ETHICS
The distinction between morals and ethics is
M1 Lesson 1: Intro to Ethics | What is not as clear cut, as morality and ethics are
Ethics? often used interchangeably, especially when a
person’s ethics are parallel to the community’s
There are various definitions of Ethics such morals. The difference is more visible when a
that anyone would be led to think that a person’s morals are against what a particular
universal definition is impossible to formulate. community sees as ethical. Using the same
The simplest definition is that ethics is a example, if you choose to buy the shoes
system of moral principles. It studies what is because your moral compass dictates that you
good for individuals and also society or that should put your individual needs over your
which is otherwise known as moral community, the same morals will not
philosophy.     necessarily be shared by your parents who
believe that you should pay your debt first; that
It studies the answers to questions such as the right thing to do is to follow what is ethically
“what is right?”, “what is good”, “how do we live sound by society’s standards.
a good life?”, “what must we value?”, etc. in an
attempt to define such terms. Other scholars Therefore, the study of ethics entails
look to ethics as a way to answer more reflective objectivity in studying standards
practical questions related to finding meaning set by society. It looks at values that
and purpose in life. underlie moral standards and examines
how we arrived at the decision.
Ethics versus morals Lesson 2: The Moral Dilemma
What is the difference between ethics and A dilemma is “a situation in which a difficult
morals? choice has to be made between two or more
In this example, what is morally right or wrong alternatives”.  Simply put, the term refers to a
will depend on your values, your priorities, your difficult situation or a problem where an agent
own principles, and purposes. These are what is confused about the right decision to make
give us a sense of what is good, and what is because of several competing options and/or
right. Ethics is a more individual assessment of values that are seemingly equally as important,
right and wrong based on your own subjective or equally as urgent.
understanding, and the moral dimension, in this How do we solve a moral dilemma?
case, would be that which leads you to
examine yourself and make a decision that is 1. Examine the act in relation to the agent
consistent with your own beliefs. This limits
the moral dimension to that which is 2. Determine the consequences of the act.
restricted to one’s worldview.
Ethics is seen as less personal because it 1. Identify the intentions related to each
refers to standards of “good” and “bad” that a possible action.
social community or situation determines. It is a 2. Decide in accordance to divine and
set of broad principles. Simply put, morals natural laws which govern moral life
are the belief and values exercised
according to the principles of ethics. Ethics M2 Lesson 1 | What is Culture?
are dependent on others for definition, and they
Culture, according to Mbarek Morocco, is “the
tend to be consistent within certain contexts,
acquired pair of glasses through which we
but can vary between others. Morals are
see life”. To Edward Tylor, culture is “that
usually consistent unless an individual changes
complex whole, which encompasses
his/her beliefs.
beliefs, practices, values, attitudes, laws,
norms, artifacts, symbols, knowledge, and
everything that a person learns and shares Ethnocentrism, on the other hand, is the belief
as a member of society.” To put it simply, that one’s own culture is better than anyone
culture refers to a “set of common values, else’s. This causes people to believe that their
norms, beliefs and ideas shared by way of living is the correct way – the only way
members of the same group”. of living. This is most common in dominant
cultures such as that of the Americans.
There are seven aspects of culture: Ethnocentrism brings many positive effects to
the table, such as a sense of belongingness
1. Culture is shared and nationalism to those who share the same
2. Culture is transmitted culture; however, this also causes prejudice,
3. Culture is learned conflict and tension, as well as group limitation.
4. Culture is social
5. Culture varies from society to society A closer example would be the long-standing
6. Culture is continuous and cumulative social media conflict between those tagged as
7. Culture is gratifying and idealistic the yellows the dilawan, or more specifically
those that hold opinions that may not always
There are also many different types of culture, been supportive of government policies,
depending on the classification. When against those who refer to themselves as
classified according to physical perception or the DDS or the Duterte Die-Hard Supporters.
tangibility, culture may be material or non- One group believes that their beliefs, ideas,
material. When classified according to the and cultures already make them superior over
relation to the culture shared by the general the other. Immediately “cancelling” the
population, there are subcultures and members of the other group for differences in
countercultures. opinions causes people with similar beliefs and
identities to band together, and also creates
Lesson 2: Valuing Culture | Xenocentrism group limitation – the members of one group
and Ethnocentrism will learn to hate the other for more than
differences in opinions, creating group
Xenocentrism is the belief that all cultures are limitation and alienation in both groups. In more
superior or better than one’s own. A good terrible situations, this has led to genocide,
example of this belief is how Filipinos think that mass incarceration, mass killing, and
all imported items are better than locally-made institutionalized hate such as those that
goods, or how fairer skins, or features with happened in Germany during World War II.
more foreign-like associations are more
beautiful compared to the kayumangi skins and Cultural Relativism
small noses of our own people. Xenocentrism
is the root cause of many social problems such How do we prevent this from happening?
as high emigration rates, reduction of morale
and negative cultural identity. Cultural Relativism is our best defense
against hatred of other cultures.  This refers
Have you ever heard someone say something to “the practice of viewing another culture
like “Ang mga Pilipino talaga, walang by its own context rather than assessing it
disiplina.”; or “Sa (insert country here) hindi based on the standards of one’s own
ganito, malinis, maganda, hindi kagaya dito culture”. For example, Asians who use
ang panget.”; or “Mag-asawa ka ng foreigner chopsticks to eat, will be judged on the manner
para maganda/gwapo yung maging anak by which they use the chopsticks instead rather
mo.”; or “Wala kang mararating dito sa than being judged for not using more “modern”
Pilipinas kaya mag-abroad ka na lang o kaya or western instruments such as spoons, forks,
mag-asawa ka ng foreigner.”; or “Ang itim mo. and knives.
Bumili ka ng papaya soap para pumuti
ka.” These examples are expressions We must always remember that ethical norms
of xenocentric beliefs. differ from one society or culture to another.
There are no universal norms of morality, and
that morality also differs between cultures. Phenomenology is “the study of structures of
People should always try to understand and consciousness as experienced from the first-
respect the beliefs, traditions, and practices of person point of view” (Stanford Encyclopedia of
the cultures of others by practicing tolerance Philosophy, n.d.)
and following the steps described in the
previous video. Max Ferdinand Scheler is a German
philosopher known for his work in
M3 Lesson 3: Reason and Impartiality phenomenology, ethics, and philosophical
anthropology. He is most known for further
Seven-Step Guide to Ethics Decision- developing the philosophical method.
Making According to him, phenomenology as a great
Michael Davis series that in order arrive at an tool which could decisively reform
imperial decision, one must follow the seven- our weltanschauung or worldview. He was
step guide to ethical decision-making. He directly opposed to the narrow view that
emphasizes the importance of identifying experience is only limited to that which you can
multiple responses to ethical challenges. sense, rather phenomenology as he saw it was
not strictly as a method of studying
The seven-step guide to ethical decision-
experiences, rather “an attitude of spiritual
making according to Davis (1999) appears as
follows: seeing”, a new attitude or a way of seeing, of
finding something that otherwise will remain
hidden. This attitude of the philosopher, seen
as essential in finding phenomenological facts,
is fundamentally moral and thus rests on the
basis of love.

Feeling | Love

What is love?
The heart, according to Scheler, is the most
important sphere in the human being’s life as it
is the core of the essence of things, and
because it is destined and thus reserved for
love. Love is a fundamental act more original,
and definitely stronger than knowledge and will.
According to him, Love is an act and not a
reaction. It is not the receipt but the movement
of intention itself. Love and hate are similar in
the sense that they are both acts, and therefore
both movements of intention. The only
difference between the two is the exhibition of
the act of intention, thus the true opposite of
love is indifference or the absence of
movement and intention.
In love we do not discover values, rather we
discover that everything is more valuable;
Feeling | Phenomenology
therefore, love is not blind – love helps us see.
What is Phenomenology? Love relates to what has value rather than
valuing itself.
Love is not strictly limited in expression to Stages of Moral Development | Pre-
humans, love applies to all objects that we conventional
value. Love has moral value because it
represents a relationship between the lover Level 1: Pre-conventional Morality
and the beloved. Therefore, in its most
This level features children’s self-centered view
fundamental sense, a person’s moral goodness
of morality based on rewards and self-interest
may be determined according to the measure
and is the most superficial understanding of
of his love – his relationship with others and the
right and wrong.
value he places on the same.
 
The logical and the axiological individual |
Logic  Stage 1: Authority and Punishment
orientation
Logic is a branch of philosophy that seeks to
organize reasoning such that arguments are
structurally sound, while Axiology concerns In this stage, moral reasoning is based on
itself with the study of value and the concepts related to punishment. If the child is
investigation of its nature. If philosophy is punished for an act, then it must be wrong. In
always concerned with knowing, reason itself is the example above, Hermione Graner is
not the proper participative faculty by which the expressing her disapproval of actions that
greatest level of knowing is achieved. Scheler could get them punished, i.e. by death, or
argues that, “only when reason and logic have expulsion.
behind them the movement of love and the
proper moral preconditions can one achieve  Stage 2: Pleasure and Orientation
philosophical knowledge”.  
This stage features the concept of self-interest
and reward. If the child can gain a reward from
the act, then it must be right.
The moral reasoning used by Scar in the Lion
King may be used as an example for this
stage, i.e. He was to be rewarded the throne in
exchange for the murder of his brother and
Thus, ethics being the study of moral behavior nephew, therefore his actions are justified.
decides on the rightness and wrongness of
actions, determines good and desirable Stages of Moral Development |
actions, and identifies whether actions are Conventional
worthy of blame or praise using both reasoning Level 2: Conventional Morality
and love.
Conventional morality develops around the age
M3 Lesson 4: Stages of Moral Development of puberty and early adolescence. In this stage,
| Kohlberg there is more concern over the effect of actions
on self-image as well as on other people. This
Lawrence Kohlberg conducted a study where is the level of morality that most people are
he grouped together small children and studied able to reach.
the development of their morals in a span of
~20 years. Through this, he was able to  Stage 3: Peer and Acceptance
identify the six stages of moral development. Orientation
The six stages were further divided into three
key levels: (a) pre-conventional; (b) In this stage, what is accepted as right
conventional; and (c) post-conventional. depends on the norms of the society that the
person belongs in. What pleases other people
is what is seen as right, therefore the opinion of authorities. Although it is against the law to do
one’s peers and the peer pressure associated all of these things, they believe their actions
with the same is very important. are morally justified because of Sirius’
innocence.
Olive, the protagonist in the movie Easy A,
agrees to lie about doing things that would help  Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles
her schoolmates become more popular and
more accepted. To her classmates, asking
During Kohlberg’s research, none of the
Olive to lie for them was morally justified
participants were able to exhibit this stage of
because it allowed them to become more
moral development thus this was based on his
popular at school even though their actions
predictions. In this change, Kohlberg projects
effectively made Olive an outcast.
that individuals who reach this stage will be
  able to make decisions based on self-chosen
ethical principles based on universalizable and
 Stage 4: Legalistic Orientation consistent judgement. Basically, doing what is
right because it is the right thing to do.
In this stage, what is seen as right is what is For example, in Harry Potter and the Goblet of
lawful or dutiful. Anything that is legal must be Fire, Harry saves his competitor’s sister at the
morally correct, and anything against the risk of losing the competition as well as his own
established laws must be evil. life simply because it’s the right thing to do.
In the movie Moana, the protagonist is asked
M4 Lesson 1: Aristotle and Virtue Ethics |
by her tribe to stay on the island and follow the
Aristotle
rules and social systems that have been set in
place long before she was born. Here it can be Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and scientist
seen that doing one’s duty and following the born in 384 BC. He was a student of Plato, and
law is seen as morally justified. the teacher of Alexander the Great. He wrote
two treatises on ethics:
Stages of Moral Development | Post-
the Nicomachean Ethics and
conventional
the Eudemian Ethics, each named after those
Level 3: Post-conventional morality who edited the notes from his discourse at the
academy (his friend, Eudemus, and his son,
This level of morality is rarely achieved in Nicomachus).
adolescents, and by few adults.
Moral virtue
 Stage 5: Interpersonal Agreement
Orientation Moral virtue, to Aristotle, is the mean (mesotes)
between deficiency and excess. He explains
This level features an awareness that while that virtue is exercised when an appropriate
laws and rules exist, there are instances when attitude towards pain and pleasure is
following these may not be morally justified. displayed. The principal virtues and their
What is right therefore is that which pleases or
helps others, and that which is best for the
greatest number of people. Obligations are
based on calculations of overall utility, what is
really good for all. To a certain extent, there is
universality in this good but still within basic
human society, basic human agreements.
For example, Harry and his friends broke Sirius
out of prison, and the rest of the Order of the
Phoenix banded together to hide him from
corresponding vices are listed in the table instrumental and subordinate goals, i.e. money,
below: power, beauty, are sought only because they
promote happiness, not because these are
For example, courage is a moral virtue necessary to achieve happiness.
because it represents the mean between the
deficiency that is cowardice and the excess For example: We go to good restaurants to buy
that is rashness. Courage is not necessarily food in order for us to eat well. Eating well is
the absence of fear; it is knowing when to be not the end, rather another means to achieve
fearful in the face of great odds and still happiness. Happiness is the true end goal.
making the choice to take risks. It is not
necessary for a virtuous person to always be
courageous, as this will make him foolhardy
and rash, and lack of courage also makes a
person cowardly. Coming to balance between Aristotle defines the supreme good, happiness,
the two allows a person to act wisely and as an activity of the rational soul in accordance
rationally. with virtue, or what the Greek see as
equivalent to excellence.
What is common between the virtues that were
listed by Aristotle is that these represent For example: A chef’s primary function is to
conscious acts. Any person, for example, make food. A virtuous chef thus is that who
cannot be unconsciously made courageous or performs his function excellently, that is, a chef
truthful. The best measure of moral judgment, who makes excellent food.
therefore, is choice, and the conscious and
habitual use of reason to choose the mean Because human beings are the only beings
between deficiency and excess is moral that possess rationality, then the achievement
virtue. of good must be related to the use of rationality
to guide humans in living better lives. The
Living well exercise of rationality and use of virtue,
therefore, is the supreme good.
What does it mean to live well?
M5 Lesson 1: Theories of Justice | Plato,
When asked “what is good?”, answers will vary Aquinas, Aristotle, Hobbes, & Mill
between person to person. A list of such things
is easily compiled: friends, family, pleasure, The word justice comes from the Latin
health, etc. The controversial question is word jus which means right or law. It is most
whether certain goods are more desirable than commonly defined as an action done in
others; i.e. is it more desirable to have family accordance with a societal standard (tradition
than to have friends? The purpose of ethics is or law). Justice is one of the most important
to find the answer to the question of what ethical and political concepts because a person
makes a good life that leads to happiness. who has a sense of justice does what is
morally right, ethical, and fair to everyone
To profit from ethical inquiry, there must first be involved.
a resolution to this problem; thus, Aristotle’s
search for the good is not simply the search (see separate table)
for things that are good, but that which is the
highest and most supreme good – that which is Lesson 2: Categories of Justice |
desirable for itself, not desirable for the sake of Compensatory
other goods, rather all other goods are
desirable for its sake. Compensatory Justice

Eudaimonia (happiness) is the telos (highest When a person suffers any kind of loss,

goal) of human life as no one aims to achieve compensatory justice is the fair allocation of
happiness for the sake of some other goal – resources as compensation for the losses
happiness is the supreme good. Other
incurred. Just compensation is proportional to The extent to which punishments are fair, or
the losses inflicted. their general aptness to the situation is referred
to as corrective or retributive justice.
For example, Sharon Needles was working as
a nurse at Drag Hospital, Inc. from March to Point of reflection:
April 2020 receiving only Php 18,000.00
monthly salary. After a few weeks, she Uncle Roger is a pedicab driver who has not
contracted COVID-19, and died. Her wife been able to feed his family properly since the
Alaska, who has been out of work since the implementation of the community quarantine in
community quarantine, received Php Metro Manila. He was caught stealing two cans
15,000.00 from the hospital for Sharon’s of luncheon meat from the local grocery store,
faithful service. There is a lack of and then immediately jailed for theft. Uncle
compensatory justice in this case because the Roger admitted to the crime and explained
compensation received is not enough to how he only wanted food for his family and
restore the losses incurred. newborn child.

Compensation is paid by those who either Former President Estrada was found guilty of
inflicted the injustice, or those who benefitted charges of plunder for collecting billions of
pesos in jueteng protection money, sentenced
from the act; however, when determining the to reclusion pepetua, pardoned by former
amount of compensation owed, there is no President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo, and was
absolute rule. Some losses, such as the able to run for and eventually win the position
example above, cannot be restored while of Mayor of the City of Manila in 2013.
others such as reputation and pride are
immeasurable. To make things easier, there Which of the two cases is representative of
are general conditions that create an obligation corrective or retributive justice?
for compensation:
Procedural
1. The action inflicted was wrong and/or Procedural Justice
negligent;
2. There are no other actions that could This type of justice is concerned with
cause the loss; and transparency of the processes by which
3. The action was done in bad faith. decisions are made. Most people feel a sense
of security or affirmation when decisions
Point of reflection: implemented are done following consistent
procedures. Procedural justice creates the
While under enhanced community quarantine sense of respect and dignity that allows people
Senator Paul Charles insisted in to more easily accept negative outcomes.
accompanying his wife to the hospital to give
birth, breaching all health and sanitation Point of reflection:
protocols placed to protect the healthcare The President of Russia, Katya
workers, the patients, and their families from Zamolodchikova, has been receiving critiques
contracting the COVID-19 virus. After a few for her extreme policies against drug-dealing
weeks, five patients and three health workers since she took office in 2012. From then, there
that the senator came in close contact with has been no less than 12,000 victims of extra-
during his visit died from the virus. judicial killings that involve small-time drug
dealers and drug users.
Should the senator be responsible for
compensation, and if so, how should this be What makes this case a breach of procedural
measured? justice?

Retributive Distributive

Retributive or Corrective Justice Distributive Justice

The last type of justice refers to equal needs, or simply “from each according to his
distribution. Distributive justice is the ability, to each according to his need”.
appropriate distribution of costs and benefits
within any society. Productivity according to each person’s ability
and the distribution of goods to meet each
For example, factory workers Maritess and person’s basic needs allows humans to explore
Alma both receive a salary at an hourly rate of their human potential and work for their
Php 25.00/hour. Due to the problems brought happiness instead of for accumulating wealth.
about by the recent COVID-19 pandemic,
Maritess and Alma both are now only receiving  Based on freedom
Php 100.00/day for 4 hours of work. If the
owner asks Maritess to extend her working Under libertarianism, freedom is king. It follows
hours to 6 hours/day for the same pay, there is the mantra: “from each according to what he
a problem with distributive justice. chooses to do, to each according to what he
makes for himself and what others choose to
 
do for him and choose to give him of what
When analyzing if distributive justice has they’ve been given previously and have not yet
occurred or not, always keep in mind that it expanded or transferred”; or simply “from each
does not merely refer to equal distribution of as they choose, to each as they are chosen.”
benefits, it also involves the equal sharing of
The problem with truly libertarian distribution is
burden within the members of society.
that it creates unjust treatment for the
Theories of Distribution disadvantaged and the marginalized since it
prioritizes choice based on individual values, at
How should costs and benefits be the expense of the rights of others.
distributed?
Point of reflection:
Theories of Distributive Justice
Public transportation has been suspended in
Metro Manila due to the community quarantine
 Based on equality implemented by the national government.
Since the easing of the quarantine, some UV-
Under egalitarianism, burdens and benefits are Express vehicles, public buses, and
equally distributed to each and every person airconditioned/modern jeepneys following strict
regardless of ability, needs, values, or any social distancing measures have been allowed
characteristics. to operate; however, traditional jeepneys still
The problem with this is that humans are not continue waiting for news as to when they will
equal. Characteristics such as ability and need be allowed to resume operations.
are ignored when taking accounting the Was there distributive justice in this case?
distribution of goods. Which theory of distributive justice do you think
should be applied to this case?
 Based on contribution
M6 Lesson 1: Globalization | What is
Under capitalism, benefits are distributed Globalization?
according to the value of the contribution each
person makes. What is Globalization?

 Based on needs and abilities  “Globalization can thus be defined as

the intensification of worldwide social
Under socialism, the burden is distributed relations which link distant localities in such
according to people’s abilities while the a way that local happenings are shaped by
benefits are divided according to the people’s events occurring many miles away and vice
 versa.” (Anthony Giddens in Steger 2003, “Globalization lies at the heart of modern
10) culture; cultural practices lie at the heart of
 “The concept of globalization reflects the globalization.” (John Tomlinson in Steger 2014,
sense of an immense enlargement of world 11)
communication, as well as of the horizon of
a world market, both of which seem far
more tangible and immediate than in earlier
stages of modernity.” (Fredric Jameson in
Steger 2003, 10)
 “Globalization may be thought of as a
process (or set of processes) which
embodies a transformation in the spatial
organization of social relations and
transactions – assessed in terms of their
extensity, intensity, velocity and impact -
generating transcontinental or interregional
flows and networks of activity, interaction,
and the exercise of power.” (David Held in
Steger 2003, 10)

How did it start?

“Globalization is historical. It started long
before the recent years of information
technology, the end of the cold war or even the
end of the Second World War. It has its bases
earlier, in the development of capitalism and
industrialism, and in the institutions,
technologies and incentives these systems
brought along” (Martell 2010, 5).
What is affected by Globalization?

 Economics

“Economic accounts of globalization convey

the notion that the essence of the phenomenon
involves ‘the increasing linkage of national
economies through trade, financial flows, and
foreign direct investment … by multinational
firms’ (Gilpin in Steger 2014, 6).

 Politics

“No longer functioning along the lines of

discrete territorial units, the political order of the
future will be one of regional economies linked
together in an almost seamless global web that
operates according to free-market principles.”
(Steger 2014, 8)

 Culture