Building Construction

2. Masonry
CE 2330
Civil Engineering Materials and Construction
 Learning outcomes
• List and classify different types of masonry
• Describe the construction methodology and arrangement
for stone and brick masonry
• Explain differences between different types of masonry
walls
 Introduction
Masonry consists of blocks made out of stone,
bricks, concrete and other materials, joined
together by mortar. Various types of masonry
units are used in construction:
1. Concrete blocks – could be solid or hollow
2. Clay bricks
3. Stone
4. Structural clay tiles – These are larger than clay
bricks and are used for lightweight masonry such
as partition walls and filler panels
5. Glass blocks – Used in cold regions, especially
when there is a need for natural light in the
interior
 Clay Bricks
• Clay is composed of silica, alumina, and small quantities of Fe,
Mn, S, and phosphates.
• The properties of clay necessary for brick-making are: (1)
plasticity to allow moulding and shaping when mixed with water,
(2) sufficient tensile strength to retain shape after forming, and (3)
ability of particles to fuse together at high temperatures.
 Clays - Classification
Depending on their composition, clays are divided into
(a) Calcareous clays – approx. 15% CaCO3 and burn to a
yellowish colour, and
(b) Non-calcareous clays – contains aluminosilicates with
feldspar and iron oxide (2 – 10%), colour on burning is
determined by the iron oxide content.
 Manufacture of bricks
• Bricks are manufactured by grinding or crushing the clay
in mills and mixing with water to make it plastic.
• The plastic clay is then moulded, textured, dried, and then
fired. The firing temperature is typically between 900 and
1200 oC.
• The average density of bricks is 2 g/cc.
 Bricks – Classification
Functional:
• Building bricks
• Facing bricks
• Floor bricks
• Paving bricks

Based on manufacturing process:

1. Unburnt bricks / sun dried bricks: These are very weak, and can be used only for
temporary and cheap structures. These should not be used in places exposed to heavy
rains.
2. Burnt bricks – Commonly used.
 Brick dimensions
• Similar to concrete blocks, nominal dimensions are used for bricks
also. Typically, company manufactured bricks have a depression
on the top and bottom surfaces with an imprint (usually of the
company name). This depression is called a ‘frog’, and causes
and improvement in the bond between the brick and mortar.
• Standard brick measures 19 x 9 x 9 cm (with 1 cm mortar joint –
20 x 10 x 10 cm)
• Traditional brick measures 23 x 11 x 7 cm
Brick types
 Properties of bricks
Durability of bricks depends on their absorption potential. Bricks with
high absorption are prone to efflorescence.
In general, clay bricks are durable, fire resistant, poor conductors of
heat, and have moderate insulating properties.
The compressive strength of bricks depends on:
• Composition of the clay
• Method of brick manufacturing, and
• The degree of firing
 Efflorescence
• Efflorescence on brickwork is commonly observed when salts dissolved in
moisture get deposited on the surface.
• It produces ugly damp patches, eats through the surface coatings, and
gradually disintegrates the structure.
• The salts are typically sulphates of Mg, Ca, or Na, as well as certain nitrates,
carbonates, and chlorides.
• The source of these salts can be groundwater, mortar used for the masonry,
or the brick itself (when it is porous, underburnt etc.).
Efflorescence
 Stone
• Similar to the ancient times, large blocks (more than 1 m on each
side) of stones are often used for architecturally appealing
construction. Such large pieces that are finished and ‘dressed’ are
known as ‘dimension stone’.
• The choice of a particular type of tone for construction depends
on many parameters, such as the mineralogy of the rock, the
mechanical properties of the rock, as well as the resistance to
weathering.
 Lime
• Lime (CaO) is obtained from limestone
(composed of CaCO3) by calcination.

Hydration of lime:
• CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2 Setting
• Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O Hardening

https://www.lime.org.uk/community/the-lime-
cycle/lime-and-its-production.html
 Grout and Plaster
• Grout is highly flowable concrete consisting of PC, lime, sand, fine
gravel, and water. It is used to fill the cores or voids in hollow
masonry.
• Plaster, on the other hand, is a mixture of PC, lime, sand, and
water, and is used for providing an even surface on top of the
brick walls. It also acts as a protective layer to the brick wall.
 Other masonry materials
• Surkhi
• Terra cotta
• Earthenware and stoneware
• Gypsum
 Terms associated with masonry

• Course: Horizontal layer of masonry unit; thickness of course???

• Header and stretcher
• Bed – lower surface of brick/stone in a course
• Natural bed – bedding plane of rocks
• Bond – arrangement of masonry units
• Quoins – Exterior angle or corner of wall
• Face – surface of wall exposed to weather (opposite: back)
 Terms… (contd.)
• Facing – material used in the face
• Joint – Bed joint, cross joint and vertical joints
• Closers and bats – cut bricks
• Frog – depression on top surface of brick
• Sill, Lintel, Jamb – parts of window opening
• Plinth – horizontal projecting course of stone or brick, provided at
base of wall above ground level
• Corbel – Projecting stone from wall serving as support
 Terms… (contd.)
• Coping – covering of stone, terra cotta, concrete or brick
on top of wall (weathering and throating)
• Arches and gables
• Column (W < 4t)
• Pier (W > 4t)
• Pilaster – Pier monolithic with wall and projecting beyond
Masonry terms - graphically
 Section through a wall

Traditional Modern
 Mortars for masonry
• Lime (hydraulic or semi-hydraulic) / PC or Masonry cement /
combination of (a) Lime and pozzolan, or (b) Lime and PC
• Clay / mud for low strength
• Avoid excess water (generally, max w/(c+l) = 0.65)
• Thinner joints – more fluidity; joints subjected to heavy pressure
require stiff mortars
• Lime mortar – above plinth level; cement mortar – below ground
 Purpose of mortar
Mortar is used for:
• Bonding masonry units together
• Serving as seating material for the units
• Levelling and seating the units
• Providing aesthetic quality to the structure.

The mortar is the weakest part of a masonry wall. Thus, thin mortar
layers produce stronger walls compared to thick layers.
Applying mortar for the joint
Mortar joints
 Plastering
• Purposes??
• Lime plaster – traditional construction; heritage buildings;
several coats
• Cement plaster – modern buildings
• Incompatibility issues
 Stone masonry
• Classification – Rubble (undressed blocks of stone)
masonry and ashlar (accurately dressed stone) masonry
• Rubble masonry – Avoid long continuous vertical joints;
arrange to get load distributed over maximum area
• Ashlar masonry – Stone height is 25 – 30 cm; height of all
stones in single course is equal
 Types of rubble masonry

Uncoursed random rubble masonry

Uncoursed square rubble masonry

Random rubble: built to courses Square rubble: built to courses

Square rubble: regular coursed

Polygonal rubble masonry

Types of rubble masonry

Fine tooled ashlar masonry Chamfered ashlar masonry

Types of ashlar masonry

Guess the types!
 Other aspects of stone masonry

• Dressing of stones:
- Done at quarry (why??)
- Different surface finishes – rock faced, punched, hammer
dressed, etc.
• Stones should be free of defects
• Should be placed wet
• No tensile stresses!
• Masonry work should be raised uniformly; otherwise, steps or
‘toothing’ should be provided
 Stone masonry walls

Construction of wall with rubble

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GQ9M0kh8pRk

Cutting of stone

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=otiO_wKCwEc
Brick masonry
 Bricks – rules for bonding
• Uniform size bricks (L = 2t + tmortar) for uniform lap
• Lap not less than ¼ brick along length and ½ brick across
thickness
• Discourage use of brickbats
• In alternate course, CL of header coincides with CL of stretcher in
the course above and below it
• Vertical joints in alternate courses along same perpend
• Stretchers to be used only in the facing
 Types of bonds
• Stretcher bond (only for ½ brick walls)
• Header bond (only for 1 brick walls)
• English bond – strongest
• Flemish bond – aesthetically pleasing (but uses more
bats; more skill and mortar required)
• Zig-zag bond
 Types of bonds
Stretcher bond

English bond
Flemish bond
Concrete blocks
 Concrete blocks
1. Lightweight units (Density < 1.68 g/cc) – Prepared using
lightweight aggregates; or using Aerated concrete
2. Medium-weight units (Density between 1.68 and 2.00
g/cc)
3. Normal weight units (Density > 2.00 g/cc)

Lightweight units are most widely used because of the ease of handling
and transport. They also possess better thermal, fire resistance, and
insulation properties.
 Concrete blocks

AAC = Autoclaved aerated concrete Block making machine

 Properties of concrete blocks
Normal or rapid hardening Portland cement is used in the manufacture of
concrete blocks. The concrete mix is very stiff, and the block units are
moulded under pressure.
Concrete blocks are further classified as being load bearing or non load
bearing. In the case of load bearing blocks, a minimum compressive strength
requirement has to be satisfied.
Concrete masonry units are specified by their nominal dimensions. The nominal
dimension is equal to the actual block dimension plus the thickness of the
mortar joint (typically 10 mm).
Concrete masonry walls are sometimes reinforced with steel to provide better
lateral load resistance. This is especially useful in earthquake-prone areas.
 Important aspects of bricklaying

• Use presoaked bricks

• Corner of wall constructed first (bed joint 1 cm thick)
• Use of taut cord to maintain level
• Verticality of perpends checked with straight edge and
square
• Jointing and pointing after wall is constructed; joints to be
cleaned and finished after every day’s work
Building a masonry wall

Taut cord
for level

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yJ6i3FRWSGM
 Supervision of brickwork
• No soaking when fat lime or mud mortar is used
• Frog on top while laying
• Thick walls – joint grouting also
• Uniformly raised; or use toothing
• 18 – 25 mm expansion joints for every 30 – 45 m length of
wall

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ExltDReEdno
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CD2krb0USwI
Joints in walls
Composite masonry

Brick-stone composite

Reinforced brick
masonry
Reinforced masonry
 Plastering for masonry
• Older structures – lime mortar
• New structures – cement mortar (typically 1:4 or 1:6)
• Why is it necessary?
 Masonry walls
• Walls provide strength and stability, weather resistance,
durability, firs resistance, thermal and sound insulation
• Classification:
- Load bearing (superimposed load + self weight)
- Non-load bearing (only self weight)
+ Internal
+ external (panel or in-fill walls)
 Special walls
• Partition wall – could be load-bearing
• Party wall – separating adjoining buildings
• Curtain walls – only for lateral loads
• Cross wall construction – Internal walls bear all the load
 Load bearing walls
• Solid masonry wall
• Cavity wall (cavity could be filled by insulating or
waterproofing material)
• Faced wall (when facing and backing are of different
materials)
• Veneered wall (Façade)
Types of walls
Veneered
 Design considerations
• Loads – avoid large openings and large concentrated loads,
reduce eccentricity
• Mortar strength << Masonry unit strength
• For design purposes, effective length, height and thickness need
to be calculated (not discussed here)
• Slenderness ratio = Effective (Height/Thickness) or
(Length/Thickness), whichever is less (S < 30 ➔ stress problem;
S > 30 ➔ stability problem)
 References
• Various web sources
• Wikipedia
• http://faculty.delhi.edu/hultendc/A220-Week2-Lecture-
Web.html
• Building Construction by B C Punmia
• Building Design and Drawing by Balagopal T S Prabhu et
al.