FABRICATION OF BULOCK CART TILTING MECHANISM

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

IN

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ANNA UNIVERSITY : CHENNAI 600 025

APRIL – 2016
 i

ANNA UNIVERSITY : CHENNAI 600 025

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report “FABRICATION OF” is the bonafide work of
Who carried out the project work under my supervision.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

Submitted for the viva-voce examination held on ……………….

Internal Examiner External Examiner

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We express our sincere thanks to our beloved Chairman

Dr.PSK.R.PERIASWAMYfor providing us immense facilities in our institution.

We proudly render our sincere thanks to our Principal

Dr.R.ASOKAN, M.S., M.Tech.,Ph.Dfor the facilities and the encouragement
given to complete this project.

We proudly render our thanks to Dr.R.VENKATESH., M.E.,Ph.D

Dean Academic (Non-Circuit) for their effective leadership encouragement and
supportive guidance for this project.

We feel peak of pleasure in expressing our heartiest thanks to

Prof.V.ELANGO.,M.E.,(Ph.D).,MISTE Head of the Department
&Mr.K.PERIASAMY.,M.E.,(Ph.D).,MISTE coordinator of Mechanical
Engineering who always used to act as our pivot.

We proudly rendering our thanks to the Project

CoordinatorMr.C.DINESH BABU.,M.E.,MISTEAssistant Professor, Department
of Mechanical Engineering for his leadership encouragement and supportive
guidance for this project.

We sincerely acknowledge our Project Guide

Mr.K.BALASUBRAMANI.,M.EDepartment of Mechanical Engineering for his
valuable guidance and encouragement to complete the project in a successful
manner.

Further, We sincerely thank all the Faculties and Technical Staff of

our department and our friends for their kind assistance and help rendered
completing this project in abundantly satisfying manner.

Finally, we thank from the bottom of hearts to our loving parents who stood
satisfy all our needs.
 CONTENTS

CHAPTER .NO TITLE PAGE. NO

ABSTRACT
1

LIST OF FICURE 2

3
1 INTRODUCTION 4

2 DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENT 12

3 DESIGN OF EQUIPMENT 22

4 LIST OF MATERIAL 24

5 WORKING PRINCIPLE 27

5.1 MERIT 28
5.2 APPLICATION 28
5.3 BLOCK DIAGRAM 29

6 CONCLUSION 30

7 COST ESTIMATION 31

BIBLIOGRAPHY 32

PHOTOGRAPHY 33
 CHAPTER 1

ABSTRACT

In several automobile garages, revealed the facts that mostly some difficult
methods were adopted in unloading the materials from the trailer. Now the bullock
cartwas mainly concentrated on this difficulty, and hence a suitable arrangement
has been designed. Such that the material can be easily unloaded in three axes from
the bullock cart. In our study we had implemented two activation system to control
the axis and tilting control of the bullock. Both the activation mechanism is
controlled manually or through an activation drive. The direction of the mechanism
can be control with the gear arrangement and lead screw setup which is actuated by
a rotational force for rotating and lifting the trailer cabin in require side. Further
modifications and working limitations will put this work in the main league of use.
This concept saves time & energy which leads to efficient working
 CHAPTER 2

INTRODUCTION

Bullock cart is widely used for material transportation in small scale

construction projects. Due to its load carrying capacity and material handling
facilities, they are traditionally used as popular load carriers. In most cases where
road width is not sufficient, bullock cart face the problems while unloading the
material. It takes a lot of time to unload a single trolley as all material cannot be
unloaded at same place and in addition the animals also hurt to maximum extent.
Hence additional time is required for turning of vehicle in highly congested area.
Also in case of large sized bullock cart, if all the material is unloaded at one place
additional manpower is required to arrange the material properly which finally
increases material handling cost. BULLOCK CART TILTING MECHANISM
incorporates the tilting of trolley placed on its chassis at 360 degree as per user
requiremet. It is used to lift the load with help of manual or activation drives. The
main purpose of this project is to unload the material in three directions instead of
conventional bullock system in which the unloading is done in one direction or
through manual interaction. This system is very much useful in constructional sites
having low turning space, to reduce the additional labour cost. It gives the small
fabrication of small model to have clear understanding of idea.
 CONSTRUCTION

The base frame which acts as a chassis structure of a bullock cart is fabricated with
the help of square tubes and channels with the help of metal cutting and metal
joining process called welding. The wheels are coupled to the frame which helps
for its displacement. The worm wheels is coupled to the frame with the help of
shaft for its easy rotation. The worm gear is held meshed with it with the help of
shaft which is coupled to the hand lever. The worm wheel is directly attached to
the tilting frame with the help of lead screw attachment. The nut is coupled to the
lead screw which is hinged at its end to the tilting frame. The end of the lead screw
is connected to the hand lever with the help of universal joint which allows
transmission of rotation in angular space.
 LITERATURE REVIEW

Krushna P. Darwatkar , Prashant S. Kadu , Nakul G. Mahalle

Design and Development of Modified Bullock Cart

Bullock and bullock cart plays an important role in every farm related activity
since long history. With the advancement in technology the farming methods and
equipment shows the drastic improvement. But there is no any sufficient
improvement is carried out in the animal driven carts used in agriculture activities.
The conventional design of cart results in animal drudgery while operating, it
affects the neck and limbs of the bullock. This results in hampering the efficiency
of bullock. In this paper an attempt is made to improve the structure and functional
ability of bullock cart. The spring damper mechanism is used to reduce the animal
drudgery which leads to overall improvement of efficiency of bullock cart with the
reduction of effort required to drive the cart.

Nikhil Kumar Patre , M. Quasim, Mithlesh Kumar and Ashutosh Tripathi

Comparative Performance of Bullock Carts at Different Payload Condition

The effect of different payloads tested ranging from tare weight to 1100 kg for four
different carts i.e. iron frame with iron wheel(IFIW), wooden frame with iron
wheel (WFIW), iron frame with iron wheels(IFWW) and wooden frame with
wooden wheels(WFWW) on concrete road. The minimum draft was found in IFIW
at tare and 1100 kg was 17.56 and 35.22 kg. Similarly, maximum was found in
WFWW at tare and 1100 kg was 22.45 and 45.64 kg. The WFIW and IFWW type
carts have the results between the IFIW and WFWW type cart.As the payloads
were increased simultaneously the draft was increased. IFIW type has lowest draft
at all payloads and highest draft was found in WFWW type cart at all payloads.
The maximum speedwas found in IFIW type at tare and payload 1100 kg payload
was 4.10 km/h and 2.99 km/h. Similarly,minimum speedwas found in WFWW
type at tare and payload 1100 kg payload was 3.67 km/h and 2.76km/h. The WFIW
and IFWW type carts have the results between the IFIW and WFWW type cart. It
was found that WFWW type has lowest speed at all payloads, followed by IFIW
type, WFIW type and highest speed was found in IFIW type bullock cat at all
payloads.The maximum power requirement was found 0.32 kW in WFWW type
cart for the tare payload condition and for the same payload power requirement is
minimum 0.27 kW in IFIW cart. As the payload was increasing the power
requirement was also increasing in each cart. WFWW cart has the maximum
power requirement at 1100 kg payload while IFIW has the minimum 0.39 kW that
is the lowest than the all carts.The highest power requirement was found in
WFWW type cart and lowest in IFIW type bullock cart.Slippage was found
maximum 3.36 % at tare payload in WFWW type cart and at same payload
minimum in 2.30 % in IFIW cart. At maximum payload condition IFIW cart has
the minimum slippage 0.88 % and maximum slippage was found in 1.63 % for the
same payload condition in WFWW. Remaining two carts WFIW and IFIW have
the result between the IFIW and WFWW type cart. The highest wheel slippage
was found in WFWW type bullock cart, whereas in IFIW type cart wheel slippage
was lowest.
Rushabh A. Chilatre , Shubham N.Gujar , Ashwini P. Zambre ,Suchita K. Rahate ,
Prof. Naresh G. Metange

Modified Bullock Cart

Bullock and bullock cart plays an important role in every farm based activity since
long history. With the advent of technology, the farming methods and equipment
used changed drastically. It is evident that, there is no significant development and
modifications carried and incorporated in the animal driven cart used for
agricultural activities. The modified bullock cart are use in iron material in
manufacture. The Bullock cart are rotate in any direction and also use in lifting
mechanism type of gear are use in bullock cart There are few researchers who have
contributed in the developmental aspects of the cart. This paper is a review of
research work carried by various researchers in this area. The work will give
insight to basics of design of a bullock cart and the summary of research work
done up till so that further research may be outlined. A primary solution to the
problems presented invarious research papers are proposed as a conclusion of this
work.

S. Carapetis H. L. Beenhakker J. D. F. Howe

The Supply and Quality of Rural Transport Services in Developing Countries

For many years, the World Bank has been assisting developing countries to
improve their transportation systems and facilities. This assistance has been in
many forms; the majority being through financing of investment programs to
construct, improve, rehabilitate, and maintain transport infrastructure. However,
 apart from the studies and analyses carried out to help plan and design such
infrastructure, little is known by the World Bank or others about the actual
transport services which use the infrastructure. This study identifies, reviews and
analyzes various factors that influence the supply and quality of transport services
in the rural areas of developing countries. The objective is to determine to what
extent the World Bank and other aid organizations can assist the developing
countries to improve their services and facilities through economic and sector
work, technical assistance, credit facilities and investment financing, and so forth.
 CHAPTER 3

WORKING PRINCIPLE

When the worm gear get rotated with the help of hand lever, it transfers the
rotation to the meshed worm wheel gear and makes it to rotate about its axis. This
causes the tilting frame which is mounted with it to rotate as per the rotation
experienced by the worm wheel. This causes the tilting frame to index on its
unloading position. When the position get adjusted and fixed stable, now the
second hand lever is actuated to tilt the frame for attaining unloading condition.
The rotation obtained from the hand lever is transferred to the lead screw which
transmits the nut meshed with it to displace linearly. This causes the frame
attached with to tilt for unloading the stock rested inside.
 CHAPTER 4

MAJOR COMPONENTS

1. LEAD SCREW

2. WORM GEAR ARRANGEMENT

3. FRAME

4. SHAFT

5. BEARING

6. METAL STRIP

7. WHEEL
 SCREW ROD

A screw rod, also known as a stud, is a relatively long rod that is threaded on

both ends; the thread may extend along the complete length of the rod. They are
designed to be used in tension. Threaded rod in bar stock form is often called all-
thread.

The screw is really a twisted inclined plane. ... A screw can also act to hold
things together in some cases. Some examples of the uses of a screw are in a jar
lid, a drill, a bolt, a light bulb, faucets, bottle caps and ball point pens.

A stove bolt is a type of machine screw that has a round or flat head and is
threaded to the head. They are usually made of low grade steel, have a slot or
Phillips drive, and are used to join sheet metal parts using a hex or square nut.

Screw Rod
 Internal and external threads illustrated using a common nut and bolt. The
screw and nut pair can be used to convert torque into linear force. As the screw (or
bolt) is rotated, the screw moves along its axis through the fixed nut, or the non-
rotating nut moves along the lead-screw.

Screw thread, used to convert torque into the linear force in the flood gate.
The operator rotates the two vertical bevel gears that have threaded holes, thereby
raising or lowering the two long vertical threaded shafts which are not free to
rotate.

A screw thread, often shortened to thread, is a helical structure used to

convert between rotational and linear movement or force. A screw thread is a ridge
wrapped around a cylinder or cone in the form of a helix, with the former being
called a straight thread and the latter called a tapered thread. A screw thread is the
essential feature of the screw as a simple machine and also as a fastener.

The mechanical advantage of a screw thread depends on its lead, which is

the linear distance the screw travels in one revolution.[1] In most applications, the
lead of a screw thread is chosen so that friction is sufficient to prevent linear
motion being converted to rotary, that is so the screw does not slip even when
linear force is applied, as long as no external rotational force is present. This
characteristic is essential to the vast majority of its uses. The tightening of a
fastener's screw thread is comparable to driving a wedge into a gap until it sticks
fast through friction and slight elastic deformation.

Specifications
 Typical Material: Low Carbon Steel
  Material & Mechanical Properties: Purchased to meet ASTM A307 Grade

A.

 Zinc Plating: Purchased to meet F1941 FeZn3A.

 Hot-Dip Galvanized: Purchased to meet ASTM A153.

 Tensile Strength: 60,000 PSI minimum.

 Material : Stainless Steel

 Diameter: 12mm

 Length:1meter

Fastening

 Fastening such as wood screws, machine screws, nuts, and bolts.

 Connecting threaded pipes and hoses to each other and to caps and fixtures.
 Gear reduction via worm drives
 Moving objects linearly by converting rotary motion to linear motion, as in
the lead screw of a jack.
 Measuring by correlating linear motion to rotary motion and simultaneously
amplifying it, as in a micrometer.
 Both moving objects linearly and simultaneously measuring the movement,
combining the two aforementioned functions, as in a lead screw of a lathe
 It converts rotary motion into linear motion.
 It prevents linear motion without the corresponding rotation.

Handedness
The helix of a thread can twist in two possible directions, which is known
as handedness. Most threads are oriented so that the threaded item, when seen from
a point of view on the axis through the center of the helix, moves away from the
viewer when it is turned in a clockwise direction, and moves towards the viewer
when it is turned counterclockwise. This is known as a right-handed (RH) thread,
because it follows the right hand grip rule. Threads oriented in the opposite
direction are known as left-handed (LH).

By common convention, right-handedness is the default handedness for screw

threads. Therefore, most threaded parts and fasteners have right-handed threads.
Left-handed thread applications include:

 Where the rotation of a shaft would cause a conventional right-handed nut to

loosen rather than to tighten due applied torque or to fretting induced
precession. Examples include:
 The left hand pedal on a bicycle.[2]
 The left-hand grinding wheel on a bench grinder.
 The lug nuts on the left side of some automobiles.
 The securing nut on some circular saw blades - the large torque at
startup should tend to tighten the nut.
 The spindle on brush cutter and line trimmer heads, so that the torque
tends to tighten rather than loosen the connection
 In combination with right-hand threads in turnbuckles and clamping studs.[3]
 In some gas supply connections to prevent dangerous misconnections, for
example:
 In gas welding the flammable gas supply uses left-handed threads,
while the oxygen supply if there is one has a conventional thread
  The POL valve for LPG cylinders
 In a situation where neither threaded pipe end can be rotated to tighten or
loosen the joint (e.g. in traditional heating pipes running through multiple
rooms in a building). In such a case, the coupling will have one right-handed
and one left-handed thread.
 In some instances, for example early ballpoint pens, to provide a "secret"
method of disassembly.
 In mechanisms to give a more intuitive action as:
 The lead screw of the cross slide of a lathe to cause the cross slide to
move away from the operator when the lead screw is turned clockwise.
 The depth of cut screw of a "Stanley" type metal plane (tool) for the
blade to move in the direction of a regulating right hand finger.
 Some Edison base lamps and fittings (such as those formerly used on
the New York City Subway) have a left-hand thread to deter theft, since they
cannot be used in other light fixtures.

Angle

The included angle characteristic of the cross-sectional shape is often called

the thread angle. For most V-threads, this is standardized as 60 degrees, but any
angle can be used. The cross section to measure this angle lies on a plane which
includes the axis of the cylinder or cone on which the thread is produced.

Lead, pitch, and starts

Lead can be confused because they are the same for most screws. Lead is the
distance along the screw's axis that is covered by one complete rotation of the
screw (360°). Pitch is the distance from the crest of one thread to the next. Because
the vast majority of screw thread forms are single-start thread forms, their lead and
pitch are the same. Single-start means that there is only one "ridge" wrapped
around the cylinder of the screw's body. Each time that the screw's body rotates
one turn (360°), it has advanced axially by the width of one ridge. "Double-start"
means that there are two "ridges" wrapped around the cylinder of the screw's body.
[4]
 Each time that the screw's body rotates one turn (360°), it has advanced axially
by the width of two ridges. Another way to express this is that lead and pitch are
parametrically related, and the parameter that relates them, the number of starts,
very often has a value of 1, in which case their relationship becomes equality. In
general, lead is equal to pitch times the number of starts.

Whereas metric threads are usually defined by their pitch, that is, how much
distance per thread, inch-based standards usually use the reverse logic, that is, how
many threads occur per a given distance. Thus, inch-based threads are defined in
terms of threads per inch (TPI). Pitch and TPI describe the same underlying
physical property—merely in different terms. When the inch is used as the unit of
measurement for pitch, TPI is the reciprocal of pitch and vice versa. For example, a
1
⁄4-20 thread has 20 TPI, which means that its pitch is 1⁄20 inch (0.050 in or
1.27 mm).

As the distance from the crest of one thread to the next, pitch can be
compared to the wavelength of a wave. Another wave analogy is that pitch and TPI
are inverses of each other in a similar way that period and frequency are inverses
of each other.

Diameter

There are three characteristic diameters of threads: major diameter, minor

diameter, and pitch diameter: Industry standards specify minimum (min.) and
maximum (max.) limits for each of these, for all recognized thread sizes. The
minimum limits for external (or bolt, in ISO terminology), and the maximum limits
for internal (nut), thread sizes are there to ensure that threads do not strip at the
tensile strength limits for the parent material. The minimum limits for internal, and
maximum limits for external, threads are there to ensure that the threads fit
together.

Major Diameter

The major diameter of threads is the larger of two extreme diameters

delimiting the height of the thread profile, as a cross-sectional view is taken in a
plane containing the axis of the threads. For a screw, this is its outside diameter
(OD). The major diameter of a nut may not be directly measured, but it may be
tested with go/no-go gauges.

The major diameter of external threads is normally smaller than the major diameter
of the internal threads, if the threads are designed to fit together. But this
requirement alone does not guarantee that a bolt and a nut of the same pitch would
fit together: the same requirement must separately be made for the minor and pitch
diameters of the threads. Besides providing for a clearance between the crest of the
bolt threads and the root of the nut threads, one must also ensure that the
clearances are not so excessive as to cause the fasteners to fail.

Minor Diameter

The minor diameter is the lower extreme diameter of the thread. Major
diameter minus minor diameter, divided by two, equals the height of the thread.
The minor diameter of a nut is its inside diameter. The minor diameter of a bolt can
be measured with go/no-go gauges or, directly, with an optical comparator.

As shown in the figure at right, threads of equal pitch and angle that have
matching minor diameters, with differing major and pitch diameters, may appear to
fit snugly, but only do so radially; threads that have only major diameters matching
(not shown) could also be visualized as not allowing radial movement. The
reduced material condition, due to the unused spaces between the threads, must be
minimized so as not to overly weaken the fasteners.
Pitch Diameter

The pitch diameter (PD, or D2) of a particular thread, internal or external, is

the diameter of a cylindrical surface, axially concentric to the thread, which
intersects the thread flanks at equidistant points, when viewed in a cross-sectional
plane containing the axis of the thread, the distance between these points being
exactly one half the pitch distance. Equivalently, a line running parallel to the axis
and a distance D2away from it, the "PD line," slices the sharp-V form of the thread,
having flanks coincident with the flanks of the thread under test, at exactly 50% of
its height.

We have assumed that the flanks have the proper shape, angle, and pitch for
the specified thread standard. It is generally unrelated to the major (D) and minor
(D1) diameters, especially if the crest and root truncations of the sharp-V form at
these diameters are unknown. Everything else being ideal, D2, D, & D1, together,
would fully describe the thread form. Knowledge of PD determines the position of
the sharp-V thread form, the sides of which coincide with the straight sides of the
thread flanks: e.g., the crest of the external thread would truncate these sides a
radial displacement D - D2 away from the position of the PD line.

Provided that there are moderate non-negative clearances between the root and
crest of the opposing threads, and everything else is ideal, if the pitch diameters of
a screw and nut are exactly matched, there should be no play at all between the two
as assembled, even in the presence of positive root-crest clearances. This is the
case when the flanks of the threads come into intimate contact with one another,
before the roots and crests do, if at all.

However, this ideal condition would in practice only be approximated and

would generally require wrench-assisted assembly, possibly causing the galling of
the threads. For this reason, some allowance, or minimum difference, between the
PDs of the internal and external threads has to generally be provided for, to
eliminate the possibility of deviations from the ideal thread form
causing interference and to expedite hand assembly up to the length of
engagement. Such allowances, or fundamental deviations, as ISO standards call
them, are provided for in various degrees in corresponding classes of fit for ranges
of thread sizes. At one extreme, no allowance is provided by a class, but the
maximum PD of the external thread is specified to be the same as the minimum PD
of the internal thread, within specified tolerances, ensuring that the two can be
assembled, with some looseness of fit still possible due to the margin of tolerance.
A class called interference fit may even provide for negative allowances, where the
PD of the screw is greater than the PD of the nut by at least the amount of the
allowance.

The pitch diameter of external threads is measured by various methods:

 A dedicated type of micrometer, called a thread mic or pitch mic, which has
a V-anvil and a conical spindle tip, contacts the thread flanks for a direct
reading.
 A general-purpose micrometer (flat anvil and spindle) is used over a set of
three wires that rest on the thread flanks, and a known constant is subtracted
from the reading. (The wires are truly gauge pins, being ground to precise size,
although "wires" is their common name.) This method is called the 3-wire
method. Sometimes grease is used to hold the wires in place, helping the user to
juggle the part, mic, and wires into position.
 An optical comparator may also be used to determine PD graphically.

Inspection
 Another common inspection point is the straightness of a bolt or screw. This
topic comes up often when there are assembly issues with predrilled holes as the
first troubleshooting point is to determine if the fastener or the hole is at fault.
ASME B18.2.9 "Straightness Gage and Gaging for Bolts and Screws" was
developed to address this issue. Per the scope of the standard, it describes the gage
and procedure for checking bolt and screw straightness at maximum material
condition (MMC) and provides default limits when not stated in the applicable
product standard.
 WORM GEAR ARRANGEMENT

A worm drive is a gear arrangement in which a worm (which is a gear in the form

of a screw) meshes with a worm gear (which is similar in appearance to a spur
gear). The two elements are also called the worm screw and worm wheel. The
terminology is often confused by imprecise use of the term worm gear to refer to
the worm, the worm gear, or the worm drive as a unit.

Like other gear arrangements, a worm drive can reduce rotational speed or transmit
higher torque. A worm is an example of a screw, one of the six simple machines
The first are non-throated worm gears. These don't have a throat, or groove,
machined around the circumference of either the worm or worm wheel. The second
are single-throated worm gears, in which the worm wheel is throated. The final
type are double-throated worm gears, which have both gears throated. This type of
gearing can support the highest loading.[1]

An enveloping (hourglass) worm has one or more teeth and increases in diameter
from its middle portion toward both ends.[2]

Double-enveloping wormgearing comprises enveloping worms mated with fully

enveloping wormgears. It is also known as globoidalwormgearing.[3]

Direction of transmission

Unlike with ordinary gear trains, the direction of transmission (input shaft vs
output shaft) is not reversible when using large reduction ratios, due to the greater
friction involved between the worm and worm-wheel, when usually a single start
(one spiral) worm is used. This can be an advantage when it is desired to eliminate
any possibility of the output driving the input. If a multistart worm (multiple
spirals) is used then the ratio reduces accordingly and the braking effect of a worm
and worm-gear may need to be discounted, as the gear may be able to drive the
worm.

Worm gear configurations in which the gear cannot drive the worm are called self-
locking. Whether a worm and gear is self-locking depends on the lead angle, the
pressure angle, and the coefficient of friction.

Applications

A worm drive controlling a gate. The position of the gate does not change once set

In early 20th century automobiles prior to the introduction of power steering, the
effect of a flat or blowout on one of the front wheels tended to pull the steering
mechanism toward the side with the flat tire. The use of a worm screw reduced this
effect. Further worm drive development led to recirculating ball bearings to reduce
frictional forces, which transmitted some steering force to the wheel. This aids
vehicle control and reduces wear that could cause difficulties in steering precisely.

Worm drives are a compact means of substantially decreasing speed and increasing
torque. Small electric motors are generally high-speed and low-torque; the addition
of a worm drive increases the range of applications that it may be suitable for,
especially when the worm drive's compactness is considered.
Worm drives are used in presses, rolling mills, conveying engineering, mining
industry machines, on rudders, and worm drive saws. In addition, milling heads
and rotary tables are positioned using high-precision duplex worm drives with
adjustable backlash. Worm gears are used on many lift/elevator and escalator-drive
applications due to their compact size and the non-reversibility of the gear.

In the era of sailing ships, the introduction of a worm drive to control the rudder
was a significant advance. Prior to its introduction, a rope drum drive controlled
the rudder. Rough seas could apply substantial force to the rudder, often requiring
several men to steer the vessel—some drives had two large-diameter wheels so up
to four crewmen could operate the rudder.

Worm drives have been used in a few automotive rear-axle final drives (though not
the differential itself). They took advantage of the location of the gear being at
either the very top or very bottom of the differential crown wheel. In the 1910s
they were common on trucks; to gain the most clearance on muddy roads the worm
gear was placed on top. In the 1920s the Stutz firm used them on its cars; to have a
lower floor than its competitors, the gear was located on the bottom. An example
from around 1960 was the Peugeot 404. The worm gear carries the differential
gearing, which protects the vehicle against rollback. This ability has largely fallen
from favour due to the higher-than-necessary reduction ratios.

A more recent exception to this is the Torsen differential, which uses worms and
planetary worm gears in place of the bevel gearing of conventional open
differentials. Torsen differentials are most prominently featured in
the HMMWV and some commercial Hummer vehicles, and as a centre differential
in some all wheel drive systems, such as Audi's quattro. Very heavy trucks, such as
those used to carry aggregates, often use a worm gear differential for strength. The
worm drive is not as efficient as a hypoid gear, and such trucks invariably have a
very large differential housing, with a correspondingly large volume of gear oil, to
absorb and dissipate the heat created.

Worm drives are used as the tuning mechanism for many musical instruments,
including guitars, double-basses, mandolins, bouzoukis, and
many banjos (although most high-end banjos use planetary gears or friction pegs).
A worm drive tuning device is called a machine head.

Plastic worm drives are often used on small battery-operated electric motors, to
provide an output with a lower angular velocity (fewer revolutions per minute)
than that of the motor, which operates best at a fairly high speed. This motor-
worm-gear drive system is often used in toys and other small electrical devices.

A worm drive is used on jubilee-type hose clamps or jubilee clamps. The

tightening screw's worm thread engages with the slots on the clamp band.

Occasionally a worm gear is designed to run in reverse, resulting in the output

shaft turning much faster than the input. Examples of this may be seen in some
hand-cranked centrifuges or the wind governor in a musical box.

Left hand and right hand worm

Helical and worm handedness

A right hand helical gear or right hand worm is one in which the teeth twist
clockwise as they recede from an observer looking along the axis. The
designations, right hand and left hand, are the same as in the long established
practice for screw threads, both external and internal. Two external helical gears
operating on parallel axes must be of opposite hand. An internal helical gear and its
pinion must be of the same hand.

A left hand helical gear or left hand worm is one in which the teeth twist
anticlockwise as they recede from an observer looking along the axis
 WHEEL

A tire(American English) or tire(British English)isa ring-shaped vehicle

component that covers the wheel’s rimto protect it and enable better vehicle
performance. Most tires, such as those for automobiles and bicycles, provide
tractionbetween the vehicle and the road while providing a flexible cushion that
absorbs shock.
The materials of modern pneumatic tires are synthetic rubber,natural rubber,
fabric and wire, along with carbon blackand other chemical compounds. They
consist of a tread and a body. The tread provides tractionwhile the body provides
containment for a quantity of compressed air. Before rubber was developed, the
first versions of tires were simply bands of metal that fitted around wooden wheels
to prevent wear and tear. Early rubber tires were solid (not pneumatic). Today, the
majority of tires are pneumatic inflatable structures, comprising a doughnut-shaped
body of cords and wires encased in rubber and generally filled with compressed air
to form an inflatable cushion. Pneumatic tires are used on many types of vehicles,
including cars, bicycles, motorcycles, buses, trucks, heavy equipment, and aircraft.
Metal tires are still used on locomotivesandrailcars, and solid rubber (or other
polymer) tires are still used in various non-automotive applications, such as some
casters,carts, lawnmowers, and wheelbarrows.
 Hub material: steel

Tire: Rubber

Etymology and spelling:

Historically, the spelling was “tire” and is of French origin, which comes
from the word tire, to pull. The reason for this naming is that originally “tire”
referred to iron hoops or thick wires bound to carriage wheels. In French
blacksmithing the word for a drawn iron rod is a tirer, or pull. The same word was
often used for any metal drawing or rolling process. In an article in the London
Magazine/Intelligencer of 1853 “The Utility of Broad Wheels,” it explains that the
common practice was to bend two rods, called “tires,” into hoops and bind them to
the wheel, but it is preferable to use an iron band, called a “broad wheel” rather
than the rods, because as the rods wear they bite into the wheel. Another early
mention of a tire in English is in The Scots Magazine, Volume 15 By James
Boswell (1753).

Another origin of “tire” is provided by Online Etymology

Dictionary,essentially that the word is a short form of “attire,” and that a wheel
with a tire is a dressed wheel. Some other etymologists may share this view.

The spelling tyre does not appear until the 1840s when the English began
shrink fitting railway car wheels with malleable iron. Nevertheless, traditional
publishers continued using tire. The Timesnewspaper in Britain was still using tire
as late as 1905.The spelling tyre, however, began to be commonly used in the 19th
century for pneumatic tires in the UK. The 1911Encyclopediastates that "[t]he
spelling 'tyre' is not now accepted by the best English authorities, and is
unrecognized in the US”,whileFowler’s Modern English Usageof 1926 says that
“there is nothing to be said for 'tyre', which is etymologically wrong, as well as
needlessly divergent from our own [sc. British] older & the present American
usage”.However, over the course of the 20th century tyrebecame established as the
standard British spelling.

History

The earliest tires were bands of leather,[6] then iron, (later steel), placed on
wooden wheels, used on cartsandwagons. The tire would be heated in a forgefire,
placed over the wheel and quenched, causing the metal to contract and fit tightly
on the wheel. A skilled worker, known as a wheelwright, carried out this work. The
outer ring served to “tie” the wheel segments together for use, providing also a
wear-resistant surface to the perimeter of the wheel. The word “tire” thus emerged
as a variant spelling to refer to the metal bands used to tie wheels.
The first practical pneumatic tire was made in 1888[note 1] for his son
Johnnie’s tricycle, in May Street, BelfastbyScots-born John Boyd Dunlop,
proprietor of one of Ireland’s most prosperous veterinary practices. It was an effort
to prevent the headaches his 10-year-old son was given by jarring while riding on
rough pavements. His doctor, John, later Sir John Fagan, had prescribed cycling as
an exercise for the boy and, a regular visitor, Fagan participated in the
development of the first pneumatic schemes. In Dunlop’s tire patent specification
dated 31 October 1888 his interest is only in its use in cycles and light vehicles. In
September 1890 he was made aware of an earlier development but the company
kept the information to itself.

In 1892 Dunlop’s patent was declared invalid because of prior art by

forgotten fellow ScotRobert William Thomsonof London (patents London 1845,
France 1846, USA 1847), although Dunlop is credited with “realizing rubber could
withstand the wear and tear of being a tire while retaining its resilience”.[8] J B
Dunlop and Harvey du Cros together worked through the ensuing considerable
difficulties. They employed inventor Charles Kingston Welch and also acquired
other rights and patents which allowed them to protect their business’s position.
The development of this technology hinged on myriad engineering advances. In
terms of materials, the vulcanizationof natural rubber which he patented in 1844 is
credited to Charles Goodyearand Robert William Thomson.

Synthetic rubbers were invented in the laboratories of Bayerin the 1920s.

In 1946, Michelindeveloped the radial tiremethod of construction. Michelin had

bought the bankrupt Citroën automobile brand in 1934, so it was able to fit this
new technology immediately. Because of its superiority in handling and fuel
economy,use of this technology quickly spread throughout Europe and Asia.In the
U.S., the outdated bias-ply tire construction persisted, with market share of 87% as
late as 1967.Delay was caused by tire and automobile manufacturers in America
concerned about transition costs.In 1968, Consumer Reports, an influential
American magazine, acknowledged the superiority of radial construction, setting
off a rapid decline in Michelin’s competitor technology.Even in the U.S., the radial
tire now has a market share of 100%.

Wheel support

There are two aspects to how pneumatic tires support the rim of the wheel
on which they are mounted.First, tension in the cordspull on the beaduniformly
around the wheel, except where it is reduced above the contact patch.Second, the
bead transfers that net force to the
rim.

Air pressure, via the ply cords, exerts tensile force on the entire bead
surrounding the wheel rim on which the tire is mounted, pulling outward in a 360-
degree pattern. Thus the bead must have high tensile strength. With no force
applied to the outer tread, the bead is pulled equally in all directions, thus no
additional net force is applied to the tire bead and wheel rim. However, when the
tread is pushed inward on one side, this releases some pressure on the
corresponding sidewall ply pulling on the bead. Yet the sidewall ply on the other
side continues to pull the bead in the opposite direction. Thus the still fully
tensioned sidewall ply pulls the tire bead and wheel rim in the direction opposite to
the tread displacement and matching the total force applied to push the tread
inward.
 This sidewall ply to bead tension support is a big reason for cross-ply cord
tire construction. The cross-ply cord arrangement orients the cords to more directly
support the sling. However, with improved combinations of cord and rim material
construction materials and manufacturing techniques, combined with ongoing
focus and research on tire efficiency and durability, it became feasible to
manufacture radial-ply cord tires, which for many applications aiming for high
speed without excessive loads, outperform similar cross-ply cord tire designs with
reduced tire temperature, decreased rolling resistance and greater longevity.

Manufacturing

Pneumatic tires are manufactured in about 450 tire factories around the
world. Over one billion tires are manufactured annually, making the tire industrya
major consumer of natural rubber. It is estimated that by 2015, 1.72 billion tires are
expected to be sold globally.Tire production starts with bulk raw materials such as
rubber, carbon black, and chemicals and produces numerous specialized
components that are assembled and cured. Many kinds of rubber are used, the most
common being styrene-butadienecopolymer. This article describes the components
assembled to make a tire, the various materials used, the manufacturing processes
and machinery, and the overall business model.

Styrene-butadienecopolymer (chemical structure pictured) is the most

popular material used in the production of rubber tire.
 In 2004, $80 billion of tires were sold worldwide,in 2010 it was $140
billion(approximately 34% growth adjusting for inflation).

The top five tire manufacturing companies by revenue are Bridgestone,

Michelin, Goodyear,Continental, and
Pirelli.

Materials:

The materials of modern pneumatic tires can be divided into two groups, the cords
that make up the ply and the elastomerwhich encases them.

Cords

The cords, which form the plyandbeadand provide the tensile strength necessary to
contain the inflation pressure, can be composed of steel, natural fibers such as
cottonorsilk, or synthetic fibers such as nylonorkevlar.

Elastomer

The elastomer, which forms the treadand encases the cords to protect them from
abrasion and hold them in place, is a key component of pneumatic tire design. It
can be composed of various composites of rubber material – the most common
being styrene-butadienecopolymer with other chemical compound such as
silicaandcarbon black.

Rolling Resistance

Optimizing rolling resistancein the elastomer material is a key challenge for

reducing fuel consumption in the transportation sector. It is estimated that
passenger vehicles consume approximately 5~15% of its fuel to overcome rolling
resistance, while the estimate is understood to be higher for heavy trucks.However,
there is a trade-off between rolling resistance and wet traction and grip: while low
rolling resistance can be achieved by reducing the viscoelastic properties of the
rubber compound (low tangent (δ)), it comes at the cost of wet traction and grip,
which requires hysteresis and energy dissipation (high tangent (δ)). A low tangent
(δ) value at 60 °C is used as an indicator of low rolling resistance, while a high
tangent (δ) value at 0 °C is used as an indicator of high wet traction.Designing an
elastomer material that can achieve both high wet traction and low rolling
resistance is key in achieving safety and fuel efficiency in the transportation sector.

The most common elastomer material used today is a styrene-butadiene

copolymer. It combines butadiene, which is a highly rubbery polymer (Tg= −100
°C) that has low hysteresisand thus offers good rolling resistance, with styrene,
which is a highly glass polymer (Tg= 100 °C) that has high hysteresis and thus
offers good wet grip properties in addition to wearresistance. Therefore, the ratio
the two polymers in the styrene-butadiene copolymer is considered key in
determining the glass transition temperatureof the material, which is correlated to
its grip and resistance properties.

Materials science research efforts are underway to improve such properties of

elastomers. For instance, this involves modifying the microstructure of the
copolymer (for instance, using solution styrene butadiene rubber (SSBR) to control
the addition of vinyl butadiene units)as well as the macrostructure of the polymer
(such as the width of molecular weight distribution (MWD)).Current investigation
also involves looking at the functionalization of the elastomer through the addition
of filler materials such as silica and carbon black,as well as testing other nano-
fillers such as nanocellulosecrystals,carbonnanotubes,andgraphene.
Components:

Tire cross sectionshowing components.

A tire carcass is composed of several parts: the tread, bead, sidewall, shoulder, and
ply.

Tread
 Two mountain bicycle tires with different tread patterns.

The tread is the part of the tire that comes in contact withthe road surface.
The portion that is in contact with the road at a given instant in time is the contact
patch. The tread is a thick rubber, or rubber/composite compound formulated to
provide an appropriate level of traction that does not wear away too quickly. The
tread pattern is characterized by the geometrical shape of the grooves, lugs,
voidsandsips. Grooves run circumferentially around the tire, and are needed to
channel away water. Lugs are that portion of the tread design that contacts the road
surface. Voids are spaces between lugs that allow the lugs to flex and evacuate
water. Tread patterns feature nonsymmetrical (or non-uniform) lug sizes
circumferentially to minimize noise levels at discrete frequencies. Sipes are valleys
cut across the tire, usually perpendicular to the grooves, which allow the water
from the grooves to escape to the sides in an effort to prevent hydroplaning.

Treads are often designed to meet specific product marketing positions. High
performance tires have small void ratiosto provide more rubber in contact with the
road for higher traction, but may be compounded with softer rubber that provides
better traction, but wears quickly. Mud and snow (M&S) tires are designed with
higher void ratios to channel away rain and mud, while providing better gripping
performance.

The rain groove is a design element of the tread pattern specifically arranged
to channel water away from the footprint. Rain grooves are circumferential in most
truck tires. Many high performance passenger tires feature rain grooves that are
angled from the center toward the sides of the tire. Some tire manufacturers claim
that their tread pattern is designed to actively pump water out from under the tire
by the action of the tread flexing. This results in a smoother ride in different types
of weather. 6.1.4 Sipe Tread lugs often feature small narrow voids, or sipes, that
improve the flexibility of the lug to deform as it traverses the footprint area. This
reduces shear stress in the lug and reduces heat build up. Testing of identical siped
and unsiped tires showed measurable improvements in snow traction and ice
braking performance, however diminishing and extending braking distances on wet
and dry pavement by a few feet on siped tires. Off-road tire enthusiasts have been
siping tires for years for greater traction, as many manufacturers now offer already
siped off-roadtires. 6.1.5 Wear bar Wear bars (or wear indicators) are raised
features located at the bottom of the tread grooves that indicate the tire has reached
its wear limit. When the tread lugs are worn to the point that the wear bars connect
across the lugs, the tires are fully worn and should be taken out of service. Most
wear bars indicate a remaining tread depth of 1.6 millimetres (0.063 in) and are
deemed “worn out” at that point.[28] 6.2 Bead The bead is the part of the tire that
contacts the rim on the wheel. The bead is typically reinforced with steel wire and
compounded of high strength, low flexibility rubber. The bead seats tightly against
the two rims on the wheel to ensure that a tubeless tire holds air without leakage.
The bead fit is tight to ensure the tire does not shift circumferentially as the wheel
rotates. The width of the rim in relationship to the tire is a factor in the handling
characteristics of an automobile, because the rim supports the tire’s profile

SIDEWALL

Sidewall Uneven sidewall wear, down to fabric plies, due to significant

under-inflation The sidewall is that part of the tire that bridges between the tread
and bead. The sidewall is largely rubber but reinforced with fabric or steel cords
that provide for tensile strength and flexibility. The sidewall contains air pressure
and transmits the torque applied by the drive axle to the tread to create traction but
supports little of the weight of the vehicle, as is clear from the total collapse of the
tire when punctured. Sidewalls are molded with manufacturer-specific detail,
government mandated warning labels, and other consumer information, and
sometimes decorative ornamentation, like whitewalls.

VEHICAL APPLICATION

Tires are classified into several standard types, based on the type of vehicle
they serve. Since the manufacturing process, raw materials, and equipment vary
according to the tire type, it is common for tire factories to specialize in one or
more tire types. In most markets, factories that manufacture passenger and light
truck radial tires are separate and distinct from those that make aircraft or off- the-
road (OTR) tires

SEE ALSO

• Outline of tires

• Dry steering

• List of inflatable manufactured goods

 SHAFT

Specifications

Shaft diameter: 12mm

Material: mild steel

Length:26 inch

Shaft

Shaft is a common and important machine element. It is a rotating member, in

general, has a circular cross-section and is used to transmit power. The shaft may
be hollow or solid. The shaft is supported on bearings and it rotates a set of gears
or pulleys for the purpose of power transmission. The shaft is generally acted upon
by bending moment, torsion and axial force. Design of shaft primarily involves in
determining stresses at critical point in the shaft that is arising due to
aforementioned loading. Other two similar forms of a shaft are axle and spindle.
Axle is a non-rotating member used for supporting rotating wheels etc. and do not
transmit any torque. Spindle is simply defined as a short shaft. However, design
method remains the same for axle and spindle as that for a shaft. 8.1.2 Standard
sizes of Shafts Typical sizes of solid shaft that are available in the market are, Up
to 25 mm 0.5 mm increments 25 to 50 mm 1.0 mm increments 50 to 100 mm 2.0
mm increments 100 to 200 mm 5.0 mm increments 8.1.3 Material for Shafts The
ferrous, non-ferrous materials and non metals are used as shaft material depending
on the application. Some of the common ferrous materials used for shaft are
discussed below. Hot-rolled plain carbon steel. These materials are least expensive.
Since it is hot rolled, scaling is always present on the surface and machining is
required to make the surface smooth.

Since it is cold drawn it has got its inherent characteristics of smooth bright finish.
Amount of machining therefore is minimal. Better yield strength is also obtained.
This is widely used for general purpose transmission shaft.

Alloy steels

Alloy steel as one can understand is a mixture of various elements with the parent
steel to improve certain physical properties. To retain the total advantage of
alloying materials one requires heat treatment of the machine components after it
has been manufactured. Nickel, chromium and vanadium are some of the common
alloying materials. However, alloy steel is expensive. These materials are used for
relatively severe service conditions. When the situation demands great strength
then alloy steels are used. They have fewer tendencies to crack, warp or distort in
heat treatment. Residual stresses are also less compared to CS (Carbon Steel). In
certain cases the shaft needs to be wear resistant, and then more attention has to be
paid to make the surface of the shaft to be wear resistant. The common types of
surface hardening methods are,

Hardening of surface

Case hardening and carburizing

Cyaniding and nitriding

Design considerations for shaft

For the design of shaft following two methods are adopted, Design based on
Strength In this method, design is carried out so that stress at any location of the
shaft should not exceed the material yield stress. However, no consideration for
shaft deflection and shaft twist is included. Design based on Stiffness Basic idea of
design in such case depends on the allowable deflection and twist of the shaft.

Design based on Strength

The stress at any point on the shaft depends on the nature of load acting on it. The
stresses which may be present are as follows.

Basic stress equations:

Bending stress

Where,

M: Bending moment at the point of interest

do: Outer diameter of the shaft

k: Ratio of inner to outer diameters of the shaft ( k = 0 for a solid shaft because
inner diameter is zero )

Axial Stress

Where,

F: Axial force (tensile or compressive)

α: Column-action factor(= 1.0 for tensile load)

The term α has been introduced in the equation. This is known as column action
factor. What is a column action factor? This arises due the phenomenon of
buckling of long slender members which are acted upon by axial compressive
loads.

Here, α is defined as,

Where,

n = 1.0 for hinged end

n = 2.25 for fixed end

n = 1.6 for ends partly restrained, as in bearing

K = least radius of gyration,

L = shaft length

σyc = yield stress in compression

Stress due to torsion

Where,

T : Torque on the shaft

xy τ : Shear stress due to torsion

Combined Bending and Axial stress

Both bending and axial stresses are normal stresses, hence the net normal stress is
given by,

The net normal stress can be either positive or negative. Normally, shear stress due
to torsion is only considered in a shaft and shear stress due to load on the shaft is
neglected.

Maximum shear stress theory

Design of the shaft mostly uses maximum shear stress theory. It states that a
machine member fails when the maximum shear stress at a point exceeds the
maximum allowable shear stress for the shaft material. Therefore,

Substituting the values of σx and τxy in the above equation, the final form is,

Therefore, the shaft diameter can be calculated in terms of external loads and
material properties. However, the above equation is further standardized for steel
shafting in terms of allowable design stress and load factors in ASME design code
for shaft.

Specifications

Shaft diameter: 12mm

Inner Diameter: 10mm

Material: mild steel

 METAL STRIP

Specifications

Length: 50cm

Width: 5cm

Thickness: 4mm

Metal strip is narrow, thin stock that is usually 3/16 in. (4.76 mm) or less in
thickness and under 24 in. (609.6 mm) in width. Metal strips are formed to precise
thicknesses and/or width requirements.

How Metal Strip is made?

Metal strip can be designed and manipulated through a large number of processes
which are grouped into categories. They are joining and assembly processes,
 BALL BEARING

A ball bearing is a type of rolling-element bearing that uses balls to maintain

the separation between the bearing races.

The purpose of a ball bearing is to reduce rotational friction and

support radial and axial loads. It achieves this by using at least three races to
contain the balls and transmit the loads through the balls. In most applications, one
race is stationary and the other is attached to the rotating assembly (e.g., a hub or
shaft). As one of the bearing races rotates it causes the balls to rotate as well.
Because the balls are rolling they have a much lower coefficient of friction than if
two flat surfaces were sliding against each other.

Ball bearings tend to have lower load capacity for their size than other kinds
of rolling-element bearings due to the smaller contact area between the balls and
races. However, they can tolerate some misalignment of the inner and outer races.

SPECIFICATION

INNER DIA :12mm

OUTER DIA : 37mm

HISTORY

Although bearings had been developed since ancient times, the first modern
recorded patent on ball bearings was awarded to Philip Vaughan, a Welsh inventor
and ironmaster who created the first design for a ball bearing in Carmarthen in
1794. His was the first modern ball-bearing design, with the ball running along a
groove in the axle assembly.

Jules Suriray, a Parisian bicycle mechanic, designed the first radial style ball
bearing in 1869, which was then fitted to the winning bicycle ridden by James
Moore in the world's first bicycle road race, Paris-Rouen, in November 1869.

DESIGN
 ANGULAR CONTACT

An angular contact ball bearing uses axially asymmetric races. An axial load

passes in a straight line through the bearing, whereas a radial load takes an oblique
path that acts to separate the races axially. So the angle of contact on the inner race
is the same as that on the outer race. Angular contact bearings better support
combined loads (loading in both the radial and axial directions) and the contact
angle of the bearing should be matched to the relative proportions of each. The
larger the contact angle (typically in the range 10 to 45 degrees), the higher the
axial load supported, but the lower the radial load. In high speed applications, such
as turbines, jet engines, and dentistry equipment, the centrifugal forces generated
by the balls changes the contact angle at the inner and outer race. Ceramics such
as silicon nitride are now regularly used in such applications due to their low
density (40% of steel). These materials significantly reduce centrifugal force and
function well in high temperature environments. They also tend to wear in a
similar way to bearing steel—rather than cracking or shattering like glass or
porcelain.

Most bicycles use angular-contact bearings in the headsets because the

forces on these bearings are in both the radial and axial direction.

AXIAL

An axial or thrust ball bearing uses side-by-side races. An axial load is

transmitted directly through the bearing, while a radial load is poorly supported
and tends to separate the races,so that a larger radial load is likely to damage the
bearing.

DEEP-GROOVE
 In a deep-groove radial bearing, the race dimensions are close to the
dimensions of the balls that run in it. Deep-groove bearings support higher loads
than a shallower groove. Like angular contact bearings, deep-groove bearings
support both radial and axial loads, but without a choice of contact angle to allow
choice of relative proportion of these load capacities.

PRELOADED PAIRS

The above basic types of bearings are typically applied in a method

of preloaded pairs, where two individual bearings are rigidly fastened along a
rotating shaft to face each other. This improves the axial runout by taking up
(preloading) the necessary slight clearance between the bearing balls and races.
Pairing also provides an advantage of evenly distributing the loads, nearly
doubling the total load capacity compared to a single bearing. Angular contact
bearings are almost always used in opposing pairs: the asymmetric design of each
bearing supports axial loads in only one direction, so an opposed pair is required if
the application demands support both directions. The preloading force must be
designed and assembled carefully, because it deducts from the axial force capacity
of the bearings, and can damage bearings if applied excessively. The pairing
mechanism may simply face the bearings together directly, or separate them with a
shim, bushing, or shaft feature

CONSRUCTIVE TYPE

CONRAD

The Conrad-style ball bearing is named after its inventor, Robert Conrad,

who was awarded British patent 12,206 in 1903 and U.S. patent 822,723 in 1906.
These bearings are assembled by placing the inner ring into an eccentric position
relative to the outer ring, with the two rings in contact at one point, resulting in a
large gap opposite the point of contact. The balls are inserted through the gap and
then evenly distributed around the bearing assembly, causing the rings to become
concentric. Assembly is completed by fitting a cage to the balls to maintain their
positions relative to each other. Without the cage, the balls would eventually drift
out of position during operation, causing the bearing to fail. The cage carries no
load and serves only to maintain ball position.

Conrad bearings have the advantage that they are able to withstand both
radial and axial loads, but have the disadvantage of lower load capacity due to the
limited number of balls that can be loaded into the bearing assembly. Probably the
most familiar industrial ball bearing is the deep-groove Conrad style. The bearing
is used in most of the mechanical industries.

SLOT-FILL

In a slot-fill radial bearing, the inner and outer races are notched on one face
so that when the notches are aligned, balls can be slipped in the resulting slot to
assemble the bearing.  A slot-fill bearing has the advantage that more balls can be
assembled (even allowing a full complement design), resulting in a higher radial
load capacity than a Conrad bearing of the same dimensions and material type. 
However, a slot-fill bearing cannot carry a significant axial load, and the slots
cause a discontinuity in the races that can have a small but adverse effect on
strength. 

RELIEVED RACE

Relieved race ball bearings are 'relieved' as the name suggests by basically
have either the OD of the inner ring reduced on one side, or the ID of the outer ring
increased on one side. This allows a greater number of balls to be assembled into
either the inner or outer race, and then press fit over the relief. Sometimes the outer
ring will be heated to facilitate assembly. Like the slot-fill construction, relieved
race construction allows a greater number of balls than Conrad construction, up to
and including full complement, and the extra ball count gives extra load capacity.
However, a relieved race bearing can only support significant axial loads in one
direction ('away from' the relieved race).

FRACTURED RACE

Another way of fitting more balls into a radial ball bearing is by radially
'fracturing' (slicing) one of the rings all the way through, loading the balls in, re-
assembling the fractured portion, and then using a pair of steel bands to hold the
fractured ring sections together in alignment. Again, this allows more balls,
including full ball complement, however unlike with either slot fill or relieved race
constructions, it can support significant axial loading in either direction.

ROWS
There are two row designs: single-row bearings and double-row bearings.
Most ball bearings are a single-row design, which means there is one row of
bearing balls. This design works with radial and thrust loads.

A double-row design has two rows of bearing balls. Their disadvantage is they

need better alignment than single-row bearings.

FLANGED

Bearings with a flange on the outer ring simplify axial location. The housing
for such bearings can consist of a through-hole of uniform diameter, but the entry
face of the housing (which may be either the outer or inner face) must be machined
truly normal to the hole axis. However such flanges are very expensive to
manufacture. A more cost effective arrangement of the bearing outer ring, with
similar benefits, is a snap ring groove at either or both ends of the outside diameter.
The snap ring assumes the function of a flange.

CAGED

Cages are typically used to secure the balls in a Conrad-style ball bearing. In
other construction types they may decrease the number of balls depending on the
specific cage shape, and thus reduce the load capacity. Without cages the
tangential position is stabilized by sliding of two convex surfaces on each other.
With a cage the tangential position is stabilized by a sliding of a convex surface in
a matched concave surface, which avoids dents in the balls and has lower friction.
Caged roller bearings were invented by John Harrison in the mid-18th century as
part of his work on chronographs.

HYBRID BALL BEARINGS USING CERAMIC BALLS

Ceramic bearing balls can weigh up to 40% less than steel ones, depending
on size and material. This reduces centrifugal loading and skidding, so hybrid
ceramic bearings can operate 20% to 40% faster than conventional bearings. This
means that the outer race groove exerts less force inward against the ball as the
bearing spins. This reduction in force reduces the friction and rolling resistance.
The lighter balls allow the bearing to spin faster, and uses less energy to maintain
its speed.

The ceramic balls are typically harder than the race. Due to wear, with time
they will form a groove in the race. This is preferable to the balls wearing which
would leave them with possible flat spots significantly harming performance.

While ceramic hybrid bearings use ceramic balls in place of steel ones, they
are constructed with steel inner and outer rings; hence the hybrid designation.
While the ceramic material itself is stronger than steel, it is also stiffer, which
results in increased stresses on the rings, and hence decreased load capacity.
Ceramic balls are electrically insulating, which can prevent 'arcing' failures if
current should be passed through the bearing. Ceramic balls can also be effective
in environments where lubrication may not be available (such as in space
applications).

In some settings only a thin coating of ceramic is used over a metal ball
bearing.

FULLY CERAMIC BEARINGS

These bearings make use of both ceramic balls and race. These bearings are
impervious to corrosion and rarely require lubrication if at all. Due to the stiffness
and hardness of the balls and race these bearings are noisy at high speeds. The
stiffness of the ceramic makes these bearings brittle and liable to crack under load
or impact. Because both ball and race are of similar hardness wear can lead to
chipping at high speeds of both the balls and the race this can cause sparking.

SELF-ALIGNING

Self-aligning ball bearings, such as the Wingquist bearing shown in the

picture, are constructed with the inner ring and ball assembly contained within an
outer ring that has a spherical raceway. This construction allows the bearing to
tolerate a small angular misalignment resulting from shaft or housing deflections or
improper mounting. The bearing was used mainly in bearing arrangements with
very long shafts, such as transmission shafts in textile factories. One drawback of
the self-aligning ball bearings is a limited load rating, as the outer raceway has
very low osculation (radius is much larger than ball radius). This led to the
invention of the spherical roller bearing, which has a similar design, but use rollers
instead of balls. Also the spherical roller thrust bearing is an invention that derives
from the findings by Wingquist.

OPERATING CONDITION

LIFESPAN
Further information: Rolling-element_bearing § Bearing_failure

The calculated life for a bearing is based on the load it carries and its
operating speed. The industry standard usable bearing lifespan is inversely
proportional to the bearing load cubed. Nominal maximum load of a bearing, is for
a lifespan of 1 million rotations, which at 50 Hz (i.e., 3000 RPM) is a lifespan of
5.5 working hours. 90% of bearings of that type have at least that lifespan, and
50% of bearings have a lifespan at least 5 times as long.

The industry standard life calculation is based upon the work of Lundberg
and Palmgren performed in 1947. The formula assumes the life to be limited
by metal fatigue and that the life distribution can be described by a Weibull
distribution. Many variations of the formula exist that include factors for material
properties, lubrication, and loading. Factoring for loading may be viewed as a tacit
admission that modern materials demonstrate a different relationship between load
and life than Lundberg and Palmgren determined .

FAILURE MODES

If a bearing is not rotating, maximum load is determined by force that causes

plastic deformation of elements or raceways. The indentations caused by the
elements can concentrate stresses and generate cracks at the components.
Maximum load for not or very slowly rotating bearings is called "static" maximum
load.

Also if a bearing is not rotating, oscillating forces on the bearing can cause
impact damage to the bearing race or the rolling elements, known as brinelling. A
second lesser form called false brinelling occurs if the bearing only rotates across a
short arc and pushes lubricant out away from the rolling elements.

For a rotating bearing, the dynamic load capacity indicates the load to which
the bearing endures 1,000,000 cycles.

If a bearing is rotating, but experiences heavy load that lasts shorter than one
revolution, static max load must be used in computations, since the bearing does
not rotate during the maximum load.

If a sideways torque is applied to a deep groove radial bearing, an uneven

force in the shape of an ellipse is applied on the outer ring by the rolling elements,
concentrating in two regions on opposite sides of the outer ring. If the outer ring is
not strong enough, or if it is not sufficiently braced by the supporting structure, the
outer ring will deform into an oval shape from the sideways torque stress, until the
gap is large enough for the rolling elements to escape. The inner ring then pops out
and the bearing structurally collapses.
 A sideways torque on a radial bearing also applies pressure to the cage that
holds the rolling elements at equal distances, due to the rolling elements trying to
all slide together at the location of highest sideways torque. If the cage collapses or
breaks apart, the rolling elements group together, the inner ring loses support, and
may pop out of the center.

MAXIMUM LOAD

In general, maximum load on a ball bearing is proportional to outer diameter

of the bearing times the width of the bearing (where width is measured in direction
of axle).[7]

Bearings have static load ratings. These are based on not exceeding a certain
amount of plastic deformation in the raceway. These ratings may be exceeded by a
large amount for certain applications.

LUBRICATION

For a bearing to operate properly, it needs to be lubricated. In most cases the

lubricant is based on elastohydrodynamic effect (by oil or grease) but working at
extreme temperatures dry lubricated bearings are also available.

For a bearing to have its nominal lifespan at its nominal maximum load, it
must be lubricated with a lubricant (oil or grease) that has at least the minimum
dynamic viscosity

For a bearing where average of outer diameter of bearing and diameter of

axle hole is 50 mm, and that is rotating at 3000 RPM, recommended dynamic
viscosity is 12 mm²/s.

Note that dynamic viscosity of oil varies strongly with temperature: a

temperature increase of 50–70 °C causes the viscosity to decrease by factor 10.
 If the viscosity of lubricant is higher than recommended, lifespan of bearing
increases, roughly proportional to square root of viscosity. If the viscosity of the
lubricant is lower than recommended, the lifespan of the bearing decreases, and by
how much depends on which type of oil being used. For oils with EP ('extreme
pressure') additives, the lifespan is proportional to the square root of dynamic
viscosity, just as it was for too high viscosity, while for ordinary oils lifespan is
proportional to the square of the viscosity if a lower-than-recommended viscosity
is used.

Lubrication can be done with a grease, which has advantages that grease is
normally held within the bearing releasing the lubricant oil as it is compressed by
the balls. It provides a protective barrier for the bearing metal from the
environment, but has disadvantages that this grease must be replaced periodically,
and maximum load of bearing decreases (because if bearing gets too warm, grease
melts and runs out of bearing). Time between grease replacements decreases very
strongly with diameter of bearing: for a 40 mm bearing, grease should be replaced
every 5000 working hours, while for a 100 mm bearing it should be replaced every
500 working hours.

Lubrication can also be done with an oil, which has advantage of higher
maximum load, but needs some way to keep oil in bearing, as it normally tends to
run out of it. For oil lubrication it is recommended that for applications where oil
does not become warmer than 50 °C, oil should be replaced once a year, while for
applications where oil does not become warmer than 100 °C, oil should be
replaced 4 times per year. For car engines, oil becomes 100 °C but the engine has
an oil filter to maintain oil quality; therefore, the oil is usually changed less
frequently than the oil in bearings.

DIRECTION OF LOAD
 Most bearings are meant for supporting loads perpendicular to axle ("radial
loads"). Whether they can also bear axial loads, and if so, how much, depends on
the type of bearing. Thrust bearings (commonly found on lazy susans) are
specifically designed for axial loads.

For single-row deep-groove ball bearings, SKF's documentation says that

maximum axial load is circa 50% of maximum radial load, but it also says that
"light" and/or "small" bearings can take axial loads that are 25% of maximum
radial load

For single-row edge-contact ball bearings, axial load can be about 2 times
max radial load, and for cone-bearings maximum axial load is between 1 and 2
times maximum radial load.

Often Conrad-style ball bearings will exhibit contact ellipse truncation under
axial load. That means that either the ID of the outer ring is large enough, or the
OD of the inner ring is small enough, so as to reduce the area of contact between
the balls and raceway. When this is the case, it can significantly increase the
stresses in the bearing, often invalidating general rules of thumb regarding
relationships between radial and axial load capacity. With construction types other
than Conrad, one can further decrease the outer ring ID and increase the inner ring
OD to guard against this.

If both axial and radial loads are present, they can be added vectorially, to
result in the total load on bearing, which in combination with nominal maximum
load can be used to predict lifespan. However, in order to correctly predict the
rating life of ball bearings the ISO/TS 16281 should be used with the help of a
calculation software.

AVOIDING UNDESIRABLE AXIAL LOAD

 The part of a bearing that rotates (either axle hole or outer circumference)
must be fixed, while for a part that does not rotate this is not necessary (so it can be
allowed to slide). If a bearing is loaded axially, both sides must be fixed.

If an axle has two bearings, and temperature varies, axle shrinks or expands,
therefore it is not admissible for both bearings to be fixed on both their sides, since
expansion of axle would exert axial forces that would destroy these bearings.
Therefore, at least one of bearings must be able to slide.

A 'freely sliding fit' is one where there is at least a 4 µm clearance,

presumably because surface-roughness of a surface made on a lathe is normally
between 1.6 and 3.2 µm.

FIT

Bearings can withstand their maximum load only if the mating parts are
properly sized. Bearing manufacturers supply tolerances for the fit of the shaft and
the housing so that this can be achieved. The material and hardness may also be
specified.

Fittings that are not allowed to slip are made to diameters that prevent
slipping and consequently the mating surfaces cannot be brought into position
without force. For small bearings this is best done with a press because tapping
with a hammer damages both bearing and shaft, while for large bearings the
necessary forces are so great that there is no alternative to heating one part before
fitting, so that thermal expansion allows a temporary sliding fit.[7]

AVOIDING TORSIONAL LOADS

If a shaft is supported by two bearings, and the center-lines of rotation of

these bearings are not the same, then large forces are exerted on the bearing that
may destroy it. Some very small amount of misalignment is acceptable, and how
much depends on type of bearing. For bearings that are specifically made to be
'self-aligning', acceptable misalignment is between 1.5 and 3 degrees of arc.
Bearings that are not designed to be self-aligning can accept misalignment of only
2–10 minutes of arc.

APPLICATION

In general, ball bearings are used in most applications that involve moving
parts. Some of these applications have specific features and requirements:

 Hard drive bearings used to be highly spherical, and were said to be the best
spherical manufactured shapes, but this is no longer true, and more and more
are being replaced with fluid bearings.
 German ball bearing factories were often a target of allied aerial bombings
during World War II; such was the importance of the ball bearing to the
German war industry.[8]

 In horology, the company Jean Lassale designed a watch movement that

used ball bearings to reduce the thickness of the movement. Using 0.20 mm
balls, the Calibre 1200 was only 1.2 mm thick, which still is the thinnest
mechanical watch movement.

 Aerospace bearings are used in many applications on commercial, private

and military aircraft including pulleys, gearboxes and jet engine shafts.
Materials include M50 tool steel (AMS6491), Carbon chrome steel
(AMS6444), the corrosion resistant AMS5930, 440C stainless steel, silicon
nitride (ceramic) and titanium carbide-coated 440C.
 A skateboard wheel contains two bearings, which are subject to both axial
and radial time-varying loads. Most commonly bearing 608-2Z is used (a deep
groove ball bearing from series 60 with 8 mm bore diameter)
 Yo-Yos, there are ball bearings in the center of many new, ranging from
beginner to professional or competition grade, Yo-Yos.

 Many fidget spinner toys use multiple ball bearings to add weight, and to

allow the toy to spin.
 CHAPTER 5

METAL FRAME
The metal frame is generally made of mild steel bars for machining, suitable for
lightly stressed components including studs, bolts, gears and shafts. It can be case-
hardened to improve wear resistance. They are available in bright rounds, squares
and flats, and hot rolled rounds

Suitable machining allowances should therefore be added when ordering. It does

not contain any additions for enhancing mechanical or machining properties.
Bright drawn mild steel is an improved quality material, free of scale, and has been
cold worked (drawn or rolled) to size. It is produced to close dimensional
tolerances. Straightness and flatness are better than black steel. It is more suitable
for repetition precision machining. Bright drawn steel has more consistent
hardness, and increased tensile strength. Bright steel can also be obtained in
precision turned or ground form if desired.

MANUFACTURING PROCESS
 Manufacturing processes are the steps through which raw materials are
transformed into a final product. The manufacturing process begins with the
creation of the materials from which the design is made. These materials are then
modified through manufacturing processes to become the required part.
Manufacturing processes can include treating (such as heat treating or coating),
machining, or reshaping the material. The manufacturing process also includes
tests and checks for quality assurance during or after the manufacturing, and
planning the production process prior to manufacturing.

SAWING:

Cold saws are saws that make use of a circular saw blade to cut through
various types of metal, including sheet metal. The name of the saw has to do with
the action that takes place during the cutting process, which manages to keep both
the metal and the blade from becoming too hot. A cold saw is powered with
electricity and is usually a stationary type of saw machine rather than a portable
type of saw.
 The circular saw blades used with a cold saw are often constructed of high
speed steel. Steel blades of this type are resistant to wear even under daily usage.
The end result is that it is possible to complete a number of cutting projects before
there is a need to replace the blade.High speed steel blades are especially useful
when the saws are used for cutting through thicker sections of metal.

WELDING:

Welding is a process for joining similar metals. Welding joins metals by

melting and fusing 1, the base metals being joined and 2, the filler metal applied.
Welding employs pinpointed, localized heat input. Most welding involves ferrous-
based metals such as steel and stainless steel.Weld joints are usually stronger than
or as strong as the base metals being joined.
 Welding is used for making permanent joints. It is used in the manufacture
of automobile bodies, aircraft frames, railway wagons, machine frames, structural
works, tanks, furniture, boilers, general repair work and ship building.

OPERATION:

Several welding processes are based on heating with an electric arc, only a
few are considered here, starting with the oldest, simple arc welding, also known
as shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) or stick welding. 

In this process an electrical machine (which may be DC or AC, but

nowadays is usually AC) supplies current to an electrode holder which carries an
electrode which is normally coated with a mixture of chemicals or flux. An earth
cable connects the work piece to the welding machine to provide a return path for
the current. The weld is initiated by tapping ('striking') the tip of the electrode
against the work piece which initiates an electric arc. The high temperature
generated (about 6000oC) almost instantly produces a molten pool and the end of
the electrode continuously melts into this pool and forms the joint.

The operator needs to control the gap between the electrode tip and the work
piece while moving the electrode along the joint.

DRILLNG:

Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut or enlarge a hole of

circular cross-section in solid materials. The drill bit is a rotary cutting tool, often
multipoint. The bit is pressed against the work piece and rotated at rates from
hundreds to thousands of revolutions per minute. This forces the cutting edge
against the work piece, cutting off chips (sward) from the hole as it is drille
 CHAPTER 6

ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS

ADVANTAGES

 Increased moving ability: Thus, it does not become tiresome to perform the
job.
 Can be used in very compact places: Where reversing & turning of vehicle is
difficult.
 Handling is easy and less skilled labours can easily operate this system.
 Saves time & energy.

APPLICATION

 For small, medium and large scale industries.

 For construction sites.
 For commercial applications.
 CHAPTER 7
MATERIAL USED

S.No DESCIRPTION QTY MATERIAL

1 WHEEL 4 PLASTIC

2 LEAD SCREW 1 MILD STEEL

3 BEARING 8 STAINLESS STEEL

4 FRAME AS PER MILD STEEL

REWUIRMEN
T
5 SHAFT AS PER MILD STEEL
REWUIRMEN
T
6 METAL STRIP AS PER MILD STEEL
REWUIRMEN
T
7 WORM GEAR 1 MILD STEEL
ARRANGEMENT
8

9
10

COST ESTIMATION

SL.NO DISCRIPTION COST Rs:

1 WHEEL

2 LEAD SCREW

3 BEARING

4 FRAME

5 SHAFT

6 METAL STRIP

7 WORM GEAR ARRANGEMENT

10
 11

LABOUR COST

LATHE, DRILLING, WELDING, GRINDING, POWER HACKSAW, GAS

CUTTING:

Cost = 500/-

TOTAL COST

Total cost = Material Cost + Labour cost =

= Rs + 500

Total cost for this project = Rs

 CHAPTER 8

2D LAYOUTS OF MODEL
 CHAPTER 9

CONCLUSION AND REFERENCE

CONCLUSION

Considering the structural and functional overview of modified bullock cart it is

seen that, the modified bullock cart requires less effort to drive and it is animal
friendly, economical with improved efficiency
 REFERENCE

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3. David Kramer “Improving Ox Yokes with Limited material, tolls, and
Resources” (1997), tillers tech guide, tillers international, page1-15.
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(1979).
14. Sandge, R.P., Modifications and improvements of indigenous bullock cart.
Annual Report of Pune Centre presented in Z R C Workshop at Jabalpur