Influence of faulting on drainage

Vertical faulting along a river profile may cause a waterfall.

A waterfall is a sharp break in the channel of a river where waterfalls.

Due to fracturing and displacement where one block is uplifted and the other down thrusted
water falls from raised block to low block forming a waterfall.

Horizontal or lateral displacement across a river will cause the river to be offset at the point it
crosses the fault.

Faulting and warping: extensive down ward and upward movements of the crust led to
formation of depressions. Down warping occurred in central and south eastern Uganda to form
depressions occupied by Lake Victoria and Lake Kyoga.

Before warping took place, land in central Uganda was sloping to the west and rivers like
Katonga, Kagera, Rwizi, Kafue were flowing to the west.

During warping, eastern and western Uganda were uplifted / during formation of the rift valley,
while central Uganda down warped forming basins.

After warping, rivers reversed their flow east wards empting their waters into basins to form
lakes Victoria and Kyoga.

MISSING DIAGRAMYOU LEAVE A SPACE

Graben /hollow lakes (rift valley lakes)

Graben results from secondary faulting due to secondary tensional or compression forces with
in the rift valley floor.
According to tensional forces, radio-activity and convective currents from the crust caused lines
of weakness. Normal faults were created in the crust.

Displacement occurred in the crust forming the rift valley when side blocks were pulled in
opposite direction and middle bock sunk under its weight. Secondary faulting took place in the
rift valley floor to form a graben.

Formed graben is later occupied by water either from rain or streams to form a lake.

DIAGRAM
Compression theory
Due to heating by radio-active and geo-chemical reactions led to convective currents which
diverged on reaching the earth crust forming compression forces which resulted into reversed
faults that divided the crust into three blocks. Side blocks rose to over-ride the middle block
which ragged behind to form a rift valley.

Secondary convective currents resulted into secondary faulting in the floor of the rift valley
deepening it and forming a graben /hollow. A graben is filled with water to form a rift valley lake.

DIAGRAM
The lake formed is characterized by being deep, elongated, has steep banks and regular shore
line.

Differential uplift

Due to heating by radio-active and geo-chemical reactions leading to convective currents that
resulted into multiple faulting dividing the earth crust into three parts.

Side blocks rose faster while the middle block rose slowly to form a rift valley. As convective
currents continued rising there was secondary faulting into the rift valley floor that resulted into
secondary differential uplift that formed a secondary depression/hollow.

The hollow was filled with water from streams and rivers to form lakes which are deep, with
steep banks, elongated and with regular shore line.

Tilted block lakes

These occupy depressions in between tilted ridges. Tension and compressional forces led to
the formation of several parallel faults dividing up the crust into several blocks.
Blocks are uplifted at different rates forming inclined angular ridges and depressions. Water
from rain/ rivers fills the depressions to form lakes like Ol-bolossat in Aberdares.

A fault guided river valley

This is a river valley located upon a single fault line. A river may flow along the fault line/
displaced rocks which are later widened by erosion and mass wasting. Examples are Aswan
and kerio river valleys.

Faulting can result into river rejuvenation. Once a river flows along a fault line where one block
is uplifted or raised/ displaced, its erosive power increases.

Folding
Folding is the bending of rocks. It is mostly developed in sedimentary rocks since they are
younger and soft and, so their layers can easily bend due to compressional forces.

Folding has resulted into a variety of geographical structures in different areas which include
simple folding which results into syncline valleys and anticline mountains.

These are formed when materials are eroded, transported and deposited into a depression.
They are laid into layers, layers are acted on by compressional forces forcing them to form
valleys synclines and uplands (anticlines)
 As
ymmetrical fold

This is formed when one limb is steeper than the other due to continued compression forces,
like ankole -karagwe rock system

Over fold
This occurs when one limb is forced over another due to intense compressional forces hence
forcing some fold limb to override the other.

Like Ukamba rock system in kenya.usagara in Tanzania.

An over thrust/nape

This is formed due to intense folding co-currently with faulting such that the lines of weakness
develop in the fold and therefore some limbs are forced to override others.

Elsewhere in Africa it results into Fold Mountains like atlas and cape ranges

Warping

Crustal warping; The extensive downward and upward movements of the crust led to the
formation of depressions and uplands. Down warping occurred in central and southern Uganda
to form depressions occupied by lakes Victoria and Kyoga.

During warping eastern and western Uganda were upwarped during formation of eastern and
western arms of the rift valley.

Down warping can be related to plate tectonics. The effect of converging convective currents
below the earth’s surface. Currents sunk into hot mantle pulling the earth’s surface towards the
earth’s center forming a depression.
Earth quakes
A rapid and detectable tremor, movement and adjustment of waves and within the rocks in the
earth’s crust, earth.

Or sudden violet movement of the earth’s surface

Earthquakes may be classified as primary (longitudinal, push or “p” waves, secondary

(transverse, shake or “s” waves, surface (love waves “l”)

Causes of earthquakes

 Origin or causes of earthquakes is attributed to plate tectonics. The collusion of plates

causes an impact that triggers off vibrations with in crust.
 Plates are light and float on upper mantle. They may also be rigid with inconsistent
boundaries sea ward and landward.
 Plates are mobile and may move vertically or horizontally. Due to radio- activity and
convectivity of silicate minerals. Convective currents are created within the mantle
 The convergence movement of the crustal blocks by converging convectional currents.
 As plates converge, deformation occurs on either side of the edges or fault line or with in
the mantle.
 As the plates are dragged, the rocks become plastic and elastic storing energy (like
bent-wooden stikes) frictional resistance holding the rocks together is overcome along
the faults or edges due to compression.
 Because of too much heat at the edge, the friction is reduced making the edges slippery.
 Further displacement exerts pressure and stress along the fault lines /edges.
 Rapid release of the edge makes the energy radiate in all directions from the focus in
form of waves.(explosive energy)
 Slippage allows the deformed rocks to snap back (reverse movement)or re-adjustment
thereby creating vibrations or earthquake.
 Rock elasticity returns to its original shape (elastic rebound).
 Major waves travel from the centre of disturbance as one wave shock.
 Earthquakes may also occur due to transform plate movements isostatic movements
and where there is excessive vulcanicity (tectonic in nature) .
 The point in the earth’s crust from which the vibration of shock waves originates is called
focus/hypocenter.
  While the epi-centre is the point at the surface of the earth above the origin of the
earthquake (vertical point above the origin or the focus)
 Shock waves are transmitted quickly through the earth’s crust to the surface when the
earthquake occurs shock waves decrease in strength as they travel away from the
focus.
 Magnitude for the earthquake is measured by seismograph equipped with a richter
scale to indicate the intensity of the earthquake.
 Areas where earthquake occur include china, Japan, India, Mexico, Peru and Uganda.

Effects of the earthquake

 Loss of lives. In 1966 150 people perished in Toro. In 1994 earth quake hit south west
Uganda especially Kasese, Bundibugyo, Kabarole killing some people.
 Triggers off landslides /mass wasting in highland areas associated with problems of
communication blockage.
 Promotes famine as crops/ farms are destroyed by landslides.
 Destruction of social services like schools, hospitals, cathedrals. 1994 where virika
hospital was destroyed.
Some people are left homeless (displaced) in 1994 in Toro.
 Increases government expenditure in areas prone to earthquakes that is emergency
funding for disaster preparedness
 High costs of replacing the destroyed property like buildings.
 Flooding in the coastal areas due to tsunamis generated by earthquakes.
 In the sea leading to drowning.
 Earthquakes whose epic centre was at kisomore about 25km north of fort portal and
caused black out and fire.
 It leads to research where it occurs.

Vulcanicity
It is a process through which liquid, solid or gaseous materials from the interior of the earth are
either intruded into extruded onto the earth’s surface. It leads to formation intrusive and
extrusive features,

Materials originate from the upper mantle due to radio-activity and geo chemical reactions which
generate convective currents which increase heat and pressure forcing materials out along
fissures or fault lines created by explosive escaping gasses.

Land forms formed depend on

 Nature of materials affected i.e. liquid, gasses, solid

 Nature of passage/vent i.e. single or numerous fissures or fault lines
 Number of times of emission i.e. successive eruptions or single eruptions

Volcanic /extrusive features

These are formed as a result of the ejection of liquid, solid or gaseous materials onto the
surface of the earth.

Land forms formed depend on nature of materials ejected, nature of passage and number of
eruptions.

The nature of materials includes;

Liquid materials ejected consist of molten magma which reaches the surface as lava. Some lava
is acidic and contains much silica with a high melting point, very viscous and solidify rapidly
building steep sided cones. or may solidify in the vent causing re-current explosive eruptions
leading to composite volcanoes, cumulo domes and plugs.

Some lava is basic which is poor in silica but rich in iron and magnesium materials. It flows for a
considerable distance before solidifying producing flatter cones of greater diameter like basaltic
domes and lava plateaus.

Gaseous compounds emitted during eruption include sulphur, canbondioxide chloride

increasing steam. The gasses inter –react generating great heat with in the lava. This affects
the rate of cooling, lava flow and the shape and type of volcanic landform.

Solid materials generally known as tephra are ejected during a series of eruptions. These may
include fragments of solidified lava and finer materials such as scoria pumice,cinders , dust and
ash

Gaseous and solid materials are ejected during violent eruptions producing ash and cinder
cones or scoria cones, composite cones,calderas and explosion craters.

Nature of passage

Single vents leads to steep sided cones e.g. composite cones and plugs. Numerous fissures
lead to gently sloping cones of low height with a large base e.g. basaltic domes and lava
plateaus

Fault lines provide passages for the formation of volcanic cones.

Number of emissions

Successful eruptions lead to composite volcanoes and basaltic domes. Single eruptions lead to
small cones.

Ash and cinder cones

These are small symmetrical cones with a broad base. they are formed when lava is ejected, in
a violet eruption through a vent in form of ash and pyroclasts (fragments). which accumulate
and consolidate around a vent to form ash and cinder cones which a steep sided examples
muganza, sagitwo in kisoro.

Composite volcano (state)

Is a mountain or a large steep side volcano formed due to successive violent eruption of large
quanties of acidic larva, accumulate and solidify around the vent.

Due to violent eruption in its final stages a crater is formed on top when its top is brown off.

Parasitic cones may develop on the sides of the central vent by acidic lava examples,
Muhavura, Kilimanjaro, Meru ,Oldoinyo lengai.
3. A cumulo dome

It’s a dome shaped or convex volcano with steep slopes, formed due to eruptions of acidic lava
which piles around the vent and hardens quickly. Later intrusion forces the initial layers
outwards forming a dome e.g. Ntumbi in Tanzania.

Volcanic plug

It’s a cylindrical block of lava. It is formed when acidic lava solidifies into a vent. Later explosive
eruptions forces it out amidst clouds of hot ash and cinder on the surface e.g. Toro.

Basalt dome or shield volcano

It’s a large flat topped dome shaped feature formed of basic lava with gently sloping sides. Its
low in height with large base because of fluid lava which comes through numerous fissures and
flows for some long distances before solidifying. Subsidiary cones may forms along fissures.
Examples found near Muhavura ranges.
Lava plateau

Is an upland with a general leveled summit. It is made of successive layers of basic lava from
large numbers of fissures covering long distances on the crust, covering hills and valleys
forming an extensive uniform landscape like Yatta ,aberdare plateau and kisoro lava pairs.
An Explosion crater

explosion crater is a flat lowered depression in the crust surrounded by a rim of pyroclasts and
local rock. Its formed through violent eruption through the earth’s crust forming a depression
.they are often found in groups .examples are L. Katwe, kyangambi,and nyamunuka.

A crater
It’s a depression on top of a volcano formed as a result of explosive eruptions which blows off
the top part of a volcano ngorongoro.

A caldera
Is a large rounded depression formed from the destruction of the upper part of a volcano in a
violent eruption. At time a summit cone of volcano is brown off and explodes into rocks and
ashes. Massive eruptions are said to occur when acidic lava solidifies within the vent thereby
blocking it, pressure thereby builds at that point hence resulting into expulsion e.g. napac,
longnot, swaswa ,menengai,
Intrusive landforms
Intrusive vulcanicity is the process in which magma or molten rock is intruded and cools before
reaching the surface. Magma comes because of heating by radio-activity and geo chemical
reactions that had to convective which increase heat and pressure forcing materials to move
through fissures and cool before reaching the surface.

Features formed include the sill, dyke, batholitic, lactones, and lapolith.

Batholith

Is a very large intrusion feature of crystalline granitic found at great depth and apparently
bottomless. Its formed due to large scale intrusion of acidic magma. When batholiths is resistant
and exposed by denudation processes. It forms upland e.g. Singo, Tanganyika, Mubende,
Kyenjojo, Iringa, Mwanza. When easily eroded forms an arena like ankole-karagwe series

Dyke
It’s a vertical or steeply inclined rock sheet intrusive feature formed when magma up wells
through fissures

Where resistance to denudation processes than surrounding area forms a ridge e.g. Insingiro,
busia, sukulu, kisumu and rungwe when easily eroded forms a linear trench (long narrow ditch
depression) e.g. One west of L. Turkan.

Sill
Horizontal tubular rock sheet intrusion feature formed when magma spreads horizontally when
resistant to denudation processes the surrounding areas .it forms a flat topped hill
escarpment ,cliff, e.g. Kakinzi in luwero, and theca (Kenya) when it lies in a river channel it may
lead toil formation of a water fall e.g. Sezibwa

LACCOLITH

It’s a dome shaped volcanic intrusion feature formed when viscous magma rises and is unable
to spread further and it forces over lying rocks upwards if restraint to denudation processes
process through surrounding area forms an upland e.g. In kitui and viol
Lopolitin
Is a saucer shaped volcanic intrusion feature formed when magma sprads horitally when unable
to continue spreading horizontally depresses underlying rocks when resistant to denudation
process than the surrounding area forms out facing scarps e.g. umunkwo ranges.
Phocolith
Formed in areas affected by folding found in syncline and anticlines

Influence of vulcanicity on drainage

The effect of volucanicity on drainage mainly depends on the nature of eruption and magma
affected

Violent eruption may lead to formation of expulsion craters

Explosion of crater lakes

Contained in circular depressions resulting from violent or explosion volcanic eruptions

accompanied by hot gasses .crystalline crustal surface rocks were destroyed to form explosion
craters formed with water forming lakes e.g. kikorongo ,Nyamunuka ,and katwe

Crater lakes contained in rounded funnel shaped hollows (circular) at summit of volcanoes
formed due to violent eruption blowing off the top most part of a volcanic leaving behind circular
depression which is filled with water forming crater lakes e.g. on Mt. Muhavura, Katanga.

Caldera lakes contained in large calderas formed either by violet erupting off top of the volcano
could also be due to cauldron subsidence/ sinking if rocks surrounding the crater into control
vent (chasm) enlarging the crater into a caldera

Most calderas formed by both violent eruption and subsidence filled with water forming caldera
lakes e.g. Ngorangara, Ngozi, Longnot, Menengai and Suswa

Lava dammed lakes formed in valley depressions when fluid basic larva flows down slope (from
volcanic eruption) blocking course of river hence beckoning of water. Water accumulates on the
upstream side forming lava damned lake e.g. mutanda, bunyonyi. Volcanic cones developed
and provided water sheds for numerous rivers forming radio drainage partner whose
subsequent streams develop donditric partners e.g. those on mountain Elgon, Kenya and
Kilimanjaro. Volcanic materials that are porous in nature do limit surface drainage in kisoro and
buyarugulu. In these areas there is no surface flowing rivers

Intrusive volcanicity influence drainage especially when formally existing dykes and sills are
exposed by erosion across a river channel leading to formation of water falls e.g. sezibwa

A water fall rapids rid to formation of other related features like a plug or pool. A gorge

Geysers ( water commission surface periodically) or hot springs

These are as a result of volucanicity when rain water sinks into the ground and comes into
contact with hot materials. It is heated and the pressure created beneath forcing it out through
fissures in form of hot springs e.g. kitagata , sempaya ,kisizi

 Fumaroles( hot spring)

 Formation of volcanic mountains when are a source of rivers
Rocks
A rock is an aggregate of minerals. They are basically three types of rocks according to mode of
formation i.e.
Ignatius rocks
These are formed from the crystallization and solidification of molten magma. They may be
deposited with in the crust or above the earth’s surface that is intrusive and extrusive rocks
respectively .they are also formed taro formed rocks
The main process of formation of Ignatius rocks is volucanicity due to ratio activity and
connectivity lines of weakness or fissures are created in the crust through which molten magma
is either extrude or intruded.
They are crystalline in nature. The size of crystals depends on the rate of cooling i.e. the longer
the cooling the large the crystals.
Platonic Ignatius rocks cool extremely slowly at great depth due to lack of oxygen and have
large crystals e.g. granite seniti Gambro and diorite
Hipabyssl Ignatius rock soil near the surface at modulate rate, have medium sized crystals e.g.
quartz porphyry and dolerite.
Volcanic Ignatius rocks are formed from fast cooling surface larva with much smaller crystals
due to exposure to oxygen e.g. obsidian basalt ,hyalite ,transit, and site, and pumice
Magma forms the mantle effected vanes in chemical compassion which has an effect on their
viscosity. This in turn influences the cooling rate and the process o crystalline.
Acidic Ignatius rocks have high amount of quartz and feldspar. Have high quantity of silk above
65% e.g. granite.
Basic Ignatius rocks contain much of mica and olivine silicate 55% where intermediate have a
mixed mental structure ( silk a contains 45%)
Ignatius rocks are found around volcanic mountains along the east African rift valley.
Formally intrusive may later be exposed by intrusive lakes may later be exposed by the
denudation processes to form other features like insurburgs from batholiths.
Influence of Ignatius rocks on landform development may lead to extrusive and intrusive
volcanic features

Sedimentary rocks
Sedimentary rocks are composed of deposited minerals and rock fragments or
sediments produced by mechanical or chemical weathering of former rock masses or by
organic action The weathered materials are transported by erosion agents like water,
ice and wind and later deposited in strata on either dry land ,valley or under water in
seas or oceans.
The layers are separated by bedding planes which demarcate the end of one
deposition cycle and the beginnining of another .Layers can be horizontal ,gentle sloping
or dipping.
Generally sedimentary rocks are fossils or remains of dead animals and plants,
have layers or stratas separated by bedding planes of cementing materials
 PROCESSES FOR FORMATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS.
Weathering of existing rocks eg igneous and metamorphic.
Transportation of weathered materials
Deposition of materials by wind water and ice or ocean waves.
Stratification of deposited materials
Compression of stratified materials by overlying weight.
Compaction of layers.
Consolidation of materials.
Cementation of laid down layers by calcalious silicaleious and ferruginous materials
Transformation of sediments into sedimentary rocks
Formation of sedimentary rocks can be mechanical chemical or organic
Mechanically or physically formed sedimentary results from drying and
consolidation of rock textures. Varied textures then form varied rock types depending on
agents of erosion like River deposits /lacustine / alluvial soils .
Wind deposits /loess.
Marine /Wave marine deposits.
Examples of resulting rocks include sandstones Mudstones claystones shale, gravel
,boulder clay ,grint .
organically formed sedimentary rocks are formed from remains of living animals
and plants or fossils.
Coral polyp forming lime stone rock
Plant accumulation during carboniferous period compressed by sediments to form coal
varying types like lignite peat and brown coal.
Ferruginous materials form from iron ore and ironstone.

Coral exist in Ruaha valley in Tannzania

Chemically formed sedimentary rocks form evaporation and precipitation
of salt solution like rock salt. Dolomite, soda ash from Magadi
Latelites forming from iron and aluminum deposit on Buganda hill top
.Deposition calcite forming stalagmites. And stalactites in karst regions.
IMPORTANCE OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS.
Formation of fertile soils on river banks used for agriculture and river line vegetation
Coral lime stone is used as an industrial raw material for cement and gypsum.
Rock salt is used in the manufacture of common salt we use for consumption.
Potash is used in the manufacture of fertilizers used for agriculture.
Sandstone is and clay are used in brick making used in construction.
They are porous in nature so they are good sources of underground water for
development of bore hole.
Lead to the development of flat land scape used ideal for grazing.
Coral reefs ,karst landscape boost tourism which earns foreign exchange for the
development of roads.
Lagoons formed encourage fishing.
Land forms formed are used for research and study purposes developing education
sector.
Coral reefs provide good sheltered harbours for shipping
. They are a source of natural fuel like natural gas and coal.
They may be weathered into infertile soils which are not good for agriculture.
Deposit of sediments in water or low land may lead to flooding hence destruction of
property.

Deposit of sediments into water bodies reduces their storage capacity.

Coral reefs may be barrier to shipping leading to accidents.
Coral reefs tear fishing nets.
METAMORPHIC ROCKS.
These are changed rocks from formerly igneous and sedimentary with altered
mineralogy, texture and internal structure.
They occur due to intense heat pressure or both.
Thermal or heat metamorphism, these are formed when hot molten magma comes into
contact with the local rock or country rock .Its heated when magma cools it also cools
down ,re-crystallization takes place and formation of new materials new rocks which
include.
Marble changes from limestone.
Quartzite from sand stone.
The zone where mineral changes is called Aureole.
Dynamic or Pressure metamorphism, these are formed due to intense
pressure .Pressure is brought about when overlying rocks compress underlying rocks.
Pressure can also be brought by earth movements due to convective currents
within the crust changing existing rock e.g. granite changes into gneiss.
THERMAL—DYNAMIC METARMOPHISM
A combination of both heat and pressure changes the nature of existing rocks. Heat and
pressure are generated during mountain building that changes the original rock e.g. clay
changes to slate
Coal changes to graphite
Shale changes to schist.
IMPORTANCE OF METARMOPHIC ROCKS
Source of minerals e.g kimberite in Mwadui that contain diamonds.
Raw materials for industries e.g. graphite for pencil tips,kimberlite for drilling tips.
Some metamorphic rocks like gneiss are used as grinding stones.
Some like quartzite is used for road surfacing, Slate for roofing stair steps.
Some like graphite coal are a source of thermal energy.
Some like marble are used for decoration or ornamental purposes.
Some like Slate are used for study and research purposes.
Some which are hard and resistant to erosion like quartzite out crops form highlands that
are good sites for defensive and installation of water tanks.
Metamorphic rocks form strong basements for dams and tunnel construction
Metamorphic rocks like slate is weathered down to form soils used for agriculture e.g in
Nyanza province.
They are tourist attractions e.g GEO-tourism in Mwanza and Ntungamu earning foreign
exchange to the countries used to construct roads.
They act as a source of aquifer water or artesian wells.
Some like gneiss break down into poor course soils that don’t favour agriculture.
Some like quartzite’s form highlands that hinder development of communication lines.
Some like gneiss out crops hinder settlements.
Some are impediment to drainage like slate.
Some influence landslides in steep areas e.g. rock fall leading to loss of lives.
INFLUENCE OF ROCKS ON LANDSCAPE’
There is a close relationship between rocks and relief in an area which is explained by
the following.
Rock hardness and softness,
Hard rocks are resistant to denudation processes than soft rocks.Hard rocks
like quartizite,granite and gabro often form uplands with steep slopes while soft rocks
like clay form low lands with gentle slopes.
Rock permeability
Permeable rocks like lime stone and sandstone that allow surface water to percolate or
go through reduce surface run off and may form uplands as opposed to impermeable
rocks which may be eroded to form low lands.
Rock jointing,
Joints provide access for agents of weathering and erosion, hard rocks which are well
jointed will eventually be reduced to form lowland with gentle slopes. However
permeable rocks which are well jointed like limestone reduce surface run off leading to
formation of an upland.
Nature of adjacent rocks
The extent to which a particular rock forms an upland depends not only on its resistance
but also the relative resistance of the surrounding rock. Therefore rock which appears
more resistant forms upland.
Rock structure
Where alternating hard and soft bed layers have been tilted, the effect of differential
erosion will be to wear away the weaker rocks leaving resistant rocks as an upland.The
nature of land scape will then depend on how steeply and gentle the rocks dips.
Moderately dipping strata tend to form a cuest scarpland.A cuesta is arigde or an
elongated hill with steep scarp slopes and gentle back slope, when the dip is very steep
a ridge with steep slopes on both sides Hog back form. Horizontal and very gentle
dipping strata layers may produce a plateau like relief, if capped by resistant rock layers
its referred to as a lateritic duricrust .If the resistant rock is broken through by erosion,
small plateau area known as mesas develop .the dissection of mesas leads to formation
of flat topped hills called Hog back.
Climate.
The same rock may in one region form an upland and another a low land due
differences in climate.In arid areas limestone is relatively resistant to erosion due to
absence of water.In Equatoria area its worn down by solution of weak carbonic acid.
 WEATHERING
Weathering is the disintegration or breaking and decomposition or decay of rocks in situ
at or near the earth’s surface. Different types of weathering operate co-currently
although we look at them in isolation.
TYPES OF WEATHERING.

CHEMICAL WEATHERING
This is the decomposition or decay or rotting of rock in situ at or near the surface .It
occurs as a result of adequate water and high humidity. Water acts as a medium for
chemical reactions and hot temperature speeds up the rate of chemical reactions.
In chemical weathering there is a change in chemical compositionof the rock
where a new compound is formed.
Chemical weathering is common in humid areas or wet and hot areas such as
L.Victoria shores, coastal areas, South western Uganda in Nyakasura and lower slopes
of highland areas.
Chemical weathering processes include-
Solution
This is where soluble mineral components in rocks are dissolved by water like rock salts
are carried in solution leaving behind joints or cracks or widened hollows in the rocks.
Oxidation.
This is the reaction between oxygen and mineral components in rocks such as iron and
aluminum facilitated by hot temperature and water to change to laterite and bauxite
respectively.
Carbonation
This is where carbon dioxide react with rain water to form carbonic acid which react with
calcium carbonate in limestone rocks to form calcium bi-carbonate which is carried away
in solution and when precipitated out through evaporation leads to the formation of
stalagmites and stalactites. Common in limestone areas like Nyakasula.
Hydration
Some rocks absorb water and in the process expand and decompose to give rise to new
compounds e.g calcium sulphate gives rise to gypsum and hematite changes to limonite.
Hydrolysis
This is the reaction between hydrogen ions from water mineral ions from the rock to form
new compounds .This is the major process in decomposition feldspar in igneous rock to
granites. It also leads to formation of clay in broad valleys.
Reduction
It occurs in water logged or swampy areas ,it involves an aerobic bacteria absorbing the
limited oxygen leaving behind hydrogen that react with the rock to decompose into a
new compound. it is responsible for the grey colour in clay through gleization.
Chellation
Basic exchange between plants and rocks .plants extract nutrients from rocks causing
change and decomposition. Plants release minerals back into the rocks that coause
change and decomposition.
Spheroidal weathering
Swelling of outer shells of a rock by penetration of water forcing them to peel
successively away and loosen

FACTORS FAVOURING CHEMICAL WEATHERING.

1 Climate
Rainfall provides water needed for chemical weathering processes .Araes that receive
rainfall and have high humidity with hot temperature to speed up chemical reactions
experience chemical weathering through processes like carbonation,hydration,solution
and oxidation.
2 Nature of rock.
i)Mineral composition of the rock,
.Some rocks like calcium carbonate react with carbonic acid to produce calcium bi-
carbonate through carbonation.
Some rocks with mineral like feldspar when mixed with water decompose to form
other mineral compounds like potassium hydroxide and aluminosilicic acid through
hydrolysis.
Some rocks have mineral compounds like ion and aluminum which react with
oxygen in presence of water to form new compounds like laterites and bauxite
respectively.
Some rocks like rock salt and lime stone dissolve in water and solution is carried
away leading to decomposition of rocks through solution.
Some rocks absorb water; expand causing a change in the structure of the rock
through hydration e.g. feldspar and mica
ii) Jointing of the rock
Presence of joints or cracks in the rock increase surface area. For chemical reactions
since they allow water to penetrate into the rock and react with rock minerals aiding
processes like oxidation, carbonation and hydration.
iii) Permeability
Permeable rocks allow water to penetrate into rock and react with rock mineral to
chemically weather the rocks through carbonation, hydration and hydrolysis.
3 Relief
Chemical weathering is dominant on gentle and lowland due to accumulation and
percolation of water to chemically weather the rock than on steep slopes where there is
little penetration of water due to high surface run off. However erosion exposes fresh
rocks to chemical weathering processes like oxidation and carbonation
4 Drainage.
Leaching occurs in gentle slopes and low land here rock minerals are dissolved and
taken in solution to deeper layers of the rock aiding processes like solution and
carbonation.
Poorly drained areas like flooded plains are chemically weathered through
processes like hydrolysis, hydration, reduction and solution
5 Living organisms.
i) Man’s influence
Man may influence chemical weathering through-
 Emission of industrial gasses increasing acidity in rain waterwhich accelerates
the rate of chemical processes like carbonation.
Dumping of industrial or domestic or agricultural effluents increase acidity in
the rocks increasing the rate of chemical weathering through carbonation.
Mining,quarrying,road construction and agriculture expose and break the
underlying rock into pieces increasing the surface area for chemical reactions
aiding processes like carbonation and oxidation.
Irrigation avail water to the rocks which react with rock minerals weathering
rocks through oxidation, and carbonation.
ii) Vegetation.
Plant roots release mineral substances into the rock while extracting other
mineral substances weathering the rock through chellation
Decaying plants and animals result into humus which mixes with water to
form humic acid which decompose the rock chemically.
Plant roots as they grow big create cracks or joints in the rock through
which water penetrates the rock aiding processes like carbonation and oxidation.
iii) Other living organisms.
Animals secrete uric acid that chemically decomposes the rocks.
Holes dug by burrowing animals like moles, termites aid water penetrate
and chemically weather the rock through solution and hydration.
Bacteria existing in leguminous plants absorb nitrogen from the atmosphere
to produce nitric acid which decomposes the rock chemically.
6 Time.
The longer the rock is exposed to chemical weathering processes the
more its weathered down .the less time its exposed the less its chemically
weathered.
PHYSICAL OR MECHANICAL WEATHERING
Physical weathering is the break down or disintegration of rocks into smaller
fragments or particles in situ.
It occurs due to temperature fluctuations as a result of
alternate heating and cooling, frost action and due to influence of plants and
animals.
In physical weathering there is no change in chemical composition of the rock
but instead the rock is broken into small particles.
Physical weathering is common in Arid and glaciated areas.
Physical weathering takes place through processes like granular disintegration
block disintegration exfoliation and others..
Areas where physical weathering takes place in East Africa include
North Eastern Uganda, Ankole-Masaka dry corridor and Northern Kenya . Some
parts of central Tanzania and upper slopes of high mountains at an altitude
above 4500 meters such as Kenya,Kilimanjalo and Rwenzori.
PROCESSES OF PHYSICAL\MECHANICAL WEATHERING
Exfoliation is the
 process that involves peeling off of surface rock layers due to alternate heating
during day causing expansion and cooling at night causing contraction in situ.It is
common in semi arid areas like Turkanland resulting into exfoliation domes with
deposited rock screes at the base.
Block disintegration is the breakdown of rock into rectangular blocks as a
result of alternate heating and cooling of jointed and well bedded rocks leading
to expansion and contraction of rocks in situ. This is due to temperature changes
and frost action. Block disintegration is common in arid areas like Kalamoja
Sukumaland and on glaciated mountains like Kilimanjalo.
Granular disintegration is the breakdown of heterogeneous rocks into
granules as a result of alternate heating during day and cooling during night.
Rocks with different minerals absorb and loose heat at different rates hence
expand and contract at different rates breaking into grains.
Aridity shrinkage which is the process by which non-porous rocks like
clay absorb water during the rainy season and expand while during the dry
season they lose water and contract. Cracks or joints develop leading to their
disintegration
Salt crystallization involves break up of rocks due to crystallization of saline
solution in rock joints or cracks. As crystals enlarge, they exert pressure on the
rock.
Pressure release .This is where rocks exposed by denudational processes or
mans activities expand, crack,break up and peel off as the weight caused by
pressure is released when overlying rocks are removed.
Frost shattering is the breakup of rocks due to alternate freezing of
water in rock cracks or joints and thawing. The ice exerts pressure on the
surrounding rocks breaking them up into blocks.

FACTORS THAT CAUSE PHYSICAL WEATHERING.

i) Climate.
In semi arid and arid areas, hot temperature during day cause rocks to expand
and the cold temperature at night cause rocks to contract. Alternate expansion and
contraction of rocks cause stress in the rock which breaks up the rock in the processes
such as block disintegration ,exfoliation and others.
Seasonal rainfall causes clay rich rocks to expand or swell as they absorb
water and dry up. Alternate wetting and drying causes the rock to break up in the
processes such as aridity shrinkage
Cold temperatures on high mountains cause freezing of water in rock crack or
joints. And when temperature warm up, the ice melts. Alternate freezing and thawing
leads to break up of rocks in processes known as frost shattering.
Absence or limited cloud cover in semi arid and arid areas lead to hot temperature
during day leading to expansion of rocks and at night, rapid cooling leads to contraction
of rocks hence breaking through exfoliation.
ii) Nature of the parent rock.
Jointed rocks expand and contract along joints leading block disintergration.
Heterogeneous rocks expand and contract at different rates leading to processes of
such as granular disintegration.
Homogeneous rocks expand and contract uniformly and so break up in processes such
as exfoliation.
Clay rich rocks absorb and retain water during the the wet season and dry up in the
dry season leading to aridity shrinkage.
Soft rocks break up easily when subjected to alternate heating and cooling through
processes such as granular disintergration
Dark coloured rocks absorb heat faster and break up through processes such as
block disintergration.
iii)Relief.
On steep slopes, the weathered rock materials easily move down slope hence exposing
fresh rock further physical weathering.
iv)Absence or limited vegetation cover , rocks are exposed to heating and expansion
during day and cooling and contraction at night hence leading to processes such as
exfoliation and block disintergration.
iv) Man physically breaks up rocks through activities like
mininig,quarrying,construction and others.
v) Burrowing animals that dig tunnels into the rocks like moles break it into small
particles.
vi) Plant roots that grow in rock joints or crack enlarge and break up rocks.
vii) Time it takes time for the rock to undergo weathering. The longer the time, the
more physical will take place. The shouter the time, the less the weathering
process.
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE RATE AND CHARACTER OF WEATHERING.
I Climate.
Variation in climate cause differences in the rate of weathering .
Climatic elements affecting weathering are rainfall temperature and
humidity.Thus each climatic region has its own rate and character of weathering.
HUMID AREAS WITH HAEVY RAIN FALL AND hot conditions like those
around L.VICTORIA AND COASTAL Areas chemical weathering takes place so
faster through solution, Carbonation e.t.c physical weathering is limited due to
thick forests and thick layers of debris.
Areas with alternating wet and dry season chemical weathering takes place
fast in the wet season and physical weathering takes place in the dry season
In arid and semi arid areas due to limited vegetation cover there is limited cover
or protection to the ground against temperature fluctuations resulting in
exfoliation, block disinteregration.
Salt crystallization is encouraged by high rate of evaporation.
INarid and semi arid areas chemical weathering is limited it involves moisture
drown by capillary action and from night dews and occasional rainfall which
enhance processes like hydration, hydrolysis.
 In aid areas chemical weathering is very effective in destruction of
crystallized rocks and rock out crops sheltered from sunshine and is able to
retain moisture for longer periods
In graciated areas physical weathering takes place so fast through frost
action chemical weathering is limited due to absence of liquid water and low
temperature
Natural of the parent rock
i)MINERAGICAL COMPOSITION
Weathering varies according to the nature of the rock
Igneous and metamorphic rocks are weatherd so fast by chemical weathering
processes because they were formed under temperature and pressure
conditions very different from those operating on the surface.
Rock jointing
Well jointed rocks are easily weatherd bychemical and physical weathering
processes depending on climatic conditions.
under humid conditions joints increase the surface area for chemical reactions
to take place.
In arid and glaciated areas temperature fluctuation takes advantages through
alternate expansion and contraction breaking the rock through frost action and
block disintergration.
Rock colour
Dark coloured rocks absorb more heat leading to expansion on heating during
day,at night they contract due to cooling fastening physical weathering processes
like block disintergration.
RCK HARDNESS
Hard rocks such as quartzite take long to weather as compared to soft rocks like
limestone when subjected to both chemical and physical weathering processes.
PEARMEABLE ROCKS
These are easily weathered by chemical processes like solution hydration
hydrolysis since they allow water to percolate.
3.Living organisms,
When living organisms die decompose into humus which mixes with
water to turn into humic acid which decomposes the rock chemically.
Plants by the action of their roots which grow deep into the ground and expand
the break the rock physically. And when they extract and release some nutrients
into the rock they are chemically weathered through chellation.
Thick vegetation however may act as a protective layer against physical
weathering and may also slow the removal of weathered materials.
Animals such as rodents, moles, and termites loosen and mix rock
therefore increase the access for water and atmospheric gasses into rocks
fastening carbonation and oxidation.
Man himself through mining using explosive, construction breaks the rocks
physically. Application of fertilizers and spraying using chemicals he is adding
acidity into the rocks hence aiding chemical weathering.
 4Relief
This determines rate and type of weathering, the rate at which weathering takes
place is related to the speed at which the weathered materials are removed. On
steep slopes the weathered material is removed fast exposing the parent rock to
weathering processes. On gentle slope and low land weathered rock covers the
underlying parent rock protecting it from further weathering.
The gentle slopes however promote chemical weathering because water
accumulates in the rock promoting chemical weathering processes like oxidation.
In the valley where there is impended drainage chemical weathering is slow
because water prevents free exchange of gases with minerals.
5 Time’
The stage of weathering depends on how long a rock has been exposed to
agents of weathering and process of weathering. When the duration of exposure
increases, the degree of weathering also tends to increase.
The longer the duration of exposure to agents of weathering, the deeper the
weathering. Once the duration is short, the landform will display characteristics of
a low stage of evolution.