ONE

Visual Art, Portraits, and Idolatry

FOR TH E MOST PART, existillg examples of Christian visual

art come from Rome and date to the beginning of the third century C. E.,
a time when Roman Christians were enjoying a brief resp ite from the
widespread but sporadic perst'cutions they had suffert'd during the
reign of Marcus Aurelius (160-180). During the relatively tolerant reign
of Emperor Commoous ( 180--192). the church acquired land outside
the city walls,on the Via Appia An tica, for usc as a burial ground. allow -
ing them 10 inter Christian dead in cemeteries separa ted from their
non -Christian neighbors. This cemetery, unlike most n..cropoli or mau -
solea from earlier times that were eithe r just at the surface or above -
ground, waS constructed as an underground network of branching and
connecting tunnels on four different levels, containing tiers of narrow
horiwnlal nkhes for individual bodies (Iowli) and open ings into larger
rooms (,,,bie,,I,, ), which may have held several burials from a single
family. The loa.li were doSl'd with slabs of stone or terra cotta on which
were inscribed simple epi taphs and often a figure or a symbol (such as a
dove, praying figure, anchor, or fish). The walls and ceilings of the wb;c-
ula (3 word that means "sleeping chambers" ) were often adorned with
traditional decorative motifs as well as some narrative images based on
biblical th emes.
According to his later rival Hippolytus, the oldest section of the first
known Christian cemetery was placed under the supervision of CaliistU5,
a former slave who had been condemned to hard labor in the Sardinian
mines as a Christian. After he was released (through an intervent ion on
his behalf by the emperor's mistress Marcia, who seems to have had
Christian sympathies), Callistus returned to Rome, where he received a
pension as reward for his suffering from Bishop Vktor J (189- 198 C.E.).
Under Victor's successor Zephyrinus, Callistus Was put in charge of the

1
2 FACE TO FACE

Christian cemetery, and when Zephyrinus died, he became Bishop him -

self, dying as a martyr in 222. ' In time, the cemett'ry Callistus had super-
vised (although not whert' he himself was buried) came to Ix called the

r" I. w., ~~"i fn:om a

Catacomb of Saint Callistus.' In scriptional ev idence in its oldest area,
~ ., th~ c.t..:oni>
d s.... SebostI....,. """"" containing lhe so -called Crypt of the Popes, was found to indicate the
(Q n" 1""""...".,,1 burials of a number of third-century bishops of Rome.
C"'...-cmbSOOety._
Estok Bmtman~ Hi storians regard this site as especialJy important because of its many
wall paintings, most of which are assumed to be oon!emporaut'ous with
the first years of its use, making them among the earliest examples of
Christian figuratiw art. No sim ilar body of art works is known from the
preceding two centuries of the Christian era. Moreover, given these
paintings' location in a site owned and supervised by church officials, we
can assume that Ca lli st us and other subsequent ecclesial au t horities
allowed the production , style, and content of the frescoes. In othe r
wnrds, the images that decorate these burial spaces were officially per-
r" 2 Good Sh<;>he>d. mitted, even though they appeared in quasi -private space (family
C ..... QmbofC r "t<.
R<>mo (Cl TO. lr'!tem. tlOnaI tombs) and were presumably wmmissioned by ordinary individuals to
Catocorrb Society. 1'Iloto: enl iven the crypts of their deceased relatives. In time, the de.:;oration
Estek Bmtman~ became even more uofficial~ as frescoes came to adorn the more public
burial chambers of clergy and martyred saints.'
These early images are fairly simple, and many were clearly modified
from conventional Roman funerary art and trad ition al wall painting.
They include the purely dewrative, customary, and religiously generic
iwnography of garlands, fruit, flowers, and birds that appea rs in neigh -
boring pagan burial chambers as well as domestic settings (fig . I ).
Some common figures borrowed classica l motifs and adapted them to
convey specific Christian meanings such as the fish, dove, anchor, shep-
herd, praying figure (oram), ooat, and funeral banquet (figs. 2- 4),
H owever, we also find a number of distinct, recognizable Christian
motifs in the oldest chambers of Callistus's catacomb including the so-
called cubicula of the sac ram ents, where, alongside the figures of the
shepherd and the orant, we also see the figures of Jonah, Moses striking
 VIIVAL ART, PORTRAITI, AND IDOLATRY 3

the rock, Abraham and isaac, and some early scenes from th e New Tes -
tament, including the baptism of Christ and the healing of the paralytic
(figs. 5-7). In time, as this and
other Christian catacombs contin-
ued to be enhanced with frescoes,
the iconographic catalog grew
even more complex, adding such
figu res as Noah, Daniel, and Jesus
perform ing va ri ous healings and
working wonders. By the late third
and into the fourth century, these
same images began to appear
carved in relief on the front and
ends of the large stone coffi ns (sar-
cophagi ), discovered within the
F;g. 3. P...,;ng f'i'-'""'.
larger chambers of the catacombs or sometimes in above-ground mau - Catacomb of c:.Ii<tu5.

--,
solea or nearby basilicas (figs. S-9 ). Rome (Q ~ Int=>..."....
These various Christian motifs and symbols referred to ideas, stories, Catacomb Soaot): Photoc

or events that encapsula ted an aspe\:t of the beliefs or hopes of the fa it h-

ful, in th is context particularly referring to th e expectations for a blessed
afterlife promised by the sacraments of the church, or to the character of
the de\:eased as a person whQ lived a life of steadfast piety, fidelity to the
community, familial affection, and high mora l character. Most of the
early paintings were of relatively low quality and style when compared
to much more beautiful enmples of Roman wall painting, although
they strike the viewer as expressive and vigorous in their own right. The
relief carvings, on the other hand , often were beautifully crafted and
well composed. Whether highly crafted or not, these paintings and Carv-
ings are necessarily exceptional and ground breaking as some of the very
first examples of Christian art. The visual image was allowed to carry the
weight of message and meaning, in the context of the most significant of
all life's moments--death and the burial of the body by the
rciatives and friends of the de\:eased. Perhaps more generally, these art - F'i ". F., r>efoI b¥>qo.>et.
works demonstrate that Christians valued and used visual art, at least Crucomb of CoIOst ...
Rome (0 TO. Int=>.ltioo ..
from the time that we may identify obj«ts and spaces that were openly
Christian -owned.
4 FACE TO FACE

Early Christian Views orVisual Art: Historical Analyses

The very fact that we may study Christian art from the turn of the third
century is likely due to the fortuitous surv ival of certain sites, in partic-
ular those that were underground (catacombs) and safe from future
urban renewal or deliberate
d..struct ion during earlier eras of
persecution or later periods of
Christian iconoclasm (especially in
the eastern part of the Empire ).
Because of such vicissitudes of sur-
I • vival, whether the corpus of alia·

. '--
•• comb art points to a significant
'hange or development in Chris-
tian tradition and practice around
the turn of the third century may
be a debatable point. However, the
absence of any significant and
definitively Christian artworks
prior to this time has often been
Fog S. """" .. no<\; Scene taken as evi dence that, for a century and a half, the church had no large
from Jonah q<1e. u t.xe<rb
body of dearly roxogniubk visual art of its own. If t his is 50, the paint-
of ~ll>,1\omo (C The
"temotoonaI c.~ ing of these catacombs signaled a watershed moment, when the church
Soc>et1 PI>oto: Estelle changed its habits, tradi t ions, convictions, or values and created a dis-

"""'"'
Fog. 6. _ stri'-"g the nod<
tinct form of art where there once was non e-a form based on a combi -
nation of familiar and newly invented motifs.
The positing of such a radical sh ift suggests a possible theological or
" the ~= ut.><omb
of CaiO;'ll>, Rome social transformation within the commun ity-a change of perspoxtive
(C n" IrIt<rn>lion.>.l that allowed something to exist that would have been seen as problem-
c">< e<rbScx"",~_
atic in the previous era. Alternatively, this shift may merely imply a
Est.,.., Bmtman~
change in the communi t y's social
or economic circumstances. His-
torium have offered different the-
ories to account for this change of
pattern. To some interpreters, ear-
lier generations of Christians con -
sc iousl y decided that visual art
was to be rejected because it
amounted to idolatry and was
tainted with th e vanity of pagan
decadence. For these interpreters,
Christians were act ing like Jaw-
abiding lews, taking the prohibi-
tion o f graven images to heart,
thus neither making nor using fig-
 VIIVAL ART, PORTRAITI, AND IDOLATRY 5

uralive artworks (despite evidence thaI actually demonstrates a wide - Fig. 7. Baptism of O<ist.
spread use of figurative art among jews-see below ). The production Cot . :o,,-t> of Calistu<, ~
(eThe lotemat>onol
of visual art at the beginning of the Ihird century consequently indi - Cot . :o.tt> ~PnoIo;
cates a change in altitude loward that proh ibi tion, perhaps capitulating &t<k BrottrNn ~

to popular culture, or extending a grudging tolerance tn new converts

who were less zealous or theologically conscious and wished 10 con -
tinue their traditional pagan practice of embellishing their family
lombs (at least) with images.'
A differen t theory takes a more progressive and positive view of the
development of recognizably Christian examples of visual art. Instead
of seeing the advent of visual art in Christianity as a signal of the loos -
en ing of discipline or a mark of decade nce, this view argues that the
appearance of 3rt waS a natural development of an evolving faith, as it
came to have its own modes of expression and communication. If one
assumes that such new modes require a period of gestation before they
emerge on the ><;ene, then it stands to reason that Christians first used
those symbols and motifs that were available and generally understood,
having come from the iconographic vocabulary of the common culture.
Of course, although these " borrowed~ images were adapted for Chris-
tian use and endowed wilh meanings that conveyed key aspects of the
new religion, they migh t not be obviously "Christian" to the majority of
viewers then or now. Eventually these symbo ls and motifs wou ld be
entirely transformed, and new ones would emerge, about the same time
as adherents as well as new converts achieved the necessary 5O<:ial, eco-
nomic, and intellt'dual stability necessary to generate a religious mate-
rial culture of their own '
Both points of view assume that the apparent emergenct' of Christian
art at the turn of the third ct'ntury indicates that at that time Christian-
ity became engaged with its surrounding cu lture in a different way than
it had bet'n previously. Either Christian pract itioners cea.sed to be so
6 FACE TO FACE

distinct from certain aspects of pagan sO(iety and religion (in particular
from its rich artistic tradition), or they beg.m 10 produce a distinctive
iconography that would dearly identify them, instead of adapting reli·
giously generic images. The main difference betwet'o the two perspt'c-
lives is whether such cul tural engagement and/or artistic development
is understood as signi fying the erosion or the elaboration of a distinct
theological identi ty. [n the first view, Christians became more like their
pagan neighbors, and in the second, they became more markedly Chris-
tian (at least in their visual art). Both views accept that Christian
iconography in the early third century marks a cultural evoJulioJl-
whether that evolution was a good thing for the religion itself is also the
subject of some disagreement.
Other explanations have been offered for the lack of Christian visual
art from the first and second cen turies. One argument, that the first gen-
erations were expecting an immediate end to the world as they knew it,
presumes that believers saw no value in (or had no time for) making
visual expressions offaith. Only when the parol/sia (Christ's return) was
seen to be indefinitely del ayed was there widespread effort to establish
the kind of cultural permanence that would include tombs, churches,
and colle<:tions of sacred texts. Anothe r t heory, that almost all older arti -
fa cts were lost or destroyed owing either 10 the vicissitudes of persecu-
tion (the destruction of Christian objects and buildings) or the
consequence of urban renewal (when older and less opulent churches
were torn down to make way for new building in the fourth century), is
supported by archaeological finds. The Christian building at Dura
Europos, for instance, survived because it was deliberately covered over
as a defe nsive move by a Roman garrison . Burial places likewise survived
because they Were left in tact, perhaps out of respe<:t, bUI also because
they were underground and therefore not as subject to destruction . In
fact. this latter argument also serves to e;.;plain the very limited conte;.;!
and geography of those artifacts that can be dated prior to the Omstan-
tin ian era, which brought an t'nd to persecution but also marked tht'
Fog. a joooh ~ ... begin ll ing of monumen tal, large-scale, and signifi cantly permanent
late 3rd <en = MoJ>eo Pio building projects, many of them adjacent to or incorporating th ese I'ery
en......"V.b<aOCity
(PI>oto:Author} burial grounds.
 VIIVAL ART, PORTRAITI, AND IDOLATRY 7

I)~pite these various theories, many historians still assume that the
first- and second-ct'ntury church consistently repudiated the creation of
figurative art for theologi<;cal reasons. As Mary Charles Murray SO clearly
showed nearly a quarter-ct'ntury ago, leading historians of Christianily
as well as many important art historians often assumed that the religion
was, from its origins, characteristically hostile to all kinds of pictorial
art. She cites articles and books published from the 19505 to the date of
Iler own article in Ille lale 19705 by sucll prominent academics as Jolln
Beckwith, James Breckenridge, Ernst Kit7.inger, and Henry Clladwick,
scholars whose work is still very influential. ' For example, in his now
classic study. Byzam;tlf Art itl the Mukiflg. first published in 1977,
Kitzinger wrote at the end of his first chapter:

Th"", i, no evid"""e or any art with. Chri'tian WIItc"t earlier th. n the )'<'3r
~.o. 200. In . 11 likelihood this is not merely du. to accident.l lo ..... The ,ur·
vivins monument, of Cllr;'tian pictorial art whi.ch GIn "" a{{,ibuted to the
fi rst half of the th ird centu ry bear the m.rk> of a lme ""Sinning. Moreover.
One ''''n f,nd in eh,i"ian litffature of the pe,ioJ ",n""tion. of a changing
a{{ilude loward imag... nd Ihei, role in 'eligiou s life. Th.1 altitude W"
undoubtedly negal"·' prior to this period.'

As evidence of this negative attitude , many of these historians of the past

century, like tile iconoclash of the eighth, collec ted ancient written tes-
timonies that could be interpreted to suggest tha t the early church was
offidally anti- image. This historical persp«:live was examined and
refuted by Charles Murray, followed in detail two decades later by Paul
Corby Finn.. y. Bri..ny, however, the sources that historians most oft .. n
cite as evidence of early oppositio n to pictorial art are short excerpts
from the writings of Tertullian and Clement of Alexandria. For instance, Fis- 9. J=' Oe.Iinj MId
Henry Chadwick, in his widely read The furly Chtlrch (first published in ~~o.nn..n
'"""'~ • ...ty -4th ,on u .
1967), wrote:~The second of the Ten Commandments forbade the mak- r-\J5eo Pic Cnst"'""'-
ing of any graven image. Both Tertullian and Clement of Alexandria ViJIign City (Photo< Authoc~
8 FACE TO FACE

re-garded this prohibition as absolute and binding On Christians. I magt"S

H
and statues belonged to the demonic world of paganism. Actually in
reference to a rather polemical aside by Irenaeus, although ident ifyi ng
his informant by name, Chadwick contin ues, "In fact, the only second·
",'otury Christians known to have had images of Christ were radical
Gnostics, the followers of the licentious Carpocrates.»'
In this short quotation, Chadwick claims that the so-caJl.. d Second
Comm and ment {Exnd 20:4-53; DellI 4: 16-19; 5:8-9} was normative for
the early church in respe(l 10 visual images. Here Chadwic k repeats the
predilections of earlier scholars and takes early Christian anioonism for
granted. Chadwick further cites the writings of Tertullian and Clement
to imply that Christian teaching at the time generally forbade Uimages
and statues" of any kind as belonging to the demonic pagan world.
However, the actual sources themselves are far leos clear about the mat-
ter of visual art in general than they were about idolatry, specifically.
For example, an often-d ted excerpt from 'lhtuU ian's treatise 011 Mod-
esty has been judged to condemn any use of religious pictures (in this
case, of a shepherd) on chalices used during the eucharistic meal.' The
text, however, actually denounces those who favored a laxist approach to
forgiveness after bapt ism, in particular the author of th e treatise The
Shepherd of HenllIlS. Since Tertullian associated such t'Ucharistic cups
with this treatise (because of the shepherd image), he 35Sumes that those
who had such implements believed that they could be forgiven trans-
gressions such as drunkenness and adultery. Tertullian's obje<:tion to the
image on these cups was an objection to what it signified (a lack of moral
rigor), not to its mere existence as a pie<:e of art.
Furthermore, Chadwick suggests that the production of visual art
occu rred first within heretical sects, specifically among Gnostics. Hi s
evidence for this association of art and heresy comes mainly from Ire-
naeus's treatise Agaimt Heres;es, written in the late seo;cond century.
listed among the many undesirable praCl;'es and traits of the Car-
pocratians, such as practicing sorcery and astrology, Irenaeus also
accuses them of making and honoring images- according to him, a
practice peculiar to this sect. Irenaeus even notes that they had a portrait
of Jesus, fashioned by none other than Pilate and honored with garlands
and other unnamed tradi tional pagan offerings (probabl y lit candles
and incense):

'they al.., poose>. image>,.!Orne of them painted, an d othe" formed from dif.
ferent kind. of material; while Ihey maintain Ihat . liken.., of Christ ".~.
madt by Pilat" at that Ii"", wh~n ~u, li,"ed . mong th~m . 11,'1' crown th....,
images, and M them up along wilh Ihe image, of the philo'ophe" of the
world; th.t i. I<> "'y, with th< im.ages "f Pyth.SO,...... and Pial", and Ar;'loli"
and the resl. They al", h",'e other modes of honoring lhe .. im.ges, .fler the
.lame man ner of the Gentile>."
 VllVAl ART, PORTRAITI, AND IDOLATRY 9

Wh ile this short excerpt demonstrates Jrenaeus's assumption that hon -

oring portra it images was a reprehensible characteristic of certain
heretks, he offers no general condemnation of visual art, whet her St'(u·
lar or religious, narrative or iconic. What he apparently objects to is the
inclusion of Jesus with the other phi losophers, and the crowning and
honoring of their images.

Art and Idolatry in the EarlyThird-Century Christian Writings

Because Tertullian (ca. 200 c.~. ) was deeply concerned about the prob·
lem of Christians being ensnared in a polytheistic culture, his treatise
011 Idolatry extends the definition of idolatry far beyond a nything to do
specifkally with pktorial ar t, For Tertullian, idolat rous practices
include preoccupation with the way one dresses, the foods one eats, or
the pursuit of sexual pleasures or material wealth- all things that
humans mistakenly take for hal'ing intrinsic value and that they honor
more than God. In regard to visual art, for example, Tertullian worries
about the temptalions that artisans must face and the fact that bOlh
Iheir skills and the ir lools cou ld be misused: ~ There are al>o other
species of very many arts which, although they extend not to the mak·
ing of idols, ye t with the same criminality, furnish the ingred ients,
without which idols have no power, ... No art exists Ihat is not mother
or kinswoman to some allied arl; nothing is independent of its neigh·
bor,"" Tertullian even urges those in his aud ience who make their living
by craft to use Iheir skills to make useful objecls that could nOI possibly
serve the purpose of polytheistic worsh ip. Rather than S(;ulptors, these
folks shou ld be plasterers, roof menders, Or marble masons in the
building trades.
However, recogniting that some fine artisans earn their living by
making ostentatious and luxurious objects, he allows that it is better to
gild slippers than to fashion a statue of Mercury or Serapis. TertuJlian
may have had Acts 19:23-41 in mind as he wrote this, comparing the
predicament of Demetrius and the other Ephesians whose income
depended on making and selling images of the goddess Diana. Tertul·
lian, wishing 10 support artisans in Ihei r work and nOllo reduce them to
poverty, suggests that they find olher al'enues for Iheir crafl and merely
avoid making images of the pagan gods.
Clement of Alexandria (ca. 160--215 c.ti. ) approached the problem of
figurative art from an angle more characteristically his. less concerned
about Christian engagement with the habits and pleasures of Roman
culture than Tertullian was, and not as fundamentally disturbed by the
construction of images of the gods as a profession, Clement adapts PIa·
tonic teachings to offer a more complex discussion of the inferiority of
10 FACE TO FACE

an image to its likeness, and the potential for the confusion of likeness
and prototype on the part of those who view ar t. Attending to the
de{eptive p<Jwer of imitation as weU 3, the allTac! ion of both material
and natural objects, Clemt'nt S<.'es danger in the human tendency to mis-
understand the image-and to fail to distinguish between representa-
tion and reality- between the sensible and transcendent realms. And
b.-.:ause objects of worship are not always only human -made idols, he
extends h is concern to include even the mistaken veneration of things
found in the natural world. It was in th is respect that he reminds his
audience of the biblical prohibition:

What is more, we are ~XV", ..ly fo,bidd..., to pra<li<~ a dectitful .rt. For th~
prophet >OJ'S "Thou "'.It not make a likene .. of .nything th.t i. in heaven
abo", orthe tanh bm~>th ," .. , But a. for you. wh ile you taR gr~>t pain. to
disco,'u how a st>tu~ m.1y be .haped to th. highest po .. ible pitch of beauty.
you never give a thought to prevent yourse"... turning out like .tatues owing
to w.nt of sen<e.... Here the ho,t of philosophe" turn aside, wh~n th")'
admit that human. are beautifully made for the ~ont"mplation of he,,·.n.
and yet WOrShip the thin!;' which appear in he""en and are apprehended by
.ight .... Lot no"" of you WOrShip the .un; ... ther 1<1 him yearn for the maker
ofth •• un."

Clement's objection to images is dearly different from lertullian's. His

wncern is not so much the adoption of polytheistic practices or being
captive to the alluring aspects of popular culture, but misunderstand-
ing what it is that deserves honor- what the ~true image" is. He follows
a well - known Pla tonic axiom t hat images made by artists (or even
things of the natural world) are on ly reflections of reality and should
not be w nfused with the eternal and ideal For m (or in Clement's case,
the Maker) that transcends any earthly creation. However, he also
argues that, properly understood, images can serve the useful function
of reminding the viewer of a higher truth- which is why. although he
generally d isapproves of jewelry. he lish the appropriate images for
Christian signet rings (a dove, a fish, a ship. a lyre, or an anchor) and
urges the faithful to avoid sea ls wit h images o f the gods, weapons,
drinking cups, or scenes of sexual intercourse . The fnrmer symbols
draw the eye and the mind away from themselves and toward the real-
ity they represent, while the latter indicate a life of idolatry, indulgence,
and even licentiousness. On the other hand, modest Ch ristian symbols
on everyday objects of some practical necessity did not constitute a
form of idolatry."
In the Stromateis (or Miscellanies), the last of his treatises and the
most esoteric of them all. he cont inues with that same theme and this
time credits Moses with the original formulation, later taken up by
Pythagoras:
 VIIVAL ART, PORTRAITI, AND IDOLATRY 11

"Don'l wear a ring, nor engra>,<, on il Ihe image. of the god.,· enjoins
f'ylhagora,; as MosO$ as.. b<fore <nacled •.'pres<ly, Ihat neither a graven,
nor molten, nor molded, nor painted liken"," .hould be made; so that we
may nol deave 10 Ihings of $en$e,l:ml pass to intellectually known obj"'u:
for familiarity with lhe sight disparage. the revoren« of wh.t i. divine;
and to ""o,,hip Ih.1 whioh i, immaterial by mattcr, i, to dishonor it by
sense."

Clement's problem wilh visua l art poses a distinct set of issues. In

another place in the Stroma/tis, Clement claims that the injunction an
artist breaks is nol only that against making idols but also that against
robbing the divine prerogative in the act of neation." In these passages
we see how Clemenl develops his own version of the doctrine of imita-
tion, asserting that a work of art is deceptive, intended to fool the viewer
into mistaking a mere wrY for its model, into wnfusing the imi tation
with the reality. Perhaps Clement was cognizant of Pliny's critique of
artists of old, who prided themselves on work SO convincingly lifelike
that viewers mistook the image for something real. Zeuxis, for instance,
is said to have painted a child carrying grapes that caused birds to fly
down to pick at the fruit. "
After Tertullian and Clement, the matter of early Christian atti -
tudes toward pictorial or figurative art be.:omes more complex, per-
haps in part because the art itself has begun to be made and owned by
the Christian wmmunity. Probably the most vehement wndemnation
of figura tive art prior to the iconoclastic period comes from Origen's
argument about Christianity with the polytheist Celsus in the early
third century. Or igen's argument is similar in certain respects to
Clement's objections to visual art as setting up false objects of
worship, although at first it appears to draw a paraUel between fai th-
ful lews and Christians regarding the biblical injunction . In his
long and complicated defeme of Christianity, Or igen argues that
Christians are at least as enlightened on the matter o f the vanity of
images as the philosophers were. He also defend s the lews against what
was apparently a fairly vidous attack by Gelsus on their culture and
religion, which he saw as an earlier form of Christianity.lews, accord -
ing to Gelsus, were "fugitives from Egypt, who never performed any -
thing worthy of note and neVe r were he ld in any reputation or
accounc""
Taking exception to this unfair characterization and turning the
tables on Celsus by pointing out that he represents a religion that wor-
shiped images ofucorruptible human beings, and birds, and four-footed
beasts," Origen offers an example of a particularly praiseworthy accom-
plishment of the lews, citing their observance of the prohibition as
found in Deuteronom y (4: 16-18):
FA<E TO FA«(

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.... ,t..! d•• """.... .,.. 01 II...... &om Gn<I '" ....... ..,..,., _-...
W" f'&fr. _ ""'"
........ _,.,,......- • ...- ....... ...,._01 ....... _
"""' . _ 01-,.-","" mol ........ , ... . . - ... _""1ok-
... "'...,. ........ .". ..... ft;., _ _ ... '*-01...,. (lW, h,.
""0\8 ,"" """" .,.,. .......... '" • ""-"'..,. ~ .... """" _ ... in
II>< "' .... __ tho...,., (~',',,"II ).-

Orill'"" ..... p~ ,II< kw1 1m t"" ...-iotto.! in;""",,,,,, (a •.......abk

Uld gnnd prohibit;""') avin,t \oolI',....p to ""._Int~,... ' ht
....... __ ..... nd ... " 0 .... ohoold b< kd ..... y to W<H"1hip Ill ..... (D<-ut
4:1'). C1nrly. Orig<n won .......... abo.,,II< W<H"1hiping of idoll than
abou' th . .... king of Un,¥, bu,. n<'WIti'l<k<o. tl>ou5h' th.t til< !<w.
otIooid II< p'oi><d for th<ir in' oknnu<Jl ....w . n ..... kst wet. "",k b<
• 1'''''%1 (Or or t<mptalion kI idol,atry.
I" hi< I>omiliet un F-.! .... 0,;8'""' ,.rn, >pin t. th< bibli<o1rnd>il»·
tion. but ht off.... on ;"'pon.n, dioti",,' ion betw«n til< 'emu "idol'
( oiJClo~) ond 'Iil:<n<u" (,."".,;,; .... ). A<ro,din5 to hio .... din5 of ,II<
Cr«k "0"""'."'. P.t4>d 2(t4 p,,,rubiu !he ..... b,,~ of boih ( .....,., .r..u
"'" "",u fot ~....,If.n idtd nor 'Il)' liu,- of ,..."" 'hinp which . '"
in ......., or which.", in ttI ... rth or wh i<~ 0 . . in 'h< ""'kTf 1IIHIn ....
or..n
. ." h"). To j ... 'i/y 'hi> d;o.i,..,;..n. 'un" '" I'. ul", fin' Lrtt.,. to
til< c...tinlh"''''' Ht noIeS lI'\;It Ih. >j>OSIit lOY' I""t·"" idol in Ih.1o'OI'Id
,ho,
..... Uy ..;""" ..... il< .. . h< 10m. , ..... "";"11 "th<r< may "" ""'''l' .,..
alkd god> in .......... or on .. m.- in fxI ....... 0 . . m. ny sodo .nd
""'''l' lords" (I 0.- 8:4·S). ~nl1r l'ltul-.... to Iuvt <idibtro\tlr omilled
.nyd.oim dt.o, lib""....-~ Iib idol<. -.. nonaiotrnt. 0, ..... ofJll<O ,ha,
i, .. On< ,hi,... to nub: "UI iduI on<! ..,mcohin8 doc w m.x., • lix.:.-.
Th ..... n'i.1 cliff...n« bol __ n .... 'wo;' ,ho, 'ht 1iX<n.... MOW<
.."",hin8 ''''-t ...... IIT ¢On be -.. (fo' "".mp) ••• bi..!. t;,h, ' 0", or
moon). wh ... ,t.. idol <OO>t> mlitdy from th< hUllWl inugi ... tion ond
i""._,.
....... <>c<ur> in ... t ...... (m. rom', bood on 0 humoR body).
Thi> io .....Y Paul <.an all idob n<>rtaist<nL Bu,... OriFt> poinu OUI.
bo,h Ii""........ . nd idol, W<f< prohibi,ed try ,II< &<.000 Com tmnd·
"'«II, j"" .. boih .,<t. Iorbidd<n ";,h<t wot$hip or adora,ion ( t>:od
» .5) . • nd,h. pooo ... a<UO< that no I""m <om« from """,in! " non·
... ~, " tlti"" ;, ,h ... ;"",);d.. "",."
In flK'. Paul d •• rIy diu;"guiolt« "'_,."...rnll idoIo .nd )ikm ........ II<
t><V<:t uleO th< wo..! ';dol" (<>JOlon ) ,n ony ~ 1 n.: _", in "'n ...... to

.... '<t'" .lik<n<>t." (/Icmoiii .... ). wltidt onm hao. poo.niv< ..... ni~ In
addi'ion ' 0 'ht .1>0..·,i,«I ,... , fro m I COrinlh ...... l'lIul.p<.ko of
idol,. ido/"ry (.<dOlo!..,.... ). on<! 'dola' .... . ' d«<iv<,J .i"o.... 1«1
 VIWAl ART. PORTRAIT!, AND IDOLATRY

..""!' by ,t.. mul< """. ( ' Co, J2:2) .nd V'<n up by GOO '0 lu"....J
"
d",m,;.,,,, <>f ....nou. ",no (Rom I:Z4-Z 7). P.ul do<$ 00' •• rl"....,'I)'.
di"ingui,b 1><!WN<1 ;dol •• nd I,k." ..... ><co,ding'o 'hri' mod.r.
occurmlC< 0' no"","",,,,<>« '" .... 'u"'. Thq limply 1..". II<> Iif<.oo
.......0' iptU I",ml"'" I Co, IO:I~ J.
O';l'"·' " s um.n, PO'"" '0' probltm. how""". in r<prd '0 ,h.
d,f(<f('{I' "")11 ,h. Now T<>I&m.n, G,..p'," .nJ Epi"l<s ul< ,be '«m,
·h~." ..." ( h"",. "'"", ) .nd -, .... ~< . (,,;:.;" ). Fo, <nmpl<. io ,b ... ory
,,(,h. m,n wi,h the po"', i' of'be em""o' (M>tk 12:16). ,h. word
u!Cd (0' ,h.I, r<p""" ... i<KI is · 'm'g<" (,;to,, ). "bi!< ,n ...". 14: II . 'he
<'o",d , m;". k. R"n , b •• and r,ul fo, SOd. io bum. " liken",
(h. ""',6'ht""' ). In Rom 8:3. P, ul ... ,..,ha, Co<><! .. n' hi< ""·0 Son '"
,h. liken ... of human n.. h (1''''''''''''''0'; ""'oo,.• hhough he I.."
"Y' ''''' 'hoo. who I"", God ",ill b< "",fo,med '0 '" im,s< (";I"n, of
hi, 5<>". In I Cot 11:7. rom ar. ,be image (.;.run) and &lorynl God.
ju," .. hU,,"n, \H:" ,h. imag< (NJ") of ,h. rna" of du" ( I Cor n:49)
and ,,·ill ",m<daY bt:.t ,he ,mag.- (tiM' ) <>f ,h. m." of be, .." ( I Co,
15:49,. I" I Co, 4:4. Cluj" i, 'he imol' (';M" ) of G04 , "'b,,,,., ,n
Phil 2:7. Ch,;" """ .h. f"u" (...".ph6,,) of. ,I ..,•• nd', born i"
huoun lik."", (h • ...,;,;"""; ".,h,';pOn ). In C.,k" ,I.n, he " the im.g.
(,;"'") of the in.i,ible God ( I : l~). M",rillDI '0 '" 3:9. human" "
m" l< in the lilo ..... of God I""""';';';" ,,,,,"w). ,od in 2 Co, J: Poul '$.
"'.; ... ,h •• hu ..... n'.y "" II I>< , ... rulonocd in'o ,b. im~ (ril'ow) of 'h,
vo' y of ,he 1'>Icl_,>.p'" ItO"' .h, 6 .... , .. mpl< l'lt< ",in po""itl. 'h,
s<n.,,1 rule t«m, '0 I>< ''''' .. "hly ''I',-""hon, h • .., ' lilo", .. '
"h ilt d"',n, .imili.ud< .nd fu,u" 'nm,fon""ion' . r< . polon of in
It,,,,, ,,r·I,,.. ~. ,"
Impil< l'auJ". dolm ,bo,
iclolo ... none';""" objt<ts. , ..... I", ""_
n nd- 0 ' ... .-11 ,hird -<m'ury Uri""n -.."1<,, ....,nicd . bou, ,I>< l"S'n
"""OU of Uio>lo''l'.• nd 10 "''''' <><"n' tbr-,o """" , .cd ,h. roakin& and
.... of mu,l . " i" srnaoI ... ith ,bo,p""k<. Thq .-..li~ ,h., < .",.in
kind! of .""""k< could I>< m;",,,dm1<>Od . nd . bwcd or <Irow """,..
,io" 0' ....,,,hip. . nd. in 1",,1<111... ,hey W'. .n<d 'goln" m.king i",,8<'
of,,,,= p.go" god< '" "'hn 'mpi<m<"1> of 1"&"" 00' ~ip, Fur,bet·
..or<. 'h<y """ied ,bou,
,he l<ml".ho n, IIr ,h. ,utn:>undi"8 l"3"n
",I. Ur< . od ,I> .UUMS "trlKl ions. M"" Ch,;",," ",n.,,", ""'" fo'n'<I"
polyth,ist>. . nd .~" <>f ilia. polytl><i'm wtT< ub;qu"ou,. Ch,;""o!
<ould "'" '"'" ,bel>ome of, non·Ch,;',i," n<igl'lb<.ot ",;',,"u' <n<»un-
"ring 'he """"',1< >hri", <0 'h, family'. ,u,<l.. y j!O<Io .nd ."",,<Oro.
nor ",uld tbr-,o flO .. '0 'he put.il< 1>.0,,,,, or '''''''<t,"'md ,I>. .,m<l. 0'
..~n .nl," ordinary put.il< buildi"" wi,oou, ",ofro",jng .... u.. of ,he
sod' &nd pot( ...,.... of,,,,,. "')"lit> "" oo"fp<»t" 110",,,..... II~ .od «iJ-
Inp.· lltnUI< <>f .heir high rio!> of CO"tomi",,;""" pai",m; . nd sculp.
10"• • Ion~ "';,h octo" , nd ..." l<.<h", of d, .. iallil,tO'ur<. " 'r r.
~,rcd f,,,m ""I"i,m "",il 'h<y ",wd d.mon""'t< (h.I, 'h<y h.Id I<f'
14 FACE TO FACE

professions that produced, used, Or even brought them into the proxim -
ity of these kinds of images."
Resisting idolatry was not easy for Christians who lived in urban M'I.
tings at that time. T heir surroundings were filled with the temptations
of luxuries as well as with signs and tokens of polytheistic religions.
Greco-Roman cults d.. pended on images, rituals, and public spectacles;
they did nOl draw upon texts of sacred scriptures (apart from those
myths found in the writings of Homer and Hesiod ) or dogmatic state-
ments of faith. The traditional gods had shrines that were open and
reflected civic pride and iden t ity. Almost any aspect of daily life, even
just pa~ing through certain neighborhoods, brought early Christian>
into contact with imag~s of th~ traditional Gr~~k and Roman gods.
Th~refor~. th~ earliest Christian writers who have been presen ted as
objoxting to pktorial art were actually p<.Iinting out inherent dange rs
that attached tn the making nr even admiration of things that were
made for polytheistic cult. Given the wide distribution of such objoxts in
the e\"~ryday world. ~ven the most stalwart Christians might be impli-
cated in a kind of accidental idolatry, ewn if they tried to steer clear of
anythi ng that might tempt or unwittingly taint them."
That Christians were unable always to avoid the images is apparent
from the instruction about what they might do if they came into contact
with the idols. Apparently some Christians practked explicitly disre-
spectful behavior toward images or their altars . Tertullian rders to
Christians spitting or blowing on smoking altars as they passed by. and
according to the Oaaviu> of Minucius Felix, Christians offended pagans
by spitting on statues of the gods. perhaps as a way of protecting them -
selves against inherent and ever-present danger. 1> TertuUian assures
martyrs that One of the advantages to their imprisonment is the fact that
they no longer have occasion to see strange gods or bump into their
images and no longer can be even accidentally involved in some pagan
feast or sacrifice.'" Cyprian also urges Christians to avoid looking at the
idols, even declaring that Christians who did not awn their eyes from
the images were guilty of a form of ap<.lstasy, and their subsequent tears
of penitence (a literal cleansing of the eyes ) were a way to make satisfac-
tion to God for their sins."
Thus, the typical early Christian theologica l position on visual art
was less an objection to art as sllch than an attack on non -Cllris/jml
images that invi ted worship and activities that drew the faithful into the
values and practices (both religious and soxular) of the surrounding wi-
ture. Significantly, these first- and second-century writers said almost
nothing about Chri5tian art, either because there was very little (or
none ) in their purview nr because if there was, they did not see it as
problematic. Clement's recommended motifs for Christian signet rings
offer sllch an example. Furthermore, these writers said very little about
art that was basically secular or neutral and without obvious pagan reli -
 VI!VAl AH, POHItAITI, AND I DOlATlty

Siou. . . >o<;",ioo>. .uch .. imag<> of fish, h i,d" >h<phnds, 0'

r,r'p<Vinn. Su<h . n m.y hn< b<m Ii« ,i>< gikli", of oIipp<r>. '0 bo,-
row, ph,,,.. (TOm T.. "uW,n, ,od n,,' e,p«i,lIy 'rooblinA by i'><lf.
N<>I.l:>iy, r.o.....~" ,hest ....,.. ,i>< ...". ""'" of i",,1I<' first "bp,«I (<>r
o.ri>li,o uw.nd p"'.'I"""" >p«itK Ch';"W1 m<.nins.
.,-n".
~ C.o' u,.,. or '" 1.0"", ~ ,ha ... ~ u, "n>!' • 're";'" .pi"" ,i>< - <>f
,II< p.opn.- ,n" "'ock<! idol",.,. in I.ngu.g< ~mib, '0 ,hest .. riin
..-,i'm. while hin'in5"' hi •• ub~u .. "' <on",,,,,,ioo of.n inam.-
,ion, 1 ~ tho, would <kv.1< """..,,,1 oi" .. "", by ;" iIKorpo<"
'"'" ,n'o Jivin"y. for ~thotw.iu~ 1h< Jdini,ion ofido!.o',.,. ;, I>o><d I<»
on ",,"01 ""'>r>h ip of ~tK ..... , erial obj«u ,Iu" ",,,,,ed ." .
un ,"" di 01
'"'ning 1<>W:O,J ",'1IIy pI<.. u,....nd "'"ay from di" .. ,.inllS- Hunun.
wOo ,nduls< '00, lu." <om< ", find '00, 50'" in mo1<"riol ,hinV'nd, ..
,hey f.1I1Iow<,.nd lowe!-.com< "''''' up Kk>I. """" of ",Ji"",.,..nd lif.. _
I<» nu, ... ili. do:-ifyi"5 ,"" .....1'<' of .ni""," .. wdl .. ordi ... " mor"l •
• nd m""I<i"5 11.. i""«l' f<>< iu mod<-I. J~in8 ,...., • ..., fu""", in,o
,I>t mud of ,OOr viI< pouion. Icf. Rbm I :~l-l 5).
'N<
n.. God. on Il>tod.... bond. io inco,flIpt ibk.nd
"""o''''! ,h",uw. ", in oln""C1ibk m",,"Io. no, C.n C".J 'PP"" in
an_ b< rep.

o.och """ic di...,.';,y offornu. ~tlutw.iu~ inl<,""ing!y, abo cl.oim. tho,

,nug< lo'Oo">hip i, cond<mn<d by Script"'" bu, "" omi1> > "","lion of
''''' I>..c>., 1U,"in8 i"".. <1 10 ... 115;4_8 ("Thei, idol, "',.;~ .00
gold. ,I>< wor\ of."""n !u.ndo") .nd h. ":9·10 ("AlJ who mol« idol>
,re no,hing. . .. Who """id f.shion • god Of " ' " .n i""«l' ,Iu, <an do
00 ~n.l" >J,ji,K.>. ~, .....,.;'" rn.kn .n''P'm<n. ,n" "".... il'<"'1
of idol> ><,ually d ishonor 1h< <kill of ,ni.ts, ... 1>0 >houid to. mor< hishlr
hono..,J ,lun ,"" prod""" <>f lhri, c<>ft. Howc...,. I>t """,Id cl.ol'" ,n.
rno« iliUfnl.1>t . rt;",1h< more IiUIr ,I>t i..... will n. S«n 10 ... m·
'<
moo .h .. d .. i,y, ,,,h ... ,h.n !<n.... .om'8" fo, ,h .. morn of Ih ..
im'i" '~

Jewis h 8a~kcrou"d fo~ Christian Rejection ofVilualAI"t

w...... nol«l Ih .. ><>m< hi"ori.", of (h,;'''.ni'y (. nd of o.,;";.n
.n1cil< Chri"i.oni'y', In<UIt .-. .. , "''''''' for iu .w."n' rfli<nK<
,,,,",,.Ii"8 ,i>uai .".Such ......umV''''' .om ,nronol.ogially <on'..,,_
po,,,y,....ioIt .nicon''''' for ".",ed.•s wrlI., .l<"If·«Kt><"lO\l' Ch,;'·
,i. n ><<<p"""" of Ihi. h ... i"8 .... ,h. bo,i, fu" ,;mil.. ,"iCMOe
rosi,.,n. Aj,hoow. 1h< prcudinJ rni<w of ,n. docwnmtary <Vklmu
_ !h" >orr>< ..-cond- ,nd ,hird-c.n,u,y o.ri,,;.n cnn<.km ... ,ion,
of i.lol."y ",ed .h. rep"di ..i<>n of 8"...n im.!!", in ,I>< 1<" Com_
m. oom<n" I... hien .her diJ _ ....... p«ifKolir ""'ioIt). 'p.o"
from
(".ill<"" ' 'I!umen' ",i,h Cthu .. ""ual "",.;.1\ prI.1a 0C>'t' fi8u,ed 1"<'
domin."'Iy'n 'I><i, .<gumm ... • In f.e!, KI>oI. n • .,.. "gu.-.! ,Iu,
,II<
16 FACE TO FACE

Decalogue itself generally played a minor role in Christian theological

reflo.><:!;Oll before the mid-second century and moreover was often mis-
understood, abbreviated, or quietly sidelined.'"
Added 10 that, the ways Ihat Jews themselves understood the injunc-
tion against graven images at this time (or any time) are nei ther dear
nor consistent. The Hebrew Scriptures themselves offer some internal
contradictions, i f we note that Ih .. apparent condemnation of figurative
art is shortly followed by vivid descriptions of the cherubim set up in
the tabernacle over the mercy seal (E~od 25:17-22). A bronze serpent
healed the Israeli tes in the wilderness from snakebite (Num 21 :8-9),
and the figurative de<:oral;ons of Solomon's temple induded lions and
oxen as well as cherubim (1 Kings 6-8). Enacting the Decalogue's pro-
hibition of graven images may date no earlier than to the religious
reforms of images of King Josiah in the seventh century 8 . C.~.­
reforms that may have had political motivations as much as religious
purity at heart (2 Kings 23)." The iconoclastic destruction of the high
places coincided with a centralized juridical and religious power in
Jerusalem and its temple. Thus the prohibition came to be understood
as prohibiting any scu lpted figure that might be taken as an image of a
god or otherwise draw t he people of Israel into polytheism (the WOr_
ship of foreign or multiple gods) and idolatry (the worship of divine
images) and away from the exclusive worship of their one, invisible
God. No one is allowed to paint or sculpt an image of God according to
the book of Deuteronomy, because no one actually knows what God
looks like (Deut 4: 15-18)."
Jews in the Greco -Roman period, like Christians, consistently con -
demned images associated with other religious cults, especially when
they were requ ired 10 tolerate Or even worship those images by foreign
occupiers or Roman governors. Such repudiation is evident in the
polemic againsl worshiping Baals and Aslarles in Judges 2, the humor-
ous description of Bel and Nebo hanging off pac k animals in Isaiah 46,
or the I Maccabees account of Jewish resistance to the desecrations and
anti -Jewish practices instituted by Antiochus IV Epiphanes.ln the first
century C.F.., Josephus criticized Solomon for allowing images in the
temple, and he records Jewish repudiation of certain kinds of figurative
art (including images of living creatures and God), especially thei r
refusal to set up images of the Roman emperor, wh ich, he explains, was
an allowance made by the Romans themselves to the Jews." In his his-
tory of the jewish war, Josephus teUs about Jewish riots in Opposilion 10
Roman imposition of images of the gods or the effigies of the emperor
(busts or portraits attached to the standards). Not only did Jewish law
generally forbid figurative images, but these portraits were particularly
offensive b-ecause the Romans wan ted to S<'t them up at particular Jew-
ish holy places. Moreover, he insists , the Romans themselves had
granted Jews the right to abide by their anc ient religious laws. Like the
 V!lVAl AIJ.T. POIJ.TlJ.A IT! , A!'ID IDOLATlJ.Y

LIt'" '.bri,t"" .~ .... ",""""u • ......, e..1> lewoo roovicliom .. ~_

al l(1 to $QUnd philooophi<all<o<hingo, Iha! imlg<> wm u....... hiop.
"""hr no" .... t>f hum, ,,, !>Of of.1x d;.i ....."
Pbil .... til< I<wish A I<.."d.;'n pIodQO<Iph«. obi«u ", fog"r" i"" , It
"" <'~ ""'r< '<If-<<mICio .. philosophic" t<rm ~ Philo', ,,<&,il< On ,II<
D«. log•• "',," .h .. ,,,- whQ _«h,p ,h •• un. moon. or oth<r
h.".... I~ bod ... . '" I... gr;"'""sIy Ut "'to< ,h, n ",i..o' " 'ho f. ,hion
i""s<> out of wood. .."" ... o. p<e(i<>us m<1al~ ·Ih. W<lrkm. ",hip of
.. hich, ti, II<r by " .,"" 'Y. or poi",,,,, or • It,..", "" <l<,..< '''',' ,ni"'Y
'0 .h. lift of mIn: by und<"utting ,h. 1<1"'" ..... in"' y_ n.m. ly,
,h. prop<1" ffin«pUO" of .h ....rt.I;"n~ God." Th< pOQ' ...,W, ,b..rl ,II<
o'
u,i •• b.v< d«<i. «I ",i,h '''''ir work miwnd.,,,. nd no, only
,"" nll.r< "fGod, bu, also ,h. dil'fn-<IK< ~,,~ tho ,,'''tor .nd ,II<
""i«' t>f cr.. lioo. FuTtIxnno«, 'h"y . " ribu" 10m. kind olli/< or IOui
'0 d<ad Ind lif.l.., m. "., '0 "-hi<h ''''' .ni" sJvd sh'r<, ''''ling ,Ix
mn"nin! m,,«i. 1 .wa~ for . I.... r pu.po«.M I, ""uld l>< ~t«, II<
~, '" deify ,I>< OCuiptoN .... 'II<o-'h. n lh<ir "",u ... or for ,Ix arti .. n.
'h<m~ '0 _"hlp '00. ,,,,,I>
or 'heir h. nd, in ....d of th<i. p"", .
"cu. In l DOth« pl>«. Phil., d<tcribeo "''''" ... -m. n .. fOf mno>'«I
ai t><»,ibl. from . "y in,~,,'ion of f.b~.nd who thint.. fi, only",
wl lk in tho p>th'of'rutb iudf:Th< OUle""" of mel> «,i"' n« '0 pu.·
.ui" of 'h" im'p,in"ion ",hit II< -b.ni.h«I fro m ''''' ,oolt i,",ion.
which II< "" <Stabli""". ''''''' ,,1<bra,«I . nd i:><.ou,iful.,,, of .I"'u-
"Y •• ~ p. i"'i"" t.<a"""h<y. f.l>dy imi.ating tb. ",tUf< of'lI< 'ruth.
con"i-. J«<i" I nd .n . ..... in ord<r, through 'h' .,«Ii"", <>f .ho ."....
'0 ",,~ .. il. ,h. 10"" whi,b or. Ii . bl. '0 II< ... ~y won O''<I.·~ fl, ..
Phi.,', n.goti,.. vi.w of ort i, ~<.. <h«I from ,II< pmhibi'ioo of ""
Command"""" I nd i, buN! OD its .bili,y '0 <k«i", 'nd "",," n,l",

"'""l>..pit< /Ilkphus'. h;'totiul m:ord ,nd Philo', phil_pIoic. 1 "S'"

m<""'''''' .• rc~coI di>«>V<'<i<> t>f.1I< ~, «n,ury h. ... d.<mon
" .. ,«I 'hor ...... t>f ''''' r, .... ......,." """uri« of th< Common E,. h<ld
... ying . nd sometim .. <v<n "",i';', vi,,,., of fig"' ,t ;'• • tt. <v<o '"
mad. tor r<lip,ioll> ron" .... Th ... di,",,,,,,,,, r...v< includ«l • '.'''"y <>f
m«l;,. motif.. , nd ''''' .... ' fr<s<o<t of . " "'''' bi.~ .. 'nimals. Or doI -
pt.in. found in ,b. !CW"" .... ..,omb> 0( Romr and on .. rwphagi; figu .
",i,.. mo,ift (including zod iac fi8"'" .n.! 'ep"""""''''nI <>f tho god
flclioJ) f""ndon mooaic !Ioonof 'Y">s<>s"'" in til< Gam« h<t~ '''''
r,,"rth . Dd " d h , ,,,,u.i.., .nd. mot< " V" fieon" tho mid-,bi.d-
"""ulf mon"",,,,"" fr<OCt>rt fill«I...uh fit!"""iv< p>in'ing in ,h. 1Ju...
~:U"'flOO '}"'8"8"<.- ).xu.,<"!> ",,«I .0 It.... "m< «n',,"" '"SIl'''
,ho.IlI ..., >on,. I<wUh k.doTs ... '" (h" ,1..;. 0>'-;";'. """n, .. p>''')
morr {on« rn«l wi.h ,h. p"nk" of idol.,ry ,b. n wi,b til< .... king
0( p,,,,,.,.1 It, .. '"'h. Whil< urging , .... '0 . Y<>id <On'''' ,,·i,h.n
idolo.",,,! Gotn.il. <ul,u,., 'h<y ""'k ..... i<ty of " ' ~ 0" vi"", Itt.
FA(E TO FA(E

onm petmining ,......, I" nuke >nd .,...n i _ '" Ions" tl><y did _
"",ohip It...n ,H For ......,pI •• ocrording '0 ,iI< 1......1<'" rolmud. til<
Ihird.«otury Robbi 101un'D "t'I"rcnliy ".I,,,,,ed inu&<> p.io~ on
... 11 .... nJ R.h),i Ahu" I"',",illed Ih. ""'king of im.&<> in mooaie.~
Oth .. robb" cI<.dy ro~ 6SUnr'iv< intOV' J.ng<roIU . od u,..:l
lew> '0 ""un .h<",.~ fnn whrn "'" fiod • C.htiol ..... ,-"f""",,,, 10 J<wi>h
.nironi.",. wch • • Origon. ciled . """,. "'. m... d«idt whcthn .....
wo, I>a>«I <>II ......1 oIn<mrlion or only. proj<aioo uf • uo<fui
..... mption.
Tb ..... )<wi"" ..,iconiom in II>< _ d ."d ,bird UII,ur;" c. .. m'r
hoV< brtn n ... iroy Jim:lal.goino' !<ww. wonl>ipuffor<igr> irmg<>. no'
.gai"" , ,, ....1 1If' On II'DC'fIll. or rv<O ~" cnl>oncin~ ,h. in"";'". "f
. )'n,gogu" wilh ftguro'i ... J«o,.,;"n. It i. unlik<ly, Ihm,{o .... ,1>0,
Chri" i&n. <n1uLatal .hrir l..ruh n<ishb<>'" .niconi.nt. In<t<od. <..ty
a.ri";. n ,""" ... i,m. rll' mi",05 fisu ,,"v< "I ""' .... lik< Philo'...
oNpcd try phil4oophic.>l OT'm"'!> 01;., ... ,I.. d«q>ri.~ .. ,J d..".rn"ll
q ....\i'i'" in 11<=, in orl Of W<r< bu«I "n oon«rru t1u. making or <I.i"ll
.ft ....... Id rvrn .... U, d"w .be f.i.hful inlt> .1>< id<>b"y .....,.;,1<'<1 wi.h
,lit w"""nding ",,"u .... 11>< <orly .poIogi>'> P' III Ou-i,,;'ni'y • • n
..,tll<e, .... Ur on.! ,piri .... Uy mLiah .... ed ioitlt. .od 'h<y d ... rly ""pod
t1u. Ihrir ..-gurn<D" wt>Irid "1'1"'111 to .... >mS.ibilil'" u( • ph""""",,i·
ally oophi""".",!.,,,,'-<n«.11'rq rould ..lily ""'" b<li<....! 'I><modwo
on f.irly .. f. grouoo . "",king imag<> .. iU..-,. .r.d....,n dong<ro""
I.i""" ,I>< ",.p<a«l f.t<d< "V' ....... ,..Uy ~ with Il><m . ~
'n onr <0>< • ...,i.k" <Oft'O."... r.,. ""o<."ing'''' '''''hal <omrnand·
ID<nt ogain" intOV' DOl OW>ICDGI of ,I>< ph_phial ",i';quo: of (mi·
""w< , n """ .. d ,,, hoI'< dou"l«I .... iodivHl ....... OO Ii... <Ir<:or. 1«I
......... lhof'l>< a,,;"ion <.raoomM in 'I><cotty ,bird «0,.". Tho: .ni·
...,. .nd .hoi, <Iiom .. did nO< undmt. nd ..bo, 'hey"~ d<oi"ll" iJoI·
• IIy. r"'~ 1:>«0.... ,I>< ...,rk .... "'" irrt¢nd<d. <hip>«I. or ~t<d
00 .. '" "". ," .n~ lind u( _ i l ' I' ...... DOl Ii... ,I>< foolr;"ni"ll of
i"'"8<" of ,I>< ""gan ijOd>. 11>< im., ,h<y <t<.,,,,!..-er< _ " ally . Y"'.
""lie. """.. i.... '" dHloctk . oJ "'" lik<ly '" I>< m....u.. r." Woh "'"
imit< wormil'
Th¢r<fo .... il...".., "",,,,nobl. 10 rondruk .ha, uOu-is1ia .. 1>ogan to
m.k< .nd uo< . iIDi f".nl . nd <I>o,o<".-;IIi ........ 1.11 of th.i. awn
_"",oJ ,I>< btJinni"8 "f.1>< ... itd ","IUry. il W. f not boa .... most fi ... •
. nd >«:ond·«ntu .... Chris';.n .......c &<=0«011, iro"""",*,ic or .""ni·
mou< in ,htir .i ..... "n 'he ",,11« of,~ 0_ ,his." b<pn.o
'PI""', it boa_ ",,,,,,,,,,Iy popular and iDft"""'ioI. u i...... wid<ly
<llip<n«I.nd «>pi«! by 0,1><n. fi .., "oar and then for, M .... _ lim< •
... know Ih" church , .,h,,, i,i,,, hod . """,inui", con""", "ilk ,h.
pO)bkm of idoLalry. DOl id<nlified with II>< making of i..... b ... pet.
ho", ,.1,1«1 '0 it. An. in """icuLB • ., .... <I<~" . t<iip.>", """'''' ........
"-,,,, .. hinS ,11>1, wbil< I""'mWibl<, "","iraJ .... " • .,tln.", .r.d control It>
 VIIVAL ART, PORTRAI TI, AND IDOLATRY 19

ensure that it was understood in its proper sense. In other words, it

should include only ~ppropriate im~ges (excluding certain forbidden
ones) and be as different from a pagan idol as possible.

The Earliest Examples and Types

of Christian Visual Art: Church Regulation
Obviously, such definitions and regulations only make St'nse for a time
when Christian images were being produced in enough quantity to
make these p<Jlides ne<:essary. As we have seen, Christian writers of the
second an d early third centur ies seem unaware of any significant
amount or type of Christian an worthy of condemnation. Their objec-
tions were aimed at the art of others, paga llS or perhaps Christian
heretics, and not 3ttheir own coreligionists. The warnings against idol-
Mry were warnings agaillst the cul t images of other religions, not against
Christian artworks. Based on this lack of awareness, we might reaSOn -
ably conclude that Christians produced very linle religious art , or that
what they did produce was so innocuous that it nei ther a11raCled atten -
tion oor raised concerns.
In the third century, however, the ma terial situation began to change. Fig. 10. f\e<:onruuaion of the
In add ition to the modest domestic objects that may have seemed interior of the Chrnt>on t>op-
uncontroversial (small ponery lamps with images of th e Good Shep- tiste<)c DIn. Europo<. mid- Jrd
<:etI. c ... (I'hoto; FI.jgI>to ¥ld
herd, for example), the catacomb frescoes in Rome, relief carvings on
R'F":.o\!Cl¢."!s ~
sarcophagi and tomb epitaphs, and early evidence for wall paintings in Y... ~ArtGa""").
churches demonstrate that change.
Of these, the most imp<Jrtant exist-
ing exam ple is the decorated bap-
tistery found in a Christian house
church at Dura Europos, with its
frescoes depicting biblica l sce nes
(ca. 249 C.E .; fig. 10). Above the
font, an image of the Good Shep-
herd and his flock stand over the
smaller figures of Adam and Eve.
The side walls contain painted
scenes particularly apprnpriate for
a baptismal space: the healing of
the para lyti<;, the stilling of the
storm, the wa lking on the water,
and the woman at the well, as well
as a somewhat enigmatic pain ting
of three women carrying lamps
approaching a ten t-like structure
(variously identified as the three
20 FACE TO FACE

WOmen arriving at the empty tomb; three of the five wise brides carry-
ing their lamps to the tent of the bridegroom; or virgins escorting Mary
10 the temple, an illustrat ion of a passage in the ProtQevu"ge/;,,", of
James)."
Based on the example from Dura, it seems likely that other early
Christian buildings were similarly adorned. We do know that Christian
buildings were demolished during th .. great persecution of the early
fourth century, and their walls may well have been enhanced with
paintings." Despite certain di stinctions in slyle, the similarity between
some of the themes found on the Dura baptistery walls and motifs
from the Roman cata(Combs also suggests some common intluem'c and
perhaps {'ven some shared models. Although we have no extan t exam-
ples, it seems possible that certain influential prototypes (illuminated
biblkal manusnipts, perhap~) provided patterns or cartoons con-
tained in cir.::ulating books of artisans' motifs that could account for
some level of consistency." In any case, given the certain fact of an
emerging and distinctive Christian iconography, church authorities
may well have tried to regulate the trend, especially if they con tinued to
be concerned about the snares of the surrounding pagan religious or
even secular culture.
Surprisingly, however, we do not have much evidence of such reac-
tion. The earliest known regulation of Christian visual or figurative art
comes from a canon of a local ch urch council held in Elvira, Spain,
about 305 C.H. Curiously, the canon's meaning is a bit ambiguous. Two
different translations of a key Latin clause in that canon are possible,
resulting in two rather different meanings. The Latin reads: Plaw;1 pic-
wras itl ecdesia eJ5e non debere, lIe quod co/jwr et adorawr i" parie/iblls
drpj"garur. One possible translation is: "There shall be no pictures in
chur.::hes, lest what is reverenced and adored be depicted on the walls,M
while a s«ond reverses the verbs and modifier~ of the second clause,
that is, "lest what is depicted on the wall~ be reverenced and adored.""
The first translation, which seems the more grammatically straightfor-
ward, prohibits pictures b«ause of the danger that certain sacred or
holy things or persons might be inappropriately portrayed (or even
exhibi ted to view).
If one accepts this as a limited prohibition, then perhaps other
images might be permissible (perhaps in other places than the walls of a
chur.::h ), or at least not as problematic. The second translation demon -
~trates a concern that viewers might confuse the image with its model
and mistakenly offer the image some kind of adoration or worship,
thereby falling into idolatry, in which case the prohibi tion primarily
attends to the poteotial for misuse, not exactly on the images them -
selves. Nevertheless, both translations appear to prohibit art 00 the walls
of the ch urch , albeit for so mewhat diffe rent reasons. Furthermore, the
 VI!VAL A~T. PORTRAIT). AND (DOLATIW

....... otm-. d......"," .. bI ....*"<. w, P"""'" hod . .....,,! in ,...

d>ooKh bofot< tho: tun< rJ c-ur.'ID<.
S<± .. q....... doao""" .. COIIlin ... "" ..... IIw Ih< ~ '" ,..,;.
"""'..., WOO In< <OIl,.."..... ... lIwo _ it w .. w«I ... yndrntood bJ
,ho>< who _ k ,...,hon'''' f.h ,Iw "'" ,.. «I.d '0 ...... ' "'.....
itdmJ"p at """"" ...... po&<tI';.iy ptOOitauti< . .... ' ..... potn'I.
'iolly -tW. fnOUf«. P.oIinon, Ih< 10... fowth"""'"rr Bi>hop '" Solo.
.. w "' ..... Ot' ' 0 • way "" ...Iivm , ... N>i!;';' ... r-n<Iod
in - . rJ
s."" F<!;". ElcpLolt,i"l hi> """i.... 1<>, odotrung. ,h"",h .... ildm.
with
.'1',....",.. 00... oIlivinJ !ndi>id...... which II< ><Imit> WI>.n "" .......1
, ... tom. II< ,Ioi"" thot he d id i, l.ofJ<1y '0 . It ,oct the ' ru"",'
,..hI> _,,'d
olh.,wi .. 'p'nd th." 'i .... f...'ing . nd d.inkin~ .. tho 'Om" of ,h.
""'''~ •••atho. ,tun ''''''in! in ...... ,ho ,".."h.o Th .... in Ii ..... r"""'"
.... w..... ~ t<> h.ve ben«" .. csp<ci.>Uy ... did><t" Or ,nil" ·
.. tIOn.oI ,,,,-
Sud> "~ w.....itt .....w.I. 'wo «1>1.., . . 10 .... in ,..., w<II.
knI>wn opillitt "' C,.... r Iht Grn, 10 IIilIt.or s.,..., ... of MI ..... lel.l"
Ih<K "' .. " . C....,.y od ..... n....... bi> _ .... Itt""", r... bon"",,,",
;......,. from d ....d .... in hio d;",. ... (on< "'11M" 6 ... L--to """'''''''' '"
i<oo""IOIrIl d,..aed.ll 0 _ ....... J.,..
1"...... btm tOr hl. ftmt
".net ..-.n.. idol .. C<qorJ O<~ that""" ,hou", i ........
...... Ihtt. cIoftpn. "'" ohouId ..... _ '-n <In<.."...t. b- Of< .bo ....
n, ~I'" "'""
.... pitOonoI ""',... "_ io ...& _ of io _ ... oItio _ ...
~ ..... ..... _ '" Im<n ","," """ .... ~ .......... tilt _ ..... '
,hty '"""'" ....... - . . r.... fr""""r"""'" _ t.... IrooIr ,..•
.... w.l tilt ........... ".,..,.. .... tho p«tpk _ odot...... 01 t ...... "'tN.
P<"t"'' "....., 01",,,,, Il10)"'' .. .."...,Iri"!l'" ,''', 'tr.r m.,. pll><,
-It,....-
kouw\odfI< of ,I>< ""'Y .... tilt p«tpk """" _ ... """"'" oJor .. _ "'.

Of" 10 ...... Cr<p>ry~ , ... , s.......... hod ~"Itd h ~

o.hor1.,"", ("""II """ _ _ tIut I>< ~, G,<!I'" ,., ........ hod .....,
""....). ........ ro .... off In ...... '''''''F' ............. ~ "Foo it ..., boon
t<p<>tttd '" ......... itt"'-'l wi.h ~" ..... ,.... Uw ~
........ '" _ .. ''''''''' tuod<r """ pIn!h.o! ""'" """*' _
I><.odortd.
""" " ....... in ..... ,.... ~ ........ ",I>< ...... d _ 1".... ,.,.., but _
bWnt,.... '" """,,,bn*n them.- Mol. ~....., ..... pouM ..... """
yai .. '" ,,",",In rotlht i1t ......... ("1*' .,Iy '" Ih< ...... u: tb,o, ... Iht
local ...... . 1.0.;" •• ode" 0< ~).~ "'ttbto ....... nott.I tho,
oudo rri<1~'" ·" ' _· ........·Iud I VCD<TabIr ..... _ , 1'C<:<do~1.
H. """"ud« hit ............. by cl.t;m~ lIut ~ imol!'"' abo ....... tl><
..;,....,-.... n.iN1itr i><y<>nd tho .....ibIc objKt. Ind low.. d tl>< OWl ....
,hro"", ," ..... ltn'"! of Love fr:,r 'hOi whi<h thtr p<>t, ..!-..t. u-.>i",
22 FACE TO FACE

aside the problem of what image Gregory might have meant when he
referred to reading by~lookingat the walls; it is clear that he considered
certain ·appropriate~ images of things deserving of devotion when he
made his case for the value of visual images. Since Gregory speaks of
saints' stories, we may assume that what he refers to are representations
of biblical stories or episodes from the lives of saints.
The issu .., then, was about how images were actually regarded, not
aoout their existence per se or even their placement in churches. Given
that the ecclesial authorities (at least initially) supervised the construc-
tion and de.:oration of the earliest Christian catacombs in Rome- it
seems logkal to assume that someone offidally approved the doxorat ion
of the Christian building at Dura- we may conclude that the kinds of
images produced for and placed in these spaces were jndged acceptable
by local church authorities at the t ime, The elaboration of Chri stian
buildings gained enormous momentum in the fourth century, initially
fueled by the patronage of Emperor Constanti ne. By Gregory's time, the
view that the images had no place in the church would likely have been
regarded as out of step as well as unpopular, which is perhaps why a sig-
nificant part of Serenus's congregation went into schism against th eir
bishop.
In the mid-fourth century, however, the motifs and themes of Chris-
tian art had jus! begun to change, deemphasizing the symbolic and nar-
rat ive art of the third and early fourth centuries in favor of the more
dogmatically derived representations of Christ's passion, enthrone-
ment, and triumph. The visual art was still edifying, but t hose previ -
ously popular biblical narl"3tives that showed the Old Testament heroes
or the works of Jesus (for example, his hea ling or wonderworking) were
gradually supplanted by images of lesus handing over the law to his
apostles or being judged by Pilate. The depiction of Jesus' mission or
divinity was thereby changed from an emphasis on the deeds of his
earthly ministry to an emphasis on the events of his passion, ascension,
and judgment. By the end of the fourth century, this development went
another stcp further, when explici t ly devotional images of Christ and
portraits of the saints also began to appear. These images had a role in
the developing cult of martyrs and saints, not only by honoring a holy
person with a portrait, but also by playing a part in the cult itself, in par-
allel development with the cult of relics, which sta rted to appear at the
shrines of martyrs.
As we have noted, the earlier symbolic and narrative images, perhaps
even the dogmatic images of the later fourth century, were not intended
to attract prayer or veneration, Their purpose was to symbolize or iIIus-
tl"3te a key aspect of Christian belief (such as the 10~'e of God or Christ
for the individual believer, the resurrection of the dead to Paradise) or to
offer a visual reference to a bibl ical story that might convey ce ntral
Christian beliefs or values, or to serve as christological or sacramental
 ,<p""",u'»n' of O,i,,', p'''''''' f<Su,t« ·
')'I'<>. [ ... n tho .. ,'" vi."01
Iion,Of rnlhror'l<Dlrnl W<1< """" ~in8 llun i«mic. They \WI< ""'.",
.......... rr<"'n"l;"o. of Chri"i...exhiJlf;<. ..... rh<y p •• oI ... «I "".
IOU, "<rhol mo&s indudin:g homm ... h)1ll">' , nd c"",,1I<1ic.1 in"ruc-
lion. Thry - . , "",.n,'" Ln"""" vi......,,, Ln 'lK fundamrn .. l. of 'he
f.i,h (}, k> ""pi« ,""" '" off« ~ .. i'" .nd ,1"nk>iPv"'g, Th< im'g'"
n..... '«1 ",,,,i .. ><I"'" ,n IlK I'UI ,Iu, on< «)\IIr!. in ....... , -"""h"
,,,10,,, ,Ir,n m«l,.r"'g' living holy prt>rn« ,Iu, One rould <IlJ!oII!""
."" p<<><"' . n.... ",,,,,Ii,,, in,.. "<t< 5<';1""" ~'_n'«I in picru'C>
ra'''''. 'IYn """do; rbry poio'«I '0 Goo's ..T-ilic ..1< Df hi""'Y'" .is''
of hop< .nd promi .. for ,I>< fU'"I<.·
.ho,
By c,",'ra<I, ,I>< n.w im.og<o bop" 'n 'PP''' in .1>< Lot< fo""h
«mu'f <>Iftr<d .. """n'•• mOl< ,10 .. «Iifi..,ion. n.... ....... the po._
I... i" "f Ch.i" Of ,h...i"" .ho. "",i.1«I ,~fk n..to,i,~ <On''''' or
b",k~",WId . nd inil=! p.....,1«l • Irk""".. Dflh,;, ,""j«'for it> ",,' n
......~ Po""Y''' .n.,N of "'" d<c<.otd, mod< for 'hri. 0"" IOmb. . oo
.,,""'i......... in'" "'''lop rJrdbo, m<doI!"' .... bu. Ih"" """" n<r' -holy
inr __'" "nd .I,hough o~m ~ritr.orl ... 'q>rdrn'''ion of 0 .. (".
,h. fiK"" or.1>< Good Sh<ph •• d "',, M' • po,,.,i, o"i"
of bu, •
....... ph" ... p, ...... g ,ho q .... liI;",. of kw ... ' ""'~ <>«1. 1:.-, of ",010.
s.:..... of I<>u. o. ,I>< . post!<> rJrow ,hom " cho.",'<n on .~6c ,,"';..
0' ... ' iog> porf",m,ng 0' lo'i ....... n8 wuin "'IS ", ..",ks. r ...... ". "'"
PO"''''''' .och.
Thi. 4ck of ""y CIrri""n po""i'"1<
<>nn01 ho .. pt.in«l ••• n
,,1.
orxide",. h", ",1><, .. ,I>< .... of . """",iou, .8-"" '"
t<>i<I ...,..'''! by
produ.:in8 ' " t/u, prinurily sorvod • didactic fWK1ion. E.lrlyCh,i,,;." •
..,...... '0 Iu,'~ kno",,, llu •• ~. >impl~ "I"...,n'''ion of Clr'i .. •• 0"
..in ... foc< • .. i,hou, '"y no",,;'" con,,,', Iud 'he po"n'iaI ,,, "tr""
~n 0' "",""'ip. In tho ~'" thl« 0, wu. «n'u,i .... 'hi. _
d.,, ·
g"r)Ud~ ';",il.o, to ,h. "")'> IhOl in,,8'" Qf ,t.. ,t>tlih"n.lll<rn .... ~
on;"" lK , .... ,«1 . Thus. by Iimi'in8 ,Ir, kind, ,,{.i ..... ' or! "'.m, .Iu,
roukll>< d<fttl«l ocup"I>I<. idoLo'''! ..... ,,<>id<d ......., wlti!. .y"""'li<
(}r n.,,,'i . . ." .... , p<noi1l«l. Ch,;',i. rur d,ff,,«1 from their P' SO"
neighbor> by O'QiJing . ttI •• iD bnd of ' ' OJ!<.
no. by avoiding imagn in
F ......I. A, • 1.0". ,im •• whon • d,/kr.n' kind of rhog<r or n«<l ...... ret·
c<iv«l •• ,..,.. kind of inus< rout.! """"t' .nJ find it< plac. in Of;',i. n
1'fXI"•• n<! I~t.. holy P<><1"iI.

Portraito:A Particular Kind of Proble matic 1ma&'"

Po,h'po.1>< ..... ,or oh",,-dlod "., ..... '" r:r:ntJo"' .... ''''n DfOOIr po""i" ..
fr)Uoo in • f.mou. I<t'" pu,pon<d 10 I>< from f.uo<"l>i ... Df c........."
F.mr<"" o.n".n.i,..', ,i.",.
,he "usu", Con'''n';' (m"ri«! '0 hi'