Preventive Veterinary Medicine 90 (2009) 268–273

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Preventive Veterinary Medicine

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/prevetmed

Medicinal plants used in British Columbia, Canada for reproductive health

in pets
Cheryl Lans a,*, Nancy Turner b, Gerhard Brauer c, Tonya Khan d
a
PO Box 72045, Vancouver, British Columbia V6R 4P2, Canada
b
University of Victoria, School of Environmental Studies, British Columbia V8W 2Y2, Canada
c
University of Victoria, School of Health Information Science, British Columbia V8W 3P5, Canada
d
North Vancouver, British Columbia V7P 1S8, Canada

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: In 2003, semi-structured interviews were conducted in British Columbia, Canada with
Received 22 January 2008
participants obtained using a purposive sample on the ethnoveterinary remedies used for
Received in revised form 29 April 2009
animals. Twenty-nine participants provided the information in this paper on the
Accepted 4 May 2009
ethnoveterinary remedies used for reproductive health in dogs and cats. The plants used
for pregnancy support and milk production in pets were raspberry-leaf (Rubus idaeus),
Keywords:
Reproductive health motherwort (Leonurus cardiaca), flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum) and ginger (Zingiber
Pets officinale). Uterine infections were treated with black cohosh (Actaea racemosa) and
Ethnoveterinary medicine goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis). Most of the studies conducted on these plants have not
British Columbia been conducted on companion animals.
ß 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Background compounds (flavonoids and lignans such as secoisolaricir-

esinol from flaxseed and raspberry) can mimic the biologic
Ethnoveterinary medicine focuses on animal keepers’ effects of endogenous hormones by binding to their
knowledge and approaches to animal health care and nuclear receptor or regulating the activities of key enzymes
production. It includes information on diseases and their of their metabolisms: cytochrome P450 aromatase; 17-
control; remedies and clinical practices for treatment and betahydroxysteroid deshydrogenase (Kurzer and Xu,
prevention; management strategies and spiritual elements 1997; Dixon, 2004). The estrogenic effects of some of
among others (Mathias, 2004). Participatory research on these compounds might be related to the stimulation of
the ethnoveterinary remedies used in British Columbia, the hypothalamus–pituitary complex with the resulting
Canada (BC) by pet owners, holistic veterinarians and increase in follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), which then
farmers was begun in 2003 (Lans et al., 2006). These induces ovarian steroidogenesis and estradiol synthesis
remedies were then documented and a literature review (Shibeshi et al., 2006). The estrogenic potential of certain
was conducted. This paper focuses on the plants used for plants is said to be related to the direct activity of their
reproductive health in cats and dogs. ‘‘estrogen-like’’ compounds on target organs or to an
Plants have been used to influence fertility since indirect effect through stimulation of FSH production or
antiquity (Simpson et al., 2001). Some plant-derived through the activity of ‘‘FSH-like’’ compounds in the
extract of plants. There are plant flavanoids with proven
estrogenic potential that act by inhibiting aromatase
* Corresponding author.
activity in various tissues (Telefo et al., 2004; Malini
E-mail addresses: cher2lans@netscape.net (C. Lans), nturner@uvic.ca et al., 1985; Kanjanapothi et al., 1981). Linoleic acid (found
(N. Turner). in flaxseed, ginger rhizome and raspberry seeds) can

0167-5877/$ – see front matter ß 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.prevetmed.2009.05.002
 C. Lans et al. / Preventive Veterinary Medicine 90 (2009) 268–273 269

Table 1
Treatments and literature review of plants used for reproductive health in pets in British Columbia.

Scientific name Use Literature review Reference

Actaea racemosa Black cohosh rhizome was used Black cohosh has several biological activities Noguchi et al. (1998),
L. (Ranunculaceae) for uterine infections in pets. including anti-inflammatory and vasoactive Bolle et al. (2007),
activities. and Pribitkin (2005)
Black cohosh contains triterpene glycosides
(actein, 27-deoxyactein, micifugoside),
aromatic acids (ferulic and isoferulic acid),
tannins and alkaloids. In vitro experiments
on rats confirmed the usefulness
of black cohosh to treat dsymenorrhoea.
Black cohosh rhizome contains salicylates.

Hydrastis canadensis Goldenseal root was used Eight rats were treated with 6.6 g commercially Rehman et al. (1999),
L. (Ranunculaceae) for uterine infections in pets. available Hydrastis canadensis root extract Anon (2000), and
(concentration 1 g/ml in glycerin solvent) Yordanov et al. (2008)
per 1 l of drinking water. Four control rats
received glycerin. A third group of rats was
treated with the lower dose of 3.3 g/l of
goldenseal extract, which was ineffective.
Goldenseal-treated rats had an augmented
IgM response during the first 2 weeks of
treatment, but failed to show improvement
in the IgG response. Herbal treatment did not
elevate the maximal immunoglobulin levels,
but instead encouraged antibody levels to rise
more rapidly. Berberine (an alkaloid found in
goldenseal) inhibited activator protein 1 (AP-1),
a key transcription factor in inflammation.
Berberine’s anti-inflammatory action may be
due to inhibition of DNA synthesis in activated
lymphocytes.
Leonurus cardiaca Nursing queens were given Leonurus cardiaca has been used in traditional Milkowska-Leyck et al. (2002)
L. (Lamiaceae) motherwort leaves to improve medicine against nervous and functional cardiac and Matkowski and
milk production. disorders since the 15th century and is described in Piotrowska (2006)
Russian pharmacopoeias for producing sedative,
hypotensive and cardiotonic pharmacological
effects attributed to bufadienolide glycosides.
Lavanduliofolioside from the butanolic extract
of the aerial parts had a weak hypotensive
effect in rats and at a higher dose decreased
systolic, diastolic and mean arterial blood pressure.
Linum usitatissimum Flaxseed supplement was Flaxseed contains phytoestrogen lignan precursors, Tan et al. (2004) and
L. (Linaceae) used for pregnancy support especially secoisolariciresinol diglucoside (SDG). Tou et al. (1998)
and to aid conception. This is converted in the mammalian gut to lignans
enterodiol and enterolactone. These biphenolic
compounds are structurally similar to endogenous
17-b estradiol and possess biphasic agonistic
(estrogenic) and antagonistic (antiestrogenic)
activities in vitro. A 10 or 5% flaxseed diet fed to
rats or SDG at levels found in 5% flaxseed had no
evident effect on the pregnancy of the rat dams
except for the lower birth weights of offspring in
those fed 10% flaxseed. It also produced reproductive
changes in the offspring depending on the dose and
the timing of the exposure. A 5–10% flaxseed diet
is an extremely high dose.
Rubus idaeus var. Wild raspberry-leaf tea was Extracts of dried raspberry leaves (R. idaeus) Rojas-Vera et al. (2002)
strigosus (Rosaceae) used for pregnancy support, prepared with different solvents,
postpartum supplement, and (n-hexane, ethyl acetate, chloroform and
to tone uterine muscles in pets. methanol) were tested in vitro for
relaxant activity on transmurally stimulated
guinea pig ileum. The methanol (MeOH)
extract exhibited the largest response and
the active compounds were polar in nature.
There were at least two components
of raspberry-leaf extract which exhibited relaxant
activity in an in vitro gastrointestinal preparation.
270 C. Lans et al. / Preventive Veterinary Medicine 90 (2009) 268–273

Table 1 (Continued )
Scientific name Use Literature review Reference

Zingiber officinale Ginger-rhizome tea was used A double-blind crossover trial of 27 pregnant women Fischer-Rasmussen et al. (1990)
Roscoe (Zingiberaceae) for pregnancy support in dogs. showed that vomiting and nausea were significantly and Vutyavanich et al. (2001)
decreased with 250 mg of ginger in capsule form.
A second double-blind trial found that 28 of
32 women given 250 mg ginger four times a
day had significantly reduced nausea and
vomiting compared to 10 of 35 women in
the placebo group.

induce muscle contractions individually in guinea pig searched to verify the plants included and to identify
uterine smooth muscle in vitro (Bushman et al., 2004). product quantities. A full explanation of this method is
Linoleic acid is reportedly involved in the prostaglandin given in Lans et al. (2006). The literature review of the
pathway (Sewram et al., 2001). plants is presented in the discussion section of the paper.
This paper presents the plants used for reproductive Ten participants with experience in folk and ethnove-
health in cats and dogs and then provides a literature terinary medicine took part in a participatory 5-day-long
review of the research conducted thus far on the usefulness workshop at the University of Victoria (BC) in October
of these plants for reproductive health and an evaluation of 2003. The pet data were evaluated by one ethnobotanist,
their safety for companion animals. one holistic veterinarian and two herbalists. After the
discussions, the pet section of the results was edited and
2. Materials and methods included in a manual that was given to all the research
participants at the end of the study.
Ethnoveterinary data for British Columbia were col-
lected over a 6-month period in 2003 and analyzed in the 3. Results
subsequent months. The research area in British Columbia
consisted of the Lower Mainland, the Thompson/Okanagan The plants used for pregnancy support and milk
region and south Vancouver Island (Lans et al., 2006). production in pets were raspberry-leaf (Rubus idaeus),
These are the most heavily populated areas. motherwort leaves (Leonurus cardiaca) and flaxseed meal
A purposive sample of livestock farmers and pet owners (Linum usitatissimum). Ginger-rhizome tea (Zingiber offici-
was established to obtain the key informants with the nale) was given to pregnant dogs to ease nausea. Uterine
ethnoveterinary knowledge sought. The sample size infections were treated with black cohosh (Actaea race-
chosen was 60 and this size was dictated by financial mosa) and goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis).
considerations. The sample was obtained from member- Treatments for reproductive health in pets are provided
ship lists of organic farmers, other specialists in alternative in Table 1. More details on the plants used multiple times
medicine and holistic veterinarians. The information on by three dog breeders, two herbalists and one holistic
dogs and cats came from 2 naturopaths, 10 herbalists, 5 veterinarian are presented below.
dog trainers, breeders and pet shop owners, 6 holistic
veterinarians and 6 organic farmers (farming as their 3.1. Ethnoveterinary remedies for reproductive health
primary occupation) who had pets.
Two visits were made to each farm, veterinary clinic or One holistic veterinarian used a purchased extract of
respondent. All of the first interviews were open-ended goldenseal (H. canadensis) and black cohosh (A. racemosa)
and unstructured. A draft outline of the respondents’ to treat cases of uterine infection.
ethnoveterinary remedies was then prepared, delivered One owner gave her cats a tea made with two leaves of
and subsequently discussed at the second visit to confirm motherwort (0.2 g) (L. cardiaca) to enhance milk produc-
the data provided at the first interview and to obtain more tion. One teaspoon tea (5 ml) was added to the drinking
details on the treatments. Medicinal-plant voucher speci- water daily per 4.5–6.8 kg bodyweight as long as the cat
mens were collected when plants were available and were was nursing, or as needed.
identified and deposited in the University of Victoria Pregnant dogs were given a purchased flaxseed
Herbarium. supplement (L. usitatissimum) (3 g daily per dog, by one
The plant-based remedies were evaluated for safety and breeder to 4 or 5 Yorkshire Terriers per reproductive cycle)
efficacy with a literature review, prior to including them in to aid conception. This supplement was also used by two
the draft outline. This literature review was continued other dog breeders and two herbalists.
throughout the data collection until the publication of the Pregnant dogs were given a tea made of wild red
results. Journal articles, books and databases on pharma- raspberry leaves (R. idaeus) 2 weeks before and after
cology, ethnoveterinary medicine and ethnomedicine conception and whelping by three dog breeders and two
available in the University library and databases on the herbalists. Leaves (150 mg per 25 kg bodyweight) were put
Internet such as PubMed and ScienceDirect were searched in 250 ml of boiling water to make a tea that was given
to identify the plants’ chemical compounds and clinically once a day every day. The tea was mixed with canned food
tested physiological effects. For the commercial products to enhance its palatability. Raspberry leaves were also
used, the manufacturer’s product specifications were also given for the last 3 weeks of the pregnancy and as a
 C. Lans et al. / Preventive Veterinary Medicine 90 (2009) 268–273 271

postpartum supplement. The leaves were said to tone phenylpropanoid ester derivative (2), cimicifugic acid G
uterine muscles and help the dog whelp more easily. (3), as well as 15 known polyphenols, were isolated from
One breeder gave her breeding Yorkshire Terriers the rhizomes and roots of A. racemosa. Compounds 1, 2 and
ginger tea (Z. officinale) (0.5 g ginger rhizome in 250 ml 3 had antioxidant activity (Nuntanakorn et al., 2006). There
of boiling water) if she felt that their pregnancies were not are case reports that use of black cohosh resulted in hepatic
proceeding easily (nausea, vomiting). failure and it should not be used with other hepatotoxic
products (niacin, acetaminophen), but these safety con-
4. Discussion cerns have been debunked (Teschke et al., 2009; Spangler
et al., 2007; Mazzanti et al., 2008; Farnsworth et al., 2008;
All research methods have their limitations. This Liske et al., 2002; Dugoua et al., 2006). The evidence for the
research method used in this study cannot be randomized use of black cohosh to alleviate menopausal symptoms is
and it also alters the research environment. Many good (statistically significant evidence of benefit from
respondents took part because they wanted a copy of properly conducted random control trials (RCTs)); as part
the resulting manual. Now that they have their copies of of a compound for arthritis pain – average (average quality
the manual their knowledge of ethnoveterinary remedies RCTs); for induction of labour – minimal (clinical evidence
has been increased. The number of ethnoveterinary from case reports, lab studies and/or expert opinion)
remedies for reproductive health of pets could have been (Dugoua et al., 2006). Although black cohosh rhizome
increased if the sample had included a greater number of contains salicylates, there is controversy over whether
dog and cat breeders. The research methods used resulted naturally sourced salicylates inhibit platelet aggregation as
in some compromises being made. Some of the plant- aspirin does (Pribitkin, 2005). There have been reports that
based remedies were shifted into new groups while the black cohosh has beneficial interactions with tamoxifen
manual was being reviewed. For example the uterine (Bolle et al., 2007).
treatment in this paper was placed into a category loosely Berberine (an alkaloid found in goldenseal) showed
termed ‘‘commercial antibiotic replacements’’ because it activity against Candida albicans. Berberine sulphate
was considered by the workshop participants to be useful interferes with the adherence of Streptococcus pyogenes
for a variety of ailments. The ginger tea remedy was to host cells. It inhibits the growth of streptococci at 30 mg/
grouped together with other teas used for stomach ml only when the bacteria are exposed to it since it is not
ailments in pets. The respondents also retained some bactericidal (Sun et al., 1988). Goldenseal extract and
control over their remedies until the final editing stage of alkaloids (berberine, beta-hydrastine, canadine and cana-
the draft manual. For example one workshop participant daline) showed antibacterial activity against Escherichia
decided to withdraw one of her remedies (for goats) from coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus sanguis and
the draft manual stating that it was unsuitable. Partici- Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Scazzocchio et al., 2001).
pants who did not come to the workshop were not able to L. cardiaca contains oleanolic acid, iridoids (ajugol,
advocate for remedies that they used that were considered ajugoside) and flavonoids (quercetin, rutin, quinqueloside,
unsafe by others. For example a trained physician was genkwanin, quercetrin, isoquercetrin, hyperoside, api-
using black walnut in his ethnoveterinary treatments (not genin-glucoside and kaempferol glucoside), the alkaloids
for reproductive health): most of the remedies with black stachydrine and leonurine and oleanolic acid (Duke, 2007).
walnut were removed during the workshop. Stachydrine has emmenagogic and lactagogic activity and
The literature review of the plants is presented in both oleanolic acid and leonurine have uterotonic activity.
Table 1. The plants used are discussed in more detail The anti-inflammatory sesquiterpene (alpha-humulene),
below. ursolic acid, ilelatifol D, corosolic acid and euscaphic acid
The plants used for the reproductive conditions of pets were also isolated from L. cardiaca. Ursolic acid (500 mg/
are the same as those used by North American women ml) showed significant anti-inflammatory activity vs. the
(Gardiner et al., 2008). A study of 567 rural gynecologic controls indomethacin and aspirin (Ali et al., 2007). L.
patients in West Virginia, USA found that 4.6% used ginger, cardiaca var. vulgaris contains the phenylethanoid glyco-
3.9% used goldenseal and 1.9% used black cohosh (Glover side lavandulifolioside which reduces blood pressure
et al., 2004). A more recent study of complementary and (Milkowska-Leyck et al., 2002).
alternative medicine use by American midwives in Texas Estrogenic effects were also seen when 10% dietary
found that 17% used raspberry leaves and 13% used black flaxseed was given to rat dams (Collins et al., 2003). Rat
cohosh for post-date cervical ripening, 45% used ginger for pups had lowered birth rates, shorter anogenital distance
nausea and vomiting and 4% used black cohosh for labour (females), greater uterine, accessory sex gland, prostate
induction (Bayles, 2007). and ovarian relative weights, earlier age at puberty with a
Black cohosh extracts (A. racemosa) have many lower bodyweight (females) and longer estrous cycles. This
biological activities including anti-inflammatory activities. study found that the estrogenization produced by con-
Commercial extracts are widely sold to treat menopausal suming flaxseed (20 or 40%) or defatted flaxseed meal (13
symptoms and it was ranked eight of all top-selling herbal or 26%) was not sufficient to impair pregnancy in rats and
supplements in 2005 (Spangler et al., 2007). Black cohosh was not teratogenic—but it caused developmental effects
acts as a mixed competitive ligand and partial agonist of in the offspring.
the human mu opiate receptor associated with body R. idaeus leaves contain flavonoids (seven anthocya-
temperature, mood and sex hormone regulation (Farns- nins) quercetin glucuronide, quercetin-3-O-glucoside,
worth et al., 2008). A lignan (1) (actaealactone), a new aepferol-3-beta-glucoronide and quercetin glucosylrham-
272 C. Lans et al. / Preventive Veterinary Medicine 90 (2009) 268–273

noside (rutin) (Venskutonis et al., 2007; Chen et al., 2007; trimester found that there was no higher risk for
Duke, 2007). The leaves contain tannins (100,000– malformations from ginger use and that the ginger was
120,000 ppm), which are irritating compounds that can more helpful in alleviating the symptoms than other
affect the uterus (Duke, 2007). Quercetin and kaempferol preparations used (Portnoi et al., 2003; Ali et al., 2008).
are inhibitors of platelet aggregation in vitro (Osman et al., Other randomized double-blind studies showing that
1998). Rat dams given 10 mg/kg quercetin monohydrate ginger was better than placebo when used between
daily during pregnancy had significant weight gain, but 125 mg four times daily to 500 mg four times daily
neither this nor 10 mg/kg kaempferol per day had any (Borrelli et al., 2005). Adverse effects were not seen on
effect on pregnancy or birth outcome (Johnson et al., 2009). pregnancy outcomes (spontaneous abortions, stillbirths,
Raspberry leaves have a long history of use by pregnant congenital abnormalities). A meta-analysis of five rando-
women. In a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled mized trials confirmed these results (Chaiyakunapruk
clinical trial, the effect of raspberry-leaf extract in tablet et al., 2006). Prolonged or heavy use of ginger is said to
form was studied on 192 low-risk nulliparous women affect platelet aggregation (Pribitkin, 2005).
(average age of 28.5 years) who were randomized to
receive either 400 mg of raspberry-leaf (R. idaeus ssp.
5. Conclusion
idaeus) extract (3:1, equivalent to 1200 mg of dried leaf) or
placebo two times per day with food (Simpson et al., 2001).
Medicinal plants have long been used for reproductive
Sixty-two percent of the women in the raspberry-leaf
health and the plants used for reproductive health in dogs
group had normal vaginal births (vs. 50.6% for the control)
and cats mirror those used for humans. Most of the clinical
and had fewer forceps or vacuum-assisted births (not
trials conducted on the reproductive uses of these plants
statistically significant, p = 0.19). The safety of raspberry-
have been done on women, not on companion animals.
leaf consumption on pregnancy was measured by analyz-
Very little research has been conducted on motherwort.
ing seven different variables: including maternal blood
loss, maternal diastolic blood pressure, presence of
meconium (the dark green fecal material that accumulates Acknowledgements
in the fetal intestines and is discharged at the time of
birth)-stained fluid, newborn APGAR scores (a system of The research in British Columbia was funded by the
evaluating a newborn’s physical condition by assigning a Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of
value [0,1, or 2] to each of five criteria: heart rate, Canada (SSHRC) Grant # 820-2002-1008. This research
respiratory effort, muscle tone, response to stimuli, and obtained ethical approval from the University of Victoria.
skin color) at 5 min, newborn birth weight, newborn
admission to neonatal intensive care facilities after birth,
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