Curriculum Development

Module 1 – Curriculum: Concepts, Nature and Purposes

Learning Outcomes
1. Define curriculum
2. Identify types of curriculum operating in schools
3. Trace the historical foundations of curriculum

Activity:

Let us find out how teachers, students and other educators define curriculum from their
own points of view. Interview the following persons: grade school teacher, school head, college
instructor, student teacher and non-education college student. Ask each one this question: In
your own perception, what is curriculum? Record their answers and present the definition using
the template below.

Persons Interviewed Answer to Question: What is Curriculum?

Grade School Teacher

School Head

College Instructor

Student Teacher

Non-education College Student

Analysis:

1. Compare each definition. Are they similar? Different?

2. Identify their similarities and differences?

Abstraction:

Curriculum from Different Points of View

There are many definitions of curriculum. Because of this, the concept of curriculum is
sometimes characterized as fragmentary, elusive and confusing. However, the numerous
definitions indicate dynamism that connotes diverse interpretations of what curriculum is all
about. The definitions are influenced by modes of thoughts, pedagogies, political as well as
cultural experiences.

1. Traditional Points of View of Curriculum

In the early years of the 20th century, the traditional concepts held of the “curriculum is
that it is a body of subjects or subject matter prepared by the teachers for the students to learn.”
It was synonymous to the “course of study” and “syllabus”.
Robert M. Hutchins views curriculum as “permanent studies” where the rules of
grammar, reading, rhetoric and logic and mathematics for basic education are emphasized. Basic
education should emphasize the 3 Rs and college education should be grounded on liberal
education. On the other hand, Arthur Bestor as an essentialist, believes that the mission of the
school should be intellectual training, hence curriculum should focus on the fundamental
intellectual disciplines of grammar, literature and writing. It should also include mathematics,
science, history and foreign language.
This definition leads us to the view of Joseph Schwab that discipline is the sole source of
curriculum. Thus in our education system, curriculum is divided into chunks of knowledge we
call subject areas in basic education such as English, Mathematics, Science, Social Studies and
others. In college, discipline may include humanities, sciences, languages, and many more.
Thus curriculum can be viewed as a field of study. It is made up of its foundation,
domains of knowledge as well as its research theories and principles. Curriculum is taken as
scholarly and theoretical. It is concerned with broad historical, philosophical and social issues
and academics. Most of the traditional ideas view curriculum as written documents or a plan of
action in accomplishing goals.

2. Progressive Points of View of Curriculum

To a progressivist, a listing of school subjects, syllabi, course of study, and list of courses
or specific discipline do not make a curriculum. These can only be called curriculum if the
written materials are actualized by the learner. Broadly speaking, curriculum is defined as the
total learning experiences of the individual. This definition is anchored on John Dewey’s
definition of experience and education. He believed that reflective thinking is a means that
unifies curricular elements. Thought is not derived from action but rested by application.
Caswell and Campbell viewed curriculum as “all experiences children have under the
guidance of teachers.” This definition is shared by Smith, Stanley and Shores when they define
“curriculum as a sequence of potential experiences set up in the schools for the purpose of
disciplining children and youth in group ways of thinking and acting.”
Marsh and Willis on the other hand view curriculum as all the “experiences in the
classroom which are planned and enacted by the teacher, and also learned by the students.

Points of View on Curriculum Development

From the various definitions and concepts presented, it is clear that curriculum is a
dynamic process. Development connotes changes which are systematic. A change for the better
means any alteration, modification or improvement of existing condition. To produce positive
changes, development should be purposeful, planned, and progressive. This is how curriculum
evolves.
Ralph Tyler Model: Four Basic Principles. This is also popularly known as Tyler’s
Rationale. He posited four fundamental questions or principles in examining any curriculum in
schools. These four fundamental principles are as follows:
1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes?
3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?
4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained or not?
In summary, Tyler’s Model shows that in curriculum development, the following
considerations should be made: (1) purposes of the school, (2) educational experiences related to
the purposes, (3) organization of the experiences and (4) evaluation of the experiences.
On the other hand, Hilda Taba improved on Tyler’s Rationale by making a linear model.
She believed that teachers who teach or implement the curriculum should participate in
developing it. Her advocacy was commonly called the grassroots approach. She presented
seven major steps to her model where teachers could have a major input.
These steps are as follows:
1. Diagnosis of learners needs and expectations of the larger society
2. Formulation of learning objectives
3. Selection of learning content
4. Organization learning content
5. Selection of learning experiences
6. Organization of learning activities
7. Determination of what to evaluate and the means of doing it
Thus as you look into curriculum models, the three interacting processes in curriculum
development are planning, implementing and evaluating.

Types of Curriculum Operating in Schools

From the various concepts given, Allan Glatthorn describes seven types of curriculum
operating in schools. These are (1) recommended curriculum – proposed by scholars and
professional organization, (2) written curriculum – appears in school, district, division or country
documents, (3) taught curriculum – what teachers implement or deliver in the classrooms and
schools, (4) supported curriculum – resources-textbooks, computers, audio-visual materials
which support and help in the implementation of the curriculum, (5) assessed curriculum – that
which is tested and evaluated, (6) learned curriculum – what the students actually learn and what
is measured and (7) hidden curriculum – the unintended curriculum.
1. Recommended curriculum – Most of the school curricula are recommended. The
curriculum may come from a national agency like the Department of Education,
Commission Higher Education (CHED), Department of Science and Technology (DOST)
or any professional organization who has stake in education.
2. Written curriculum – This includes documents, course of study or syllabi handed down to
the schools, districts, divisions, departments or colleges for implementation. Most of the
written curricula are made by curriculum experts with participation of teachers. These
were pilot-tested or tried out in sample schools population.
3. Taught curriculum – The different planned activities which are put into action in the
classroom compose the taught curriculum. These are varied activities that are
implemented in order to arrive at the objectives or purposes of the written curriculum.
These are used by the learners with the guidance of teachers. Taught curriculum varies
according to the learning styles of students and the teaching styles of teachers.
4. Supported curriculum – In order to have a successful teaching, other than the teacher,
there must be materials which should support or help in the implementation of a written
curriculum. These refer to the support curriculum that includes material resources such
as textbooks, computers, audio-visual materials, laboratory equipment, playgrounds, zoos
and other facilities. Support curriculum should enable each learner to achieve real and
lifelong learning.
5. Assessed curriculum – This refers to a tested or evaluated curriculum. At the duration
and end of the teaching episodes, series of evaluations are being done by the teachers to
determine the extent of teaching or to tell if the students are progressing. This refers to
the assessed curriculum. Assessment tools like pencil-and-paper tests, authentic
instruments like portfolio are being utilized.
6. Learned curriculum – this reefers to the learning outcomes achieved by the students.
Learning outcomes are indicated by the results of the tests and changes in behaviour
which can either be cognitive, affective or psychomotor.
7. Hidden curriculum – This is the unintended curriculum which is not deliberately planned
but may modify behaviour or influence learning outcomes. There are lots of hidden
curricula that transpire in the schools. Peer influence, school environment, physical
condition, teacher-learner interaction, mood of the teachers and many other factors make
up the hidden curriculum.

Major Foundations of Curriculum

Debates continue on what curriculum is and its basic foundations. The commonly
accepted foundations include philosophical, historical, psychological, and social.

Philosophical Foundations of Curriculum

Philosophy provides educators, teachers and curriculum makers with framework for
planning, implementing and evaluating curriculum in schools. It helps in answering what
schools are for, what subjects are important, how students should learn and what materials and
methods should be used. In decision making, philosophy provides n the starting point and will
be used for the succeeding decision making.
The philosophy of a curriculum planner, implementer or evaluator reflects his or her life
experiences, common beliefs, social and economic background and education. For example,
John Dewey looks at “education as a way of life” a laboratory in which philosophy becomes
concrete and is tested.
Let us look at four educational philosophies and how these relate to curriculum. Study
each educational philosophy and match it to the aim of education, role of education, focus in
curriculum and related curricular trends.

A. Educational Philosophy – Perennialism

Aim of Education – To educate the rational person; to cultivate the intellect
Role of Education – Teachers help students think with reason. Based on the Socratic
methods of oral exposition or recitation. Explicit or deliberate teaching of traditional
values.
Focus in the Curriculum – Classical subjects, literary analysis and curriculum is constant
Curriculum trends – Use of great books and return to liberal arts
B. Educational Philosophy – Essentialism
Aim of Education – To promote the intellectual growth of the individual and educate a
competent person
Role of Education – The teacher is the sole authority in his or her subject area or field of
specialization.
Focus in the Curriculum – Essential skills of the 3 R’s and essential subjects of English,
Science, History, Math and Foreign Language
Curriculum Trends – Excellence in education, back to basics and cultural literacy
C. Educational Philosophy – Progressivism
Aim of Education – To promote democratic and social living
Role of Education – Knowledge leads to growth and development of lifelong learners
who actively learn by doing.
Focus in the Curriculum – Subjects are interdisciplinary, integrative and interactive.
Curriculum is focused on students’ interest, human problems and affairs.
Curriculum Trends – School reforms, relevant and contextualized curriculum, humanistic
education
D. Educational Philosophy – Reconstructionism
Aim of Education – To improve and reconstruct society; education for change
Role of Education – Teachers act as agents of change and reform in various educational
projects including research
Focus in the Curriculum – Focus on present and future trends and issues of national and
international interests
Curriculum Trends – Equality of educational opportunities in education, access to global
education

Historical Foundations of Curriculum

Curriculum is not an old field. Majority of scholars would place its beginning in 1918
with the publication of Franklin Bobbit’s book The Curriculum.
 Philippine education came about from various foreign influences. This can be traced
back to our glorious history. Of all foreign educational systems, the American educational
system has the greatest influence on our educational system. Here we present several curriculum
theorists and how they view curriculum from a historical perspective.
1. Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956) – Bobbit presented curriculum as a science that
emphasizes on students’ need. Curriculum prepares students for adult life. To
Bobbit, objectives with corresponding activities should be grouped and sequenced.
This can only be done if instructional activities and tasks are clarified.
2. Werret Charters (1875-1952) – Like Bobbit, to Charters, curriculum is a science. It
gives emphasis on students’ needs. The listing of objectives and matching these with
corresponding activities ensures that the content or subject matter is related to
objectives. The subject matter and the activities are planned by the teacher.
3. William Kilpatrick (1871-1965) – Curricula are purposeful activities which are child-
centered. The purpose of the curriculum is child development and growth. The
project method was introduced by Kilpatrick where teacher and student plan
activities. The curriculum develops social relationships and small group instruction.
4. Harold Rugg (1886-1960) – To Rugg, curriculum should develop the whole child. It
is child-centered. With the statement of objectives and related learning activities,
curriculum should produce outcomes. Harold Rugg emphasized social studies and
the teacher plans curriculum in advance.
5. Hollis Caswell (1901-1989) – sees curriculum as organized around social functions of
themes, organized k knowledge and learner’s interest. Caswell believes that
curriculum is a set of experiences. Subject matter is developed around social
functions and learners’ interest.
6. Ralph Tyler (1902-1994) – As one of the hallmarks of curriculum, Tyler believes that
curriculum is a science and an extension of school’s philosophy. It is based on
students’ needs and interest. To Tyler, curriculum is always related to instruction.
Subject matter is organized in terms of knowledge, skills and values. The process
emphasizes problem solving. The curriculum aims tom educate generalists and not
specialists.
The historical development shows the different changes in the purpose, principles and
content of the curriculum. The different changes are influenced by educational philosophy,
psychology and pedagogical theories. This implies that curriculum is ever changing putting in
knowledge and content from many fields of disciplines.

Psychological Foundations of Education

Psychology provides a basis for the teaching and learning process. It unifies elements of
the learning process and some of the questions which can be addressed by psychological
foundations of education.

1. Behaviorist Psychology

Behaviorism dominated the 20th century psychology. It includes among others

connectionism of Edward Thorndike, which influenced both Ralph Tyler and Hilda Taba who
are considered to be one of the well-known curricularist. Ivan Pavlov’s classical conditioning
and B. F. Skinner’s operant conditioning were all behaviourists in character. Albert Bandura’s
modelling and observation theory, is also related to behaviour. Among the behaviourists, Robert
Gagne’s hierarchical learning or sets of behaviour and five learning outcomes became classic
examples.. These learning outcomes include: (1) intellectual skills or “knowing how” to
categorize and use symbols, forming concepts and problem solving; (2) information or “knowing
what” knowledge about facts, dates and names; (3) cognitive strategies or learning skills; (4)
motor skills; and (5) attitudes, feelings and emotions learned through experiences. The listed
learning outcomes overlap with the domains in the taxonomy of educational objectives which are
cognitive, affective and psychomotor.
To the behaviourists, learning should be organized in order that students can experience
success in the process of mastering the subject matter. The method is introduced in a step by
step manner with proper sequencing of task which is viewed by other educational psychologist as
simplistic and mechanical.

2. Cognitive Psychology

How do learners store information? How do they retrieve data and generate conclusions?
These are some of the basic questions asked by cognitive psychologists.
These psychologists focus their attention on how individuals process information and
how they monitor and manage thinking. Among the advocates of cognitive psychology are Jean
Piaget for his Cognitive Development stages, Lev Vygotzky for his Social Constructivism,
Howard Gardner for his Multiple Intelligences, Felder and Silverman for their Learning Styles,
Daniel Goleman for Emotional Intelligences and many more.
To the cognitive theorists, learning constitutes a logical method for organizing and
interpreting learning. Learning is rooted in the tradition of subject matter and is similar to the
cognitive development theory. Teachers use a lot of problem and thinking skills in teaching and
learning. These are exemplified by practices like reflective thinking, creative thinking, intuitive
thinking, discovery learning and many others.

3. Humanistic Psychology

Humanist psychologists are concerned with how learners can develop their human
potential. Traditional psychologists do not recognize humanistic psychology a s a school of
psychology. However, observers view humanistic psychology as the third force learning theory
after behaviourism and cognitive development. It is built on Gestalt psychology where learning
can be explained in terms of the wholeness of the problem and where the environment is
changing and the learner is continuously reorganizing his or her perceptions. Aside from the
theory of Gestalt, Abraham Maslow’s theory of human needs for self-actualizing persons and
Carl Rogers’; non-directive lives, also fall under humanistic psychology. Among the humanistic
psychologists, curriculum is concerned with the process not the products; personal needs not
subject matter; psychological meaning and environmental situations.
In summary, psychology has a great influence in the curriculum. Learners are not
machines and the mind is not a computer. Humans are biological beings affected by their
biology and their cultures. The psychological foundations will help curriculum makers in
nurturing a more advanced, more comprehensive and complete human learning.
Social Foundations of Education

Schools exist within the social context. Societal culture affects and shapes schools and
their curricula. The way school buildings are structured, the way classrooms and students are
organized reflect the cultural views and values of the society. In considering the social
foundations of curriculum, we must recognize that schools are only one of the many institutions
that educate society. The home, the family, community likewise educate the people in the
society. But schools are formal institutions that address more complex and interrelated societies
and the world.
Society as ever dynamic is a source of very fast changes which are difficult to cope with
and to adjust to. Thus schools are made to help to understand these changes. However, some
observations point out to the fact that schools are conservative institutions that lag behind when
they are supposed to be agents of change. Thus, in order for schools to be relevant, school
curricula should address diversity, explosion of knowledge, school reforms and education for all.
The relationship of curriculum and society is mutual and encompassing. Hence, to be
relevant, the curricula should reflect and preserve the culture of society and its aspirations. At
the same time society should also imbibe the changes brought by the formal institutions called
schools.

Application:

1. Complete the table below by (1) identifying the different types of curricula operating in
schools, (2) explaining the significant features of each curriculum type and (3) giving
concrete examples for each curriculum.

Types of Curricula Operating Significant Features / Examples

in School

Recommended Curriculum

Written Curriculum

Taught Curriculum

Supported Curriculum
Assessed Curriculum

Learned Curriculum

Hidden Curriculum

2. In the course that you are currently taking, identify practices that can be considered as
following traditional orientation and those that are progressive in orientation. Give
specific examples or illustrations.

Points of View of Curriculum Illustrative Examples of Practices

Traditional Curricular Practices

Progressive Curricular Practices

Reflect and Check Understanding

1. Can a school exist without a curriculum? Why or why not?

2. How does a strong belief or philosophy influence curriculum?
3. As future teachers, how important will a curriculum be to you?
4. What are the implications of an ever changing curriculum to teachers?
5. Name five persons who contributed to the field of curriculum. Give the contribution of
each.
6. How do philosophy, psychology, history and society influence the development of a
curriculum?
 7. Explain how the three processes of planning, implementing and evaluating are used in
curriculum development?

Reference:
Title of the Book: Curriculum Development
Authors: Purita P. Bilbao, Ed.D.
Paz I. Lucido, Ph.D.
Tomasa C. Iringan, Ph.D.
Rodrigo B. Javier, Ed.D.