UNIVERSITY OF CALOOCAN CITY

Biglang Awa St., Corner Catleya St., EDSA, Caloocan City

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION

(SUBJECT/COURSE)
 
SUBJECT CODE: 502
TOPIC OR LESSON: Issues in First and Second Language Acquisition
WEEK: 6
SUB-TOPIC/S:

E. The Role of Imitation

F. Language Universals

G. Aptitude

H. Cognitive Style

I. Personality

J. Learning Strategies

 OVERVIEW OF THE TOPIC

In this chapter we will discuss the Issues in First and Second Language Acquisition.
Specifically, we will discuss the following:

E. The Role of Imitation

Imitation helps toddlers firm up their knowledge. Most of the meaning in a

language is held within the way the sounds and symbols are combined. Children learn
the language structure and the individual words through imitation. mitationn serves as
both a learning and a social function because new skills and knowledge are acquired,
and communication skills are improved by interacting in social and emotional
exchanges.

F. Language Universals

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 Language is universal and is universally acquired in the same manner; moreover,
that the deep structure of language at its deepest level may be common to all
languages. Many linguists feel that in L1 acquisition there is an innate component
genetically transmitted, an inborn ‘knowledge of language’. In first language
acquisition, uniform acquisition sequences are observed. Every child is provided with a
precise set of principles, part of the human cognitve endowment, which enable
him/her to ‘acquire’ any specific language.
G. Aptitude

Language aptitude has been found to be one of the most important individual
difference variables in second language acquisition (SLA) (e.g. Cochran et
al. 2010 ).According to Carroll and Sapon (2002) , language aptitude refers to a set of
cognitive abilities that are ‘predictive of how well, relative to other individuals, an
individual can learn a foreign language in a given amount of time and under given
conditions’ ( Carroll and Sapon 2002 : 23). Central in this view is the predictive power of
aptitude and its link with ultimate L2 attainment, irrespective of instruction type and
learning context.

H. Cognitive Style

Cognitive style is the manner by which individuals perceive information in the

environment and the patterns of thought that they use to develop a knowledge base
about the world around them.

There are 3 types of Cognitive Style. Leveling and sharpening a cognitive style that
represents the way in which an individual uses previous memories when attempting to
assimilate new information with prior knowledge. This cognitive style was described in
the mid-1950s and was studied by Philip Holzman and George Klein, among others.
Field-Dependence and Field-Independence where individuals show differences in their
abilities to discriminate events or visual, auditory, or tactile cues from their surrounding
environments is known as field-dependence/field-independence. Herman Witkin
conducted much of the original research in this area in the 1950s. Reflectivity and
impulsivity are polar ends of a spectrum in a third and very substantial cognitive style.
Studies in this domain began in the early 1960s with several researchers, such as Jerome
Kagan.

I. Personality

Theories about how different factors could lead to success in the second
language learning process have been a core part of studies into second language

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acquisition for decades. This is a series of blogposts attempting to categorise and
summarise research that have been done in these different areas, and we start today
with more biologically deterministic approaches, with a look at the different
characteristics of a learner’s personality that are said to influence learning.

J. Learning Strategies

Ortega (2009) defined learning strategies as “conscious mental and behavioral

procedures that individuals engage in with the aim to gain control over their learning
process” (p. 208). According to Brown (2006), strategies are “attacks” used by humans
in a particular situation, those differ within each person. In addition, Chamot (2005)
defined strategies quite broadly as “procedures that facilitate a learning task, they are
most often conscious and goal driven”

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the module you will be asked about the Issues in First and Second
Language Acquisition.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:

a. share views and perspectives about the Issues in First and Second Language
Acquisition.

b. have an better understanding about the Issues in First and Second Language
Acquisition.

c. comprehend the relevant in reference on the Issues in First and Second Language
Acquisition.

d. identify and define the Issues in First and Second Language Acquisition.

ENGAGE

Review of the lesson:

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Based on your own understanding in regards to this lesson:
Each group should give 2 scenarios that shows issues that we might encounter while we
are acquiring first and second language.

EXPLORE

What are the issues in First and

Second Language acquisition?

EXPLAIN

E. THE ROLE OF IMITATION

It is a common, informal observation that children are “good imitators.” We

think
of children typically as imitators and mimics, and then conclude that imitation is
one of the important strategies a child uses in language acquisition. This
conclusion is accurate and global. Researches have shown that echoing is an
important, salient strategy in early language development and an important aspect
of early phonological acquisition.

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There are two types of imitation:

1. Surface-Structure Imitation - This happens when a person repeats and

mimics the surface strings, attending to a phonological code rather than a
semantic code. The earliest stages of child language acquisition may manifest
a good deal of this type of imitation, since the baby may not possess the
necessary semantic categories to assign "meaning" to utterances.

2. Deep-Structure Imitation - This happens when the child perceives the

importance of the semantic level of language and attends primarily, if not
exclusively, to that meaningful semantic level. In fact, the imitation of the
deep structure may even block the child's attention to the surface structure so
that he becomes, in the face of it, a "poor" imitator. This is because at this
stage, the child is concerned about the truth value of his utterance and not in
the "correctness" of the forms of the language.

F. LANGUAGE UNIVERSALS:

Closely related to the innateness controversy is the claim that language is

universal and is universally acquired in the same manner; moreover, that the deep
structure of language at its deepest level may be common to all languages.

Werner Leopold (1949) made a rather eloquent case for certain phonological
as well as grammatical universals in language. Leopold inspired later works by
Greenberg (1963, 1966), Bickerton (1981), and Slobin (1986, 1992). Currently, research in
Universal Grammar continues this quest. One of the keys to such inquiry lies in research
on child language acquisition across many different languages in order to determine
the commonalities. Interesting universals of pivot grammar and other telegraphese or
telegraphic utterances are emerging.

Many linguists feel that in L1 acquisition there is an innate component

genetically transmitted, an inborn 'knowledge of language'. In first language
acquisition, uniform acquisition sequences are observed. Every child is provided with a
precise set of principles, part of the human cognitve endowment, which enable
him/her to 'acquire' any specific language. Assuming that this view is correct, many L2
researchers wondered how similar and how dissimilar L1 and L2 acquisitions are and
whether inborn knowledge is also used in L2 acquisition. These queries have a lot of
appeal. There is now a controversial debate about whether or not aspects of what is
called 'Universal Grammar' (henceforth UG) are available to second language learners
as well as first language learners. The new view suggests that UG is also available in L2

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acquisition, so, many studied now are testing whether the properties of UG that seem to
play a role in L1 acquisition are also playing a role in L2 acquisition. The crucial variable
in this context is represented by age. In fact, linguists assume that no difference
between first and second language acquisition arises if a foreign language is acquired
within a 'critical' age (i.e. the early teens). Thus, the terms 'first' or 'second' language do
not make reference to the number of languages acquired, but rather to the point in
cognitive maturation when the process of learning takes place.

G. APTITUDE :

According to Carroll (1981 as cited in Ellis, 1997), aptitude refers to the

"specific ability for language learning which learners are hypothesized to possess" (p.
36). This capability hypothetically depends on some features of learners. Aptitude is
defined in an academic context. Cook (2001) distinguished between the "broad term
knack" and aptitude saying that aptitude the usual term to refer to the variations in
language learning. She said that "aptitude has almost invariably been used in
connection with students in classrooms" (p.124) while knack refers to real-life situations.
What can be understood from the definition of aptitude is that aptitude does not
account for the failure or success of learners but it can justify why some learners learn
language more quickly than others.

Language aptitude, a notion relating to cognition, is defined as a “predictor”

of learners’ success in language learning. Language aptitude has been found to be
one of the most important individual difference variables in second language
acquisition.

It was once questioned whether the notion of language aptitude overlapped

with intelligence. According to Skehan (1998), there was some partial overlapping
between these two constructs. Taking MLAT – a type of language aptitude test as an
example, Skehan (1998) stated that MLAT’s grammatical sensitivity and analytical
abilities subtests overlapped with intelligence. Although there are overlaps between the
two constructs, language aptitude and intelligence are still conceptualized as two
different notions (Ortega, 2009). Regarding operationalization, foreign language
aptitude is measured by a test with a variety of subtests to touch upon different
elements of aptitude. More specifically, many tests have been developed to capture
learners’ language aptitude.

H. COGNITIVE STYLE:

Cognitive style is the manner by which individuals perceive information in the

environment and the patterns of thought that they use to develop a knowledge base

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about the world around them. The concept of styles of cognition, an area under
continuing investigation, has been discussed and researched in the psychological
community as early as the late 1930s. Knowledge gained concerning cognitive styles
provides the opportunity to learn more about individual differences. This knowledge
can then be applied to assist teachers, counselors, and all professionals who are
involved in children's learning experiences. Cognitive styles are distinct from individual
intelligence, but they may affect personality development and how individuals learn
and apply information.

3 types of Cognitive Style

Leveling and sharpening

A cognitive style that represents the way in which an individual uses previous
memories when attempting to assimilate new information with prior knowledge. This
cognitive style was described in the mid-1950s and was studied by Philip Holzman and
George Klein, among others.

People who are levelers tend to select many memories from the past in an
attempt to clarify and categorize newly acquired information. Sharpeners, on the other
hand, seem to select fewer memories when processing new knowledge.

Field-Dependence and Field-Independence

Another area where individuals show differences in their abilities to discriminate
events or visual, auditory, or tactile cues from their surrounding environments is known
as field-dependence/field-independence. Herman Witkin conducted much of the
original research in this area in the 1950s.

A field-dependent person has difficulty finding a geometric shape that is

embedded or "hidden" in a background with similar (but not identical) lines and shapes.
The conflicting patterns distract the person from identifying the given figure. A person
who is field-independent can readily identify the geometric shape, regardless of the
background in which it is set.

Reflectivity and Impulsivity

Reflectivity and impulsivity are polar ends of a spectrum in a third and very
substantial cognitive style. Studies in this domain began in the early 1960s with several
researchers, such as Jerome Kagan.

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 One of the methods for testing this cognitive style involves administration of the
Matching Familiar Figures Test, which requires subjects to view a picture of an object
and then attempt to match the object when presented with the same object in a
group of similar objects. The test is then scored according to the time required to
identify the objects and the accuracy of identification.

Neil Salkind and John Wright have studied scoring measures for this cognitive
style. People who are slower than the median, but score more accurately than the
median, are considered to be "reflective." In a classroom, these would typically be the
students who take extended time on a task and produce very accurate work. Those
who test faster than the median but score below the median of accuracy are
"impulsive."

In addition, impulsive students do not consider as many alternative answers

when presented with open-ended questions as compared to reflective students. These
same students also have a more global approach to information processing and do
not identify the parts of a whole as readily as their peers. They also have difficulty with
delayed gratification on tasks. Reflective students are more analytical in their problem-
solving approach and do not have the same level of difficulty with delayed
gratification.

i. PERSONALITY:

Personality is the individual features or characteristics that determine

potentialities and common abilities, and that it is exclusive to an individual. Richards
and Schmidt (2002) defined personality as “those aspects of an individual’s behavior,
attitude, beliefs, thoughts, actions and feelings which are seen as typical and distinctive
of that person and recognized as such by that person and others” (p.275). According
to Fatma (2014), personality factor refers to “a feature or a quality that is assumed to
distinguish one student from another” (p.228) in the process of acquiring the L2 and it is
considered to be “a pattern of unique characteristics that give a person’s behavior a
kind of consistency and individuality” (p.227). In the case of SLA, the personality factors
such as motivation, aptitude and attitude are believed to indirectly influence the
process of learning the L2. Therefore, for language teachers to teach L2 successfully is
not merely a question of whether or not the teachers have sufficient linguistics
knowledge or the issue of teachers’ diversifying teaching methodologies and
techniques. But it is the question of whether or not a L2 learner uses a series of learning
strategies and styles that are grounded in his/her personality.
Individual differences among learners, such as personality variation, have
long been seen as the cause of different learning abilities, and researchers like Gardner
and Lambert (1972) have focused principally on the individual’s internal influences on

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Second Language Learning. There have been disagreements over the categorisation
of affective variables, and although some might admit that personality variables are
abstract concepts that are difficult to define, and that the validity of psychological
tests that attempt to measure them are often challenged and criticised, their
categorisation is still necessary to understanding the Second Language Learning
process.

Self-esteem
An important variable included in much SLA research, high self-esteem, or self-
confidence, is believed to be an important construct for success in Second Language
Learning. Often taken to be relatively stable in adults and resistant to change, a person
is seen to either have high self-esteem or low self-esteem, regardless of the situation
they find themselves in.
However, Malinowski (1923) provides a different view of ‘self esteem’ seeing it as the
reflection and acceptance of oneself in interactions with others, which presumably vary
depending on the different interlocutors and social networks.  Self-esteem was thus
divided into three types: global, situational/specific, and task (Brown, 1994).
Nevertheless, it is usually assumed that global self-esteem is an intrinsic personality trait
that improves proficiency, and not much focus was given to situational- or task-based
self-confidence.

Inhibition
Learners with low self-esteem are believed to display more inhibition, leading to
the building of defences and alienation from the target culture, as they are less able to
tolerate threats to their existence.
The process of Second Language Learning could pose internal threats, such as learners
judging themselves harshly for their mistakes, and external threats, where learners
perceive others as judging them.  However, the emphasis on what learners ‘perceives’
seems to suggest that threat was not necessarily real, thus making learners wholly
responsible for their learning.
Thin ego boundaries are believed to allow learners to be open and tolerant of
ambiguity, and therefore more creative when learning a second language, and it is
commonly believed that by lowering inhibition in the language classroom, we can
promote freer communication and a willingness to learn from trial and error.
However, this call for learners to simply ‘remove their defences’ suggests that inhibition
is purely intrinsic and does not take into consideration the social factors that perhaps
contribute to a learner being inhibited.  
Moreover, learners of far-eastern backgrounds might value the judgements of others
highly, and might be brought up to believe that mistakes are detrimental to learning.

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Such cultural factors are often neglected when considering individual affective
variables.

Risk-taking
A fear of ramifications of mistakes made could deter one from taking risks with
the language. Although some assume that good learners are high risk-takers (Ely, 1986),
Beebe (1983) finds that highly-motivated learners are often moderate risk-takers,
preferring to make intelligent guesses. It is widely assumed that learners with high global
self-esteem take more risks, that fossilization is due to unwillingness to take risks, and that
teachers should encourage risk-taking behaviour (Brown, 1994).
However, such overgeneralisations do not take into account that the willingness to take
risks, especially outside the classroom, depends largely on what the individual stands to
lose from being perceived negatively by his interlocutors and the costs of making
mistakes.  

Anxiety, Extroversion and Empathy

Anxiety, or the tendency to worry, can be seen as either a personality trait or a
state due to a prevailing situation or event. Anxiety caused by a competitive
environment can be facilitative or debilitative to success in Second Language
Learning, but it is unclear why different effects are produced or what the optimal level
of anxiety is in promoting Second Language Acquisition.
As abstract as the concept of anxiety is that of extroversion. Debunking the myth that
extrovert learners are good learners, Brown (ibid) states that extroverts need their self-
esteem reaffirmed by others and tend to have thick ego boundaries and less
empathy.  
Empathy is the ability to make accurate assumptions about state of the people one is
talking to, thus leading to effective cross-cultural communication. This, again, makes
the learner accountable for understanding the culture of the target language and
interpreting non- and para-linguistic cues, on top of having to cope with interacting in
an unfamiliar language.  
Krashen (1981) mentions these personality factors as affecting learners’ affective filters,
stating that a confident, secure and outgoing person who lacks anxiety would have
low affective filters, thereby allowing comprehensible input to reach the language
acquisition device, resulting in acquisition. However, there has been much
disagreement about Krashen’s understanding of how these variables interact with
social contexts (Norton, 2000).
Ultimately, the learner should not be made solely responsible for his or her learning. 
Putting the onus on the learner to be motivated and to find opportunities to increase
their exposure to the target language can be just as extreme and as unhelpful as
blaming their failure entirely on the people around them.

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J. LEARNING STRATEGIES:

Selinker (1972), learning strategies can be considered as belonging to the five

psycholinguistic processes that shape interlanguage system.
One of the most recognized researches on learning strategies was conducted by O’
Malley and Chamot in 1990. Their writing documented a model called Cognitive
Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA) that was conducted in Culturally
and Linguistically Diverse (CLD) settings. CALLA has become one of the most effective
models for promoting learning strategies in the classroom (O’ Malley & Chamot, in
Herrera, 2010).
Ortega (2009) defined learning strategies as “conscious mental and behavioral
procedures that individuals engage in with the aim to gain control over their learning
process” (p. 208). According to Brown (2006), strategies are “attacks” used by humans
in a particular situation, those differ within each person. In addition, Chamot (2005)
defined strategies quite broadly as “procedures that facilitate a learning task, they are
most often conscious and goal driven” (p. 112).
Oxford (2011) claimed that self-regulated L2 learning strategies are “deliberate
goal-directed attempts to manage and control efforts to learn the L2. These strategies
are broad, teachable actions that learners choose from among alternatives and
employ for L2 learning purposes” (p. 12).
Griffiths (2008) viewed learning strategies as “activities consciously chosen by
learners for the purpose of regulating their own language learning” Brown (2006) posed
that some individuals learn their L2 effectively despite the methodology applied by
teachers. It means that some learners have developed their own strategies and used
them for learning a second language successfully, but others need more help.
Kumaravadivelu (2001) pointed out that language teachers must not be just
consumers of theories proposed by others, rather than they must go beyond the
limitations of these concepts with a call to “construct their own context-sensitive
pedagogic knowledge that will make their practice of everyday teaching a worthwhile
endeavor”.

ELABORATE

WORD HUNT
Find the word described below.

D A T G E T I B T U G I S T B K D U L L A C

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 L D Y R C L T D E E P S T R U C T U R E B O

S B S I A L S U L M O N D E N G E R K S D G

C O G N D B F R I N T L E A G B L T B T S N

R L E A R N I N G S T R A T E G I E S G T I

D G M O N S T B I D R B D I B A P A Y R A T

L O W T B T C H R G B O Y B A D A T S E R I

Y N J G I A P T I T U D E A T G I B D T M V

R B E N T X C G O L O U B G E L L C O A Y E

S K V U Y H V U A B S E A R A B O O W G D S

D L E G R B K B A P T I T N C T N S O D A T

O A N K A A D U R S I J O I T B L N E B Y Y

J E L I D A C E K L C S B C A E T O R E T L

B H S L Y N H T G U R V F U E V D E R W O E

O T C E O B A L F E E E S D E E P L A O P L

I R S V T A E F P L D T T D R E O W S X S B

G H U B G L K H I B E E G E V B T B I E G E

L A N G U A G E U N I V E R S A L A C T D K

1. Type of imitation that happens when the child perceives the importance of the
semantic level of language and attends primarily.
2. Language is universal and is universally acquired in the same manner.
3. Refers to the “specific ability for language learning which learners are
hypothesized to possess.
4. The manner by which individuals perceive information in the environment.
5. Characteristics that determine potentialities and common abilities
6. Define as conscious mental and behavioral procedures that individuals engage
in with the aim to gain control over their learning process

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 EVALUATE

1. It happens when the child perceives the importance of the semantic level of
language.
A. Surface structure
B. Deep stucture
C. Imitation structure

2. It happens when a person repeats and mimics the surface strings.

A. Surface structure
B. Deep structure
C. Imitation structure

3. Closely related to the innateness controversy.

A. Universal Grammar
B. Language
C. Language universal

4. Informal observation that children are 'good imitators'

A. Role of parents
B. Role of imitation
C. Imitators

5. A “predictor” of learners’ success in language learning.

A. Altitude
B. Attitude
C. Aptitude

6. A type of language aptitude test that was developed based on Carroll’s

observations about how languages were learned/taught during 1950s.
A. PLAB
B. MLAT
C. VORD

7. This cognitive style was described in the mid-1950s and was studied by Philip Holzman
and George Klein, among others.
A. Field-Dependence and Field-Independence

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B. Reflectivity and Impulsivity
C. Leveling and sharpening

8. He conducted much of the original research of field-dependence/field-

independence in the 1950s.
A. Herman Witkin
B. Jerome Kagan
C. Philip Holzman

9. The polar ends of a spectrum in a third and very substantial cognitive style.
A. Matching Familiar Figures Test
B. Cognitive Style
C. Reflectivity and Impulsivity

10. They are the one who documented a model called Cognitive Academic Language
Learning Approach (CALLA) that was conducted in Culturally and Linguistically Diverse
(CLD) settings.
A. O’ Malley and Chamot
B. Neil Salkind and John Wright
C. Philip Holzman and George Klein

11. Individuals show differences in their abilities to discriminate events or visual, auditory,
or tactile cues from their surrounding environments
A. Field-Dependence and Field-Independence
B. Reflectivity and Impulsivity
C. Leveling and sharpening

12. Individual features or characteristics that determine potentialities and common

abilities.
A. Characteristics
B. Personality
C. Traits

13. According to Malinowski (1923) it is the reflection and acceptance of oneself in

interactions with others.
A. Risk-taking
B. Inhibition
C. Self-esteem

14. Learners with low self-esteem are believed to display this kind of personality.
A. Risk-taking

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B. Inhibition
C. Self-esteem

15. Some assume that good learners and learners with high global self-esteem tend to
have this personality.
A. Risk-taking
B. Inhibition
C. Self-esteem

16. Can be seen as either a personality trait or a state due to a prevailing situation or
event.
A. Introversion
B. Anxiety
C. Depression

17. Brown (ibid) states that ___________ need their self-esteem reaffirmed by others and
tend to have thick ego boundaries and less empathy.
A. Introvert
B. Emphathy
C. Extrovert

18. The ability to make accurate assumptions about state of the people one is talking
to.
A. Emphathy
B. Sympathy
C. Extrovert

19. Ortega (2009) define this as “conscious mental and behavioral procedures that
individuals engage in with the aim to gain control over their learning process”
A. Teaching strategies
B. Learning strategies
C. Class strategies

20. One of the most effective models for promoting learning strategies in the classroom.
A. CAALA
B. CDL
C. CALLA

Key to correction:
1. B
2. A

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 3. C
4. B
5. C
6. B
7. C
8. A
9. C
10. A
11. A
12. B
13. C
14. B
15. A
16. B
17. C
18. A
19. B
20. C

REFERENCES

Troike (2012). Introducing Second Language Acquisition. New York: CJ

https://acadwmic.oup.com.applij/article/36/3/385/2422456
https://ukdiss.com/examples/second-language-acquisition-language-aptitude.php
https://web.cortland.edu/andersmd/learning/Cognitive.htm&ved=2ahUKEwiw6JTFz
NbrAhUxy4sBHSL6AbUQFjABegQIDRAF&usg=AOvVaw0UbZDKvbxXIzRQMNOiIIpf
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/22ca/5bb4aec0921e738fbc7258988ceb9f9c54e3.p
df&ved=2ahUKEwjV4p3ly9brAhXkLqYKHTP-
CosQFjAEegQIExAJ&usg=AOvVaw2pbRvhvBbpoDayuakiR6-1
https://wk.baidu.com/view/05a87e4169eae009581becae?pcf=2&bfetype=new
http://chiasuanchong.com.
https://www.teachinghouse.com/blog/how-your-personality-can-affect-your-ability-to-
learn-a-new-language/

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 ADDITIONAL
MATERIALS

Orillos, L. (1998). Language Acquisition, Theories Principles and Research. Quezon City:
UPOU.

PREPARED BY:

Cabison, Winly
Carson, Michaela Janine
Camposano, Rhodalyn
Dalagan, Rhonna Joy
BSE-ENGLISH 2A

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