Module 1

The Concept of Theory

Teaching-Learning Activity/Lesson Proper

INTRODUCTION

What is the origin of criminal behavior? Why do some people are serving their sentence inside
I the prison institutions while others remain conforming individuals? Are people outcome at their
environment or is the probability of their becoming a criminal determined at birth? In order to explain
the grounds of criminal behavior, theories are made. Many social scientists have observed facts about
criminal behavior and organized them into complex theoretical models. What is a theory then?

CONCEPTS
Accordingto Freda Adler (1983), a theory is a statement that explains the relationship between
abstract concepts In a meaningful way. For example, if scientists observe that criminality rates are
usually high In neighborhoods with high unemployment rates, they might theorize that environmental
conditions influence criminal behavior (Siegel, 2007).

Theory
- serves as a model or framework for understanding human behavior and the forces that form it. It
is based on verified social facts or readily observed phenomena that can be constantly calculated and
measured (Siegel 2007).

-supposition or a system of ideas intended to explain something, especially one based on general
principles independent of the thing to being explained. It Is derived from the Greek word ‘theoria’ which
means “contemplation or speculation" (Oxford Dictionary).

-a plausible or scientifically acceptable general principle or body of principles offered to explain

phenomena. It Is synonymous with the terms thesis, hypothesis supposition, and proposition. (Meriam-
Webster’s Dictionary)

-a principle or a body of interrelated principles that purports to explain or predict a number of

interrelated phenomena In philosophy of science, a theory is a set of logically related explanatory
hypotheses that are consistent with a body of empirical facts and may suggest more empirical
relationships. (VandenBos, 2007)

-a related set of concepts and principle about a phenomenon; It explains how some aspects of
human behavior or performance is organized. Moore (1991 as cited in http://facultyjou.ufi.edu/theory)

The components of theory are concepts (ideally weII-defined) and principles. A concept is a
symbolic representation of an actual thing i.e. tree, chair, table, computer, distance, etc. Construct is the
word for concepts with no physical' referent i..e democracy, learning, freedom, etc. One type of
construct that is used In many scientific theories is called a variable. 0n the other hand, a principle
expresses the relationship between two or more concepts or constructs.

Broadly speaking, social theories are analytical frameworks or paradigms used to examine social
phenomena. The term ‘social theory’ encompasses ideas about ‘how societies change and develop,
about methods of explaining social behaviour, about power and social structure, gender and ethnicity,
 modernity and ‘civilisation’, revolutions and utopias’ (Harrington 2005, 1). In contemporary social
theory, certain core themes take precedence over others, themes such as the nature of social life, the
relationship between self and society, the structure of social institutions, the role and possibility of
social transformation, as well as themes such as gender, race and class (Elliot 2008).
https://socialtheoryapplied.com/about-this-site/what-is-social-theory/

Module 2
Why is theory important?

Lesson Proper/Activity

INTRODUCTION

When somebody is putting his effort, time, money, and energy to a certain project, it means that
project significant and valuable that protect is. It is the same with the theories being created by
theorists. How important it is? Coming up with theories is at the heart at any scientific process in
simplest terms, observations of a phenomenon lead to an educated guess about what is causing it or
how it works. Experiments or other forms of research then test this guess or hypothesis. If theses these
guesses are continued, a theory emerges. If it's a powerful one, it will both explain, telling you why
something is happening in such a way and predict, telling you what could happen next. Explaining how
something works is important, and not only for the sake of knowledge itself because explanations can
lead to solutions. For example, police officers cannot prevent the crime from happening in that area if
they didn’t know how and why such crime is occurring in that area in the first place. '

CONCEPTS
Moore (1991 as cited In htth/facultyjou. uii edu/theory. html) enumerated the importance of theory

1. Theory provides concepts to name what we observe and to explain relationships between concepts. It
allows us to explain what we see and to figure out how to bring about change and it Is a tool that
enables us to identify a problem and to plan a means for altering the situation;

2. Theory is used to justify reimbursement to get funding and support-the need to explain what Is being
done and demonstrate that it works;

3. Theory Is used to enhance the growth of the professional area and to identify a body of knowledge
from both within and outside the area of distance learning. That body of knowledge grows with theory
and research. Theory guides research; and

4. Theory helps us understand what we don’t know and therefore, is the guide to research. It Increases
its ability to solve other problems in different times and different places.

Moreover theories are used by researchers as causal mechanisms to give historical explanation of cases.
(GeorgeJW)
Module 3
Biosocial Theory

Teaching-Learning Activity/Lesson Proper

Biosocial Theory

Scholars have long attempted to identify the biological determinants of crime and violence. Indeed,
the historical record indicates that many of the earliest criminologists – including Cesare Lombroso
(1835–1909), Raffaele Garofalo (1852–1934) and Enrico Ferri (1856–1929) – believed that certain
physical characteristics indicated a “criminal nature” (see discussions in Englander, 2007; Siegel and
McCormick, 2006; Ellis, 2005; Fishbein, 2001; Paternoster and Bachman, 2001).

Lombroso’s manuscript L'Uomo Delinquente (The Criminal Man) is perhaps the most famous of
these early efforts to draw a direct link between biology and crime (Lombroso, 1876). A professor of
medicine at the University of Turin, Lombroso conducted his research in the Italian prison system. As
part of his work, he collected detailed anatomical measurements of prisoners and compared them with
measurements taken from “ordinary” Italian citizens. According to Lombroso, criminals possessed
certain physical characteristics (including long arms and fingers, sharp teeth, abnormal amounts of body
hair, extended jaws, etc.) that distinguished them from ordinary citizens. In sum, he argued that
criminals were atavists – biological throwbacks to an earlier period of human evolution. He further
maintained that these atavists engaged in criminal activity, including violence, because it was instinctive
for them to do so. Finally, because they are the product of biological forces, Lombroso felt that criminals
lack free will and are thus not morally responsible for their actions.

The work of Lombroso and his contemporaries was largely discounted by modern criminologists. To
begin with, many of these early studies were based on small, nonrandom samples and rarely involved
adequate control groups. Furthermore, many of the physical traits that these scholars assumed to be
genetically determined could have been caused by deprived social conditions, including poor nutrition
and health care. Lombroso also failed to consider the many social factors that could lead to criminality.
Thus, after being dismissed as methodologically unsound and naive, biocriminology fell out of favour
during the early 20th century. During this period, scholars turned their attention to more sociological
explanations of criminal behaviour (discussed below).

a. Biochemical Conditions and Crime

Some biosocial theorists believe that biochemical conditions – including those acquired through diet
– can control or influence violent behaviour. Biochemical factors that might influence aggression range
from nutrition to allergies.

b. Nutritional Deficiencies
Biocriminologists maintain that minimum levels of vitamins and minerals are required for normal brain
functioning. Medical research suggests that proper nutrition is especially important during early
childhood. Nutritional deficiencies at this stage in child development can result in serious physical,
mental and behavioural problems (Liu and Wuerker, 2005; Neisser et al., 1996). Research also suggests
that improving diet quality can reduce delinquency and dramatically improve the mental functioning
and the academic performance of adolescents (see Schoenthaler and Bier, 2000). Other studies indicate
that deficiencies in potassium, calcium, amino acids, sodium, peptides, and other nutrients can lead to
depression, mania, and cognitive problems. Such mental health issues can, in turn, significantly increase
the probability of violent behaviour. Similarly, studies have found a strong link between anti-social
behaviour and insufficient quantities of vitamins B3, B6 and C (Siegel and McCormick, 2006; Liu and
Wuerker, 2005; Krassner, 1986).

Diets high in sugar and carbohydrates have also been linked to violence, aggression and other
behavioural issues (Gans, 1991). One experiment with incarcerated youths, for example, found that
reducing sweet foods and drinks in the prison diet produced a 45 per cent decline in institutional
violence (Schoenthaler and Doraz, 1983). However, more recent studies suggest that most people with
high sugar/carbohydrate diets never engage in serious violence and that, for some individuals, sugar
actually has a calming effect that reduces aggression (Gray, 1986; Wolraich et al., 1994).

Other studies indicate that how the brain metabolizes glucose may determine whether sugar causes
anti-social behaviour. Hypoglycemia, for example, is a condition that causes glucose to fall below the
level needed to maintain normal brain functioning (the brain is the only organ that obtains all of its
energy from glucose). Symptoms of hypoglycemia include anxiety, depression, insomnia, nervousness,
mood swings, phobias and temper tantrums. A number of important studies have found a significant
relationship between hypoglycemia and violence – including assault, homicide and rape. Furthermore,
studies of prison populations have found higher than normal rates of hypoglycemia among habitually
violent inmates (Seigel and McCormick, 2006; Virkkunen, 1986).

c. Hormonal Influences
In his manuscript entitled The Moral Sense, renowned criminologist James Q. Wilson argues that
hormones and neurotransmitters may explain gender differences in violent behaviour. He maintains that
gender differences in exposure to androgens (male sex hormones) explain why males are naturally more
violent than females and why females are more nurturing and empathetic (Wilson, 1993). Hormone
levels have also been purported to explain the aging out of violence. In other words, some scholars feel
that the decrease in violent behaviour with age is directly related to age-related declines in androgen
levels. Many have observed that both violence and androgen production in males peak during
adolescence (Gove, 1985; Booth and Osgoode, 1993; Piquero and Brezina, 2001). Others have argued
that artificially increasing the level of male hormone within the body – through steroid use – can
contribute to explosive episodes of violence, often referred to as “roid rage” Recent studies have
provided limited support for this hypothesis (see Pedersen et al., 2001; Isacsson et al., 1998).

A number of biosocial theorists are currently exploring the relationship between hormone levels and
violent behaviour. Indeed, several studies have produced findings that suggest that abnormally high
androgen levels are, in fact, correlated with aggressive behaviour (see Ellis, 2005; Raine, 2002; Fishbein,
2001; Rappaport and Thomas, 2004). Testosterone is the most abundant androgen. Research suggests
that prenatal exposure to high levels of testosterone – sometimes as a result of medical intervention –
can sometimes result in higher levels of aggression in female children. By contrast, during fetal
development, males who are exposed to drugs that lower androgen levels display lower levels of
aggression through childhood and adolescence (see Reiss and Roth, 1993). Studies of inmate
populations have also found that testosterone levels are significantly higher among offenders convicted
of violent offences than among those convicted of property crimes (Kreuz and Rose, 1972).

In a thorough meta-analysis of the research literature, researchers from Queen’s University in Ontario
found a small but statistically significant relationship between testosterone levels and violence.
However, this study also found that the influence of androgens varies dramatically from study to study
and from culture to culture. Furthermore, researchers have yet to determine causality. For example,
although some argue that testosterone levels cause violence, new evidence suggests that engaging in or
observing violent behaviour can actually cause a dramatic increase in testosterone levels (see Book et
al., 2001).

High testosterone levels are thought to increase the probability of violent behaviour in three distinct
ways. First of all, the presence of male sex hormone is thought to decrease an individual’s sensitivity to
adverse environmental stimuli. Those with high testosterone levels are thus more likely to take risks,
more likely to seek excess stimulation and more capable of tolerating pain in their quest for thrills.
Secondly, androgens are also linked to brain seizures that, under stressful situations, can result in
emotional volatility. Finally, androgen exposure causes neocortical functioning to be less concentrated
in the left hemisphere of the brain. The left hemisphere of the neocortex, of course, is the part of the
brain that determines sympathetic feelings for others. Thus, these three factors, alone or in
combination, may help explain the apparent relationship between male hormone levels and violent
behaviour (Ellis, 2005).

It must be stressed that androgens are not the only hormonal risk factor associated with violent
behaviour. It has long been suspected, for example, that the onset of the menstrual cycle often triggers
the release of excessive amounts of female sex hormones (estrogen and progesterone). This rise in
female hormone levels may, in turn, contribute to an increase in anti-social behaviour. This
phenomenon is commonly known as Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS). The possible link between PMS and
violence was first documented in England, where studies identified that women were more likely to
commit suicide or engage in other aggressive behaviours just before or during menstruation (see Dalton,
1971; Horney, 1978). More recently, Diana Fishbein, a leading biocriminologist, documented that a
disproportionate number of incarcerated females committed their crimes during the premenstrual
phase (see Fishbein, 2001; Fishbein, 1996).

In sum, although some research suggests that there may be a moderately strong relationship between
hormone levels and violence, criminologists remain cautious about the explanatory power of this
correlation. After all, the vast majority of males with high testosterone levels never engage in serious
violence. Likewise, the overwhelming majority of women experience their menstruation cycle every
month and never engage in aggressive behaviour. Future research, therefore, must better identify under
what circumstances hormonal levels may increase the probability of violent behaviour.

d. Allergies
Allergies refer to reactions of the body to foreign substances (Seigel and McCormick, 2006). Cerebral
allergies cause a reaction in the brain. Neuroallergies affect the nervous system. Both cerebral allergies
and neuroallergies have been linked to mental, emotional, and behavioural problems. A growing body of
research suggests that there is also a link between allergies and depression, hyperactivity,
aggressiveness, and violence (Liu and Wuerker, 2005; Raine, 2002; Marshall, 1993). Most cerebral
allergies and neuroallergies are caused by exposure to certain types of food – including milk, wheat,
eggs, nuts and chocolate. Corn, for example, is a suspected cerebral allergen that has been linked to
countries with higher than average homicide rates (Mawson and Jacobs, 1978). The argument is not that
allergies directly cause violence. Rather, those suffering from the stress of a painful allergic reaction may
be more likely to act violently when presented with negative stimuli.
 e. Exposure to Environmental Contaminants
Sociobiological scholars have also drawn a connection between exposure to dangerous contaminants –
including copper, mercury, chlorine, artificial colouring, food dyes, etc. – and both aggressive and anti-
social behaviour (see Rappaport, 2004; Ellis, 2005). A great deal of recent research has focused on the
possible relationship between lead poisoning and violence. One study, for example, found that
communities with the highest concentrations of lead in the air also reported the highest levels of
homicide and other forms of violence (Stretesky and Lynch, 2001). A number of studies have also found
that lead poisoning is one of the most significant predictors of male delinquency and persistent adult
criminality (see Denno, 1996; McCall and Land, 2004). Needleman (1996), for example, tracked several
hundred boys from ages seven through eleven and found that those with high concentrations of lead in
their bones were much more likely to demonstrate attention deficit problems, poor language skills,
delinquency, and aggression. High lead ingestion is also linked to lower IQ scores – a factor that can
contribute to youth violence (Neisser et al., 1996).

f. Neurophysiological Conditions and Crime

Some academics believe that neurological and physical abnormalities acquired early in life – even as
early as the fetal stage – impact behaviour throughout the lifespan (see Arseneault et al., 2000; Moffit et
al., 1994; Moffit, 1990). Particular focus has been placed on how the impairment of basic brain functions
(abstract reasoning, problem-solving skills, motor skills, etc.) may increase the probability of criminal
and violent behaviour.

g. Neurological Impairments and Violence

One of the most important measures of normal neurological functioning is the electroencephalograph
(EEG). An EEG refers to the electrical impulses given off by brain waves. These impulses can be recorded
by electrodes placed on the scalp (Seigel and McCormick, 2006: 165). Several studies have found that
violent criminals – including murderers – have much higher EEG recordings than non-violent criminals
have (see review in Rowe, 2001). Furthermore, studies suggest that 50 to 60 per cent of habitually
violent adolescents have abnormal EEG readings, compared with only five to fifteen per cent of the
general population (Rowe, 2001). Research also suggests that psychiatric patients with EEG
abnormalities are highly combative and frequently suffer from periodic manifestations of extreme rage
(Rowe, 2001). In some studies, researchers using brainwave data have predicted within 95 per cent
accuracy the recidivism of violent offenders (see Yaralian and Raine, 2001). In sum, EEG analysis
demonstrates that measures of abnormal brain activity are significantly associated with anti-social and
violent behaviour. The exact reason for this association, however, has yet to be discovered.

h. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) develops when fetuses are exposed to high levels of alcohol in the womb.
These children subsequently demonstrate developmental delays and deviant behaviour – including
violence. Common cognitive problems associated with FAS include learning difficulties, poor impulse
control, a need for immediate gratification, speech problems and the inability to consider the long-term
consequences of one’s actions. Research also suggests that a high proportion of FAS children ultimately
demonstrate aggressive behaviour (see review in Fishbein, 2001).

It is estimated that only one per cent of all children are born with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. However,
studies also suggest that between 40 and 80 per cent of all children in foster care are stricken with this
disability. Studies also estimate that at least half of all young offenders who appear in provincial or
territorial courts had mothers who drank heavily during pregnancy (Gideon et al., 2003).
 i. Minimal Brain Dysfunction
Minimal Brain Dysfunction (MBD) is related to abnormalities in cerebral structure. In its most serious
form, MDB is associated with severe anti-social behaviour, including hyperactivity, poor attention span,
temper tantrums and aggressiveness. MDB has also been linked to episodes of explosive rage and has
often been viewed as a significant predictor of both suicide and motiveless homicide. Some studies have
found that up to 60 per cent of prison inmates exhibit symptoms of Minimal Brain Dysfunction (Seigel
and McCormick, 2006; Monroe, 1978).

j. Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

Medical estimates suggest that between three and five per cent of children, most often males, suffer
from Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (AD/HD). In fact, AD/HD is the most common reason that
children are referred to mental health clinics. The suspected causes of this disability include neurological
damage, prenatal stress, food allergies and genetics. Research has also found a strong relationship
between AD/HD and poor school performance, bullying, and a lack of response to punishment (Faraone,
1993). There is also a strong association between AD/HD and the early onset of chronic delinquency and
persistent violent behaviour (Weiss and Murray, 2003; Moffit and Silva, 1988; Hart et al., 1994).

k. Brain Injury and Disease

Brain tumours have been linked to severe psychological problems, including hallucinations and psychotic
episodes. People with brain tumours are more vulnerable to depression, irritability, temper tantrums
and homicidal behaviour. Furthermore, research suggests that normally calm, peaceful individuals can
become extremely violent after developing a tumour. When tumours are removed, however, normal
behaviour patterns can resume. Studies also indicate that head injuries caused by accidents can
dramatically increase violent behaviour and aggressiveness among normally passive individuals (Ellis,
2005). One study of Montreal youth also found that fetal brain damage greatly increased the risk of
violence in boys once they reached 16 and 17 years of age (Tremblay et al., 2002). Finally, a wide variety
of central nervous system diseases – including epilepsy, cerebral arteriosclerosis, senile dementia and
Huntington’s chorea – can also lead to affective disturbances, including episodes of rage and anger
(Fishbein, 2001; Rowe, 2001).

l. Brain Chemistry and Violence

Neurotransmitters are chemical compounds that influence brain activity. Research suggests that
abnormal levels of some neurotransmitters – including dopamine, serotonin, and monoamine oxidase –
are related to aggression and violence. For example, people with a history of impulsive violence often
have a reduction in the function of the serotonin system (Badaway, 2003). Studies of habitually violent
Finnish offenders, for example, show that low serotonin levels are related to hyperactivity and
aggression (Virkkunen et al., 1989). Research also suggests that individuals with a low supply of
monoamine oxidase (MAO) are more likely to engage in sensation-seeking activities – including violent
behaviour. It is interesting to note that females generally have much higher levels of MAO than males
do, a fact that could help explain gender differences in aggression (Huizinga et al., 2006; Ellis, 1991).

m. Arousal Theory
According to Arousal Theory, peoples’ brains function differently in response to environmental input. In
general, people attempt to maintain an optimal level of arousal. Too much stimulation causes anxiety
and fear, while too little stimulation leads to boredom and depression. However, individuals also differ
dramatically with respect to their cognitive ability to process environmental stimuli. In other words,
some people feel comfortable with very little stimulation, while others require a high level of
environmental input. These “sensation-seekers” or “thrill-seekers” are much more likely to engage in a
wide variety of risky activities – including violent behaviour. Unfortunately, all the factors that
determine an individual’s optimal level of arousal have not yet been determined. Possible sources
include brain chemistry (including serotonin levels) and brain structure (see reviews in Raine et al., 1997;
Ellis, 2005; Fishbein, 2001; Ellis, 1996).

n. Genetics and Violence

The first criminologists, including Lombroso, often believed that anti-social behaviour had a genetic
basis. In other words, they believed that some people are “born criminals.” As discussed above, this
early work has been thoroughly discredited by enlightened thinkers. In the 1960s, however, the debate
over genetics and violence emerged once again. Much of this revival centred on the famous “XYY”
controversy. XY is the normal chromosomal pattern for males. However, some males in the general
population have an extra Y chromosome. Many came to believe that these XYY males were much more
aggressive than “normal” males and often engaged in serious violence – including homicide. This led to
suggestions that XYY males should be identified at birth and thoroughly monitored by the state in order
to prevent violence. However, research eventually found that most violent offenders – including the
majority of serial killers – did not have an extra Y chromosome. Interest in XYY theory subsequently
diminished (Sarbin and Miller, 1970). Nonetheless, a number of contemporary scholars remain highly
interested in genetics. Some biosocial theorists, for example, have gone so far as to state that certain
violent personality traits – including psychopathy – may be inherited (Carey and DiLalla, 1994).

Twin studies have become one of the most popular methods for examining a possible genetic basis for
aggression. If inherited traits actually cause behaviour, twins should be quite similar in their propensity
for violence. However, since twins are most often brought up in the same social environment,
determining whether their behaviour is the product of biology or social conditions is quite difficult to
determine. Researchers have tried to overcome this obstacle by comparing identical (MZ) twins with
fraternal (DZ) twins of the same gender. MZ twins are genetically identical, while fraternal twins only
share half their genes. Thus, if genes actually impact aggression, identical twins should be more similar
in their violent behaviour than fraternal twins are. A number of studies have produced findings that are
consistent with this hypothesis (Seigel and McCormick, 2006; Rowe, 1986). Mednick and Christiansen
(1977), for example, studied over 3,000 twin pairs and found a 52 per cent correspondence in the
aggressive behaviour of identical twins, compared with a correspondence rate of only 22 per cent for
fraternal twins. Other researchers have concluded that people who share genes also share similar
personality traits, regardless of the social environment in which they were raised (100). This has led
some biosocial experts to conclude that identical twins may share genetic characteristics that increase –
or decrease – their probability of engaging in violent and/or criminal behaviour (see Rowe, 1995).

Other studies, however, have found very little evidence that identical twins are more similar in criminal
behaviour than fraternal twins or non-twin siblings are. The authors of these reports maintain that
siblings often share similar social environments and that it is the social environment, not genes, that
produces similarities in violent behaviour (Carey, 1992). Contagion theory, for example, holds that
siblings, especially twins, often behave in a similar fashion because they are raised in the same families
and are exposed to the same social and economic conditions. Furthermore, most siblings, especially
twins, develop a close emotional relationship and frequently develop similar interests. Thus, because of
their emotional closeness, twins are more likely to influence each other’s behaviours than other siblings
are. This hypothesis is also supported by research that suggests that identical twins behave more
similarly in early childhood and as adults than they do during adolescence. During adolescence, youth
often try to break away from the family and establish their own identities. This explains why, during the
teenage years, youth are more influenced by their peers than by family members (Jones and Jones,
2000; Fishbein, 2001).

Nonetheless, support for a genetic explanation for violence has also received some support from
adoption studies. Logic holds that genetic explanations for crime would be supported when a young
person’s behaviour is more similar to that of the biological parents than it is to that of the adoptive
parents. On the other hand, social explanations would be supported when a young person’s behaviour is
more similar to that of the adoptive parents than it is to that of the biological parents. A number of
European studies have found that the criminality of biological parents is a significant predictor of youth
violence, even after controlling for the behaviour of adoptive parents and other environmental
variables. However, the evidence also suggests that the social environment found in the adoptive home
has a very significant impact. For example, rates of violence are lowest when both biological and
adoptive parents are non-violent. However, rates of violence among adopted youth increase when
either the biological or the adoptive parents have histories of violent behaviour. Finally, the highest
levels of violence among adopted children are produced when both the biological and adoptive parents
have a criminal past (Walters, 1992). Such findings indicate that genetic and social conditions may
interact in complex ways to either increase or decrease the probability of violence and criminal
behaviour.

o. Evolution and Violence

The final biosocial theory to consider is based on ideas about human evolution. Experts in this field
argue that, as human beings evolved, certain traits, emotions and characteristics became genetically
ingrained. Jealousy, for example, is a human emotion that may have evolved in order to keep families
together and increase the probability of reproduction (see Seigel and McCormick, 2006).

Evolutionary theory has most often been used to explain gender differences in both violent behaviour
and sexual activity. According to some evolutionary theorists, in order to ensure their genetic legacy, it is
advantageous for males to mate with as many females as possible. On the other hand, because of the
physical toll of a long gestation period, it is advantageous for females to mate with only a few males –
especially those who are thought to be nurturing or carry the best genetic material. Because of these
different mating strategies, it has been argued that the most aggressive males have historically been
able to mate with the largest number of women. From an evolutionary perspective, violence is thought
to have developed as a male reproductive strategy because it can: 1) eliminate or deter genetic
competition (i.e., prevent rival males from getting the opportunity to mate); 2) serve as a method for
displaying physical strength (genetic superiority) and attracting females; and 3) deter females from
leaving and mating with other males. In our distant past, therefore, male aggression may have
frequently led to reproductive success. If so, aggressive traits would be more likely than passive traits to
be passed on to the next generation of males. Thus, it is often assumed by biosocial experts that the
descendants of aggressive males account for the fact that, even in modern society, men continue to be
more violent than women (Ellis and Walsh, 1997).

It should be noted that other much more theoretically complex versions of evolutionary theory have
emerged in recent years (see Seigel and McCormick, 2006, for example, for a detailed discussion of R/K
Selection Theory and Cheater Theory). Nonetheless, at the core of all evolutionary theories is the idea
that violent, aggressive behaviour has been maintained within human cultures because it has proven to
be a successful reproductive strategy – especially for males.
http://www.children.gov.on.ca/htdocs/English/professionals/oyap/roots/volume5/chapter01_biosocial
_theory.aspx
Module 4
Latent Trait Theory

Teaching-Learning Activity/Lesson Proper

Latent Trait Theory

 Latent Trait Theory in as its name suggests, means that every individual have a set of
inborn traits in them with vary degrees. For Example: Aggressiveness, control over impulses,
self-centeredness. So there are individuals who are born more aggressive, with little self control
over their impulses and have very little concern over the needs of others and such individuals
have high tendencies to commit crime.
One of the traits mentioned in some articles is intelligence and that the lower the
intelligence of the individual the more likely they are to commit a crime. I have to disagree with
this because there clearly are examples or very intelligent people committing white collar crime
as well as politicians who are corrupt. So I think it has not so much to do with a lack of
intelligence that results in crime but more of the more intelligent criminals are less likely to get
caught.
An individual with poor impulse control and an inability to feel fear or see the
consequences of their actions are more likely to be criminals because when a criminal thought
comes in it usually has a reward, an individual who can control their impulse can hold back and
not commit the crime, the one with weaker control will tend to give in. Even so, if they can see
the consequences of their actions and is fearful of them they will not be inclined to act, it is only
when they can’t see the consequences and the fear that they carry on with the criminal act..

Module 5
Somatotyping Theory

Teaching-Learning Activity/Lesson Proper

Somatotyping Theory

a. William Sheldon

Somatotype theory is one of the biological theories of criminology and is considered to be

included in the biological school of criminology. Somatotyping is the classifying of people into
types according to body build. Somatotype theory relates distinctive body types to personality
characteristics and relates criminal behavior to the body types.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118517390.wbetc102
a. William Sheldon

Sheldon classified people according to three body types:

  Endomorphs, who are rounded and soft, were said to have a tendency toward a
“viscerotonic” personality (i.e., relaxed, comfortable, extroverted);
  Mesomorphs, who are square and muscular, were said to have a tendency
 toward a “somotonic” personality (i.e., active, dynamic, assertive, aggressive);
  Ectomorphs, who are thin and fine-boned, were said to have a tendency toward
a “cerebrotonic” personality (i.e., introverted, thoughtful, inhibited, sensitive).
He later used this classification system to explain delinquent behaviour, finding that
delinquents were likely to be high in mesomorphy and low in ectomorphy and arguing
that mesomorphy’s associated temperaments (active and aggressive but lacking
sensitivity and inhibition) tended to cause delinquency and criminal behaviour. Although
his research was groundbreaking, it was criticized on the grounds that his samples were
not representative and that he mistook correlation for causation.
 b. Ernest Krestchmer

Kretschmer is known for developing a classification system that can be seen as one of the earliest
exponents of a constitutional (the total plan or philosophy on which something is constructed)
approach. His classification system was based on three main body types:
However, the idea of the association of body types with personality traits is no longer influential in
personality theory.

Module 6
Physiognomy

Physiognomy

Physiognomy is the association of certain personality traits to physical traits. A frequent practice
under the umbrella of physiognomy was phrenology. Phrenology focused on the skull and brain. The
driving belief in phrenology was that certain areas of the skull and brain pertained to various personality
traits.

A popular practice of physiognomy involved comparing human faces to animal faces in the belief
that people who had facial features similar to those of an animal would have personality traits similar to
that animal as well. For example, if one group of people resembled the bull, some avid practitioners of
physiognomy believed that they were hard-working and dull in intelligence just like the bull. This
practice contributed to racist practices such as slavery.
https://study.com/academy/lesson/physiognomy-definition-examples-quiz.html

1. Giambattista della Porta (1535–1615)

The publication of On Physiognomy in 1586 by Italian scholar Giambattista della Porta once again
brought renewed focus to this belief and practice of the ancient Greeks. Della Porta, often considered
the first criminologist, examined patients during his medical practice and concluded that appearance
and character were related. He approached the study of this relationship from a magico– spiritualistic
metaphysical perspective instead of a scientific one, classifying humans on the basis of their
resemblance to animals. For example, men who look like donkeys are similar to donkeys in their laziness
and stupidity; men who resemble pigs behave like pigs.

2. Johann Kaspar Lavater (1741–1801)

Della Porta’s ideas were extremely influential to Johann Kaspar Lavater, a Swiss pastor who published
his painstakingly detailed study of facial fragments in 1783. He concluded that one could determine
criminal behavior through an examination of a person’s eyes, ears, nose, chin, and facial shape.
Module 7
Phrenology

Phrenology

Phrenology, from the Greek words phren, meaning “mind,” and logos, meaning “knowledge,” is
based on the belief that human behavior originated in the brain. This was a major departure from earlier
beliefs that focused on the four humors as the source of emotions and behaviors: (1) sanguine (blood),
seated in the liver and associated with courage and love; (2) choleric (yellow bile), seated in the gall
bladder and associated with anger and bad temper; (3) melancholic (black bile), seated in the spleen and
associated with depression, sadness, and irritability; and (4) phlegmatic (phlegm), seated in the brain
and lungs and associated with calmness and lack of excitability. Theoretically and practically relocating
responsibility for behavior from various organs to the brain represented a major step in the
development of the scientific study of behavior and in the development of biological explanations of
crime and criminality.

1. Franz Joseph Gall (1758–1828)

Around 1800, Franz Joseph Gall, a German neuroanatomist and physiologist who pioneered study
of the human brain as the source of mental faculties, developed the practice of cranioscopy, a technique
by which to infer behaviors and characteristics from external examination of the skull (cranium).
According to Gall, a person’s strengths, weaknesses, morals, proclivities, character, and personality
could be determined by physical characteristics of his or her skull.

Gall mapped out the location of 27 “brain organs” on the human skull. A bump or depression in a
particular area of the skull would indicate a strength or weakness in that particular area. For example,
several areas of Gall’s map of the skull were believed to correspond to that person’s tendencies to
engage in criminal or deviant acts. One area corresponded to the tendency to commit murder; another
area corresponded to the tendency to steal. Although not widely accepted in Europe, the English elite
(and others) used Gall’s ideas to justify the oppression of individuals whose skulls had bumps or
depressions in the wrong areas. The practice also was widely accepted in America between 1820 and
1850. Although crude, and somewhat ridiculous by today’s standards, Gall’s efforts had significant
 impact on subsequent research that attempted to identify the brain as the origin of behavior. Although
similar to physiognomy in that it tried to make inferences about character and behavior from outward
characteristics, cranioscopy attempted to correlate those outward physical characteristics to internal
physical characteristics (i.e., brain shape), which was a significant advance.

2. Johann Spurzheim (1776–1832)

Spurzheim, a German physician and student of Gall’s, actually coined the term phrenology to replace
cranioscopy. Spurzheim also expanded the map of the brain organs, developed a hierarchical system of
the organs, and created a model “phrenology bust” that depicted the location of the brain organs.

While the German scientists were focusing attention on the brain as an important determinant of
individual behavior, various other scholars were theorizing about the development of man as a
biological organism; about the nature of social and political organizations; and about the place of man,
as an individual, within those organizations. The synthesis of these ideas would significantly advance the
progress of research related to biological perspectives of behavior.
https://criminal-justice.iresearchnet.com/criminology/theories/biological-theories-of-crime/5/

Module 8
Arousal Theory

Arousal Theory

According to the arousal theory of motivation, each person has a unique arousal level that is right
for them. When our arousal levels drop below these personalized optimal levels, we seek some sort of
stimulation to elevate them.

For example, if our levels drop too low we might seek stimulation by going out to a nightclub with
friends. If these levels become too elevated and we become overstimulated, we might be motivated to
select a relaxing activity such as going for a walk or taking a nap.

One of the key assumptions of the arousal theory is that we are motivated to pursue actions that
help us maintain an ideal balance.

When we become overly aroused, we seek soothing activities that help calm and relax us. If we
become bored, we head in search of more invigorating activities that will energize and arouse us. It's all
about striking the right balance, but that balance is unique to each individual.

Arousal theory shares some commonalities with drive-reduction theory. But instead of focusing on
reducing tension, arousal theory suggests that we are motivated to maintain an ideal level of arousal.

Arousal Levels Are Highly Individual

Optimal arousal levels vary from one individual to the next. There are many factors that might
influence each person's optimal arousal levels, including genetics, experience, and current mood.
 Your arousal preferences, in general, may be specified by your genetic makeup, but environmental
factors can also play a role in how you are feeling at any given moment. One person may have very low
arousal needs while another individual might require very high levels.

Behavior Is Motivated by Arousal Levels

The person with low arousal needs might be motivated to pursue simple activities such as
crocheting or watching a movie in order to maintain their arousal levels. The individual with high arousal
needs, on the other hand, might be motivated to seek risky or thrilling activities such as motorcycle
racing or skydiving in order to maintain his or her ideal levels.

If you need to raise your arousal levels, you might:

Engage in physical activity
Socialize with friends
Try something new and exciting
Watch an action-packed movie

If you need to lower your arousal levels, you might:

Enjoy a relaxing hobby
Read a book
Take a bath
Take a nap

No matter what your arousal needs are, you will be motivated to act in order to maintain these
levels. If you need more arousal, you will pursue actions designed to raise those levels. If you need less,
you will seek out ways to calm down and relax.

Arousal Influences Performance

One of the assertions of the arousal theory of motivation is that our levels of arousal can influence
our performance. But again, balance is key.

Higher arousal levels can sometimes help us perform better, but it can also impair performance if
arousal levels are too high.

This concept is commonly referred to as the Yerkes-Dodson Law. The law states that increased
levels of arousal will improve performance, but only up until the optimum arousal level is reached. At
that point, performance begins to suffer as arousal levels increase. Additionally, if you're doing a
complex task, high or low levels of arousal will affect you more than if you're doing something simple.

Most students have experienced this phenomenon when taking final exams. Increased arousal can
lead to better test performance by helping you stay alert, focused, and attentive. Excessive arousal can
lead to test anxiety and leave you nervous and unable to concentrate on the test. When arousal levels
are very high or very low, performance tends to be worse.

Module 9
Nature vs Nurture Theory
 Nature vs Nurture Theory

The context of the nature vs. nurture debate, “nature” refers to biological/genetic predispositions’
impact on human traits, and nurture describes the influence of learning and other influences from one’s
environment. The debate over whether the strengths and weaknesses of people are the result of nature
or nurture has, and somewhat continues to rage on between scholars and lay people alike. This debate
has had significant social implications, particularly concerning what are thought to determine people’s
ability to learn/intelligence (Lynch, 2016).

What is the nature vs. nurture? Who created the theory?

The initial use of the Nature vs. Nurture Theory was credited to psychologist Sir Francis Galton in 1869
(Bynum, 2002). However, it is unclear who initially described the impact of genes and biology versus
environmental influences. Scientists, doctors, researchers, psychologists, behaviorists, and many others
have debated these theories since Hippocrates was alive.

Around 400 B.C.E., Hippocrates described human behaviors as being biological, the result of four
different body fluid types called humors.
Yellow bile
Blood
Black bile
Phlegm
In contrast, many centuries later, philosophers Jean-Jacques Rousseau and John Locke
independently thought that people are born as blank slates (i.e. "tabula rasa"), and that their eventual
individual differences develop solely due to the result of environmental influences (Psychology
Encyclopedia, 2017; Duschinsky, 2012; Nesterak, 2015). Twentieth century behavioral psychologist John
Watson shared a similar perspective, believing that the events that take place during early childhood
have far more influence on what kind of adults we become compared to the effects of our genes
(Haggbloom et al, 2002).
https://www.medicinenet.com/nature_vs_nurture_theory_genes_or_environment/article.htm

Learning Activities

Activity 1

a. Explain and construct a diagram showing the elements of a theory.

 b. Reasearch on Big Bang Theory and Divine Theory of Creation. Briefly explain and give your
position or reaction regarding the theories.

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Activity 2

Explain the importance of theory but instead of writing an essay, make a creative chart or diagram to
explain it.

Activity 3

Discuss a real life case scenario using at least four of the concepts of biological theories mentioned in
module 3. The subject may be notorious criminals either foreign or local. Explain the circumstances and
relate the concept of biological theories.
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Activity 4

Conduct a research about Jesse Pomeroy and Mary Bell. How is their case related to latent trait
theory?

Jesse Pomeroy
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Mary Bell
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Activity 5

1. Make a table comparing Sheldon and Kretschmer ‘s Somatotyping theory.

2. Conduct a research about some of the notorious criminals in history and then classify them
according to Sheldon’s classification. Each classification must have at least 3 examples.
endomorph ectomorph mesomorph
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Activity 5
According to Phrenology, a person who has facial features similar to those of an animal would have
personality traits similar to that animal as well. Now think of a local criminal, or even a movie character
whose face is similar to an animal. Then describe the character of the criminal and compare it to the
resembling animal. Put the explanation below the drawing.

1. 2.

Activity 6