Layer
 Network Layer
 Transport Layer
 Application Layer

There are some protocols in the transport layer on the internet each
designed for some specific task. The main protocol is the
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).

TCP provides flow control (which matches the sending data rate of
the source host with the receiving data rate of the destination host
to avoid overwhelming the destination)

11
CHAPTER 3
1. QUESTIONS
Q3-1. What is the relationship between period and frequency?

Period and Frequency

Period is the inverse of frequency, and frequency is the inverse of

period, as the following formulas show.

1 1
𝑓= 𝑦 𝑇=
𝑇 𝑓

Frequency and period are the inverse of each other.

Q3-2. What does the amplitude of a signal measure? What does the
frequency of a signal measure? What does the phase of a signal
measure?

- The amplitude of a signal is the absolute value of its highest

intensity, proportional to the energy it carries.
- Frequency is the rate of change with respect to time. Change
in a short span of time means high frequency. Change over a
long span of time means low frequency
- Phase describes the position of the waveform relative to time
0.

Q3-3. How can a composite signal be decomposed into its individual

frequencies?

Using Fourier analysis, because Fourier series gives the frequency

domain of a periodic signal, Fourier analysis gives the frequency
domain of a no periodic signal.

Q3-4. Name three types of transmission impairment.

Three types of transmission impairment are attenuation, distortion,
and noise.

Q3-5. Distinguish between baseband transmission and broadband

transmission.
The prior difference between baseband transmission and broadband
transmission is that in the baseband transmission the whole bandwidth

12
of the cable is utilized by a single signal. Conversely, in the
broadband transmission, multiple signals are sent on multiple
frequencies simultaneously using a single channel.

Q3-6. Distinguish between a low-pass channel and a band-pass channel.

A low-pass channel has a bandwidth starting from zero; a band-pass
channel has a bandwidth that does not start from zero.

Q3-7. What does the Nyquist theorem have to do with communications?

The Nyquist theorem defines the maximum bit rate of a noiseless

channel.

Q3-8. What does the Shannon capacity have to do with communications?

The Shannon capacity determines the theoretical maximum bit rate of
a noisy channel.

Q3-9. Why do optical signals used in fiber optic cables have a very
short wave length?

Optical signals have very high frequencies. A high frequency means

a short wave length because the wave length is inversely proportional
to the frequency 𝜆 = 𝑣/𝑓, where (𝑣) is the propagation speed in the
media.

Q3-10. Can we say whether a signal is periodic or nonperiodic by

just looking at its frequency domain plot? How?

If a signal is periodic, we can see the signal was consistent or

same size and shape along the signal. For a signal nonperiodic, we
can see the signal was not consistent, and have difference size and
shape.

Q3-11. ¿Is the frequency domain diagram of a voice signal discrete

or continuous?

It is continuous, because it is an aperiodic signal. that the same

word is not repeated in exactly the same tone.

13
Q3-12. Is the frequency domain plot of an alarm system discrete or
continuous?
An alarm system is normally periodic. Its frequency domain plot is
therefore discrete.

Q3-13. We send a voice signal from a microphone to a recorder. Is

this baseband or broadband transmission?

This is baseband transmission because no modulation is involved.

Q3-14. We send a digital signal from one station on a LAN to another

station. Is this baseband or broadband transmission?

It’s broadband transmission because no modulation is involved.

Q3-15. We modulate several voice signals and send them through the
air. Is this base-band or broadband transmission?

The baseband deal only with a simple single signal, then it’s
broadband transmission because it involves modulation.

2. PROBLEMS
P3-1. Given the frequencies listed below, calculate the
corresponding periods.
a. 24 Hz
1
𝑓=
𝑇
1
𝑇=
𝑓
1
𝑇=
24
𝑇 = 0.0416𝑠
b. 8 MHz
1
𝑓=
𝑇
1
𝑇=
𝑓
1
𝑇=
8 ∗ 106
𝑇 = 0.125𝜇𝑠
c. 140 KHz
1
𝑓=
𝑇

14
 1
𝑇=
𝑓
1
𝑇=
140 ∗ 103
𝑇 = 0.00714𝑚𝑠

P3-2. Given the following periods, calculate the corresponding

frequencies.

a. 5 s

1 1
𝑓= = = 0.2𝐻𝑧
𝑇 5𝑠
b. 12 μs

1 1
𝑓= = = 83333𝐻𝑧 = 83.33 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑇 12𝜇𝑠

c. 220 ns
1 1
𝑓= = = 4550000 𝐻𝑧 = 4.55 𝑀𝐻𝑧
𝑇 220𝑛𝑠

P3-3. What is the phase shift for the following?

a) A sine wave with the maximum amplitude at time zero

b) A sine wave with maximum amplitude after 1/4 cycle
c) A sine wave with zero amplitude after 3/4 cycle and increasing

Solution:

a) 90 degrees (𝜋/2 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛).

b) 0 degrees (0 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛).
c) 90 degrees (𝜋/2 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛).

P3-4. What is the bandwidth of a signal that can be decomposed into

five sine waves with frequencies at 0, 20, 50, 100, and 200 Hz?

As it has the frequencies from 0, 20, 50, 100 and 200 Hz. Its lower
frequency is 0 and the upper frequency is 200 Hz. Using the bandwidth
formula, we have:

15
 𝐵 = 𝐹𝑆 − 𝐹𝑖
𝐵 = 200𝐻𝑧 − 0
𝐵 = 200ℎ𝑧

The bandwidth is 200Hz.

P3-5. A periodic composite signal with a bandwidth of 2000 Hz is

composed of two sine waves. The first one has a frequency of 100 Hz
with a maximum amplitude of 20 V; the second one has a maximum
amplitude of 5 V. Draw the bandwidth.

P3-6. Which signal has a wider bandwidth, a sine waves with a

frequency of 100 Hz or a sine wave with a frequency of 200 Hz?

The bandwidth of a single signal is 0, in this example both signals

are simple so both have the same bandwidth equal to 0.

P3-7. What is the bit rate for each of the following signals?

a. A signal in which 1 bit lasts 0.001 s

1 1
bit rate = = = 1000 bps = 1 Kbps
bit duration 0.001s

16
 b. A signal in which 1 bit lasts 2 ms

1 1
bit rate = = = 500 bps = 0.5 Kbps
bit duration 2 ms

c. A signal in which 10 bits last 20 μs

10 bits 1 bit
bit = =
20 μs 2 μs

1 1
bit rate = = = 500 000 bps = 500 Kbps
bit duration 2 μs

P3-8. A device is sending out data at the rate of 1000 bps.

a. How long does it take to send out 10 bits?

10𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠
= 10𝑚𝑠
1000𝑏𝑝𝑠
b. How long does it take to send out a single character (8 bits)?

8bits
= 8𝑚𝑠
1000𝑏𝑝𝑠

c. How long does it take to send a file of 100,000 characters?

100000 ∗ 8𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠
= 800𝑠
1000𝑏𝑝𝑠

P3-9. What is the bit rate for the signal in Figure 3.35?

Figure 3.35 Problem P3-9

There are 8 bits in 16 ns.

8
Bit rate is (16 × 10−9)
= 0.5 × 10−9 = 500 𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠

17
P3-10. What is the frequency of the signal in Figure 3.36?

Figure 3.36 Problem P3-10

The signal makes 8 cycles in 4 ms. The frequency is

𝑓 = 8 /(4 𝑚𝑠) = 2 𝐾𝐻𝑧

P3-11. What is the bandwidth of the composite signal shown in Figure

3.37?

Figure 3.37 Problem P3-11

The bandwidth is 5 × 5 = 25 𝐻𝑧.

P3-12. A periodic composite signal contains frequencies from 10 to

30 KHz, each with an amplitude of 10 V. Draw the frequency spectrum.

18
The signal is periodic, so the frequency domain is made of discrete
frequencies.

P3-13. A nonperiodic composite signal contains frequencies from 10

to 30 KHz. The peak amplitude is 10 V for the lowest and the highest
signals and is 30 V for the 20-KHz signal. Assuming that the
amplitudes change gradually from the minimum to the maximum, draw
the frequency spectrum.

Fig. Frequency spectrum

P3-14. A TV channel has a bandwidth of 6 MHz. If we send a digital

signal using one channel, what are the data rates if we use one
harmonic, three harmonics, and five harmonics?
Using the first harmonic:
data rate = 2 × 6 MHz = 12 Mbps
Using three harmonics:
(2 × 6 MHz)
data rate = = 4 Mbps
3
Using five harmonics:
(2 × 6 MHz)
data rate = = 2.4 Mbps
5

P3-15. A signal travels from point A to point B. At point A, the

signal power is 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑾. At point B, the power is 𝟗𝟎𝑾. What is the
attenuation in decibels?

19
 90
𝑑𝐵 = 10 log10 ( )
100

𝑑𝐵 = −0.46𝑑𝐵

P3-16. The attenuation of a signal is −10 dB. What is the final

signal power if it was originally 5 W?

𝑃2
𝑑𝐵 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( )
𝑃1

𝑃2
−10 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( )
5
𝑃2
−1 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( )
5
𝑃2
10−1 =
5

𝑃2 = 10−1 (5)

𝑷𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟓 𝑾

P3-17. A signal has passed through three amplifiers in cascade, each

with a gain of 4 dB.

¿What is the total profit? ¿How much is the signal amplified?

4𝑑𝐵 → 𝑎𝑑𝑚
4𝑑𝐵
10 10 = 2.51 𝑎𝑑𝑚

4𝑑𝐵 = 2.51 𝑎𝑑𝑚

𝐺𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 3(2.51)

𝐺𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 7.53

• Total profit is 7.53

• The signal amplification would be amplified 3 times, due to the 3

cascaded amplifiers.

20
P3-18. If the bandwidth of the channel is 5 Kbps, how long does it
take to send a frame of 100,000 bits out of this device?

100,000 bits
= 20 s
5 Kbps

P3-19. The light of the sun takes approximately eight minutes to

reach the earth. What is the distance between the sun and the earth?

𝑘𝑚
480𝑠 × 300,000 = 144,000,000 𝑘𝑚
𝑠

P3-20. A signal has a wavelength of 1 μm in air. How far can the

front of the wave travel during 1000 periods?

Data:

 Wavelength=1 μm
 Periods= 1000

𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 ∗ 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑(𝑓𝑜𝑟 1 𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑)

𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

1𝑢𝑚
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
1
1000

𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 1𝑢𝑚 ∗ 1000

𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 1𝑚𝑚

P3-21. A line has a signal-to-noise ratio of 1000 and a bandwidth of

4000 KHz. What is the maximum data rate supported by this line?

We use the Shannon Capacity; the equation is:

𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑥 log 2 (1 + 𝑆𝑁𝑅)

Change the equation to logarithm base 10:

𝑙𝑜𝑔(1 + 𝑆𝑁𝑅)
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑥
𝑙𝑜𝑔(2)

Replace the data:

21
 𝑙𝑜𝑔(1 + 1000)
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = (4000)𝑥
𝑙𝑜𝑔(2)

𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 39868.90 𝑏𝑝𝑠

P3-22. We measure the performance of a telephone line (4 KHz of

bandwidth). When the signal is 10 V, the noise is 5 mV. What is the
maximum data rate supported by this telephone line?

𝑪 = 𝑩 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟐 (𝟏 + 𝑺𝑵𝑹)
10
𝐶 = 4.000 log 2 (1 + ( ))
0.005
𝐶 = 43,866𝑏𝑝𝑠

P3-23. A file contains 2 million bytes. How long does it take to

download this file using a 56-Kbps channel? 1-Mbps channel?

The file contain 2,000,000𝑥8 = 16,000,000 𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠 with a 56 Kbps channel it

16,000,000 16,000,000
takes = 289𝑠 with a 1 Mbps channel it takes =16s
56000 1,000,000

P3-24. A computer monitor has a resolution of 1200 by 1000 pixels.

If each pixel uses 1024 colors, how many bits are needed to send the
complete contents of a screen?

To represent 1024 colors, we need log 2 1024 = 10 bits. The total number
of bits are, therefore:

1200 ∗ 1000 ∗ 10 = 12000000 𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠 = 𝟏𝟐 𝑴𝒃.

P3-25. A signal with 200 milliwatts power passes through 10 devices,

each with an average noise of 2 microwatts. What is the SNR? What
is the SNRdB?

As the noise signal ratio is given by the signal power over the noise
power since it represents the losses they will have in power.

𝑃𝑁 = 𝑁𝑂𝐼𝑆𝐸 ∗ 10
𝑃𝑁 = 2 ∗ 10−6 ∗ 10
𝑃𝑁 = 2 ∗ 10−5
𝑃𝑆
𝑆𝑁𝑅 = ( )
𝑃𝑁

22
 0.2
𝑆𝑁𝑅 = ( )
2 ∗ 10−5
𝑆𝑁𝑅 = 100000

SNRdB, is a logarithmic scale representation of the level of loss

that the signal has, it is usually transformed using the base ten
logarithm in this way it can be graphed and better perceive the
changes in the signal.
𝑆𝑁𝑅𝐷𝐵 = 10𝐿𝑜𝑔10 10000
𝑆𝑁𝑅𝐷𝐵 = 10𝐿𝑜𝑔10 104 = 40

P3-26. If the peak voltage value of a signal is 20 times the peak

voltage value of the noise, what is the SNR? What is the SNR [dB]?

(𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒)2
𝑆𝑁𝑅 =
(𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒)2
𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 2
𝑆𝑁𝑅 = ( )
𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 20 ∗ (𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒)
2
20 ∗ (𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒)
𝑆𝑁𝑅 = ( )
𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑆𝑁𝑅 = 400

𝑆𝑁𝑅[𝑑𝐵] = 10 ∗ log(𝑆𝑁𝑅 + 1)
𝑆𝑁𝑅[𝑑𝐵] = 10 ∗ log(400 + 1)
𝑆𝑁𝑅[𝑑𝐵] = 26.031

P3-27. What is the theoretical capacity of a channel in each of the

following cases?

a. 𝑩𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒘𝒊𝒅𝒕𝒉: 𝟐𝟎 𝑲𝑯𝒛 𝑺𝑵𝑹𝒅𝑩 = 𝟒𝟎

Using the Shannon-Hartley theorem

𝑆
𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑑𝐵 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( )
𝑁
𝑆
40 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( )
𝑁
𝑆 40
= 1010 = 10000
𝑁
𝑆
𝐶 = 𝐵 ∗ 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (1 + )
𝑁

23
 𝐶 = 20𝐾𝐻𝑧 ∗ 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (1 + 10000)

𝐶 = 265,76 𝐾𝑏𝑝𝑠

b. 𝑩𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒘𝒊𝒅𝒕𝒉: 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝑲𝑯𝒛 𝑺𝑵𝑹𝒅𝑩 = 𝟒

Using the Shannon-Hartley theorem

𝑆
𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑑𝐵 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( )
𝑁
𝑆
4 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( )
𝑁
𝑆 4
= 1010 = 2,5118
𝑁
𝑆
𝐶 = 𝐵 ∗ 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (1 + )
𝑁

𝐶 = 200𝐾𝐻𝑧 ∗ 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (1 + 2,5118)

𝐶 = 362,44 𝐾𝑏𝑝𝑠

c. 𝑩𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒘𝒊𝒅𝒕𝒉: 𝟏 𝑴𝑯𝒛 𝑺𝑵𝑹𝒅𝑩 = 𝟐𝟎

Using the Shannon-Hartley theorem

𝑆
𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑑𝐵 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( )
𝑁
𝑆
20 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( )
𝑁
𝑆 20
= 1010 = 100
𝑁
𝑆
𝐶 = 𝐵 ∗ 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (1 + )
𝑁

𝐶 = 1𝑀𝐻𝑧 ∗ 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (1 + 100)

𝐶 = 6,66 𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠

P3-28. We need to upgrade a channel to a higher bandwidth. Answer

the following questions:

a. How is the rate improved if we double the bandwidth?

The bandwidth of a channel is the capacity to send information, using

the capacity equation for a Shannon channel we have:

24
 C = B 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (1 + SNR)

B = bandwidth

Clearly, by doubling bandwidth (2xB), capacity (i.e. data rate) is

doubled.

𝐶1 = 2xB log2 (1 + SNR)

Transmission speed reaches double 𝐶2 = 2𝑥𝐶1 .

b. How is the rate improved if we double the SNR?

In the same capacity equation for a Shannon canal

C = B 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (1 + SNR)

When the SNR is doubled.

𝐶1 = B log2 (1 + 2xSNR) ≈ B log2 ( 2xSNR) ≈ B log2 ( 2) + B log2 ( SNR) ≈ B + C

The transmission speed increases insignificantly.

It can be said that approximately, 𝐶2 = 𝐶1 + 1.

P3-29. We have a channel with 4 KHz bandwidth. If we want to send

data at 100 Kbps, what is the minimum SNRdB? What is the SNR?

100𝐾𝑏𝑝𝑠 = 4𝐾ℎ𝑧 ∗ 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (1 + 𝑆𝑁𝑅)

𝑆𝑁𝑅 = 225 − 1

𝑆𝑁𝑅 = 33554431

𝑆𝑁𝑅(𝑑𝐵) = 75.25𝑑𝐵

P3-30. What is the transmission time of a packet sent by a station

if the length of the packet is 1 million bytes and the bandwidth of
the channel is 200 Kbps?

𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 =
𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ

25
 (8,000,000 𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠)
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = = 40 𝑠
(200,000 𝑏𝑝𝑠)

P3-31. What is the length of a bit in a channel with a propagation

speed of 2 × 108 m/s if the channel bandwidth is:
a. 1 Mbps? b. 10 Mbps? c. 100 Mbps?

(Bit length) = (propagation speed) × (bit duration)

The bit duration is the inverse of the bandwidth.

a.Bit length = (2 × 108 m) × [(1 / (1 Mbps)] = 200 m. This means a bit

occupies
200 meters on a transmission medium.

b. 𝐵𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = (2 × 108 𝑚) × [(1 / (10 𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠)] = 20 𝑚. This means a bit

occupies 20 meters on a transmission medium.

c. 𝐵𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = (2 × 108 𝑚) × [(1 / (100 𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠)] = 2 𝑚. This means a bit

occupies 2 meters on a transmission medium.

P3-32. How many bits can fit on a link with a 2 ms delay if the
bandwidth of the link is:
a. 1 Mbps?
b. 10 Mbps?
c. 100 Mbps?

a. Number of bits = bandwidth × delay = 1 Mbps × 2 ms = 2000 bits

b. Number of bits = bandwidth × delay = 10 Mbps × 2 ms = 20,000 bits
c. Number of bits = bandwidth × delay = 100 Mbps × 2 ms = 200,000
bits

P3-33. What is the total delay (latency) for a frame of size 5

million bits that is being sent on a link with 10 routers each having
a queuing time of 𝟐𝝁𝒔 and a processing time of 𝟏𝝁𝒔? The length of
the link is 2000 Km. The speed of light inside the link is 𝟐 ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎/𝒔.
The link has a bandwidth of 5 Mbps. Which component of the total
delay is dominant? Which one is negligible?

Solution:

𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 + 𝑄𝑢𝑒𝑢𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 + 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 + 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

26
 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 10 ∗ 1𝜇𝑠

𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 10𝜇𝑠

𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 0.000010𝑠

𝑄𝑢𝑒𝑢𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 10 ∗ 2𝜇𝑠

𝑄𝑢𝑒𝑢𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 20𝜇𝑠

𝑄𝑢𝑒𝑢𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 0.000020𝑠

5000000 𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 =
5 𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠

𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 1𝑠

2 ∗ 106 𝑚
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 =
2 ∗ 108 𝑚/𝑠

𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 0.01𝑠

𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 0.000010 (𝑠) + 0.000020 (𝑠) + 1(𝑠) + 0.01(𝑠)

𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 1.01003 (𝑠)

Which component of the total delay is dominant?

The transmission time.

Which one is negligible?

The queuing time.

27