3-Fault Analysis

3.1 Fault Analysis 3.
1 Fault Analysis
Fault Analysis Fault Analysis
Ref : APP12 – APP14 Ref : APP12 – APP14
Issue C Issue C
Last Release : June 2011 Last Release : June 2011
Fault analysis
y Fault analysis
y
● Short-circuit calculation need for various power system studies ● Short-circuit calculation need for various power system studies
● To
T determine
d t i the
th capacity
it or rating
ti off electrical
l t i l equipment
i t ● To
T determine
d t i the
th capacity
it or rating
ti off electrical
l t i l equipment
i t
● To set protective relays ● To set protective relays
● To specify current transformer ● To specify current transformer
Schneider Electric - Energy Automation – Technical Institute 2 Schneider Electric - Energy Automation – Technical Institute 2
Summaryy Summaryy
Types of fault Types of fault

Symmetrical components Symmetrical components
Impedance transformation Impedance transformation
2 windings transformer 2 windings transformer
g transformer
3 windings g transformer
3 windings
Overhead line and cable Overhead line and cable
Synchronous machine Synchronous machine
Induction machine Induction machine

Generalityy Generality
y
● Faults are the main causes of loss of electricity supply ● Faults are the main causes of loss of electricity supply
● IIn most cases, faults l d to short-circuit

f l lead h i i ● IIn most cases, faults l d to short-circuit
f l lead h i i
● Between conductors ● Between conductors
● Between conductor and earth ● Between conductor and earth
● Short-circuit must be cleared by isolating the faulty equipement ● Short-circuit must be cleared by isolating the faulty equipement
Fault causes Fault causes

EXTERNAL INTERNAL EXTERNAL INTERNAL
● Weather : ● definition : ● Weather : ● definition :
● Storm, snow wind,

Storm snow, frost…
wind frost Those faults are not initiated by ● Storm, snow wind,
Storm snow, frost…
wind frost Those faults are not initiated by
external causes external causes
● First cause of fault on overhead line ● First cause of fault on overhead line
(lightning strike scause 50% to 80% (lightning strike scause 50% to 80%
off fault
f lt on OHL) ● example : off fault
f lt on OHL) ● example :
Overvoltage due to : Overvoltage due to :

● Mecanical ● Mecanical
● resonance ● resonance
● OHL : branchs, birds, … ● Wrong operation ● OHL : branchs, birds, … ● Wrong operation
● UGC : excavation machine ● UGC : excavation machine
Schneider Electric - Energy Automation – Technical institut – 19/11/2010 6 Schneider Electric - Energy Automation – Technical institut – 19/11/2010 6
Fault classification Fault classification
● Permanent fault ● Permanent fault

is a fault which affects a device and prevents its restoration into service until is a fault which affects a device and prevents its restoration into service until
action has been taken at the point of the fault
fault. action has been taken at the point of the fault
fault.
● Transient fault ● Transient fault

is an insulation fault which only temporarily affects a device's dielectric is an insulation fault which only temporarily affects a device's dielectric
properties which are restored after a short time properties which are restored after a short time
Fault classification Fault classification
● Developing fault ● Developing fault

is an insulation fault which begins as a phase-to-earth (or phase-to-phase) is an insulation fault which begins as a phase-to-earth (or phase-to-phase)
fault and develops into a two-phase or three-phase fault
fault. fault and develops into a two-phase or three-phase fault
fault.
● Intermittent fault ● Intermittent fault

is a transient fault which recurs repeatedly in the same place and due to the is a transient fault which recurs repeatedly in the same place and due to the
same cause same cause
● Self extinguishing fault ● Self extinguishing fault

is an insulation fault where the arc extinguishes without it being necessary to is an insulation fault where the arc extinguishes without it being necessary to
disconnect the device from the system for its essential dielectric properties disconnect the device from the system for its essential dielectric properties
to be restored. to be restored.
Statistics Statistics
Transmission 15.2 fault per 100 km per year Transmission 15.2 fault per 100 km per year
mono 83 % mono 83 %
poly 17 % poly 17 %
Sub-transmission 37.5 fault per 100 km per year Sub-transmission 37.5 fault per 100 km per year
mono 68 % mono 68 %
poly 32 % poly 32 %
Distribution 150 fault per 100 km per year Distribution 150 fault per 100 km per year
mono 64 % mono 64 %
poly 36 % poly 36 %
Consequences
q Consequences
q
● Short-circuit leads to two effects ● Short-circuit leads to two effects

● Drop of voltage ● Drop of voltage
● Overcurrent ● Overcurrent
● Overcurrent has effect on ● Overcurrent has effect on

● Thermal withstand because of RMS value ● Thermal withstand because of RMS value
● Breaking capacity because of decaying aperiodic component ● Breaking capacity because of decaying aperiodic component
● Mechanical withstand because of peak value ● Mechanical withstand because of peak value
S mmetrical components
Symmetrical S mmetrical components
Symmetrical
Generality Generality
● During rated operation, three phase system is symmetrical. ● During rated operation, three phase system is symmetrical.
● Therefore,
Th f the
th three
th phase
h systems
t can be
b come d
down tto a single
i l ● Therefore,
Th f the
th three
th phase
h systems
t can be
b come d
down tto a single
i l
phase system. phase system.
● This single phase representation cannot be used when symmetry is ● This single phase representation cannot be used when symmetry is
broken (during fault for example) broken (during fault for example)
● Calculation on unbalanced system become complex. ● Calculation on unbalanced system become complex.
Kirchhoff laws must be applied on each phase. Kirchhoff laws must be applied on each phase.
Generalityy Generality
y
● Symmetrical component simplified calculation for unbalanced system. ● Symmetrical component simplified calculation for unbalanced system.
● This
Thi method
h d relies
li on the
h ffollowing
ll i theorem:
h ● This
Thi method
h d relies
li on the
h ffollowing
ll i theorem:
h
Any unbalanced three phase system can be split into three symmetrical three Any unbalanced three phase system can be split into three symmetrical three
phase systems: the symmetrical components phase systems: the symmetrical components
● The three symmetrical components are : ● The three symmetrical components are :
●Positive
P iti sequence (I1) ●Positive
P iti sequence (I1)
●Negative sequence (I2) ●Negative sequence (I2)
●Zero sequence. (I0) ●Zero sequence. (I0)
Mathematical representation
p Mathematical representation
p
● Current : ● Current :
IA 1 1 1 I1 I1 1 a a² IA IA 1 1 1 I1 I1 1 a a² IA
IB = a² a 1
a I2 I2 = 1/3 1 a²
a a IB IB = a² a 1
a I2 I2 = 1/3 1 a²
a a IB
IC a a² 1 I0 I0 1 1 1 IC IC a a² 1 I0 I0 1 1 1 IC
● Voltage: ● Voltage:
VA 1 1 1 V1 V1 1 a a² VA VA 1 1 1 V1 V1 1 a a² VA
VB = a² a 1 V2 V2 = 1/3 1 a² a VB VB = a² a 1 V2 V2 = 1/3 1 a² a VB
VC a a² 1 V0 V0 1 1 1 VC VC a a² 1 V0 V0 1 1 1 VC
● Ohm
O law : ● Ohm
O law :
V1 Vn Z1 0 0 I1 V1 Vn Z1 0 0 I1
V2 = 0 – 0 Z2 0 · I2 V2 = 0 – 0 Z2 0 · I2
V0 0 0 0 Z0 I0 V0 0 0 0 Z0 I0
● Other relations : ● Other relations :
1+a+a
a² = 0 ; a³ = 1
a 1+a+a
a² = 0 ; a³ = 1
a
Kirchhoff law with classical method Kirchhoff law with classical method
Ia ZS Ia ZS
Vn Va Vn Va
Ib ZS Zm Zm Ib ZS Zm Zm
Vb Vb
Ic ZS Zm Ic ZS Zm
Vc Vc
∆VA = IAZS + IBZM + ICZM ∆VA = IAZS + IBZM + ICZM

∆VB = IAZM + IBZS + ICZM ∆VB = IAZM + IBZS + ICZM
∆VC = IAZM + IBZM + ICZS ∆VC = IAZM + IBZM + ICZS
Matrix notation : Matrix notation :

∆VA ZS ZM ZM IA ∆VA ZS ZM ZM IA
∆VB = ZM ZS ZM IB ∆VB = ZM ZS ZM IB
∆VC ZM ZM ZS IC ∆VC ZM ZM ZS IC
Kirchhoff law with symmetrical

y component
p Kirchhoff law with symmetrical
y component
p
1 1 1 ∆V1 ZS ZM ZM 1 1 1 I1 1 1 1 ∆V1 ZS ZM ZM 1 1 1 I1
a² a 1
a ∆V2 = ZM ZS ZM a² a 1
a I2 Multiply by [A]-1 a² a 1
a ∆V2 = ZM ZS ZM a² a 1
a I2 Multiply by [A]-1
a a² 1 ∆V0 ZM ZM ZS a a² 1 I0 a a² 1 ∆V0 ZM ZM ZS a a² 1 I0
-1 -1
∆V1 1 1 1 ZS ZM ZM 1 1 1 I1 ∆V1 1 1 1 ZS ZM ZM 1 1 1 I1
∆V2 = a² a 1 ZM ZS ZM a² a 1 I2 ∆V2 = a² a 1 ZM ZS ZM a² a 1 I2
∆V0 a a² 1 ZM ZM ZS a a² 1 I0 ∆V0 a a² 1 ZM ZM ZS a a² 1 I0
∆V1 1 a a² ZS ZM ZM 1 1 1 I1 ∆V1 1 a a² ZS ZM ZM 1 1 1 I1
∆V2 = 1/3 1 a² a ZM ZS ZM a² a 1 I2 ∆V2 = 1/3 1 a² a ZM ZS ZM a² a 1 I2
∆V0 1 1 1 ZM ZM ZS a a² 1 I0 ∆V0 1 1 1 ZM ZM ZS a a² 1 I0
∆V1 ZS- ZM ZM + a ZS + a² ZM ZM + a ZM + a² ZS 1 1 1 I1 ∆V1 ZS- ZM ZM + a ZS + a² ZM ZM + a ZM + a² ZS 1 1 1 I1

∆V2 = 1/3 ZS- ZM ZM + a²ZS + a ZM ZM + a² ZM + a ZS a² a 1 I2 ∆V2 = 1/3 ZS- ZM ZM + a²ZS + a ZM ZM + a² ZM + a ZS a² a 1 I2
∆V0 ZS + 2 ZM ZS + 2 ZM ZS + 2 ZM a a²
a 1 I0 ∆V0 ZS + 2 ZM ZS + 2 ZM ZS + 2 ZM a a²
a 1 I0
∆V1 ZS - ZM 0 0 I1 Zd 0 0 I1 ∆V1 ZS - ZM 0 0 I1 Zd 0 0 I1
∆V2 = 0 ZS - ZM 0 I2 = 0 Zi 0 I2 ∆V2 = 0 ZS - ZM 0 I2 = 0 Zi 0 I2
∆V0 0 0 ZS + 2 ZM I0 0 0 Z0 I0 ∆V0 0 0 ZS + 2 ZM I0 0 0 Z0 I0
Kirchhoff law with symmetrical Kirchhoff law with symmetrical
component component
Ia ZS Ia ZS
Vn Va Vn Va
Ib ZS Zm Zm Ib ZS Zm Zm
Vb Vb
Ic ZS Zm Ic ZS Zm
Vc Vc
● Ohm law is simplified: ● Ohm law is simplified:

V1 Vn ∆V1 V1 Vn ∆V1
V2 = 0 – ∆V2 V2 = 0 – ∆V2
V0 0 ∆V0 V0 0 ∆V0
V1 Vn Z1 0 0 I1 V1 Vn Z1 0 0 I1
V2 = 0 – 0 Z2 0 · I2 V2 = 0 – 0 Z2 0 · I2
V0 0 0 0 Z0 I0 V0 0 0 0 Z0 I0
Balanced system Balanced system

G G
I1 I1
P iti
Positive G P iti
Positive G
I2 = 0 I2 = 0
Negative Negative
I0 = 0 I0 = 0
Zero Zero
Unbalanced system Unbalanced system
G G
Fault Fault
E, ZG,1 ZT,1 I1 ZC,1, CC,1 E, ZG,1 ZT,1 I1 ZC,1, CC,1

P iti
Positive G ZL,1
L1 P iti
Positive G ZL,1
L1
ZG,2
G2 ZT,2
T2 I2 ZC,2
C 2 , CC,2
C2 ZG,2
G2 ZT,2
T2 I2 ZC,2
C 2 , CC,2
C2
Negative ZL,2 Negative ZL,2
ZT,0 I0 ZC,0 , CC,0 ZT,0 I0 ZC,0 , CC,0

Zero ZL,0 Zero ZL,0
3 ZN 3 ZN
Three p
phase fault Three p
phase fault
Phase A Phase A
Phase B Phase B
IA IA
Phase C Phase C
IB IB
F IC F IC
IA + IB + IC = 0 VA VB VC VA = VB = VC IA + IB + IC = 0 VA VB VC VA = VB = VC
Balanced short circuit : Balanced short circuit :

I0 = 0 ; I2 =0 I0 = 0 ; I2 =0
Three p
phase fault Three p
phase fault
Z1 Z1
I1 F I1 F
Vn Vn
N1 N1
Only positive sequence plays a Only positive sequence plays a

part in equivalent scheme part in equivalent scheme
Phase to p
phase fault Phase to p
phase fault
Phase A Phase A
Phase B Phase B
IA = 0 IA = 0
Phase C Phase C
IB IB
F IC F IC
IB = -IC VA VB VC VB = VC IB = -IC VA VB VC VB = VC
I0 = 0 I0 = 0
IA= 0  I1 = - I2 IA= 0  I1 = - I2
Phase to p
phase fault Phase to p
phase fault
Z1 F Z1 F
I1 I1
Vn Vn
N1 N1
Z2 F Z2 F
I2 I2
Both positive and negative Both positive and negative
sequences play a part in sequences play a part in
equivalent scheme equivalent scheme
N2 N2
Phase to earth fault Phase to earth fault
Phase A Phase A
Phase B Phase B
IA IA
Phase C IB Phase C IB
IC IC
F F
IB = IC = 0 VA VB VC VA = 0 IB = IC = 0 VA VB VC VA = 0
IB = IC = 0  I1 = I2 = I0 IB = IC = 0  I1 = I2 = I0
Phase to earth fault Phase to earth fault
Z1 F Z1 F
I1 I1
Vn Vn
N1 N1
Z2 Z2
I2 I2
F F
All sequences play a part in All sequences play a part in

N2 N2
equivalent scheme equivalent scheme
Z0 Z0
I0 I0
F F
N0 N0
y
Synthesis y
Synthesis
G G
3 Ph Ph-E Ph-Ph Ph-Ph-E 3 Ph Ph-E Ph-Ph Ph-Ph-E

ZG,1 ZT,1 ZL,1 ZG,1 ZT,1 ZL,1
~ E Positive sequence ~ E Positive sequence
ZG,2 ZT,2 ZL,2 ZG,2 ZT,2 ZL,2
Negative sequence Negative sequence
ZT,0 ZL,0 ZT,0 ZL,0
3 ZN Zero sequence
q 3 ZN Zero sequence
q
Resistive fault Resistive fault
a a
b b
c c
ZF ZF ZF ZF ZF ZF ZF ZF ZF ZF
ZF ZF
E E
ZF ZF
Positive Positive
ZF ZF
ZF ZF
Negative 3 ZF ZF Negative 3 ZF ZF
ZF ZF
Zero ZF Zero ZF
E E
Earthing
g impedance
p Earthing
g impedance
p
N IA0 N IA0
IB0 IB0
IC0 IC0
3IA0 IA0 + IB0 + IC0 = 3IA0 3IA0 IA0 + IB0 + IC0 = 3IA0
Zero sequence voltage between N and E: Zero sequence voltage between N and E:
R V0 = 3IA0.R R V0 = 3IA0.R
Zero sequence impedance of earthing impedance: Zero sequence impedance of earthing impedance:
E Z0 = V0 / IA0= 3R E Z0 = V0 / IA0= 3R
Zero sequence
q equivalent
q network Zero sequence
q equivalent
q network
Generator Transformer Generator Transformer
Line F Line F
N N
RT RT
R R
Single line diagram Single line diagram
E E
N0 ZG0 ZT0 ZL0 I0 F0 N0 ZG0 ZT0 ZL0 I0 F0
3R 3RT V0 3R 3RT V0
E0 (N0) E0 (N0)
Zero sequence equivalent network Zero sequence equivalent network
V0 = Zero sequence voltage V0 = Zero sequence voltage

I0 = Zero sequence current I0 = Zero sequence current
V0 = -II0 (ZT0 + ZL0) V0 = -II0 (ZT0 + ZL0)
Example
p 1 Example
p 1
Cable L2 Cable L2
T2 T2
Load
L d Load
L d
Zsource Zsource
Cable L1 Cable L1
T1 T1
Example
p 1: three p
phase fault Example
p 1: three p
phase fault
Z1T2 Z1L2 Z1T2 Z1L2
Z1s Z1s
I1 I1
Z1T1 F Z1L1 Z1T1 F Z1L1
Vn Vn
N1 N1
Example phase to p
p 1: p phase fault Example phase to p
p 1: p phase fault
Z1T2 Z1L2 Z1T2 Z1L2
Z1s Z1s
I1 I1
Vn Vn
N1 N1
Z2T2 Z2L2 Z2T2 Z2L2
Z2s Z2s
I2 I2
N2 N2
Example
p 2 Example
p 2
Cable L2 Cable L2
T2 T2
Load Load
Zsource Zsource
Cable L1 Cable L1
T1 T1
p 2: Phase to earth fault

Example p 2: Phase to earth fault
Example
Z1T2 Z1L2 Z1T2 Z1L2
Z1s F Z1s F
I1 I1
Z1T1 Z1L1 Z1T1 Z1L1
Vn Vn
N1 N1
Z2T2 Z2L2 Z2T2 Z2L2
Z2
Z2s F Z2
Z2s F
I2 I2
Z2T1 Z2L1 3*Rf Z2T1 Z2L1 3*Rf
N2 N2
Z0T2 Z0L2 Z0T2 Z0L2
Zos F Zos F
Z0T1 Z0L1 Z0T1 Z0L1

Io Io
No No
To summarize To summarize
● Equivalent circuits are used to calculate symmetrical components. ● Equivalent circuits are used to calculate symmetrical components.
● Current on each phase are calculated from symmetrical components by ● Current on each phase are calculated from symmetrical components by
using transformation formula. using transformation formula.
● Finally,
Fi ll usuall ffaults
lt can b
be calculated
l l t d thi
this way: ● Finally,
Fi ll usuall ffaults
lt can b
be calculated
l l t d thi
this way:
● 3 phases fault : ● 3 phases fault :
Ik3 = Vn / Z1 with Vn = Un/ √3 Ik3 = Vn / Z1 with Vn = Un/ √3
● Phase to phase fault : ● Phase to phase fault :

Ik2 = √3 Vn / ((Z1 + Z2)) Ik2 = √3 Vn / ((Z1 + Z2))
● Phase to earth fault : ● Phase to earth fault :

Ik1 = 3 Vn / (Z1 + Z2 + Z0) Ik1 = 3 Vn / (Z1 + Z2 + Z0)


Generality Generality
● On network with several voltage level, it may be useful to convert ● On network with several voltage level, it may be useful to convert
impedance in order to performed calculation on only one voltage level impedance in order to performed calculation on only one voltage level
● Two methods are possible ● Two methods are possible

● Introduction of a base voltage:
g ● Introduction of a base voltage:
g
Current and impedance are still expressed in amp and ohm Current and impedance are still expressed in amp and ohm
● Introduction of a base power and a base voltage: ● Introduction of a base power and a base voltage:
Current and impedance are expressed in per unit Current and impedance are expressed in per unit
Ohm method Ohm method
● Principle ● Principle
Calculation are performed considering only one voltage level Calculation are performed considering only one voltage level
● Base quantity : ● Base quantity :

Base voltage : Ub Base voltage : Ub
● Impedance conversion: ● Impedance conversion:
New Z (ohm) = Z(ohm) * (Ub / Un)² New Z (ohm) = Z(ohm) * (Ub / Un)²
Ohm method (example) Ohm method (example)
● Conversion under 20 kV ● Conversion under 20 kV

225 kV 20 kV 225 kV 20 kV
1500 MVA R : 0,3 ohm 36 MVA R : 0,2 ohm 1500 MVA R : 0,3 ohm 36 MVA R : 0,2 ohm
X : 10 ohm 225 kV/20kV X : 2 ohm X : 10 ohm 225 kV/20kV X : 2 ohm
Ucc : 16% Ucc : 16%
j Ub² / Scc (R+jX)* (Ub / Un)² Ucc * (Ub² / Sn) (R+jX)* (Ub / Un)² j Ub² / Scc (R+jX)* (Ub / Un)² Ucc * (Ub² / Sn) (R+jX)* (Ub / Un)²
Z Z
j20² / 1500 (0,3+j10)*(20/225)² j0,16*(20²/36) 0,2+j2*(20/20)² j20² / 1500 (0,3+j10)*(20/225)² j0,16*(20²/36) 0,2+j2*(20/20)²
j0.0133 ohm 0.0024+j0.08 ohm j1,77 ohm 0,2 + j2 j0.0133 ohm 0.0024+j0.08 ohm j1,77 ohm 0,2 + j2
0,2 + j4,05
0, j ,05 o
ohm 0,2 + j4,05
0, j ,05 o
ohm
V 20 kV IF = 2,8 kA V 20 kV IF = 2,8 kA
Per unit method Per unit method
● Principle ● Principle
● Values (voltage, current, impedance) are converted into relative values. ● Values (voltage, current, impedance) are converted into relative values.
● Calculation with per unit values are non longer voltage dependant ● Calculation with per unit values are non longer voltage dependant
● Base quantities : ● Base quantities :

● Base power : Sb ● Base power : Sb
● Base voltage : Ub ● Base voltage : Ub
● Resulting quantities : ● Resulting quantities :

● Base current : Ib = Sb / (√3*Ub) ● Base current : Ib = Sb / (√3*Ub)
● Base impedance : Zb = Ub² / Sb = Ub / (√3*Ib) ● Base impedance : Zb = Ub² / Sb = Ub / (√3*Ib)
● Impedance conversion: ● Impedance conversion:
z (%) = (Z / Zb) * (Ub / Un)² z (%) = (Z / Zb) * (Ub / Un)²
Per unit method (example) Per unit method (example)
● Base quantities : 1 kV et 30 MVA ● Base quantities : 1 kV et 30 MVA

● Zb = (1kV)² / (30MVA) = 0.0333 ohm Ib = (30 MVA)/(√3*1kV) = 17320 A ● Zb = (1kV)² / (30MVA) = 0.0333 ohm Ib = (30 MVA)/(√3*1kV) = 17320 A
225 kV 20 kV 225 kV 20 kV
1500 MVA R : 0,3 ohm 36 MVA R : 0,2 ohm 1500 MVA R : 0,3 ohm 36 MVA R : 0,2 ohm
X : 10 ohm 225 kV/20kV X : 2 ohm X : 10 ohm 225 kV/20kV X : 2 ohm
Ucc : 16% Ucc : 16%
jSb / Scc (R+jX) / Zb)* (Ub / Un)² Ucc * (Sb / Sn) ((R+jX) / Zb)* (Ub / Un)² jSb / Scc (R+jX) / Zb)* (Ub / Un)² Ucc * (Sb / Sn) ((R+jX) / Zb)* (Ub / Un)²
Zpu Zpu
j30 / 1500 (0,3+j10)/0.0333*(1/225)² j0,16*(30/36) (0,2+j2)/0.0333*(1/20)² j30 / 1500 (0,3+j10)/0.0333*(1/225)² j0,16*(30/36) (0,2+j2)/0.0333*(1/20)²
J0,02 0.00018+j0,0059 j0,1333 0,015+j0,15 J0,02 0.00018+j0,0059 j0,1333 0,015+j0,15
0,015+j0,309p.u. 0,015+j0,309p.u.
V 1p.u. IF = 3,2 pu IF 20kV = 3,2

3 2 * 17320 A *(1kV/20kV)
(1kV/20kV) V 1p.u. IF = 3,2 pu IF 20kV = 3,2
3 2 * 17320 A *(1kV/20kV)
(1kV/20kV)
= 2,8 kA = 2,8 kA

p
Impedance transformation p
Impedance transformation

I d i machine
Induction hi I d i machine
Induction hi
Positive and negative
g sequences
q Positive and negative
g sequences
q
Z1 ≈ X1 = zpu * (Ub2 / Sn) Z1 ≈ X1 = zpu * (Ub2 / Sn)

Z2 ≈ X2 = zpu * (Ub2 / Sn) Z2 ≈ X2 = zpu * (Ub2 / Sn)
90kV / 20kV 90kV / 20kV

Ucc = 15% Ucc = 15%
50MVA 50MVA
Z1 = Z2 = 0.15
0 15 * (20kV2 / 50MVA) Z1 = Z2 = 0.15
0 15 * (20kV2 / 50MVA)
= 1.2 ohm under 20kV = 1.2 ohm under 20kV
Transformer zero sequence impedance Transformer zero sequence impedance

(1/4) (1/4)
● Zero sequence impedance of transformer vary with the winding ● Zero sequence impedance of transformer vary with the winding
coupling coupling
P Q P Q
ZT0 ZT0
a a a a
P Q P Q
b b b b
N0 N0
(2/4) (2/4)
P S P S
P0 ZT0 S0 P0 ZT0 S0
a a a a
b b b b
N0 N0

(3/4) (3/4)
P S P S
P0 ZT0 P0 ZT0
a a S0 a a S0
b b b b
N0 N0
(4/4) (4/4)
P S P S
P0 ZT0 P0 ZT0
a a S0 a a S0
b b b b
N0 N0

Impédances des transformateurs 2 enroulements Impédances des transformateurs 2 enroulements

duc o machine
Induction ac e duc o machine
Induction ac e
Positive and negative
g sequences
q Positive and negative
g sequences
q
1 Z2 1 Z2
13.8kV
161kV / 115kV / 13 8kV Z1 2 13.8kV
161kV / 115kV / 13 8kV Z1 2
Sn12=10% sur 30MVA Sn12=10% sur 30MVA
Sn13=6% sur 10MVA 1 Sn13=6% sur 10MVA 1
Sn23=14% sur 15MVA Z3 Sn23=14% sur 15MVA Z3
3 3
Z1 = 1/2 * (Z12 + Z13 - Z23) Z1 = 1/2 * (Z12 + Z13 - Z23)

Z2 = 1/2 * (Z12 + Z23 - Z13) Z2 = 1/2 * (Z12 + Z23 - Z13)
Z3 = 1/2 * (Z13 + Z23 - Z12) Z3 = 1/2 * (Z13 + Z23 - Z12)
2 3 2 3
Positive and negative sequences Positive and negative sequences

e ample
example Calculation under Sb = 100MVA :
e ample
example Calculation under Sb = 100MVA :
1 1
Z12 = (100MVA/30MVA) * 10% = 33.33% Z12 = (100MVA/30MVA) * 10% = 33.33%
161kV / 115kV / 13.8kV
13 8kV Z13 = (100MVA/10MVA) * 6% = 60% 161kV / 115kV / 13.8kV
13 8kV Z13 = (100MVA/10MVA) * 6% = 60%
Z12=10% under 30MVA Z23 = (100MVA/15MVA) * 14% = 93.33% Z12=10% under 30MVA Z23 = (100MVA/15MVA) * 14% = 93.33%
Z13= 6% under 10MVA Z13= 6% under 10MVA
Z23=14% under 15MVA Z23=14% under 15MVA
Z1 = 1/2 * (Z12 + Z13 - Z23) Z1 = 1/2 * (Z12 + Z13 - Z23)

= 1/2 * (33.33 + 60 - 93.33) = 0% = 1/2 * (33.33 + 60 - 93.33) = 0%
Z2 = 1/2 * (Z12 + Z23 - Z13) Z2 = 1/2 * (Z12 + Z23 - Z13)
= 1/2 * (33.33 + 93.33 - 60) = 33.33% = 1/2 * (33.33 + 93.33 - 60) = 33.33%
Z3 = 1/2 * (Z13 + Z23 - Z12) Z3 = 1/2 * (Z13 + Z23 - Z12)
= 1/2 * (60 + 93.33 - 33.33) = 60% = 1/2 * (60 + 93.33 - 33.33) = 60%
2 3 2 3
Calculation in ohm under 161kV : Calculation in ohm under 161kV :

Z1 = 10% * 161kV2
/ 30MVA = 86.4 ohm under 161kV Z1 = 10% * 161kV2 / 30MVA = 86.4 ohm under 161kV
Z2 = 6% * 161kV2 / 10MVA = 155.5 ohm under 161kV Z2 = 6% * 161kV2 / 10MVA = 155.5 ohm under 161kV
Z3 = 14% * 161kV2 / 15MVA = 241.9 ohm under 161kV Z3 = 14% * 161kV2 / 15MVA = 241.9 ohm under 161kV
Zero sequence
q Zero sequence
q

g transformer
3 windings

Overhead line : Overhead line :
Positive sequence impedance (reactance) Positive sequence impedance (reactance)
● Resistance (R) : ● Resistance (R) :

● Resistance is given by: ● Resistance is given by:
●resistivity (ρ) ●resistivity (ρ)
●length (l) ●length (l)
●section (s)
R = ρ * l / (s * n) ●section (s)
R = ρ * l / (s * n)
●Number of conductors in parallel (n) ●Number of conductors in parallel (n)
● Example : ● Example :
● Almelec (ρ =0.032 en 10-6 ohm*m) ● Almelec (ρ =0.032 en 10-6 ohm*m)
● length: 2500 m ● length: 2500 m
● section: 228mm2 ● section: 228mm2
● 1 conductor ● 1 conductor
Rd = 0.032 * 2500m / (228mm2 * 1) = 0.35 ohm Rd = 0.032 * 2500m / (228mm2 * 1) = 0.35 ohm

Positive sequence impedance (reactance) Positive sequence impedance (reactance)
● Reactance (X) : ● Reactance (X) :

● Reactance value is almost not dependent from the rated voltage or section. ● Reactance value is almost not dependent from the rated voltage or section.
But it is affected by the number of conductors per phase.
phase But it is affected by the number of conductors per phase.
phase
● On line with one conductor per phase (up to 220kV) ● On line with one conductor per phase (up to 220kV)
X ≈ 0.4ohm/km X ≈ 0.4ohm/km
● On line with two conductors per phase (typically 400kV): ● On line with two conductors per phase (typically 400kV):
X ≈ 0.32ohm/km X ≈ 0.32ohm/km
Negati e seq
Negative sequence
ence impedance Negati e seq
Negative sequence
ence impedance
● When transposed, positive et negative sequences are equal ● When transposed, positive et negative sequences are equal
● It is assumed to be always the case even if the line is not transposed ● It is assumed to be always the case even if the line is not transposed

Zero seq
sequence
ence impedance Zero seq
sequence
ence impedance
● IZero sequence impedance is about three times the positive sequence ● IZero sequence impedance is about three times the positive sequence
when there is no earth wire when there is no earth wire
Z0 ≈ 3 Z1 Z0 ≈ 3 Z1
Underground cable : Underground cable :
Positive sequence impedance(resistance) Positive sequence impedance(resistance)
● Resistance (R) : ● Resistance (R) :

● Resistance is given by: ● Resistance is given by:
●resistivity (ρ) ●resistivity (ρ)
●length (l) ●length (l)
●section (s)
R = ρ * l / (s * n) ●section (s)
R = ρ * l / (s * n)
●Number of conductors in parallel (n) ●Number of conductors in parallel (n)
● Example : ● Example :
● Copper (ρ =0.018 en 10-6 ohm*m) ● Copper (ρ =0.018 en 10-6 ohm*m)
● length : 700m ● length : 700m
● section: 95mm2 ● section: 95mm2
Rd = 0.018 * 700m / 95mm2 = 0.13 ohm Rd = 0.018 * 700m / 95mm2 = 0.13 ohm

Positive sequence impedance(reactance) Positive sequence impedance(reactance)
● Réactance (X) ● Réactance (X)

● Reactance value is almost not dependent from the rated voltage or section. ● Reactance value is almost not dependent from the rated voltage or section.
But it is affected by the number of conductors per phase.
phase But it is affected by the number of conductors per phase.
phase
0.1 ohm/km < X < 0.15 ohm/km 0.1 ohm/km < X < 0.15 ohm/km
Negati e and zero
Negative ero seq
sequence
ence impedance Negati e and zero
Negative ero seq
sequence
ence impedance
● Negative sequence impedance (Z2) : ● Negative sequence impedance (Z2) :

When symetrical wiring, positive et negative sequences are equal When symetrical wiring, positive et negative sequences are equal
Zi = Zd Zi = Zd
● Zero sequence impedance (Z0) : ● Zero sequence impedance (Z0) :

No general rule No general rule
Zero sequence impedance is influenced by: Zero sequence impedance is influenced by:
●Soil
Soil resistivity ●Soil
Soil resistivity
●Surrounding conductors ●Surrounding conductors
●Earthing of the sheath ●Earthing of the sheath

g transformer
3 windings

Positive sequence
q impedance
p Positive sequence
q impedance
p
Short circuit decrement curve Short circuit phase-earth Short circuit decrement curve Short circuit phase-earth
I
Isc (per
( unit
it - rms)) Short circuit phase-phase
phase phase I
Isc (per
( unit
it - rms)) Short circuit phase-phase
phase phase
9 3 phase short-circuit 9 3 phase short-circuit
8 8
Mise enStart
routeofdeAVR
l’AVR Mise enStart
routeofdeAVR
l’AVR
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 Zdg ≈ Xdg = f(t) 1 Zdg ≈ Xdg = f(t)

0 0
0,001 0,01 0,1 1 10 0,001 0,01 0,1 1 10
Time (sec) Time (sec)
Positive sequence
q impedance
p Positive sequence
q impedance
p
● Positive sequence impedance is not constant ● Positive sequence impedance is not constant
● Several reactances must be defined ● Several reactances must be defined
● Short circuit current behave like this: ● Short circuit current behave like this:
     
t
t
 
    
 
    
'd
'd
'd
'd
1
1
         
Τ
Τ
 
a
a
                 
Ι
t
Ι
n
c
o
s
ω
t
Ι
t
Ι
n
c
o
s
ω
t
e
'
' d
' d
' d
' d
'
'
' d
' d
' d
' d
'
 
x
x
             
d
d
● With ● With
In = rated current (Amp) In = rated current (Amp)
X’’d = subtransient reactance (p.u.) X’’d = subtransient reactance (p.u.)
X’d = transient reactance(p.u.) X’d = transient reactance(p.u.)
Xd = synchronous reactance (p.u.) Xd = synchronous reactance (p.u.)
T’’d = subtransient time constant (s) T’’d = subtransient time constant (s)
T’d = transient time constant (s) T’d = transient time constant (s)
T =
Ta DC titime constant
t t (s)
( ) T =
Ta DC titime constant
t t (s)
( )
Negative
g and zero sequence
q impedance
p Negative
g and zero sequence
q impedance
p
● Negative sequence impedance (Z2) : ● Negative sequence impedance (Z2) :

Negative sequence impedance is about the transient reactance Negative sequence impedance is about the transient reactance
Z2 ≈ X’d Z2 ≈ X’d
● Zero sequence impedance(Z0) : ● Zero sequence impedance(Z0) :

This impedance is very low and in practice is not used because of: This impedance is very low and in practice is not used because of:
●Zero sequence filtering by transformer ●Zero sequence filtering by transformer
●Neutral
Neutral point grounding throught an high resistance ●Neutral
Neutral point grounding throught an high resistance
g transformer
3 windings

Positive,, negative,
g , zero sequence
q Positive,, negative,
g , zero sequence
q
● Positive sequence impedance (Z1) : ● Positive sequence impedance (Z1) :

During three phase fault, short-circuit current appears only during the first milliseconds During three phase fault, short-circuit current appears only during the first milliseconds
●I(t)
I(t) = Istarting * exp(
exp(-t/T),
t/T), ●I(t)
I(t) = Istarting * exp(
exp(-t/T),
t/T),
2 2
T ≈ 50 ms Un T ≈ 50 ms Un
Zinit  Zinit 
Istart Istart
Sn  Sn 
In In
Z permanent   Z permanent  
● Negative sequence impedance (Zi) : ● Negative sequence impedance (Zi) :

Negative sequence is equal to the positive sequence Negative sequence is equal to the positive sequence
Z2 ≈ X2 = X1 Z2 ≈ X2 = X1
● Zero sequence impedance (Z0) : ● Zero sequence impedance (Z0) :

Neutral point usually not grounded Neutral point usually not grounded
3.2 Annex 1 -CT18_Analysis of three-phase 3.2 Annex 1 -CT18_Analysis of three-phase
networks networks
3.3 Annex 2 CT158_Calculation of short-circuit 3.3 Annex 2 CT158_Calculation of short-circuit
currents currents

3-Fault Analysis

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3.1 Fault Analysis 3.

Ref : APP12 – APP14 Ref : APP12 – APP14

● To set protective relays ● To set protective relays

● To specify current transformer ● To specify current transformer

Types of fault Types of fault

Types of fault Types of fault

● IIn most cases, faults l d to short-circuit

Fault causes Fault causes

● Weather : ● definition : ● Weather : ● definition :

● Storm, snow wind,

Overvoltage due to : Overvoltage due to :

● Permanent fault ● Permanent fault

● Transient fault ● Transient fault

Fault classification Fault classification

● Developing fault ● Developing fault

● Intermittent fault ● Intermittent fault

● Self extinguishing fault ● Self extinguishing fault

● Short-circuit leads to two effects ● Short-circuit leads to two effects

● Overcurrent has effect on ● Overcurrent has effect on

∆VA = IAZS + IBZM + ICZM ∆VA = IAZS + IBZM + ICZM

Matrix notation : Matrix notation :

Kirchhoff law with symmetrical

∆V1 ZS- ZM ZM + a ZS + a² ZM ZM + a ZM + a² ZS 1 1 1 I1 ∆V1 ZS- ZM ZM + a ZS + a² ZM ZM + a ZM + a² ZS 1 1 1 I1

● Ohm law is simplified: ● Ohm law is simplified:

Balanced system Balanced system

E, ZG,1 ZT,1 I1 ZC,1, CC,1 E, ZG,1 ZT,1 I1 ZC,1, CC,1

Negative ZL,2 Negative ZL,2

ZT,0 I0 ZC,0 , CC,0 ZT,0 I0 ZC,0 , CC,0

Balanced short circuit : Balanced short circuit :

Only positive sequence plays a Only positive sequence plays a

Phase to earth fault Phase to earth fault

All sequences play a part in All sequences play a part in

3 Ph Ph-E Ph-Ph Ph-Ph-E 3 Ph Ph-E Ph-Ph Ph-Ph-E

~ E Positive sequence ~ E Positive sequence

ZG,2 ZT,2 ZL,2 ZG,2 ZT,2 ZL,2

Negative sequence Negative sequence

ZT,0 ZL,0 ZT,0 ZL,0

N0 ZG0 ZT0 ZL0 I0 F0 N0 ZG0 ZT0 ZL0 I0 F0

V0 = Zero sequence voltage V0 = Zero sequence voltage

Z1T2 Z1L2 Z1T2 Z1L2

p 2: Phase to earth fault

Z0T1 Z0L1 Z0T1 Z0L1

● Phase to phase fault : ● Phase to phase fault :

● Phase to earth fault : ● Phase to earth fault :

Types of fault Types of fault

Impedance transformation Impedance transformation

● Two methods are possible ● Two methods are possible

Ohm method Ohm method

● Base quantity : ● Base quantity :

● Impedance conversion: ● Impedance conversion:

● Conversion under 20 kV ● Conversion under 20 kV

Per unit method Per unit method

● Base quantities : ● Base quantities :

● Resulting quantities : ● Resulting quantities :

● Base quantities : 1 kV et 30 MVA ● Base quantities : 1 kV et 30 MVA

V 1p.u. IF = 3,2 pu IF 20kV = 3,2

Types of fault Types of fault

2 windings transformer 2 windings transformer

Z1 ≈ X1 = zpu * (Ub2 / Sn) Z1 ≈ X1 = zpu * (Ub2 / Sn)

90kV / 20kV 90kV / 20kV