National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov.

2006, Nagpur

25. Rain Water Harvesting in Costal Districts

of Karnataka State, India
*B. Sitaram Shetty

This is a factual thing to not that out of about contains mineral substances. Yet tube wells have
3500 T.M.C of water which gets accumulated from become dependable systems in the costal belt to get
the annual rainfall in Karnataka state, some 2000 water in plenty.
T.M.C of it falls in the Costal district of Dakshina If we throw a look at the geographical position
Kannada, Udupi and Uttar Kannada. In spite of of the costal districts, we come to understand that
this, the recent phenomenon is that people living in about 4 to 6 Km area of the sea bank consists of the
costal belt regularly face floods in rainy season and layer of sandy soil and different types of acidic soil.
experience the severity of drought in summer. This In the past there were thanks, bunds and brooks all
is not without reasons. There may be an increase in over in this area, which accumulated abundant rain
the utilization quantity of water by growing water. It won’t be wrong to consider that these tanks
population, for agriculture and industries. In and bunds helped collect and hold rain water falling
addition to this, there may be a lack of water using on the roofs of houses. These thanks and bunds
awareness amount people. Anyway, even though were literally preventing the onslaught of the salty
enough quantity of water is available and a scheme water flowing to from nearby rivers and sea. But
is devised to collect and save 10% of rainwater for now these tanks and bunds have disappeared and
our daily use, it is very much surprising to find that people seem to have totally disregarded the use of
still we are not prepared to accept that there would open wells as well. It means that consumption of
never be any shortage of water for our day to day groundwater from tube wells has become the order
use. of the day. In this trend continuously unabated, we
In recent years, we notice that groundwater has shall surely be sliding towards the verge of peril in
been exploited at different levels. Supply of water the days to come.
through conventional tanks, bunds and pools has In the costal belt, covering an area of 10 to 20
been decreasing. Again, because of deforestation kms, there is excellent red soil and hard stone mixed
and soil erosion due to rains in rainy season, silt is soil, which is useful for both agriculture and
being deposited in natural reservoirs. In these horticulture. In this part of the coast, any method
reservoirs, (tanks, bunds and pools) within a couple of collecting rain water can be successfully
of months after rainy season, water gets evaporated undertaken. As rivers flowing in to western stream
due to solar heat. The chances of increase in flow down quietly, preference should be given to
groundwater become very much less. Recharging make plans to collect rainwater at different levels
of water from reservoirs to open wells and tanks of at the very source of all tanks, bunds and pools that
the surrounding areas also decreases. In addition have direct linkage with these rivers.
to this, because of the great impact of tube wells on Beyond the 20 kms on shore area of the costal
the people, it has become very common with them belt there lie the slopes of western Ghats. This is
to draw water from a depth of many hundred feet. the dense forestland, which causes the huge rainfall
The truth is that the life of tube wells in the costal in the costal belt. Here many rivers, after they ooze
areas is considerably short and the tube well water out, flow down very forcefully. This is a place where

*Syndicate Agriculuture Foundation, Hiraidka, Karnataka

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we find a harmonious existence of people, water, rain water that falls in our residential premises. We
cattle, jungle and land. should learn the art of holding, deflecting and
In the area mentioned above, preference should percolating the rainwater. We have to percolate
be given to rainwater harvesting depending upon surface run of water with the help of different kind
the hydrological cycle, geographical information of percolation ponds like cradle pond, vessel pound,
system and topography of the place following the hill pond, filter pond and small bunds.
methods described below. Rain water can be recharged into open wells
and tube-wells. At the same time it can be made to
1. Roof top rain harvesting tank : flow into tanks and pools. If we made to percolate
This is a method of collecting in tanks the rain at least 15% of rainwater that falls in the coastal
water falling on the roofs of houses using pipes and belt of Karnataka State, the water problem people
fixing gauzes. It is preferable to build tanks with can be solved. According to the statement of the
Ferro cement method. So that it will be more secure founder president of National Science and
and highly economical.. Due attention should be Environment Institute, Late Anil Agarwal, in almost
given to see that the inner portion of the tank is not every Indian Village, water problem can surely be
infected either by air or light. There should be solved if people imbibe “ water using awareness”
manhole system to clean the tank whenever in them.
necessary. Water collected in such tanks is very
clean and it can be used in all seasons. By installing 3. Desilting :
these thanks one can save electricity and precious This is a programme to be conducted with
groundwater on the one hand and make use of clean collective social conscience. Natural reservoirs of
rainwater on the other. Whenever the tanks overflow the past, like tanks, pools and lakes are filled with
the excess water can be recharged. silt and this condition poses a big problem for rain
water storage. Hence the possibility of increase the
2. Rainwater Recharging : ground water is very much less. Starting with
This is a method of rainwater harvesting aforestation, desilting programme should be
everybody should ceaselessly prefer and follow. conducted at different levels through the collective
Depending upon the rainfall, one can take into effort of government and public. Today, as a result
account the availability of annual rainwater that falls of many river basins filled with a lot of silt, naturally
on each and everyone’s roof tops, residential we can see a reduction in the increase of
premises and property. Facts and figures say that 1 groundwater.
m.m rain that falls on 1 sq.m. area amount to 1 liter Natural calamities like flood and drought can
of water. So we can very well guess the quantity of easily be avoided with the effective implementation
rainwater available in our area. Therefore we should of rain water accumulation methods (harvesting) at
adhere to the practice of collecting and holding the different levels in the costal belt of Karnataka State

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 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

26. Rain Water Harnessing and Harvesting

*Pradeep Kumar *Swati Pawar *Praveen Kutti

ABSTRACT
Water resources are limited and water is becoming a scarce commodity everyday
due to ever-increasing demand in proportion to the rapidly increasing population.
Now it is high time we must conserve this natural resource. For conservation of water
resources, rain-water harvesting from roof-top catchments should be done in the form
of ground water recharging be made mandatory in the urban areas. In this paper,
structural components and advantages of rain water harvesting from roof-top
catchments have been discussed.
Suitable recommendations for rooftop rain water harvesting has also been made
for future benefits of society.

INTRODUCTION between all water entering and leaving the water

A precious source of water availability has basin of the earth. Rain Water Harvesting i.e.
become scarce, hence the need for conservation Artificial Recharge of the ground water resources
arises. The development of water resources in the is the most commonly adopted and cost effective
country is at cross roads. This sustainability of water method of replenishing the ground water reserves.
resources has been endangered by vagaries of rainfall
and unplanned development. An optimum WHY RAIN WATER HARVESTING
development can be achieved by the conjunctive use Rain water harvesting is essential because
of surface and ground waters. surface water is inadequate to meet our demand and
Rain Water Harvesting can be defined as the we have to depend on ground water. Due to rapid
process of collecting and concentrating runoff water urbanization, infiltration of rain water into the sub-
from runoff area into a run on area, where the soil has decreased drastically and recharging of
collected water is either directly applied the cropping ground water has diminished
area and stored in the soil profile for immediate use
by the crop. i.e. runoff farming or stored in an on- RAIN WATER HARVESTING TECHNIQUES
farm water reservoir for future productive uses. i.e. There are two main techniques of rain water
domestic use, livestock watering, agriculture irrigation harvestings.
or for groundwater recharge and storage into the • Storage of rainwater on surface for future use.
aquifer, i. e. recharge enhancement. This includes the following:-
Rain water Harvesting is the concept, which 1. Loading.
includes a holistic approach to develop, augment, 2. Basins or percolation tanks.
protect arid conserve water resources. This concept 3. Stream augmentation.
is to be envisaged and practice in order to ensure 4. Ditch and furrow.
the sustainability of ongoing groundwater 5. Over irrigation.
development for multiple uses and to provide scope 6. Revival of village pond concept.
for further development of growing demand/ 7. Recharge of secondary treated urban liquid
population. To maintain the ground water resources effluents in identified aquifers.
indefinitely, a hydrologic equilibrium must exist • Recharge to ground water.

*Department of Civil Engineering, H.B.T.I.-Kanpur-208002, U.P., INDIA E-mail: pkt2001@rediffmail.com

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 This includes as under Injection wells are Recharge wells
recharge well. In this the recharging in watershed is Direct recharge of the aquifer through open
carried out by directing discharge of rainwater wells will be an easier and in expensive process in
through a settling sump to the underground waterbed. the shallow aquifer region. The rooftop run off water
These wells can be used both as percolation wells can be directed in to the open wells through pipes
and Recharge wells. The advantages of direct and settling pit to avoid possible turbidity.
injection of rooftop run off water in the wells are : Recharge wells of 100 to 300 mm. diameter are
1. Harvesting from roof rain water. generally constructed for recharging the deeper
2. Relatively high rate of recharge. aquifers and water is passed through filter media to
3. Utilization of ground water during non rainy days avoid choking of recharge wells.

The storage of rain water on surface is a Recharge Shafts

traditional techniques and structures used were Where the contour and topology of a large area
underground tanks, ponds, check dams, weirs etc. permit flow in unidirectional and having step slopes,
Recharge to ground water is a new concept of rain the shafts are dug. The average depth of 10 to 15
water harvesting and the structures generally used meters with width of 1 meter and length of 2 meters
are : at places depending upon amount of water available
Pits from catchments. These are terminated above, the
Pits are dug depending upon available rooftop aquifer level. The shafts are usually cased with PVC
water from the buildings and are located inside the casing to prevent contamination and collapse. These
premise and away from foundation or concrete are back filled with pervious soils, which facilities
structures so as to have its sitting over pervious soil faster and efficient percolation and mitigates bio and
for better and faster absorption. The pits are chemical pollutions after filtration through the soil.
preferably located near the precinct and thereafter For recharging the shallow aquifer which are located
filled with permeable material like pebbles, gravel below clayey surface, recharge shafts of 0.5 to 3 m.
and sand for better percolation. Recharge pits are diameter and 10 to 15 m. deep are constructed and
constructed for recharging the shallow aquifer. These back filled with boulders, gravels & coarse sand.
are constructed 1 to 2 m, wide and to 3 m. deep
which are back filled with boulders, gravels, coarse Lateral shafts with bore wells
sand. For recharging the upper as well as deeper
aquifers lateral shafts of 1.5 to 2 m. wide & 10 to 30
Trenches m. long depending upon availability of water with
These are constructed when the permeable one or two bore wells are constructed. The lateral
stream is available at shallow depth. Trench may be shafts are back filled with boulders, gravels & coarse
0.5 to 1 m. wide, 1 to 1.5m. deep and 10 to 20 m. sand.
long depending up availability of water. These are
back filled with filter. materials. Spreading techniques
When permeable strata start from top then this
Dug wells technique is used. Spread the water in streams / Nalas
Existing dug wells may be utilized as recharge by making check dams, nala bunds, cement plugs,
structure and water should pass through filter media gabion structures or a percolation pond may be
before putting into dug well. constructed

Hand pumps COMBINATION OF SURFACE AND SUB

The existing hand pumps may be used for SURFACE
recharging the shallow/deep aquifers, if the 1. Following are the techniques usually adopted
availability of water is limited. Water should pass Basin/percolation tanks with pits shaft or wells are
through filter media before diverting it into hand constructed to collect subsurface and surface water.
pumps. 2. Water treatment In this technique the affluent /

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sewage / sullage is collected in a pit, filtered and • Road top collection of rainwater
then supplied to required place through gravity well • Induced recharge from surface water bodies.
or deep trenches in slope.
ROOF HARVESTING
DIVERSION OF RUN OFF INTO EXISTING The collection and storage of rain from rooftop
SURFACE WATER BODIES run off has been practiced by man since i ancient
Construction activity in and around the city is times. This may be particularly useful for domestic
resulting in the drying up of water bodies and use in the residential, messes and are taken the water
reclamation of these tanks for conversion into plots should be soft, potable and suitable for washing.
for houses.
Free flow of storm run off into these tanks and water METHOD
bodies must be ensured. The storm run off may be The water is led from the roof to the storage
diverted into the nearest tanks or depression, which tank through a series of gutters and pipes.
will create additional recharge. Conventional gutters are normally used, but for
• Urbanization effects on Groundwater Hydrology: economy they can be made with “V’ shaped lengths
• Increase in water demand of tin sheet hang under the roof edge from wire or
• More dependence on ground water use lengths of rigid PVC pipe at along the length and
• Over exploitation of ground water clamped to the edge of the roof. Rigid PVC pipes
• Increase in run-off, decline in well yields and fall are considered as they are cheaper easier to maintain
in water levels and will reduce contamination.
• Reduction in open soil surface area Computation of artificial recharge from Roof
• Reduction in infiltration and deterioration in water top rainwater collection :
quality Factors taken for computation :
• Methods of artificial recharge in urban areas : Roof top area 100 sq. m. for individual house and
• Water spreading 500 sq.m. for multi-storied building.
• Recharge through pits, trenches, wells, shafts Average annual monsoon rainfall - 780 mm.
• Roof top collection of rainwater Effective annual rainfall contributing to recharge 70%
- 550 mm.

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HARVESTING RAINWATER HARNESSING FILTERS/
LIFE : CATCHMENT STRAINERS
AREA
A NOBLE GOAL - A COMMON RESPONSIBILITY STORAGE
Ground water exploitation is inevitable is Urban
areas. But the groundwater potential is getting
reduced due to urbanization resulting in over
CONDUIT
exploitation. Hence, a strategy to implement the
groundwater recharge, in a major way need to be harvesting system. Conduits can be of any material
launched with concerted efforts by various like polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or galvanized iron (GI),
Governmental and Non-Governmental Agencies and materials that are commonly available. It is
Public at large to build up the water table and make recommended that all storm water drainages be
the groundwater resource, a reliable and sustainable designed as a system capable of collecting the water
source for supplementing water supply needs of the to the destination. Since our people have tendency
urban dwellers. of regarding the open channels as wastage dumps,
Recharge of groundwater through storm run selective open channels be only provided. The size
off and roof top water collection, diversion and of the conduit be kept 10 to 15 % h more than the
collection of run off into dry tanks, play grounds, calculated cross sectional area.
parks and other vacant places are to be implemented
by Special Village Panchayats/ Municipalities / FILTERS
Municipal Corporations and other Government The filter is used to remove suspended pollutants
Establishments with special efforts. from rainwater collected over catchment area. A
The Special Village Panchayats /Municipalities/ filter unit is a chamber filled with filtering media such
Municipal Corporations will help the citizens and as fibre, coarse sand and gravel layers, charcoal etc.
builders to adopt suitable recharge method in one’s to remove debris and dirt from water before it enters
own house or building through demonstration and the storage tank or recharge structure. Charcoal can
offering subsidies for materials & incentives, if be added for additional filtration. Filters can be seen
possible. in use under age-old traditions of rainwater
harnessing in many part of the country. In Kerala, in
COMPONENTS OF A RAINWATER the olden days when piped water had not reached
HARVESTING SYSTEM the remote places, a simple cloth sheet erected in
A rainwater harvesting system comprises four poles was a regular sight for collection of
components of various stages -transporting rainwater drinking water during rainy seasons.
rough pipes or drains, filtration, and storage in tanks In addition three layered pots with sand
for reuse or recharge. The common components of aggregate and charcoal was widely used for filtration.
a rainwater harvesting system involved in these Ii is therefore suggested that straining and filtration
stages are explained below. of rain water be done according to local practice
and newer generation be given a feel of the rich
CATCHMENTS traditions we had in comparison to the commercial
The catchment of a water harvesting system versions available.
is the surface which directly receives the rainfall
and provides water to the system. It can be a paved CONCLUSION
area like a terrace or courtyard la building, or an Rain Water Harvesting needs to be
unpaved area like a lawn or open ground. A roof implemented due to paucity of water resources.
made of reinforced cement concrete (RCC), Nature has showered enough potential to recharge
galvanized iron or corrugated sheets can also be used our existing water bodies and also to store water for
for water harvesting. years to come and to meet the present / future
demands. Let us pledge today and start conserving
CONDUITS water so that our next generation could not starve
Conduits are pipelines, channels or drains that and fight for water. If we succeed in water
can carry rainwater from the catchment area to the recharging, there would be no world war for water.

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ATTRIBUTES OF GROUND WATER

There is more ground water than surface water

Ground water is less expensive and economic resource.
Ground water is sustainable and reliable source of water supply.
Ground water is relatively less vulnerable to pollution
Ground water is usually of high bacteriological purity.
Ground water is free of pathogenic organisms.
Ground water needs little treatment before use.
Ground water has no turbidity and colour.
Ground water has distinct health advantage as art alternative for lower sanitary quality surface water.
Ground water is usually universally available.
Ground water resource can be instantly developed and used.
There is no conveyance losses in ground water based supplies.
Ground water has low vulnerability to drought.
Ground water is key to life in arid and semi-arid regions.
Ground water is source of dry weather flow in rivers and streams.

ADVANTAGES OF RAIN WATER HARVESTING

Enhanced sustainability of water supply projects and structures;
Improved well yields and reduced pumping lifts and cost;
Improved water quality through dilution especially fluoride, nitrate and salinity.
This is achieved with filtration and percolation.
Conservation of water lost to run off and evaporation.
Reduces flood hazard and soil erosion.
Treated urban effluent can be recharge and quality beneficiated by re-circulation through the aquifers.

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 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

27. Searching of an Alternative Source for Drinking Purpose :

Rain Water Harvesting
* Md. Tauhid-Ur-Rahman

Abstract
Bangladesh, a densely populated country has been suffering adequate drinking water
crisis, since 1980’s. This is due to the environmental degradations such as decreasing patterns
of river flow, extraction of excessive amount of ground water, use of pesticides and fertilizers
and other anthropogenic activities. Arsenic in ground water contamination has augmented
the severity of this suffering. In urban areas, piped water supply is available to some extent
although that is still insufficient to meet the water demand of the urban inhabitants. This
piped water is again supplied to the recipients without being treated properly. As a
consequence, people have to suffer from different water borne diseases. Although urban
inhabitants has limited access to the piped water supply networks, but the people living in
the villages don’t have any access to that. This problem is even severe at the villages, where
rural poor as well as primitive races are living. They have to solely depend on local ponds
and distantly located tube-wells.
This paper focuses on to investigate an alternative source for drinking water for the
rural poor who have very limited excess to the nearby water sources. A pilot project that was
carried out to fulfil the aforementioned objective is located at the village named as Jaintapur
of the north-eastern district, Sylhet of Bangladesh. This district is located near Cherapunji
of India. Cherapunji receives highest rainfall in the world. Most of the rain water is wasted
as there is no available technology to collect that. Small scale pilot project completed at
Jaintapur consists of several low cost Rain water harvesting plants. These plants were built
locally by the local labours as the part of the community participation with the help of a
local NGO. It was found that a 100 m2 catchment having storage facility of 8 m3 is sufficient
for a small house hold of consisting six members.
Routine test of the water quality of samples collected randomly from the pilot plants
were performed to make ensure that the water is suitable for drinking purposes. Comparing
these, with the water quality guidelines of both Bangladesh as well as WHO, reveals that
most of the parameters are within the acceptable limits. Only two samples were found
containing faecal coliform, this might be due to the contact of any person who is responsible
to take care of that plant. However, this project was successful in a sense that it offers the
local people to access to the vital water demand at a very lower cost. Further, Rain water
harvesting might be a good alternative to the poor if proper attention is taken. This system
of alternative water supply can reduce the pressure of traditional water supply system, where
water is in acute emergency.

Research Student, Dept. of Land and Water Resources Engg.

Royal Institute of Technology, KTH, Stockholm, SE-100 44, Sweden. taurah98@kth.se

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 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

28. Rainwater Harvesting in the High Hills

of the Western Ghats, Maharashtra
*Pradeep K. Naik **Arun K. Awasthi *Dinesh Prakash

The Western Ghats of the Indian Peninsula vertical, and from the intersections of fractures with
in Maharashtra State is dotted with innumerable different orientations.
springs. One hundred and twenty-one springs were In the long history of mankind, these great
examined at or very close to their origins in the resources have often been destroyed by unplanned
Koyna River basin, a “head water” basin in the “diversion” or “development” in shortsighted
Deccan terrain of the Western Ghats. Studies attempts to improve water supplies for human
revealed that these springs are distributed at an communities. This frequently has had adverse
elevation range of 600-1340 m amsl with maximum effects on the environs of the original springs and
concentration (47%) between 900-1000 m contours. seeps. They sustain the life of thousands of human
The yields of these springs are controlled by beings, plants, animals, birds and other organisms.
lithological variations and hydraulic properties of In the name of development, these springs are under
their source-aquifers. Their discharges vary between constant exploitation for local water supply. Their
0.024 lps (86 lph or 2.06 m3 /d) and 5 lps (18000 natural settings and sources are often modified, thus
lph or 432 m3/d) with a mean of 46 m3 /d in the diminishing their life and often causing their
winter (December to February) and between 0.011 complete disappearance.
lps (39 lph or 0.94 m3/d) and 2.5 lps (9000 lph or Rainwater is the only source of recharge of
216 m3/d) with a mean of 28 m3 /d in the summer the existing springs. The Western Ghats receive a
(April to June). rainfall of 4000-6000 mm annually The life and
The origins of these springs are dependent potential of these springs could be enhanced by
on the lithological characters of different basaltic constructing rainwater harvesting structures, such
flow units and the terrain physiography. They as surface water tanks, on the flat hilltops and hill
generally issue at the contacts between (1) laterite terraces. If required, a number of relatively larger
and lithomargic clay or poorly lateritized basaltic diameter borewells can be drilled on the base of
flow, (2) vesicular basalt and non-vesicular massive these tanks so that the rainwater shall have easy
basalt, (3) highly weathered massive basalt and passage to the source aquifers recharging the
moderately or poorly weathered massive basalt or springs. By doing so not only the life of the existing
redbole, and (4) talus deposits and hard massive springs shall be enhanced, but also many new
basalt or laterite or lateritized basaltic flow. Springs springs could be naturally created to cater to the
also emerge from fractures, both horizontal and need of the local population.

*Central Ground Water Board, Central Region, New Secretariat Building, Civil Lines, Nagpur – 440001.
Tel.: 09423106185; Fax: +91-712-2564391; Email. pradeep.naik@water.net.in
**Department of Earth Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee – 247667.

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 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

29. Conservation of Ground Water Through Artificial Recharge

Using Roof Top Rainwater in RV College of Engineering Campus
Bangalore (a case study)

* Prof. B. L. Shivakumar

Introduction augmented resource can be harvested at the time of

Conservation is an act of preserving resources need. Artificial recharge to ground is a process by
from decay, loss or injury, otherwise to handle the which the ground water reservoir is augmented at a
resources with care and safeguard against rate exceeding that under natural conditions of
destruction. Water is one of the renewable resources. replenishment.
India with an average rainfall of 1150mm is the • Need to overcome the inadequacy of surface
second wettest country in the world with good water water to meet our demands.
resources. But the water resources are not evenly • To arrest decline in ground water table.
distributed over the country due to varied hydro- • To enhance availability of ground water at
geological conditions and high variations in specific place and time, to utilize rainwater for
precipitation both in time and space. Even in high sustainable development.
rainfall area, like Kerala in the South and Meghalaya • To increase infiltration of rain water in the sub-
in the east, water scarcity is felt in the summer soil which has decreased drastically in urban
months. areas due to paving of open areas.
As large quantities of rainfall are going to sea • To improve groundwater quality by dilution.
as runoff, it is better to harness this wasteful runoff • To increase agriculture production and
by adopting proper scientific conservation measures vegetative cover for proper ecological balance.
and constructing suitable rainwater harvesting
structures at appropriate locations and artificially Advantages
recharge the depleted aquifers through sub-surface • The cost of recharge to sub-surface reservoir is
dykes and recharge tube wells. lower than reservoirs.
The conservation has two doctrines (i) Wise • The aquifer serves as a distribution system also.
development and (ii) Use without undue waste. The • No land is wasted for storage purpose and no
main source of recharge to ground water body is population displacement is involved.
rainfall. As such rainfall characteristics have to be • Ground water is not directly exposed to
analyzed, for rainfall pattern, estimation of mean evaporation and pollution.
precipitation, probability of its recurrence and • Storing water under ground is environment
coefficient of variation. The conservation of water friendly.
can be made by adopting rain harvesting methods. • It increases the productivity of aquifer.
• It reduces flood hazards.
Rainwater harvesting • It effects rise in ground water levels.
Rainwater harvesting is the technique of • It mitigates effects of drought.
collection and its storage at surface or in sub-surface • It reduces soil erosion.
aquifer, before it is lost as surface run off. The

* Department of Civil Engineering, R.V.College of Engineering, Bangalore-560059

E-Mail: blshivkumar2003@yahoo.com

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Design considerations rain water harvesting system needs to be designed
The important aspects to be looked into for in a way that it does not occupy large space for
designing a rainwater harvesting system to augment collection and recharge system.
ground water resources are: Wastage of surface water and depletion of
• Hydrogeology of the area including nature and groundwater to alarming level have led to reduction
extent of aquifer, soil cover, topography, depth in well yield, drying up of shallow wells,
to water level chemical quality of ground water. deterioration of water quality, sea water intrusion
• The availability of source of water, one of the into coastal aquifers, increase in energy
prime requisite for groundwater recharge, consumption to lift water from greater depth. The
basically assessed in terms of non-committed depletion in groundwater has necessitated for
surplus monsoon runoff. artificial recharge of groundwater. The need of the
• Area contributing runoff, land–use hour, therefore, is for artificial recharge system that
pattern,industial,residential,green belt, paved conveys fresh water to the aquifer. Artificial
areas, roof top area etc., recharge to groundwater is a process by which the
• Hydro-meteorological characters like rainfall groundwater reservoir is augmented at a rate
duration, general pattern and intensity of exceeding that obtained under natural conditions
rainfall. or replenishments. Any manmade scheme or facility
that adds water to an aquifer may be considered as
Potential Areas “Artificial Recharge System”. The main source of
• Where ground water levels are declining on water for R.V.College of Engineering campus is
regular basis. underground water, which is drawn from the aquifer
• Where substantial amount of ground water is through bore wells. There is need to assess the
inadequate during lean months. quality and quantity of available groundwater.
• Where there is rapid urbanization, infiltration Due to the proximity of Vrishabhavathi River
of rain water into the subsoil has decreased carrying a portion of Bangalore city sewage, the
drastically and recharging of ground water has aquifers beneath the college campus are prone to
diminished. contamination with the harmful bacteria creating
health hazards. The contaminated water is likely to
Methods & Techniques enter the aquifers of the campus and pollute
Urban areas groundwater resulting in quality deterioration. The
Roof top rain water/storm runoff harvesting through situation has prompted conservation of rainwater
a. Recharge Pit for artificial recharging of groundwater.
b. Recharge Trench The rainwater harvesting and groundwater
c. Tube Well recharging work was taken up on three sectors of
d. Recharge Well the campus with the help of the Central Ground
Water Board (CGWB) which funded Rs.45 lakhs
Rural areas between 2001 and 2004. Thanks to the groundwater
Rain water harvesting through recharging efforts over four years, Bangalore
(a) Gully Plug (b) Contour Bund (c) Gabion University’s Jnanabharathi campus can soon stop
Structure (d) Percolation Tank (e) Check Dam/ relying on outside sources for its water needs. The
Cement Plug/ Nala (f) Bund Recharge Shaft (g) Dug rainwater harvesting measures also extend to the
well Recharge (h) Groundwater Dams/Subsurface adjacent Sports Authority of India campus. A
Dyke beneficial fallout is that the groundwater table on
the campus has gone up by 7 to 8 meters and the
Urban areas polluted water from Vrishbhavathi river (which runs
In urban areas, rain water available from along the campus) will no longer get into borwells
rooftop of buildings, paved and unpaved areas goes on the campus. The borewells used to yield 1 to 3
waste. This water can be recharged to aquifers and cubic meters/hour earlier and now give up to 5cu.m/
can be utilized gainfully at the time of need. The hour.

181
Study Site Harvesting of rainwater from rooftops of
The field study has been conducted in the Administrative and R&D blocks of RVCE
campus area of R.V.College of Engineering; campus (Fig 1).
Bangalore .The college campus area spreads over The harvested water is collected in Gravity
21.3 ha (52.5 acres) and is on Bangalore –Mysore Head Recharge Settling Tank.
Road (in between Jnanabharathi and Kengeri). The The water infiltration into the subsoil in the first
population of the campus is about 3500 of which compartment (inlet) where silt and heavy
250 are faculty members and the day scholars are particles are settled.
about 2000. The campus residents including Then the water rises up and made to fall into
hostellers depend on bore well water. The study area the second compartment (outlet) where again
receives 880 mm of rainfall annually. Soil of the the silt and other particles are made to settle.
campus area is hard gravelly with extremely good The water level rises up and injected into the
drainage property. bore well directly.
Out of 21.3 ha (213030 sq.m.) of the campus
area, the buildings cover 67,778 sq.m. and roads Thus the method involves subsoil recharge as well
cover 2000 sq.m. totaling 69,778 sq.m. Thus the as direct injection of water into the bore well.
permeable area works out to 1, 46, 973 sq.m. The
impermeable area will contribute for a maximum Initial analysis
yield of rainfall falling over it which is available In the present study, rain water harvesting
for harvesting, i.e. 52.20 million liters. The water from the roof top of administrative and R&D blocks
table fluctuation in a well has been monitored are considered for recharging bore well located in
continuously for assessing yield of water. Water and front of the administrative block (North West) of
soil quality tests have also been carried out. the college campus(Table.1,2,3 4).
There are seven borewells and one open well
in the campus area with water level ranging from Design computations:
20m to 25m below ground level. Recently, a Data involved are:
borewell was drilled in the campus and water was Point rainfall.
struck at 161 m below the ground level. There is Catchment details-area of rooftops of buildings,
acute pressure on the aquifer system in the campus permeable and impermeable area.
because of continuous pumping. This condition has Soil characteristics- moisture content,
resulted in lowering of water table and may result permeability and chemical composition.
in entry of sewage water into the aquifer system. Groundwater quality- pH, hardness, etc.
The pumping of bore wells is continuous sometimes
exceeding 12 hours. It can be inferred that the soil Artificial Recharge through Gravity Head
has good vertical transmission capacity. Hence, Recharge Settling Tank
induced recharge is adopted for one bore well in Gravity head recharge settling tank is near the
Phase I of the project. Since the College Campus is existing borewell in front of the administrative block
situated near the fringe of Bangalore south, the (Fig 2). It is of brick masonry structure 3.7m x 3.2m
hydrological and hydro-geological characteristics x 2.44m embedded below the ground level. A baffle
of Bangalore city are presumed to prevail in the wall of size 3.7m x 0.23m x 1.25m is provided in
campus area too. the middle of the settling tank dividing it into two
compartments. At the bottom of the tank for the
Methodology entire area, sand bed for a depth of 150mm and stone
The rainwater-harvesting programme is aggregate for a depth of 200mm is filled in, to act
divided into three main stages, and they are: as a filter bed.
• Stage A- Initial analysis The water from the roof top is led into the
• Stage B- Design settling tank through the inlet, and made to fall over
• Stage C- Assessment. the filter bed in the inlet compartment for recharge
The methodology of investigation involves – through infiltration into the soil. When the rate of

182
inflow of rainwater through the inlet is greater than (Table.5)
the rate of infiltration, then water rises upward in 6. Since the consumption of potable water per
the inlet compartment and then the water flows over person is considerably less when compared to
the baffle wall and fills the outlet compartment the consumption for non-potable purposes, the
through which water is directly injected into the bore recharged water will be more economical for
well. use.
7. As the recharging of the borewell is under initial
Assessment stages, there is moderate improvement in water
Water Level Monitoring quality. (Table 6).
Water level fluctuations in the recharge
borewell are recorded daily since Sep- 2003 using Conclusions
water level recorder continuously. The graph in Fig • Roof top rainwater is channelised into the well
3a, 3b and 3c shows water level fluctuations in the and recharges under gravity flow condition
recharge borewell. through gravity head recharge settling tank.
It is observed that about 2.39 million liters of • Recharge water should be silt free as far as
water have been harvested (Fig.4). possible.
The Fig 5 presents the plot of water level in • Most suitable for the areas where groundwater
the Gravity Head Recharge Settling Tank (GHRST) levels are deep.
versus time. It is observed that whenever there is • The runoff of first rain should not be allowed
rainfall, there is rise in the curve indicating recharge to percolate into the rain harvesting structures.
into the ground, which fulfils the function of Thus it should be drained off through a bye-
providing the gravity head recharge-settling tank. pass arrangement provided near the harvesting
structures.
Benefits of the scheme are:
• Proper utilization of rainwater. References
• Restore supplies from aquifers depleted due to 1. Anil Agarwal, Director, Centre for Science of
excessive draft or improve supplies from Environment, New Delhi at http://
aquifers lacking adequate recharge. www.cseindia. Org/Oct-Nov 2000“
• Improves physical and chemical quality of 2. CGWB (1998): Ground Water Resources of
groundwater and create fresh water layers. Karnataka, Government of India, Bangalore.
• Prevents brackish water intrusion into fresh 3. Karanth K.R. (1987) Groundwater Assessment,
water aquifer near the watercourses carrying Development, & Management, Tata McGraw-
sewage. Hill, Publishing Company ltd., New Delhi.
4. Rain Water Harvesting and Conservation
Results Manual (2002): Govt. of India, Consultancy,
1. Water levels observed in the recharge well Services Organization, CPWD, New Delhi,
throughout the year and water level fluctuations 2002
are plotted. It is observed that during the 5. Todd, D.K (2003): Ground water Hdrology, 2nd
injection of water into the recharge borewell edition, John Wiley, USA, New York Japan.
there is appreciable rise in water level (Fig.3a,
3b, 3c).
2. It is observed that about 2.39 million liters of
water have been harvested (Fig.4).
3. It is observed from the gravity head recharge
settling the rate of infiltration is 58.69mm/hour.
4. The Coefficient of Harvesting of Rainwater
using GHRST works out to 0.82.
5. The Benefit - Cost ratio is found to be 1.55. So
the Artificial Recharge project is feasible.

183
 Fig 1: Layout plan of the artificial recharge system

Fig. 2 : Details of gravity head recharge settling tank and recharge borewell

Fig. 3a: Water level fluctuation in recharge bore well

184
Fig. 3b : Water level fluctuation in recharge borewell

Fig. 3c : Water level fluctuation in recharge borewell

185
 Fig. 4 : Cumulative water harvested (2.39 million liters)

The Fig. 4 shows the plot of cumulative water harvested during the monsoon period from the water
level data of the Gravity Head Recharge Settling Tank. During this period 2.39 million liters have
been harvested.

Fig. 5 : Water level in recharge settling tank during recharge

186
 Table 1 : Preliminary data Table 2 : Assessment of harvestable water
for recharging of borewell
Description Areas
Area of the campus 52.6 acres i.e., 21.303 No. Description Data
hectares or 213,030 sq m (a) Roof top area of the
Impermeable area : administrative block 1123.75 sqm
i) Building area 67,778.00 sq m (b) Roof top area of R&D 490.00 sqm
ii) Road 2,000 sq m block
Total 69,778 sq m Total 1613.75 sqm
Permeable area 143,252 sq m (c) Normal annual rainfall 880 mm
(d) Quantity of water 1207 cubic meter
harvested or 1.20 million
litres
(e) Effective quantity of 1002 cubic meter
rainwater for recharge or 1.02 million
through bore well litres

Table 3 : Computation of water demand for administrative, R&D block phase -I

No. Block No. of users Water demand Total water

Drinking ToiletAt 4 lpcd demand lpcd
At 3 lpcd for flushing
1. Administrative Students: 540
block Staff : 45 3X585=1755 2340 4095
2. R & D Block 35 3X35=105 lpcd 4X35=140 lpcd 245
3. Gardening 1000
4. Cleaning 1000
Grand total 6340 litres/day

Table 4 : Summary

No. Description Data

i) Roof top area 1613.75 sq m.
ii) Average point rainfall 880 mm.
iii) Harvestable quantity of water 1.20 million litres.
iv) Effective quantity of water for rechargingBore well 1.02 million litres.
v) Annual water demand 2.02 million litres.

187
 Table 5 : Economic analysis

(a) Cost of the project for recharging 1 million liters of rainwater Rs.1, 15,695.00
(b) Projected cost of the project for 10years @5.25% Interest for
recharging 1Million liters of Rain water Rs.1, 92,990.00
(c) Cost per year of the Project for recharging 1Million liters of Rain water Rs. 19, 299.00
(d) Cost of 1 Million liters of water as per Water Board tariff for one year Rs. 49,300.00
(e) Benefit from the Recharging Project (d)-(c) Rs. 30,001.00
(f) Benefit- Cost ratio = (e)/(c) = Rs.30,001/Rs.19,299
= 1.55
Hence the Recharging project is found feasible.

Table 6 : Results of water quality analysis

No. CONSTITUENTS Open Recharge Borewell

well Before During recharge
recharge
Sept. Dec. Oct. Feb. Dec. April
2003 2003 2004 2005 2005 2006
A TYPE- cations
1 Calcium (Ca) mg /l 101 110 86 83 83 83 81.2
2 Magnesium (Mg) mg /l 41 52 33 26 35 40 38
3 Sodium (Na) mg / l 167 132 120 99 100 99 85
4 Potassium (K) mg / l 7 5 3 2 2 2 1
5 Total iron (Fe) mg /l 0.2 0.01 0.1 0.08 0.05 0.25 0.6
B TYPE-anions
1 Bicarbonate mg / l 554 573 431 399 391 208 200
2 Carbonate mg / l Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil
3 Chloride mg / l 165 140 109 92 106 124 86
4 Fluoride mg / l 0.35 0.35 0.4 0.6 0.62 0.2 0.4
5 Nitrate mg / l 60 23 24 18 30 32 29
6 Sulphates mg / l 99 94 88 60 77 75 22
C Total dissolved salts (TDS) mg/l 900 880 710 610 660 620 580
D Specific conductance µmhos/cm 1580 1560 1230 1060 1140 1100 1053
E Total hardness mg / l 416 485 348 312 348 372 308
F pH 7.27 7.29 7.2 7.10 7.03 7.00 7.00

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 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

30. Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting and

its Potential - Case Studies in New Delhi
*Ram Karan Singh **Nitin Jakhar

Abstract :
Water is the basic human need. It is essential component not only for living but
also for social, religious, cultural, economic and political reasons. Yet there is severe water
crisis, both in terms of quantity and quality, facing the entire globe and the only reason
suspected, which can lead to a third world war. There are many reasons for this situation
which include inappropriate use of surface water resources, change in water usage pattern,
change in hydrological cycle due to human intervention in nature, overexploitation of
groundwater, wastages and pollution of both surface and groundwater resources. Some
solutions, which can help ameliorate the situation, are judicious use of available resources,
preventing pollution, techniques such as rainwater harvesting which include rejuvenation
of traditional rainwater harvesting structures and employing alternate sources of water
like seawater, gray water and treated sewage effluent. In this paper, the technique of
rainwater harvesting through rooftops in an urban scenario was looked into. The basic
requirements, like the kind of data needed for doing such analysis and the challenges faced
while employing the technique, were gathered by reviewing literature on the topic and the
experiences from other case studies and success stories. The different aspects from which
the problem can be viewed (modeling, law and policy, economic, etc) were also studied.
The study is extended for the study of effectiveness of rooftop rainwater harvesting in
decreasing the gap between demand and supply with the help of two case studies carried
out in Delhi. The methodology employed includes collection of rainfall data, finding out
the area on which rainwater can be harvested for storage and subsequent reuse and
calculating the volume of water that can be substituted with rainwater. At the end, a basic
design of a rooftop rainwater harvesting structure for the two cases was discussed along
with some important considerations for designing and constructing it.

INTRODUCTION mountain glaciers and only 1% is available as surface

Water is the basic need of life and the water flowing in rivers, streams, etc and 22% of it is
increasing demand of good quality water for locked up as underground water. With excessive
irrigation, industry and domestic purpose misuse, the quality of water is deteriorating
necessitates its judicious use. Of the total water on everywhere, particularly of underground water. All
earth, only 2.7 % constitutes freshwater which is our ecosystems are under tremendous pressure. It
largely (77%) locked up in the polar icecaps and is estimated by the United Nations Environment

*Ph.D. and Post Doc. (NIRE, Japan), Associate Professor and Head Department of Natural Resources,
TERI-SAS (Deemed University), Darbari Seth Block, Habitat Place, Lodi Road, New Delhi-110003,
Tel.: 24682100/24682111 (ext.2618) mail: singhrk@teri.res.in, Website: www.terischool.ac.in
**M.Sc. Student, Department of Natural Resources, TERI-SAS (Deemed University) Darbari Seth Block,
Habitat Place, Lodi Road, New Delhi-110003

189
Programme (UNEP) that more than 2000 million
people would live under conditions of high water
stress by the year 2050 and water would be a limiting
factor for all development activities in most of the
regions in the world (Bhattacharya and Rane, 2003).
If the present trend continues, it is presumed that by
the year 2010, more than 50% of the world population
will live in urban areas. While overall global
population growth is slowing down, the number of
people living under water-stress condition is expected
to increase fourfold, to nearly 2 billion people by the
middle of next century (Knight, 1998). ). These trends
show that there is increasing pressure on the world’s
freshwater resources. Due to the increasing water
demand, alternative sources such as stormwater and
treated effluent reuse of water need to be considered
(Constandopoulos, 2005).

Site Description
Both the sites chosen for case study are in Fig. 1 : India Habitat Center
Delhi’s south and southwest districts. From 1960 The government school (Fig. 2), which was
to 2001 data on ground water it has been observed chosen for the case study, is located in West Delhi.
that a decline of groundwater table 8-20 m has been It is Sarvodaya Kanya Vidyalaya in A-Block, Janak
recorded in southwest district while in south district Puri, New Delhi. The drinking water situation in
the decline has been 8-30 m (Bhattacharya and Southwest Delhi is far worse than any other area in
Rane, 2003). South and southwest districts of Delhi the city. The water tables are too low and whatever
are comparatively at a disadvantage situation in water can be extracted is hard water.
terms of providing piped water supply, as the water
treatment plants are located in northern part of LAYOUT OF THE SCHOOL
Delhi. The demand and supply gap in these two In urban areas, there is high variability in the
districts is high because of being posh and
TIN ROOF
economically developed nature.

India Habitat Center

Though many of its features are really a class
apart but still some things can be done on the
environmental side of it. One of them is going for
rainwater harvesting in the campus. Though a
SCHOOL ENTRANCE
rainwater harvesting system is already present in
the campus but it is on a very small scale and most JUNIOR
SCHOOL
of the water is allowed to go for artificial recharge PLAYGROUND
of groundwater through abandoned borewells. Also,
not all the buildings in the campus are provided with
a drainage network for stormwater and the SCHOOL
abandoned borewells are present only for 2 Fig.2 Layout of the School Building
buildings. Therefore, going for rainwater harvesting
and storing the water for non-potable purposes can Green Area
be taken up. Roof area for rain harvesting
Government School Concretised ground area for rain harvesting

190
amount of rainfall received at different locations. Table 1: Value of ‘c’ for different catchments
Thus, for carrying out studies on a small area, data
collected from meteorological departments is not Type of roof catchments Runoff coefficient
of much use. The persons studying the area should Roof catchments
place their own equipments to know the exact
Tiles 0.8-0.9
climatic conditions in the area. In this case, study
only rainfall data was required and thus rain gauges Corrugated metal sheets 0.7-0.9
should have been installed in the area of the study. Ground surface coverings
However, in these studies rain gauges could not be Concrete 0.6-0.8
installed for data collection due to a limitation. There
Brick pavement 0.5-0.6
was limited time for which the studies were done,
which did not encompass the entire year and did Untreated ground catchments
not coincide with the rainfall season. Thus, data had Soil on slopes less than 10% 0.0-0.3
to be collected from other sources. Rocky natural catchments 0.2-0.5
Green area 0.05-0.1
METHODOLOGY
Collection of rainfall data Source: Bhattacharya & Rane, 2003
The rainfall data for 31 years (1975 – 2005)
was collected from 2 different sources, one from OBSERVATION AND ANALYSIS
IARI (Indian Agricultural Research Institute), New Analysis of rainfall data
Delhi and other from IMD (Indian Meteorological The time series of rainfall data is shown in
Department), New Delhi. Using the maximum, following Fig.3, which shows the trend of rainfall
minimum and average rainfalls, the storage capacity in 31 years. It can be seen that rainfall in Delhi is
of the rainwater tank can be calculated for these highly variable. Maximum and minimum rainfalls
events and thus, can be related to the optimal size recorded in the region for the given period is 142.4
of the storage tank based on cost benefit analysis. cm and 33.1 cm, respectively. The average comes
Calculation of amount of rainwater that can be out to be 78.5 cm.
harvested over a rooftop of a given area
The amount of rainfall that can be harvested
on a given rooftop area can be calculated using the
Rational formula which is,
Q = c*i*A
Where,
Q = amount of discharge from the roof (in m3)
A = Area of the rooftop (in m2)
i = depth of annual rainfall received on the roof
(in m)
c = runoff coefficient (no units) Fig.3 Time series of rain fall data from 1975 to 2005
Runoff coefficient plays an important role in
assessing the runoff availability and it depends on However, if a rainwater storage tank is
catchment characteristics. It is the factor, which constructed, its capacity will depend on the maximum
accounts for the fact that not all rainfall falling on amount of rainfall that occurs in that area in
the catchment can be collected. Some rainfall will consecutive events, with the assumption that the
be lost from the catchment by evaporation and stored water is not used immediately and the entire
retention on the surface itself (Bhattacharya and volume from the consecutive events is stored.
Rane, 2003). The value of ‘c’ depends on the According to data, in the past 31 years, the maximum
material used to make the roof. This value varies amount of rainfall recorded in consecutive events
for different materials and is given in Table 1. is 514 mm. Since, all the rainwater stored is used
simultaneously; we can safely assume that the rain

191
tank meant for storing 514 mm of rainwater will store Thus, the total area available for rainwater
the entire volume and somewhat more and that there harvesting is 10,200 m2 (rooftop area) plus 8,700 m2
will be no overflow. (concretized area), which makes a total of 18,900
m2, almost half of the entire area. The total amount
Analysis of data collected on sites of rainfall that can be harvested in the area is
India Habitat Centre calculated using Rational formula as, where the
The demand for water in this campus is average annual rainfall in the area was taken as
extremely high. 4,80,000 litres of water is pumped 785.7 mm and the value of ‘c’ was taken to be 0.6.
everyday from groundwater along with a water It comes out to be 89,09,838 litres of water every
supply of about 15,000 litres from Delhi Jal Board, year, i.e. 7,42,486.5 litres per month or 24,749.6
to fulfill all its needs. Delhi Jal Board water is only litres per day, on an average (Table 4).
used as drinking water. There is an underground On analysis, it is seen that in the entire campus
storage tank of the capacity of 14 lakh litres. The a lot of water is used, which cannot be substituted
water use for different purposes is shown in entirely with harvested rainwater. The figures
Table-2. obtained show that more than half of the water used
in horticultural activities can be substituted by
harvested rainwater, which makes only 5% of the
Table 2: Total water consumption at IHC total demand every day. However, if a rainwater
Process Amount of structure is made in the campus then its capacity
water used can be calculated using Rational formula, which can
per day (l) also be applied for calculating the storage volume
Softening process 20,000 of the tank. Here, the symbols can be used to define
as follows,
In sophisticated machinery and labs 220,000
Q=c*i*A
Horticultural activities 40,000 Where
House keeping work 20,000 Q = Storage capacity of the tank
c = Runoff coefficient
Toilet flushing 70,000
i = Maximum rainfall in consecutive events
For supplying NDMC 60,000 (514 mm)
Leakage losses 50,000 A = Area of catchment
Q comes out to be 77,71,680 litres i.e. the storage
Total 5,00,000 capacity of the rainwater storage tank has to be this
much 77,71,680 litres = 7,772 m3
The purpose of the study is to know whether
harvested rainwater can substitute for some amount The dimensions of the storage tank of this
of water used in horticultural and flushing purposes. capacity, if the depth is kept 10 m, should be: length
The total area of India Habitat Centre, as provided – 28 m and breadth – 28 m, which makes it a 7,840
by the IHC Office, is 36,440 m2, which is distributed m3 capacity tank. Or if a circular tank is made,
as shown in Table 3. having same depth, then the diameter should be 31.6
m to make a tank of capacity 7,838 m3. The capacity
Table 3 : Total area of IHC of the tank to be designed can be obtained with mass
Area (m2) curve analysis. Then structural design and economic
Rooftops 10200
aspects can be worked out as a civil work by
appropriate consulting organizations.
Green area 7000
Useful concretised area 8700 Government School
Not useful concretised area 10540 Data regarding the sources of water, supply as
well as borewell, was collected and water was
Total area 36440
characterized based on which it is used for. In this

192
 Table 4 : IHC – Harvestable - rainfall volume

Rainfall Area Runoff Volume of Volume of Volume of

depth (mm) (Sq.m.) coefficient harvestable harvestable harvestable
water per water per water
annum month per day
(c*i*A) (c*i*A) (c*i*A)
i A c Vy (in litres) Vm (in litres) Vd (in litres)
Maximum rainfall 1,423.6 18,900 0.6 1,61,43,624 13,45,302 44,843.4 (10%)
Minimum rainfall 331.3 18,900 0.6 37,56,942 3,13,078.5 10,436 (2.1%)
Average rainfall 785.7 18,900 0.6 89,09,838 7,42,486.5 24,749.6 (5%)

Table 5 : Government School – Harvestable-rainfall volume

Rainfall Area Runoff Volume of Volume of Volume of

depth (mm) (Sq.m.) coefficient harvestable harvestable harvestable
water per water per water
annum month per day
(c*i*A) (c*i*A) (c*i*A)
i A c Vy (in litres) Vm (in litres) Vd (in litres)
Maximum rainfall 1,423.60 2,900 0.6 24,77,064 2,06,422 6,880.73 (64%)
Minimum rainfall 331.3 2,900 0.6 5,76,462 48,038.5 1,601.28 (15%)
Average rainfall 785.7 2,900 0.6 13,67,118 1,13,926.5 3,797.55 (35%)

school, the supply water from Delhi Jal Board (DJB) the water stored in the water tank in a given time,
is the only source of drinking water and it is not used the time for which the pump operates per day and
elsewhere. It is stored in an underground storage the amount of water pumped out everyday was
tank of volume 1,06,000 litres. The water from supply calculated. Change in depth of water in the tanks
comes to the tank everyday and it runs for 1 hr multiplied by the dimensions of the tanks gave the
approximately everyday. Water required for volume of water pumped in the tanks in the given
gardening and toilet purposes is drawn from ground time. On an average, if the borewell pump operates
using a borewell, which is stored in 2 overhead for 2 hrs a day then, Total Discharge per day, V =
tanks. This water is used as such without any type 5.2 m3/ hr * 2 = 10.4 m3/ day or 10,400 litres/ day.
of treatment. After studying the above data, it was noted that
Water from the DJB is not metered, but the 10,400 litres of groundwater is used in toilets and
daily average consumption was calculated using the gardens annually, which, if substituted by harvested
water bills received by the school. On seeing the rainwater, can reduce the amount of water extracted
bills, it was established that the average consumption from ground and save the power used to pump the
rate of supply water was 100 kilolitres per month water from ground. Thus, to find the amount of
or 334-litres/ day. But in the summer months, the water, which can be harvested in the school campus
rate of consumption increases slightly as seen in for storage and subsequent reuse, the total
the billing. harvestable area was found out. For this, the entire
Water from bore well is also not metered, so a rooftop area plus the concretized area within the
primary study was done to calculate the discharge campus had to be found out. The rooftop area was
rate of the bore pipe. Borewell water either is found out to be 2327.5 m2 and the ground level
pumped to overhead tanks or is directly used for concretized area was 572.5 m2. This makes the total
gardening. Using the discharge rate, the volume of harvestable area as 2900 m2.

193
 The amount of water harvestable in the school rainwater harvesting has been estimated. Two case
can be found out using the Rational formula. On studies, one of IHC and the other of a government
calculations it comes out to be,2900 sq m * 785.7 school, have been prepared. This was related to the
mm * 0.6 = 13,67,118 l peryear.This is equivalent demand and supply of water in the two campuses,
to 1,13,926 l/month or 3,797.55 l/day. This amount whether the harvested water can reduce the gap
can substitute for the water used for gardening between the two. However, it was found out that in
purposes and it will approximately substitute for both the cases there is dependence on groundwater
about 35% of the total demand per day. The capacity as compared to supply water. Since, demand for
of the rainwater storage structure in the campus, supply water is not much, the water is extracted as
which most probably is an underground tank, was much as it is required and thus, the harvested
calculated to be 8,94,360 litres8, 94,360 liters = quantity of rainwater becomes minimalist as
894.4 m3The dimensions of the storage tank of this compared to the demand. There are no limitations
capacity, if depth is taken as 5 m, could be length – on use of groundwater, it is almost equivalent to be
13.4 m and breadth – 13.4 m, which makes it an free and hence it is tapped as and when is required
approximately 898 m3 capacity tank. Again, the in desired quantities. Though the need for rainwater
circular version with same depth will have a harvesting is not felt as much but for sustainability,
diameter of 7.6 m to make a capacity of 907 m3. the technique of rainwater harvesting is highly
Table 4 and 5 also show the maximum and the welcomed. The harvested rainwater would only
minimum amounts of rainfall that can be harvested substitute only a small portion of their demand but
in IHC and the school. nonetheless it is essential. One more point that was
noticed was, that the bigger the campus, the more
Rainwater Harvesting Structure water is harvested as compared to the needs but, if
The rainwater harvesting structure proposed, the campus is highly commercialized and have to
for the two cases, is a very simple underground cater to people of higher living standard then, even
structure having basic components. The raintank the comparatively more harvested water will
contains an inlet from a first-flush pit through a mesh substitute less percentage of the total demand (in
filter; a low water level monitor, an outlet for water the school 65% of the demand would be satisfied
supply and a pipe-conveying overflow to the sewage but in IHC only 5% could be substituted).
drainage pipe. Rainwater collected from roofs flows During the study, the biggest constraint was
via stormwater pipes through a “first-flush” pit into of time. The study was limited to only 5 months
the rainwater storage tank. If the rain tank’s capacity and that too, from the viewpoint of rainfall, were
is exceeded, overflow is directed through a pipe, not the rainy months. Hence, primary data on
which joins with the sewage pipe. If a more sensitive rainfall, which varies highly in an urban
structure is desired, then dual strategy could be environment, could not be collected also; the
adopted (Appan, 1999). In it, there are 2 water tanks: monitoring of the rainwater harvesting structure
the supply water tank and rainwater tank. The two after construction could not be taken up to compare
water tanks will be separate units but they will be the predicted and the actual results. However, this
inter-connected by a simple DMS such that when could be done by the authorities in the two campuses
the rainwater tank is empty, potable water will be and can be used as reference for other such
pumped into it to a pre-determined level and the structures.
water will be used for non-potable uses. The Water harvesting is a very simple way to ensure
operation of both these tanks will ensure that potable availability of water in water stressed areas and
and non-potable requirements are fully satisfied. It seasons but it not the only solution to the problem.
is ensured that the inflow pipe from the distribution There is a need for a more comprehensive integrated
tank is at least 15 cm above the top water level of approach to water management with traditional
the rainwater tank so that there can be no back flow. structural approaches that combine construction of
dams and reservoirs, and rainwater projects for
CONCLUSIONS multipurpose use elements of a non-structural
In the present study, the potential of rooftop approach, along with suitable changes in other

194
sectors like law, policy, governance and a stress on Figtree Palace: A case study in water sensitive urban
monitoring and modeling of the existing structures development (WSUD). Urban Water 1(4): 335-343.
and techniques. However, there are some constraints Coombes, P. J., Kuczera, G., Kalma, J. D. and Argue, J.
to its application. Water harvesting is not applicable R., 2002. An evaluation of the benefits of source control
measures at the regional scale. Urban Water 4(4): 307-
in all situations (for example, in extremely low
320.
rainfall areas). Prevention of local and downstream CWC, 2005. General guidelines for water audit and water
pollution of water bodies has also emerged as a big conservation. Central Water Commission, Evaluation of
area of concern and steps have to be taken to ensure Water Utilisation Directorate, Government of India,
that. Ministry of Water Resources, New Delhi.
Desarda, H. M., 2003. Towards community-based
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS rainwater harvesting: Some conceptual and policy issues.
We would like to take this opportunity to thank In: Agarwal A., Narain S. & Khurana I. (Eds.), Making
Dr. B. C. Sabata, Department of Environment, for Water Everybody’s Business: Practice and Policy of Water
providing guidance throughout this study for Harvesting. Centre for Science and Environment, New
Delhi, pp. 338-339.
providing relevant material and providing valuable
Fewkes, A., 2000. Modelling the performance of
feedback at all stages of the study. rainwater collection systems: towards a generalized
approach. Urban Water 1(4): 323-333.
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Agarwal, A., Narain, S. and Khurana, I. (Eds.), 2003. supply engineering (Vol 1). Khanna Publishers, New
Making Water Everybody’s Business: Practice and Policy Delhi.
of Water Harvesting. Centre for Science and Environment, Ghosh, Asish, 2003. Natural Resources Conservation and
New Delhi Environment Management. APH Publication Corporation,
Appan, A., 1999. A dual-mode system for harnessing New Delhi.
roofwater for non-potable uses. Urban Water 1(4): 317- Gopinath, K. R., 2003. Small yet effective. In: Agarwal
321. A., Narain S. & Khurana I. (Eds.), Making Water
Bannerjee, A. and Bhatnagar, M., 2003. Capital hope. Everybody’s Business: Practice and Policy of Water
In: Agarwal A., Narain S. & Khurana I. (Eds.), Making Harvesting. Centre for Science and Environment, New
Water Everybody’s Business: Practice and Policy of Water Delhi, pp. 271-273.
Harvesting. Centre for Science and Environment, New Junqi, L., Xiaojun, L., Ping, Y. and Wu, C., 2005. The
Delhi, pp. 211-214. study of optimal volume of rainwater harvesting and
Bharadwaj, C., 2001. Water scarcity? Try rainwater utilization projects in cities. In: Wang, X. C. and Chen,
harvesting. Outlook: Money. 26 September, 2001 W. (Eds.), Future of urban wastewater systems –
(http://www1.iinvestor.com/scripts// Decentralisation and reuse. Proceedings of IWA
IIH021C1.asp?sectionid=10&categoryid=59&articleid=2636) Conference 2005, Xi’an China Architecture and Building
Bhattacharya, A. & Rane, O., 2003. Harvesting Press, China, pp. 189-196.
rainwater: Catch water where it falls! Centre for Civil Khushoo, T. N., 1986. Environmental Priorities in India
Society, Working Paper No. 0076 and Sustainable Development, Presidential address.
(www.ccsindia.org/policy/enviro/studies/wp0076.pdf) Seventy Third Session. Indian Science Congress
CGWB, 2003. Rainwater harvesting to augment Association. New Delhi. pp. 224.
groundwater resources. Ministry of water resources, Knight, P., 1998. Environment-population: outlook bleak
CGWB, Faridabad on water resources. Washington: World News Interpress
Chilton, J. C., Maidment, G. G., Marriott, D., Francis, Service, IPS, 17 December.
A. and Tobias, G., 1999. Case study of a rainwater Milburn, A., 1996. A global freshwater convention ± the
recovery system in a commercial building with a large best means towards sustainable freshwater management.
roof. Urban Water 1(4): 345-354. In Proceedings Stockholm water symposium (pp. 9-11).
Constandopoulos, J., 2005. Water reuse and 4-9 August.
environmental benefits post Sydney 2000 Olympics at Nair, S. S., 2003. Facilitating urban water harvesting. In:
the baseball and athletic fields park. In: Tsagarakis, K. P. Agarwal A., Narain S. & Khurana I. (Eds.), Making Water
(Eds.), Conference Preprint Book 1. IWA International Everybody’s Business: Practice and Policy of Water
Conference on Water Economics, Statistics and Finance, Harvesting. Centre for Science and Environment, New
Rethymno, Greece, pp. 425-432. Delhi, pp. 336-337.
Coombes, P. J., Argue, J. R. and Kuczera, G., 1999. Nair, S. S., 2003. The Chennai experience. In: Agarwal

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A., Narain S. & Khurana I. (Eds.), Making Water Harvesting. Centre for Science and Environment, New
Everybody’s Business: Practice and Policy of Water Delhi, pp. 329-332.
Harvesting. Centre for Science and Environment, New Vishwanath, S., 2001. Domestic rainwater harvesting:
Delhi, pp. 193-198. Some applications in Bangalore, India; RWH Conference,
Niemczynowicz, J., 1999. Urban hydrology and water IITD, New Delhi; Paper-H2.
management- present and future challenges. Urban Water Yipeng, S., Hua, Z., Xingwen, Z. and Fenglin, Y., 2005.
1(1): 1-14. Expanding water sources and settling supply and demand
Rao, K. H. V. D. and Roy, P. S., 2003. A suitable site. In: dilemma – current water supply and water saving
Agarwal A., Narain S. & Khurana I. (Eds.), Making Water measurements in Dalian city. In: Wang, X. C. and Chen,
Everybody’s Business: Practice and Policy of Water W. (Eds.), Future of urban wastewater systems –
Harvesting. Centre for Science and Environment, New Decentralisation and reuse. Proceedings of IWA
Delhi, pp. 243-245. Conference 2005, Xi’an China Architecture and Building
Sabino, A. A., Querido, A. L. and Sousa, M. I., 1999. Press, China, pp. 205-210.
Flood management in Cape Verde: a case study of Praria. Zaizen, M., Urakawa, T., Matsumoto, Y. and Takai,
Urban Water 1(2): 161-166. H., 1999. The collection of rainwater from dome stadiums
Shree Padre, 2003 and Sujithkumar, C. K. (Eds.). in Japan. Urban Water 1(4): 355-359.
Rainwater harvesting. Published by Altermedia, India Zhu, K., Zhang, L. and Berndtsson, R., 2005. Quality
Singh G. D. and Poonia T. C., 2003. Fundamentals of of harvested rainwater in Gansu and disinfection
Watershed Management Technology. Yash Publishing alternatives. In: Wang, X. C. and Chen, W. (Eds.), Future
House, New Delhi of urban wastewater systems – Decentralisation and reuse.
Soni, Vikram, 2003. Water and carrying capacity of a Proceedings of IWA Conference 2005, Xi’an China
city: Delhi. Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 38 (45): Architecture and Building Press, China, pp. 833-841.
4745-4749 Some websites:
Subramanya, K., 2005. Engineering Hydrology (2nd Www.cgwb.gov.in, www.cwc.nic.in, www.mowr.gov.in,
Edn.). Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Company Ltd., New www.rainwaterclub.org
Delhi. Www.rainwaterharvesting.org, www.wrmin.nic.in
Vani, M. S., 2003. Enabling law for water harvesting. In: www.un.org/esa/sustdev/csd/csd13/casestudies/
Agarwal A., Narain S. & Khurana I. (Eds.), Making Water india_rainwater.pdf
Everybody’s Business: Practice and Policy of Water

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 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

31. Rain Water Harvesting - A Technique for Augmentation of

Ground Water in Deeper Aquifers of Pune Urban Area
*S. C. Paranjpe **Dr. N. J. Pawar

Introduction annual growth rate ranging from 8.9 to 10.8 percent

“Water” has a decisive role to play in every per annum. The population of Pune urban area is
aspect of our existence. In Yujurveda water has been 35.5 lakhs as per 2001 census.
described as the elixir of life, the source of energy
that sustains life on the earth. The scarcity of this Climatic features of the area
natural resource can usher disastrous consequences The climate of the Pune urban area is on
for two basic reasons. First, it is non-substitutable the whole dry and invigorating. The hot summer
and secondly its quantity in the hydrological cycle is season starts from March and continues up to early
fixed. Despite giant leaps in the field of water June. This is followed by the southwest monsoon
resources through large, medium and minor irrigation season from June to early October. The succeeding
projects, the problem of scarcity of water resources period up to November is the post monsoon or
for drinking, agriculture and industries persists even transition season. The cold season begins from
today. On one hand rapid urbanization and industrial November and continues up to February. On the
development coupled with population explosion has basis of Precipitation Efficiency (P.E) &
resulted in the increased demand for water and on Temperature Efficiency (T.E) the climate of the area
the other hand decreased the area of natural recharge is classified as Sub Humid & Tropical and on the
to ground water. The dependency on ground water basis of Moisture Index (M.I) & Potential
for domestic, industrial and agricultural use has Evapotranspiration (P.E.T) it is classified as Semi
increased considerably in the recent years because Arid & Megathermal.
of the unreliability of surface water to meet the The average annual rainfall of the area is
growing demands. 661.30 mm of which 579.10 mm occurs during
The Pune urban area lies in the Deccan Trap monsoon period and remaining 82.20 mm occurs
Hydrologic Province of India and lies between during non-monsoon period. The average number
between the North latitudes 180 16’ and 180 44’ and of rainy days with rainfall of more than 2.5 mm is
East longitudes 730 46’ and 730 56’. It covers an 46.4.
area of 513.96 sq.kms and is included in the Survey
of India toposheet numbers 47F/14 & F/15. The urban Hydrogeology
area includes the Pune Municipal Corporation The entire study area of Pune Metropolitan
(PMC) covering 243.96 sq.kms, three cantonment Region is underlain by Deccan Volcanic Basalts of
boards of Pune (PCB), Kirkee (KCB) and Dehu Upper Cretaceous to Eocene age. The area
(DCB) totally covering an area of 64 sq.kms, Pimpri comprises of various lava flows, which can be
and Chinchwad Municipal Corporation (PCMC) classified in the field into two types as simple and
covering an area of 206 sq.kms. The Pune city has compound flows. The basaltic flows of the study
grown at moderate rates with annual growth rates area are classified as the older Indrayani formation
ranging from 2.2 to 3.5 percent per annum over the overlain by younger Karla formation. From
last four decades. Since seventies the Pimpri- hydrogeological point of view these formations
Chinchwad has grown at a much faster rate i.e. occupy the low-lying flat plain areas and are highly

*Scientist, Central Ground Water Board MSU, 247/11, Deccan College Road, Yerwada, Pune - 6
Tel. 020-26693905 e-mail : paranjpesu@yahoo.co.uk

197
FIG. 1 : MAP SHOWING PUNE URBAN AREA

(source: PMC Environmental Status Report 2003-2004)

198
weathered. As the flows are jointed and fractured 2003) in the area shows a declining trend between
they give rise to moderately good aquifers. In the0.021 meter/year at Chinchwad (Fig 2c) to 0.104
study area, bore wells drilled in these formations near
meter/year at Pune (Fig 2d). The post-monsoon water
to lineaments are high yielding. level trend (1990-2003) also shows decline in water
The ground water levels of hydrograph levels in the urban areas. The maximum decline of
stations monitored by Central Ground Water Board 0.287meter/year is observed at Pune and least of
in the Pune urban area are given in Table 1. It is0.007 meter/year at Chinchwad. In the urban areas,
observed that the ground water levels range between
ground water level fluctuations between pre and post
3 to 6 mbgl during pre monsoon period and ranges monsoon are generally less. This can be because of
between 0.2 to 3 mbgl during post monsoon period. the very limited withdrawal of ground water from
The long term pre-monsoon water level trend (1990-the phreatic aquifer, leakage from water supply pipe
lines and seepage from the drains.
Table - 1 : Ground water levels in Pune urban area
Year Nigadi Kasarwadi Chinchwad Pune
Pre-mon Post-mon Pre-mon Post-mon Pre-mon Post-mon Pre-mon Post-mon
1990 0.4 0.3 2.70 2.12 1.22 0.92
1991 0.87 0.58 2.84 2.47 0.91 0.51
1992 0.86 0.78 2.55 2.19 1.11 0.84 3.37 0.32
1993 0.92 0.53 2.30 1.81 0.41 0.86 3.95 1.98
1994 0.74 0.79 2.22 1.98 0.94 0.73 2.97 1.78
1995 0.92 0.76 2.39 2.01 0.28 0.61 3 2.57
1996 1.28 0.6 2.45 1.82 0.9 0.82 3.6 1.93
1997 1.4 0.73 2.17 2.17 0.87 0.72 6.04 2.71
1998 0.77 0.82 2.16 1.77 0.86 0.75 3.4 2.6
1999 0.26 0.73 3.10 1.95 0.81 0.9 3.9 2.47
2000 0.8 0.68 2.50 1.96 0.62 0.83 1.8 3.84
2001 0.74 0.72 2.29 2.80 1.6 1.17 3.8 2.45
2002 1.2 0.74 3.00 3.00 1 0.85 5 5.2
2003 1 0.6 2.65 2.90 1.35 0.87 5.39 2.52

Fig. 2a

199
Fig. 2b

Fig. 2c

Fig. 2d

200
 The hydrogeological data collected during the ground water availability by artificial recharge
exploratory drilling by CGWB (1999-2002) would be a positive step for sustainable water supply
indicates that in the Pune area, water bearing strata round the year at present and in future.
at deeper levels i.e. below 30 meters generally shows In Pune city the water levels during post
semi confined to confined conditions while the monsoon are shallow (< 3 mbgl) therefore
groundwater in the near surface zone occurs under augmenting of ground water at shallow depths is
unconfined conditions. The weathered vesicular not feasible. Also the phreatic aquifer is prone to
basalts and fractured vesicular basalts in the study pollution due to proximity to industrial area and due
area give rise to highly productive zones. Massive to waste water seepage from drains. Hence
basalts are not very productive as they are hard and considering the overall climatic, hydrogeological,
compact which sometimes give rise to good aquifers physiographic and socio-economic conditions in the
when fractured and jointed. Three aquifer horizons study area the following techniques are feasible for
have been identified in the area wherein ground augmentation of ground water in the deeper aquifers.
water occurs in phreatic aquifers up to 30 meters • Roof top rainwater harvesting.
depth and is tapped through dug wells and shallow • Recharge shafts in old and abandoned quarries
bore wells. The aquifer tapped between 30 to 50
meters depth gives good yield whereas aquifers These techniques are feasible in urban
occurring below 150 meters are discontinuous by pockets where construction of tanks / reservoirs etc.
spread over entire area and are of limited potential is not feasible due to non-availability of land.
evidenced by low to moderate yields. The
transmissivity of the aquifers ranges between 9.17 Roof top rainwater availability
to 675 m3/day/m. The number of houses in the urban part of
the study area is the basis of calculation of roof top
Present Water Supply area. The exact size of the individual house and the
The domestic water supply to the Pune rooftop is not available therefore an average roof
urban areas is through the reservoirs namely size 50 sq. meters is considered for calculation of
Panshet, Khadakvasla and Varasgaon. Presently roof area. The number of houses according to 1991
about 237.25 and 67.89 MCM of water is supplied census and calculated roof area in urban part is given
during the year by PMC and PCMC. The below in Table 2.
urbanization has resulted in development of new
housing societies and construction of multi storied Table 2 : Number of houses and roof area in
housing complexes. The pipelines laid by the urban PMR
municipal corporations are insufficient to meet the
Area No.of houses Roof area
required water needs. During peak summer there is
an inevitable shortfall in the water supply. As a in use (sq.kms)
consequence, many of the housing complexes PMC 3,11,002 15.55
purchase domestic water round the year. Many of PCB 14,908 0.75
these complexes have drilled bore wells which are
KCB 13,862 0.69
being used to supplement the water supply.
PCMC 1,11,181 5.56
Feasibility of Artificial Recharge DCB 7,244 0.36
As mentioned above, one of the core issues Total 4,58,197 22.91
is urban water supply. The ground water based water
supply is most dependable and can supplement the Rainwater availability from rooftop
water supply in Pune urban areas. The recharge area The estimation of water available from
is shrinking due to spurt in the constructional rooftop for harvesting is calculated by multiplying
activities, asphalting and cementing of roads etc. In the roof area with normal rainfall during monsoon
view of this it is essential to augment the ground period. This quantity of rainfall is received at the
water recharge in feasible urban area. Enhancing rooftop but the same is not available for harvesting

201
due to various losses in the form of moisture will get adequate domestic water supply round the
absorption, evaporation, leakages etc. Therefore year through above augmented ground water in Pune
90% of the water available at rooftop is considered city.
to be available for harvesting. The normal rainfall The augmented ground water can also be
of Pune during monsoon is 579.10 mm and during used for gardening, washing and other purposes
non-monsoon period is 82.2 mm. The number of thereby reducing the consumption of filtered water
rainy days during monsoon is 46.4 (more than 2.5 supplied by municipal corporations which would
mm).The volume of rainwater that can be harvested
help in reducing the cost of filtration.
during monsoon and non-monsoon from rooftop is
given below in Table 3.
Recharge shafts in old abandoned quarries
It is estimated that about 25% of the houses
There are few old and abandoned quarries
(1, 14,550) have bore wells in their premises that
in Pune urban area. The area of the quarries varies
can be utilized for harnessing of rainwater.
from 1 Ha to 13 Ha. During monsoon these quarries
Therefore 3408.85 and 423.70 TCM rainwater can
get filled up with rainwater. Since the base of the
be harvested during monsoon and non-monsoon
quarries is generally massive and compact basalt
period respectively with simple pipe fittings etc. The
negligible recharge to ground water takes place.
cost of providing this arrangement is approximately
Most of the rainwater collected is lost by way of
Rs.6000/-per house (CGWB, 2000). Thus a total
evaporation and is not available for beneficial use.
cost of Rs.68.73/- crores is estimated for harvesting
Construction of recharge shafts up to the permeable
of 3832.55 TCM of rainwater. For harnessing the
strata would augment the ground water recharge
remaining rooftop rainwater bore wells have to be
thereby increasing the yield of the bore wells / dug
constructed.
wells in the nearby areas.
Benefit of roof top rainwater harvesting
Conclusions
The average per capita consumption of
The urbanization has resulted in
water in Pune city is 150 liters/day/person. The
development of new housing societies and
rainwater that can be harvested is calculated to be
construction of multi storied housing complexes.
3832.55 TCM. Considering that 75 % of the
The municipal corporation water supply to these
harvested water can be retrieved i.e. 2,874 TCM
multi storied housing complexes is insufficient As
(2.874 MCM) would be available for water supply.
a consequence; many of the housing complexes
It is estimated that 52,490 additional populations

Table 3. Rooftop rainwater availability in urban PMR

Area Total roof Volume of rainwater on Rainwater that

area (sq.kms) roof top (TCM) can be harvested (TCM)
Mon Non- mon Mon Non- mon
PMC 15.55 9005 1278.21 8104.5 1150.40
PCB 0.75 434.32 61.65 390.88 55.49
KCB 0.69 399.58 56.72 359.62 51.05
PCMC 5.56 3219.80 457.03 2897.82 411.33
Dehu Cantonment 0.36 208.48 29.59 187.63 26.64
Total 22.91 12695.72 1024.74 13635.36 1694.91
(* mon – monsoon, non-mon – non monsoon)

202
purchase domestic water round the year. Many of abandoned quarries would also recharge the deeper
these complexes have drilled bore wells which are aquifers.
being used to supplement the water supply. With
more development, industrialization and increase References
in population, the demand for water would increase • CGWB (1993); Ground Water Resources and
in near future putting greater stress on the available Development Potential of Pune District.
surface water resources. Due to the increase in • CGWB (2000); Hydrogeology of Pune
housing, industries, asphalting and cementing of Metropolitan Region.
roads the area of natural recharge to ground water • CGWB (2000); Rainwater Harvesting
has reduced considerably. The rainfall in the area is Techniques to Augment Ground Water.
moderate and a large number of bore wells are • CGWB (2000); Master plan for Artificial
available for augmenting the deeper aquifers. Recharge to Ground Water in Maharashtra.
Therefore rooftop rainwater harvesting to recharge • PCMC (1999); Environmental Status Report
the ground water in the deep aquifers is a feasible 1998-1999.
method. This would help to supplement the domestic • Pune Municipal Corporation (2004);
water supply round the year to a large extent. In Environmental Status report 2003-2004.
addition the construction of recharge shafts in the

203
 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

32. Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting - A Case Study

Dr. S. N. Kalia

“Save water,Water is precious” At the dawn of 21 st century numerous

countries including India are facing a growing water
1. Introduction crisis. About 80 countries comprising
Rainwater is the primary source for all and is 40%(2.8billion) of world’s population suffer from
one of the purest forms of water. Water is required serious water shortages.
for human being from birth to death i.e. drinking, Nearly 44 million people in India are affected
bathing, washing, irrigation & industrial by water quality problems either due to pollution,
requirement. Most of our fresh water is obtained prevalence of fluoride, arsenic, iron deposits in
from rainfall. Rain replenishes water in pond, lakes, groundwater or saline water intrusion in coastal
tanks & reservoirs and seeps into the ground & is areas (Nigam et al,1997). Millions do not have
stored as groundwater. H.G. Geddes used water enough water particularly during summer months.
harvesting term firstly in Australia. India has more than250 city dwellers even
Rainwater harvesting is defined as process of though the rate of urbanization is among the lowest
augmenting the natural infiltration of rainwater or in the world. So it is necessary to recharge rainwater
surface water into the ground by some artificial every year to fulfill our requirements.
methods. To collect and store the rainwater which
fall on the rooftop of buildings. The rainwater can 4. Efforts
be stored in tanks or diverted into dugwell or In eighties Anna Hazare saved water flowing
borewells, recharge pit and recharge well trenches. from a hillock by introducing runoff to the village
ponds. Continuous water harvesting put an end to
2. History Ralegaon Siddhi Village woes. The New Delhi
Rainwater harvesting has been implemented Municipal Council has marked out all the major
from ancient times in forms of tanks, kunds, bawadis parks in the city for water harvesting. Rainwater
in different part of world. Rooftop catchment & harvesting has been implemented at chief minister
cistern storage have been the basis of domestic water of Delhi Mrs. Shila Dixit’s residence and President’s
supply in small island in Caribbean. Gordon Brown residence. Sekar (Hydrogeologist) started his
was setup rooftop rainwater harvesting unit in Moral campaign 1995 for rainwater harvesting in Chennai.
Armament center building at Panchgani in 1964. Sri Aurbindo Ashram implemented rainwater
harvesting & representing a net rise of 2.2m water
3. Water Crisis level in July 2003. Tamilnadu state Government has
Water scarcity is serious problem throughout made mandatory for every building owner to setup
the world for botth urban & rural community. rainwater harvesting unit. It is also compulsory in
Urbanization, industrial development & increase in BMC area where rooftops is greater than 1000sq.m.
agricultural field & production has resulted in area. In 1995 rainwater club has constituted by
overexploitation of groundwater & surface water Vishwanath & his wife Chitra (Architect&
resources and resultant deterioration in water Engineers) in Banglore.
quality.

* Asstt. Prof. in Geology, D.N.P. College of Engineering, Shahada, Distt.- Nandurbar,(M.S.)

Pin-425409, (02565)-(O)226147, (R)226147 Email- drsnkalia@rediffmail.com

204
5. Availability of water Gravels- 5-10mm
Globally 12.5- 14 billion cubic meter of water Boulders- 50-200mm
is considered available for human b) Recharge trenches :- It can be excavated
use annually. India receives 400 millions hectare outside of compound. This is 1m wide & 1.5 m
meters (mham) of rain & snowfall. 180 mham water depth & 13.16m length.
flow in rivers in rainy season and another 0.7 mham c) Storage tanks :- These tanks may construct on
is available as groundwater. 20 mham water flow in the surface as well as underground by utilizing
rivers as surface water coming from outside the local material. The size of tank depends upon
country. The total water available in the country up availability of runoff & water demand. The
to 247 mham out of which 137 mham water lost as stored water may be used for drinking after
evaporation or becomes as soil moisture. If even proper chlorination and boiling.
20-30 mham rainwater can captured through d) Abandoned Dugwells :- This pit is excavated
rainwater harvesting tremendous pressure can be 6mx6m. In this pit in which coarse sand at top
taken off the country’s groundwater & surface water (200mm) thick layer underlain by gravels
resources. (200mm) thick layer & at bottom boulders
Water required for per person 135 litres per 75mm(200mm thick).
day; when India’s population was 1 billion then e) Borewells:- The rainwater drained from terrace
water required to us 49,275x1012 litres per year. through filter (Dewas filter) & joined to
India’s projected use of water is 105 mham in 2025. handpump. The length of Dewas filter is 1.2m,
Of the 105 mham , some 70 mham water is expected diam.140mm & 140x 75mm reducer is used for
to come from surface water & about 35 mham from joining. T is provided for to pour sodium
groundwater. hypochloride or chlorine tablet.
This exclusively reliance on river water and
groundwater is already leading to a number of 8. Assessment of Harvested Rainwater at
problems. It is necessary to implement rooftop Horticulture College hostel building, Shahada,
rainwater harvesting in rural & urban areas as we Distt.- Nandurbar(M.S.)
may face acute water crisis in future. Runoff = Catchmentx Runoff coefficientx Rainfall
Runoff Coefficient- It plays important role in
6. Elements of Rooftop Rainwater assessing the runoff availability
Harvesting & catchment characteristics.
· Catchment- Rooftop Average Annual Rainfall of Shahada – 654.4mm
· Conduits- P.V.C., G.I. pipes Maximum daily rainfall of Shahada – 50mm
· Filter- Filter or Filter chamber Maximum intensity of rainfall - 50mm/20minute per
· Storage- Tanks, Cistern, Dugwell, Borewell day quantity of rainfall
Rooftop of Horticulture college hostel bldg. – 720m2
7. Methods of Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting Runoff Coefficient of rooftop of bldg. – 0.95
1. Recharge pit
2. Recharge trenches Quantity of Water Harvested :
3. Storage tanks Reliable annual rainfall – It is 80% of average annual
4. Abandoned Dugwells rainfall.
5. Borewell Average Annual Rainfall of Shahada – 654.4mm
Reliable annual rainfall – 0.52352m
a) Recharge pit : Recharge pits are constructed Water demand = Per capita day x total strength of
for recharging the shallow aquifers. These are the hostel
constructed1-3m wide & 2-3m deepwhich are = 135x 160
back filled with boulders , gravels and coarse = 21,600 litres/day
sand. The size of filter material is generally = 21,600x365
taken as below : = 78,80,000 litres/year
Coarse sand- 1.5-2mm Annual Recharge = Runoff coefficient x Reliable

205
annual rainfall x rooftop area 10. Purification of Harvested Rainwater
= 0.95x 0.52352x 720m2 For disinfection using bleaching powder the
= 358.08m3 general dosage recommended is long of bleaching
= 3,58,000 litre/year powder containing 25% of free chlorine per litre of
water. This meets the required standard of 2.5 mg
Design of storage tank : of chlorine per litre of water. The water shall be
To design a tank of 3,58,000litre/year capacity stirred thoroughly for even distribution of the
volume of tank required disinfection agent. The water should be kept without
tobe design = 3,58,080/1000 use for about 30 minutes after adding bleaching
= 358.08 m3 powder.
Assume 1) Depth of tank = 2.5- 3.0m If water has to be stored for long, chlorination
2) Breadth of length ratio – 1:1.5 is advised about 1gm of bleaching
therefore Area = 358.08/2.5 (considering 2.5m powder can be mixed with 200litres of water.
depth)
= 143.23 11. Precautions
approxim. 150m2 (approximation for free board) 1. Always keep the surrounding of tank clean
B:L = 1:1.5 & hygienic.
Therefore length = 15m 2. Remove algae from roof & asbestos sheets
Breadth = 10m before the monsoon rains.
Size of tank = 15x10x2.5m 3. Drain the tank completely & clean from inside
thoroughly before monsoon rain.
Design of filter : 4. Clean the water channel during rainy season
Filter material is sand. The size of sand varies & definitely before the first monsoon rain.
from 0.35- .060mm. 5. Avoid first 15-20 minutes rainfall depending
Maxm. Intensity of rainfall = 50mm/hour (from on the intensity of rain use the first flush
rainfall records in Shahada) arrangement to drain off this rainwater.
Maxm. Runoff of the roof = Maxm. Intensity of 6. Change the filter media every rainy season.
rainfall x roof area x 0.95 7. Cover all inlet & outlet pipes with closely knit
= 51/1000 x70.4x 0.95 nylon net of fine clothes or cap during dry
= 3.344 m3/hr. season.
= 3344 litres/hr. 8. Overhanging vegetation should be avoided on
Area of filter tank required = runoff/ infiltration rate the roof.
required of sand 9. Roof catchment surface must be made of
= 3344/6000 nontoxic.
= 0.55 m2 10. Leakage of crack in the ferrocement storage
therefore L X B = 0.75X 0.75 (0.56 m2) tank shall be immediately attended by cement
Provide a depth of 0.75m even more depth plastering.
can be provided depending upon the roof area 11. All joints of pipe should be periodically
(large), then freeboard increases therefore checked.
recommended size of filter 12. Chlorination of tank is necessary if water is
= 0.75 x 0.75 x 0.75m tobe used for drinking & domestic use.
13. The implementing agency should visit the
9. Cost structure as follow upto monitor & Motivate
The cost of recharge structure varies from the user improper maintenance of system.
place to place. It ranges for recharge pit Rs.2500-
5000 and maximum up to 50,000-80,000 for 12. Advantages
recharge well. The total cost of rooftop rainwater 1. Provides self- sfficiency to water supply.
harvesting unit is estimated Rs.2,67,524/- only. 2. Reduces the cost of pumping of groundwater.
3. Provides high quality water, soft & low in

206
 minerals. rainwater.html.
4. Rainwater is purest in quality of groundwater · www.Geocities.com/rainforest/canopy/4805
through dilution when recharge to · Kalia S.N.2004 Rainwater harvesting National
groundwater. seminar on Water
· Resources Mgt. & People’s Participation 10-
13. Conclusion 12Dec.2004pp36
The rainwater collected at Horticulture · Khan K.U.2004 Save the Elixir of Life in
college hostel building is to be Science reporter pp14-15
calculated & quantity of water to be stored for · Muthuramu K.L.2003.Intrduction to Rainwater
domestic use. Harvesting for urban &
Tank capacity & quantity of water harvested = · Rural areas Dec2003,pp2-13
3,58,000 litres/year · www.rainwater club.org
Size of tank = 15x 10x 2.5m · Padree S.2002.Rainwater Harvesting,p119
Size of filter = 0.75 x 0.75x 0.75m · Prasad S.C.2004.Rooftop Rainwater
Harvesting,in STTP on Rainwater harvesting &
REFERENCES Watershed Mgt.,pp20-25
· www.About rainwaterharvesting.com · Science Reporter.2001pp64
· www.cseindia.org · www.Twadboard.com
· www.Austin C.L.Tx.US/water con/

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 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

33. Hydrochemical, E.C. Logs and Hydrological Study for Groundwater

Resource Problem in Tribal Area of Warangal, A.P. India
*V. K. Saxena

ABSTRACT
Chemistry of groundwater changes with geological formations and thus water –
rock interaction is a big true for groundwater contamination study. Based on this, a
case study has been done. Studied area is a tribal area of Warangal District, Andhra
Pradesh, India. Earlier the area was undeveloped and virgin, because lack of ground
or surface water resources. Andhra Pradesh government had declared this as tribal
area. This is about 1500 km2 and has different types of rock formations such as granite
gneisses, sandstones, pakhals and alluvium etc. This area was facing groundwater
problems since two decades. The groundwater resource development program has
been carried out and geophysical, geological and hydro chemical studies have been
made. Based on geophysical investigation and their interpretation a large number of
shallow bore wells were drilled. These bore wells have been discharging water from
10, 000 to 25, 000 lit/h. A large number of groundwater samples were collected and
quantitatively analyzed. Results indicate: 1. These groundwaters are classified as Na-
Ca-Cl-HCO3 and mixed water types. 2. Fluoride is more in groundwater of granite
gneisses areas. 3. Concentrations of aqueous ionic species have changed with different
rock formations. 4. Groundwater’s of granite gneisses areas are more in Total Dissolved
Solids and 5. TDS of groundwater and depths of bore wells have shown a good
correlation.

INTRODUCTION depths). It is interesting to note that this region is

Groundwater is valuable only when its quality having different types of rock formations, which is
is suitable for the purpose for which it is being Recent to Achaean (Saxena,2005). For the study of
explored. Suitability of groundwater for particular chemical quality of these groundwaters in this area,
purpose depends upon the standards of acceptable the water samples were collected from the locations
quality for that use. The acceptability of of these bore wells, which are shown in Fig.1. This
groundwater for a particular usage is essentially paper evaluates (1) quality of groundwater in
dictated by the standards of acceptable/permissible relation to potable purpose (2) changes of
limits ( APHA,1985,USHS,1987). Warangal, which hydrochemical constituents with rock formations
is located in the Southeast parts of India, has been and (3) variations of aqueous ionic species with
facing groundwater problems in tern of quantity and depth of bore wells.
quality ( GWTR,1987). This is part of forest and
developed for the habitation of tribals. Their main GEOLOGY AND HYDROLOGICAL
source of living is based on agriculture. Because of SETTING
the lack of groundwater or surface water, these The geological features of this area are shown
people are facing various types of problems for their in Fig. 2. This area is comprised of different type of
survival. State Government had drilled a large geological formations such as (1) Archaeans (2)
number of bore wells (>40 bore wells, 10.0-70.5 m Puranas (3) Gondwanas and (4) Recent etc. The

*Scientist, National Geophysical Research Institute, Hyderabad, 500 007, India, vks_9020010@yahoo.co.in

208
archaeans are basically granites, granite gneisses, METHODOLOGY
schists and dolerites etc. Puranas are principally of For the collection of water samples and their
sedimentary and consist of pakhals and sulavaries. chemical analysis, the standard instrumental/
Pakhals are equivalent to Cuddapah consisting of chemical techniques were used ( APHA,1985,
slates, phyllites, dolomites, quartzites and shales etc. Saxena,1991, Saxena and others 2002).
Gondwanas are mainly of Lower Gondwana and
have Talchirs followed by barakars, sandstones and RESULT AND DISCUSSION
kamthis. Gondwanas occupied about 50% of the Chemical analyses of these water samples are
study area (Saxena,1991, Saxena,2005). shown that the groundwaters are nearly neutral to
This area is having valley, hills and plain lands. mildly alkaline in pH (7.2 to 8.2). Electrical
Elevation varies from 70 to 160 m (amsl). Climate conductivity varies from 328 to 1610 mS/cm, and
of this area is tropical semi-arid. Average surface shows a big variation. In 25% samples total
temperature is 280C. Annual rainfall is 900 to 1300 dissolved solids (TDS) are not within the
mm. About 80% rain occurs during monsoon season, permissible limit of potable/domestic water (
which is usually active from July to October. Saxena, and others, 2004). The water emerges from
Godavari River flows along the Eastern bore well Nos. 9, 10, 11, 12, 15, 21, 26&28 have
boundary of this area, in ES- direction and at a shown enrichment of Na, Ca, Cl, HCO3 and F in
distance of 180 km. Groundwater in these water which is more than the permissible limit of
formations generally occurs under phreatic drinking water(APHA,1985). Maximum electrical
condition particularly in shallow weathered zones. conductivity (1610 mS/cm) was found in
Some times, it occurs under semi-confined and Govindraopet (bore well No. 10), which is located
confined conditions at deeper fracture zones in rock area and minimum in Khanepur (328 mS/
(Saxena,1991). Average depths of weathered zone cm) in the bore well No. 32 where geological
vary from 8.0 to 18.0 m. Groundwater table lies in formation is recent. Similarly, high Na and Ca were
between 5.0 to 15.0 m and mostly depend upon rock found in bore wells Nos. 21 & 9 both are in granites
formations. Main Soils are silts, black cotton soils, and lowest in bore wells No. 40 & 32 are in recent.
clay loams and sandy soils. Main crops are paddy, Maximum Mg (45 mg/l) was determined in Gudur
jawar, maize, cotton, chilies, tobacco and pulses etc. (bore well No.26 in Upper Gondwanas) and minimum
in Khanepur, alluvium (5 mg/l). Thus, it is found,
18.6 18.6
29 40
39
23 0 11 Km 22 Km
32
12 Chityula INDIA Chityula
Kamalapur Kamalapur
18.4
14
22
y Are
a 18.4 N
Kundur Stud Kundur
13 33
31
34
37 16

35
Tadvai 17 19 Tadvai
18.2 25 18.2
38
36
27 20
Karlapur 18 Karlapur
8 30
24
9 Bore wells
18 5
Villages 18 LEGEND:
10
4
Sandstone Saltstone with Clay
11
Rescent Alluvium
6 3
Pakhals
1
Clay and Sandstone (Upper Gondwanas)
Gopalpur Scale:
28 Gopalpur Sandstone, Clay and Minor coalseams
17.8 2 Sandstone and Conglomerate (Sullavai)
21 17.8
Km Km

7 15 26 N Granite, Schist (Archeans)

Shales, Sandstone (Talchirs)
Villages
79.9 80.1 80.3 80.5 80.7 79.9 80.1 80.3 80.5 80.7

Figure 1 : Location of bore wells, Warangal, A.P., India Figure 2. Geological map, Warangal, A.P., India

209
groundwaters with low TDS are associated with F contents are observed in Govindropet (sample No.
alluvium. Govindraopet groundwater is also enriched 10) and Bhimla near sample No.15. These locations
in HCO3 and Chloride, which shows the higher are within the granite gneisses. However, the high
dissociation rate in hard rocks. The variability of fluorite (0.4-0.9%) is reported in the granites
aqueous ionic species of groundwater with different gneisses in some areas of A.P., India ( Saxena and
types of rock formation, may indicate, the possibility others, 2004 and Saxena, 2005 ) The fluoride
of changing the hydrochemistry with geological contents have been plotted with calcium and
formations. Based on chemical analysis data, these indicated more or less some correlation.
groundwaters have been classified as: Na-Ca-Cl-
HCO3 and mixed types. Chemistry of these bore
wells and their locations, indicated that groundwater
emrges in sandstone and alluvium are mostly have
low salinity, whereas shales and clay have medium
to high; and granite gneisses with high salinity.
However the concentrations of cations (Ca, Mg, Na
& K) and anions (Cl, HCO3 & SO4), which gives
preliminary information about the water quality and
its suitability are more in groundwater of hard rock Fig .3. EC of bore well waters in different
areas as compared to sedimentary or recent. The geological formations
more emphasis has been given for the detailed
chemical study of these bore wells water. Based on ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
chemical composition of bore well water and Thank to Dr.V.P.Dimri, Director, NGRI,
associated geological formations (Fig. 2), these Hyderabad, for his permission to publish this paper.
groundwaters have been studied. It is observed, Dr. V. S. Singh and Dr. N. C Mondal are
more or less some relation ship has been observed acknowledged for their kind support in this work.
in between geological formations and water types.
The EC is more in granite gneisses compared to REFERENCES
APHA, 1985.Standard methods for the examination of
recent and clay. The results are presented in Fig. Water and waste, 16th edition, APHA, Washington DC,
3.This figure showed, the changes in EC with 1-50
geological formations. Such changes are also found Ground Water Technical Report, 1987. A.P. Govt. report
to be correlated in term of maximum, minimum and On the status of groundwater Investigations and scope
average values of EC. For examples, higher EC For further groundwater development, sub plan area of
Warangal district, A.P., 30: 1-120.
levels are shown in granite gneisses against low in Saxena, V.K 1991. Ground water quality, Water Ecology,
clay. The changes in bore well water chemistry with Pollution and Management, Editor, S. Rao and S.
depths have been studied. To make this study more Pitchaiah, 125-147.
simple the bore wells are divided into two categories Saxena V.K & Shakeel Ahmed 2002. Dissolution of
(1) shallow (<50 m depth) and (2) deep (>50 m Fluoride in groundwater: a water- rock interaction
study. Environmental Geology, 40,1084-1087
depth). The TDS of bore well waters and the depths Saxena, V.K Singh, V.S.Mondal, N.C &. Jain S.C 2003.
of bore wells have been examined and found to have Use of Hydro chemical parameters for the Identification
some correlation. In addition to this, those bore wells of fresh groundwater resources, Potharlanka, India,
are located in granite gneisses may have deeper Environmental Geology.44, 5, 516- 521.
depths and less discharge. The data showed that 86% Saxena.V.K, Mondal, N.C. and Singh, V.S., 2004.
Evaluation of hydro-agrochemical parameters to
bore wells in hard rock areas may have deeper Delineate fresh groundwater potential zones in coastal
depths (>50.0 m). A fairly good discharge (>20,000 Aquifers, Journal of Applied Geochemistry, 6, 2,245-254
lit/h) has been shown in sedimentary formations. Saxena, V.K., Mondal N.C &. Singh V.S 2004.
Fluoride concentration varies from 1.0 to 2.5 Identification of seawater ingress. Using Strontium and
mg/l, 25% samples of the total have shown fluoride, Boron in Krishna delta, India, Current Science, 86, 4,
586-591.
which is more than permissible limit of drinking Saxena, V.K.,2005. Geothermal Resources of India, Allied
water ( USHS,1987) It is also indicated that the high Publisher, New Delhi, 1-150.

210
 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

34. Rain Water Harvesting - A Case Study of N.K.P. Salve Institute of

Medical Sciences and Research Centre and Lata Mangeshkar
Hospital, Digdoh, District Nagpur.
*J. D. Rathod **P. K. Banerjee

ABSTRACT
The college and hospital set up and run by Vidya Shikshan Prasarak Mandal,
Nagpur is situated on 27 hectares of land at Digdoh – a village just 8 kms away from
Nagpur city. The population of the campus raised to 4800 in 2004 as against 500 in
1993. This raised the demand of water supply to 600 klpd. Out of this 300 klpd was met
with the water supply from MIDC pipeline and from underground source from existing
open wells in the campus area. Rain water Harvesting scheme was designed and
executed by J. D. Rathod engineers and contractors on the 27 hectares of campus area.
As a result the additional demand of 300 klpd of the campus was fulfilled. The details
of the RWH scheme, results and economics of the scheme are presented in this paper.

INTRODUCTION approach road off taking from Nagpur – Hingna road.

A scheme of Rain Water Harvesting for the Ref. : Figure 1 Index Map.
campus of N.K.P. Salve Institute of medical sciences
and Research Centre and Lata Mangeshkar Hospital POPULATION AND NECESSITY OF THE
was proposed by J. D. Rathod Engineers and SCHEME
Contractors and was approved by the Management The population at the campus which was
Authorities of Vidya Shiksan Prasarak Mandal, just 500 in 1993 raised to 4800 in 2004 which
Nagpur after long spell of discussions with included 400 resident students of all the faculties,
Honorable Chairman Mr. Ranjeet Baboo 200 resident teaching and non teaching staff and
Deshmukh, Honorable Treasurer Mr. Ashishji 350 indoor patients. Apart from the residential
Deshmukh and Honorable Secretary Mr. Prashant population in campus area, 1000 day scholars, 1000
Kumar Banerjee. The scheme was taken up in teaching and non teaching staff, 350 outdoor patients
August 2004 for execution by J. D. Rathod and 1500 Visitors were coming to the campus area
Engineers and Contractors under the technical daily. This posed serious problem of water supply
cooperation of Mr. Prashant Kumar Banerjee and because of the increase in demand from 22.5 klpd
Mr. Ganorkar – Civil Engineer. The scheme was in 1993 to 500 klpd in 2004. Hence in an effort to
partially completed in June 2005. cope up with the increasing demand, use of
rainwater falling on the campus area was thought
LOCATION of and the whole campus area was planned to be
The college and Hospital campus used for Rain Water Harvesting scheme. The details
admeasuring 27 Hectares is located on Digdoh hills, of the scheme are discussed in the following paras.
8 kms. away from Nagpur city on C.R.P.F. campus

* Proprietor, J.D.Rathod Engineers and Contractors, Nagpur

**Secretary, Vidya Shikshan Prasarak Mandal, Nagpur

211
HYDROGEOLOGY the purpose of design of the RWH scheme and
Hydrogeology of the campus area estimate of recharge potential, the average annual
comprises of two major factors i.e. Vesicular and rainfall of Nagpur district was considered which is
amygdoloidal basalt with cracks and top weathered around 1000 mm. It was gathered from the records
basalt cover which is about 7 mtr. depth . Top soil available that the maximum rainfall figure for
has got excellent natural in filtration. Nagpur District is 215.4 mm in 24 hours. It may
not be feasible to design the RWH structure for the
HYDROLOGY maximum rainfall received in 24 hours. Hence they
Hydrologically the campus is drained by are designed for100 mm rainfall in 24 hours. And
five Nos. of well defined water courses. it is aimed at to store in situ 50 % of this rainfall.
Precipitation mostly occurs from mid of June to mid Rainwater available from 100 mm rainfall in 24
of September. The exposed soil surface have hours -
excellent infiltration capacity. The top weathered = 27 x 104 m2 x 0.10 m
surface is thick and underlain by vesicular and = 27000 m3
Amygdoloidal basalt rock with cracks. As a result Hence 50 % of quantity of rainwater available from
the condition is favourable for Rain Water 100 mm rainfall in 24 hours
Harvesting. = 13500 m3
Hence RWH structures were designed to
GEOMORPHOLOGY store 50 % rainwater available from 100m rainfall
The area is gently sloping to plain. The in 24 hours i.e. for 13500 m3. The system thus
local slope of the ground in the campus is generally designed also facilitated to harvest 50 % of the
towards North except for a patch of about 3 hectors rainwater available from all the rainfalls below
in which the slope is towards West. There are five 100mm in 24 hours.
Nos. of well defined water courses which drain the In totality the system was designed for
area towards north and west. The area occupied by harvesting 50 % of the rainwater available from the
buildings, play grounds, roads etc. is about 3 annual rainfall of 1000mm i.e. 1,35,000 m3. And
hectares. this rainwater quantity stored underground by RWH
could be used to meet up the additional demand of
ESTIMATE OF RECHARGE POTENTIAL 370 klpd round the year.
The rain water falling on the campus area
was flowing out of the campus boundary because DETAILS OF SCHEME
of natural ground slope. Hence the object of Rain The scheme is designed for harvesting
Water Harvesting was to cut the long slopes into 1,35,000 m3 of rainwater. The components are as
series of small ones and providing the structures under –
for impounding greater part of rain water and hold 1. Excavation of contour trenches and
it at the place it falls for a comparatively longer construction of contour bunds from the
period so that the impounded water infiltrates in excavated material (Ref. figure No.2) size :
and stored underground. By such 0.60 m x 0.75 m, Length :15,000 m
compartmentalisation the rainfall received is stored 2. Excavation of peripheral master drain and
in situ and soil erosion due to runoff is checked and stacking the excavated material in the form
damage to the structures due to sedimentation is of the bund (Ref. figure No.2) size : 1.5 m x
reduced. 0.75 m , Length : 4000 m.
For the estimate of recharge potential, 3. Excavation of three more open wells in
annual rainfall received, the maximum intensity of addition to the existing two open wells in the
rainfall, the depth of top soil cover, it’s infiltration campus area.
capacity and area of the campus are the factors to Diameter of existing wells : 7 m & 6 m
be considered. In general it is observed that the Depth of existing wells : 18 m & 13 m
rainfall pattern of Nagpur City and surrounding area Diameter of proposed wells : 6m
is similar to that of the Nagpur district. Hence for Depth of proposed wells : 13 m

212
4. Construction of filter trenches and filter pits requirement of tankers even after the implementation
for the existing wells and construction of of the RWH scheme is attributed to consumption of
circular filter pits for the proposed wells. (Ref. water required for construction of buildings having
figure No.3) area about 20,000 Sq m. in the campus.
5. Construction of series of cement concrete It is also observed that the locality known
plugs on the water courses and peripheral as Police Nagar situated at North and West boundary
master drain and one storage bandhara. The of the campus is benefited by this RWH scheme.
capacity to store rainwater of the various All the open wells and bore wells in the locality
components is worked out as under : which were going dry from April onwards every
year did not dry up and the water was drawn from
Contour Trenches these wells till the next monsoon i.e. Monsoon rain
15,000 m x 0.60 x 0.75 m = 6750 m3 of 2006. Not only this, the locality was facing the
Peripheral master rain problem of flooding due to runoff from the campus
4,000m x 1.5m x 0.75 m = 4500 m3 in heavy intensity rainfalls every year. After
Open Dug wells implementation of the RWH scheme, flooding of
1 No. x 0.785 x (7m)2 x 18 m = 692 m3 area was reduced. This indicates that the rainwater
4 Nos. x 0.785 x (6m)2 x 13 m = 1470 m3 falling on the campus area was stored at the place it
C.C. plugs on water courses falls and the surface runoff was reduced. All the
13 Nos. x ½ x 11m x 25 m x 0.45 m = 731 m3 above results indicate that the RWH scheme
Storage Bandhara designed and executed properly could help in
1 No. x ½ x 21.6 x 40 m x 1.3 m = 351 m3 solving the water supply problems of the campus
__________ and additions demand of 3 lakh lits per day was
Total 14494 m3 fulfilled from the rain water falling on the campus
area itself.
Hence the capacity of the structures
provided for Rainwater Harvesting is sufficient to FURTHER WORK
store the desired quantity of 13,500 m3 which is 50 Sizable Quantity of rainwater flows in to
% of the quantity of rainwater available from 100 the campus area from CRPF and Defence areas.
mm rainfall in 24 hours. Harvesting of this quantity of rainwater was not
included in the scheme. However if required this
RESULTS – The scheme was partially completed rainwater coming from outside areas and flowing
in June 2005 and rainwater of monsoon 2005 was through the campus area can be harvested by
harvested for the first time. It was observed that the developing lagoon sites which will improve
existing open dug well which used to be filled up to aesthetics of the campus apart from the RWH.
3 m below the ground level was filled up to 0.60 m
from the ground level because of the Rainwater ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION AND
Harvesting scheme. All the other wells were filled PREVENTION OF POLLUTION OF U/G
up to the ground level. WATER RESOURCES
Storage tanks serving the campus area were The ground water is the main source of
filled up once in 24 hours prior to implementation water supply to the campus area. Because of effluent
of the scheme. The storage capacity of all the tanks from hospitals, hostels, offices and residential
is 335000 lits and they are generally filled upto 90 quarters in the premises, the pollution of
% capacity i.e. daily consumption was 3 lakh lits underground resources cannot be denied. Hence it
per day prior to implementation of the RWH scheme. is suggested that proper effluent treatment plant
After implementation of the scheme, the tanks are should be planned and executed for protecting the
filled twice i.e. consumption of water has gone to 6 environment and to prevent the pollution of
lakh lits per day and all this extra demand of 3 lakh underground water storage.
lits per day is fulfilled from ground water stored ECONOMICS OF THE SCHEME
because of Rainwater Harvesting scheme. The

213
 Saving in cost when compared to water the Rain water Harvesting scheme, an additional
supply by tankers water supply of 3 lakh lits per day is assured.
Rate of water supply by tanker : Rs. 50 Per
3
m REFERENCES
Hence annual saving on water charges M. Dineshkumar - Dug well recharging in
(considering that saving is from November to mid Sourashtra. Arethe impacts and benefits over
of July next year) = 300m3 x Rs.50 stretched?
x 257 days = Rs. 38,55,000 /- Journal of IWRS volume 20, July 2000.
Vinay K. Pandey and K. S. Hiran - Contour Bunding
The estimated cost of the scheme is Rs. - A conservation measure for integrated watershed
38.39 lakh. The upto date expenditure on the management in hilly areas of Aravallies.
scheme is Rs. 24.12 lakh and if compared to this Journal of IWRS, Vol. I, January 1995.
expenditure it can be seen that not only the capital M. L. Narhinmhan, Vajeer Mahmood and P.
cost is recovered but the scheme has brought the Malleswara Rao - Rainwater Harvesting studies
benefit of Rs. 14,43,000/- to the institute. using RS and GIS – A case study of Vishakhapatnam
Hence broadly, it can be said that the capital City.
cost is fully recovered in the very first year after National conference on Hydraulics and water
commissioning of the RWH scheme. Resources HYDRO – 2004.
S. K. Jain and Dr. R. K. BOPCHE - Roof top rain
CONCLUSION water harvesting - a case study of Kavi Kulguru
Rain water Harvesting scheme designed Institute of Technology and Science Campus,
executed and commissioned in the campus area of Ramtek.
N. K.P. Salve institute of medical sciences and Water management and Rainwater Harvesting 2005
research centre and Late Mangeshkar Hospital at CGWB, Central Region, Nagpur ^^Hkw i‘“Bty fofgjh**
Digdoh is successful in storing 50 % of rainwater by S. P. Kadam in Marathi.
falling on the area of 27 hectares and because of

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 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

35. Importance of Designing Artificial Groundwater Recharging System

by Rainwater in Coastal Water Supply Schemes :
A Case Study from the Eastern Coastal Zone of Sri Lanka
*Upul Wickramaratne **S. K. Weragoda ***H. A. Dharmagunewardhane

01. Introduction m3 based on a per capita consumption of 100 liters/

Many communities living in the costal areas day. Kattankudy is recognized as the most densely
of developing world do not have access to potable populated area in the South Asian region (Discovery
groundwater of adequate quality and quantity due television channel). The population is estimated to
to salinity instruction. There is a growing consensus increase over 50,100 in the next 20 years at a growth
that these numbers can only be reduced significantly rate of 2.1%. The water demand thus estimated to
via low cost approaches which also involve be 9,200 m3 per day in year 2018.
communities in their planning, financing and The main problem faced by the people of the
maintenance. It is also helpful to reduce Kattankudy is the lack of potable water. It is
environmental problems such as salinity intrusion understood that the only water source available
and groundwater depletion due to over pumping, by within the area, is shallow groundwater, which is
understanding the importance of occurrence, recharged by natural precipitation. The groundwater
distribution and contamination of groundwater resources in the area are at risk due to contamination
resources. from sewage effluent from households and saline
Groundwater is generally free from water intrusion both from sea and lagoon. Therefore,
bacteriological pollution; it has an almost constant it is necessary to abstract the required quantity of
quality and temperature, when it is available in large groundwater without creating any disturbance to the
quantities (Foster, 1984). Special groundwater fresh groundwater in the aquifers. However it has
conditions exit in coastal beach sands areas. In most been noted that recharge rate of these aquifers
of these areas, seawater lies at the base of the sand becoming poor due to increasing number of
and fresh groundwater lies on it as a lens. buildings roads and drainage systems in the city
However, most of the salinity problems occur areas.
in the coastal areas due to uncontrolled pumping.
Accordingly, it is essential to develop a clear 1.2 Study Area
understanding on the processes and systems, which Kattankudy is located at 810, 43’, E longitude
can mitigate these problems. and 070, 41’, N latitude in the Batticaloa district of
Eastern Province of Sri Lanka. (The town is bounded
1.1 Background by the sea in the Eastern side and by a lagoon in the
The present study was conducted at Western side). The town is approximately 2.5 Km
Kattankudy; semi urban coastal area in the Eastern long and 2.2 Km wide and covers an area of 5.5
Province of Sri Lanka. The reported population at Km2 (Figure 1.1). Presently, Kattankudy water
Kattankudy was approximately 35,000 in the year supply scheme obtains water from a large diameter
1998 with an estimated daily water demand of 3,400 dug well situated on a shallow sand aquifer.

*Groundwater Section, National Water Supply & Drainage Board, Anuradhapura Sri Lanka
**Regional Support Center, National Water Supply & Drainage Board, Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka
***Department of Geology, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka

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 Figure 1.1 The Study Area

1.2 Demographical & Morphological Setting There is no bedrock outcrops found in the study
The population of the study area is 33,607 area. However some corals, beach rocks and also
persons (1998) with annual growth rate of 2.1%. reef coral have been noted in the shallow seabed.
The population density is 8,401 persons per Km2. Hydrogeologically, the study area is mainly made
There are 7,200 households with an average family up of intermittent coastal sand aquifers at different
size of 4.6 persons per household. The central part depths with different thickness. Due to low relief
of the town is highly populated and population identification of any geo-structural features is
density slightly decreases towards the out side. difficult. The study area belongs to the dry zone of
The study area is almost flat and situated Sri Lanka and the temperature varies between 30
approximately 4.0 m above the Mean Sea Level. and 360 C. The average annual rainfall is about
The middle strip of the study area shows the highest 1100mm. 80% of the rainfall comes from North-
elevation and is sloping towards the sea and the East monsoon and the rest from inter monsoon
lagoon. A seasonal channel drains in the Northern showers. The major precipitation occurs from
side of the study area carrying effluents from the October to January. The month of November has
town area, particularly during the periods of heavy the highest monthly average rainfall. It is also
rainfall. expected that 40 - 60% of precipitation infiltrates to
the ground due to the sandy nature of the soil and
1.1 Soils, General Geological Structure, flat ground surface.
Hydrogeology and Climate
Soils of this area are mainly lagoonal sediments 1.2 Water Requirement
and mostly in the eastern part, beach sand of the The water requirement of the study area is
quaternary age (Cooray, 1967). The thickness of mainly for drinking and domestic use with very little
these beach sand deposits varies between 10 and 20 requirement for light industries such as ice factories
m. At some places, these beach sand deposits contain etc. On this basis, future water requirement is
clay, blackish sand and fragments of fossils and estimated as given in table 1.1.
corals.

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Table 1.1 An Estimate for Water Requirement only areas with low or no saline water. Water level
over 20 Year Period was measured using an electric water level indicator.
Temperature, Electrical Conductivity and pH of
Year Population Projected m3 per day
Demand
water samples were measured using portable field
(L per capita) test kits (Model: JENWAY, 4150 and JENWAY
3150)
1998 33,607 100 3,360 Thirty six borehole locations were selected
2008 42,284 135 5,708 based on the results of geological and environmental
2018 50,961 180 9,173 observations during the Field Survey. Since
Kattankudy is a densely populated area, locating
Source: Kattankudy, 1999. Mini Well Systems (Pvt) Ltd boreholes in regular intervals are not possible. Thirty
six boreholes were selected to obtain information
1.3 Objectives from different locations at different depths.
The objectives of the present study are to; Boreholes were constructed using the water jetting
• Understand the hydrogeological and method. During the drilling, samples were collected
hydrogeochemical behaviour of local groundwater from penetrated different formations. 75mm
systems in the study area and identify probable areas diameter slotted PVC pipes were temporally
for abstraction of groundwater from shallow installed to collect water samples and estimate air
aquifers, flushing yield at different depths. Figure 1.1 shows
• Determine the safe yield that can be abstracted locations of these holes.
from aquifer minimizing the salinity intrusion and Six test tube wells were constructed to selected
environmental impacts, depths, using the percussion drilling (cable tool)
• Identify locations for installation of proposed method. During drilling Electrical Conductivity
artificial rainwater recharging structures. values of water were measured and samples were
collected for the preparation of geological logs of
02 Methodology the tube wells. After completion of the drilling to a
During the desk study, hydrogeological selected depth, PVC screen with gravel pack was
information of existing tube wells, in and around installed. Finally a chemical quality of water samples
the study area was studied. The Topographic sheets, was analysed. The average depth of testing tube
Geology maps, Satellite images and Aerial wells were 15m.
photographs were studied to select hydrogeologicaly Pumping tests were conducted on all tube
favourable areas. Climatic data of the study area also wells. During these tests, water levels of surrounding
studied to evaluate the rainfall pattern and its wells also were measured in order to understand the
possible effect on groundwater recharge and the area groundwater level fluctuation of the area. Electrical
was visited and field verification of previous studies Conductivity variation with time during the pumping
was done. Discussions were held with the people of was also measured to observe possible saline water
the study area, to assess present condition of local intrusions.
groundwater especially the quality of groundwater Further, vertical electrical sounding and
based on their opinion. resistivity profiling were conducted on selected tube
Information on existing domestic dug wells, well sites to understand saline water intrusions due
including water table fluctuation during dry and to lowering of water levels during pumping. Water
rainy seasons, well depth, Electrical Conductivity samples were collected for the analysis of quality
(EC) of water were also collected to view the present variations during pumping of water from tube wells.
situation of groundwater in the study area. Water Upon analyses of pumping test results, hydraulic
samples were collected from existing dug wells and properties of the aquifer were calculated. Safe yields
analysed for their chemical quality to demarcate and pumping durations were also calculated
areas with better quality. It has been carried out minimizing groundwater level fluctuation in order
mainly based on the values of Electrical to reduce the environmental problems and salt water
Conductivity of groundwater and therefore shows intrusions.

217
03. Results and Discussion due to household waste and cottage fabric industry
3.1 General Findings on Present Situation: waste. Although shallow groundwater in open dug
More than 550 open dug wells are present in wells at rural areas (unsettled area) indicates a good
the study area. The diameter of these wells varies quality status, more than 250 householders in the
from 0.75 to 1.5m with an average diameter of 1.0m. old town of Kattankudy use water from the water
The average depth is about 3.0m. Water level varies supply scheme of the National Water Supply &
from 3.0 to 4.0m in dry period and 0.5 to 1.5m in Drainage Board. At present the National Water
rainy period. The majority of those wells are lined Supply & Drainage Board provides 300m3 of potable
using cement with rubble or bricks. Some are water per day. In addition to the National Water
constructed with pre cast concrete cylinders. The Supply & Drainage Board supply, 80% of people
upper part of the formation is loose and therefore use dug wells water for drinking and washing
dug well construction is difficult due to bank purposes. About 20% of the wells in the area are
collapsing. not in use due to poor quality. Figure 3.2 shows the
The majority of people of semi urbanized area locations of boreholes and testing tube wells in the
and rural area use their own dug wells for drinking study area.
and domestic requirements. However, some of the
wells are used only for washing purposes or even 3.2 Geology
abandoned due to bad water quality. Figure 3.1 During the construction of boreholes and tube
shows the groundwater usability map based on the wells, vertical variation of lithology was recorded.
information of people of the study area. Open dug The thickness of overburden ranges from 12 m to
wells in highly urbanized area are already polluted 20 m with an average thickness is approximately 15

218
m. A generalized cross section of the area is given year 2001.This data reveals that the minimum rainfall
in figure 3.4. The general dip of the layers is towards during the last 22 years was about 1483mm.
the east. The total precipitation over the study area of
5.5 Km2 is 8,156,500 m3 per year. This amount is
3.3 Climate: Rainfall and Temperature equal to an amount of 22,346 m3 per day. In order to
The annual rainfall of the study area in the last meet the maximum demand of 9,173 m3 per day, an
22 year period is shown in the Figure 3.5. Figure infiltration, ground storage and the recovery of 41%
3.6 gives the monthly rainfall the study area in the of the total precipitation is necessary. This could be

Figure 3.4 Generalized Cross Section of the Study Area

3500
Annual Rainfal (mm)

3000

2500
Rainfall (mm)

2000

1500

1000

500

0
80

81

82

83

84

85

86

87

88

89

90

91

92

93

94

95

96

97

98

99

00

01

02
19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

20

20

20

Year

Figure 3.5 Annual Rainfall at the Study Area (1980 – 2002)

219
 450
Monthly Rainfall in 2001 (mm)

400

350

300
Monthly Rainfall (mm0

250

200

150

100

50

0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Months in 2001

Figure 3.6 Monthly Rainfall at the Study Area (Year 2001)

feasible with the subsurface of the study area due soil cover and feeds the shallow dug wells in the
high porosity and permeability of soil and with an area. The depth of the groundwater table varies
infiltration of 40 to 60% of precipitation. The evapo- between 0.5 and 4m with an average seasonal
transpiration data of the study area is not available fluctuation of 2 m. Figure 3.7 and 3.8 show the water
to calculate the amount of actual groundwater level contour maps of study area during of rainy
recharge; however, 30 – 50 % of precipitation is and dry periods. Figure 3.9 shows the ground surface
expected to be evaporated in the eastern coastal areas contour map of the study area. As observed from
(Panabokke, 2001). these three maps (Fig.3.7, 3.8 and 3.9), the
groundwater flow follows the direction of the
3.4 Hydrogeology : Occurrence and distribution surface slope of the study area. The area has a
of groundwater comparatively higher elevation at the centre of the
The water percolates through the overburden study area. The white coarse sand found between 2

220
and 9m depths and the coarse sand layer between is made up of recent coastal sand and therefore, it
13 and 23m are good unconfined aquifers due to has a high infiltration rate, high porosity and high
coarse grains which can be taped using perforated permeability. Because of this, when rain occurs
casing with gravel pack. almost all the water percolates and recharges the
Figure 3.10 shows the water levels of boreholes aquifer. According to Watt (1983), selected values
and tube wells during rainy and dry periods. Water of porosity, specific yield and specific retention of
levels in all (100%) investigated wells are within different material are given in table 3.1.
1.0 m depth during rainy period. During dry period, A comparison of potential recharge and
water levels of almost 26% of wells go below 3 m demand can be shown a follows;
depth.
The average annual rainfall = 1483 mm
Extent of the study area = 5.5 Km2
Total precipitation over the study area
= 5.5 x 1000 x 1000 x 1483/1000
= 8,156,500 m3 per year
Percentage of infiltration (Average) = 40%
Volume of infiltration (recharge)
= 8156500 x 40/100m3 per year
= 3,26 2,600 m3 per year
Average daily infiltration = 8938 m3 per day
Percentage of aquifer extension in the study area
= 70%
Average thickness of the aquifer = 4 m
Average volume of the aquifer
= 4 x 5.5 x 1000 x 1000 x 70/100
Table 3.1 : Selected Values of Porosity, Specific Yield = 1,540 0,000 m3
and Specific Retention; (after Watt 1983) Porosity = 25%
Total storage capacity = 3,850,000 m3
Assuming the storage capacity is equal to porosity;
Porosity = specific yield + Specific retention
25% = 22% + 3% (see table 3.1)
3,850,000 = 3,388,000 + 462,000

Thus the total amount that can be obtained from

the aquifer is 338, 8000 m3.
When consider the total demand of 9173 m3
per day (year 2018), this amount is 0.27 % (9,173 /
3,388,000 x 100) of groundwater per day that can
be abstracted.
Figure 3.10 : Water Level of Boreholes in Rainy Total demand per year (year 2018)
Period and Dry Period = 9,173 x 365 m3
= 3,348,145 m3
In general, in the eastern coastal zone of Sri This amount is 102% (3,348,145 / 3,262,600 x
Lanka, nearly 40 – 60 % of the precipitation could 100) of available groundwater.
be infiltrated to form groundwater due to the sandy Therefore, it is essential and important to
nature of the soil and flat ground surface. Although design a proper infiltration artificially to enhance
whole study area acts as a coastal sand aquifer, the the recharge. This is essential because, recharge area
major aquifer unit is white coarse sand, which lies is gradually reduced due to fast changing land use
between 2 to 9m depths. The upper part of the aquifer pattern and uncontrolled improper urbanization,

221
which increases the surface flow into the sea. After identifying the surface slope, a water
Therefore, high rise building for residences collecting drain can be introduced at the lowest
have to be introduced and the scattered buildings elevated boundary and this can be filled with gravel
can be located at pre-recognized areas while and coir as layers in each house garden. This water
developing a significance part of the land as forests can then be directed to a pit of 5x5x7 ft3 with
with identified plants. Even the town areas also have retention of 5hrs at higher intensity rainfalls. This
to be well covered with greenish trees to minimize will give enough retention time and enhance the
the evaporation and reduce the surface runoff. recharge. Other mechanisms such as horizontal
Each homestead can be used as separate ground laterals in the pit can be constructed to further
water recharging point. The roof can be used as the increase the rate of recharge.
water collecting area for this recharging system. The The pits can be filled with gravel inter bedded
Figure 3.11 shows the proposed future land with coir. The uppermost layer of the pit and drains
development system. can be sand of proper thickness. An elevated hump
can be placed just outside the drain to avoid waste.

3.4 Pumping Test Results

The other important potential problem in the
area is the possibility of saline water intrusion that
can develop as a result of high abstractions of ground
water through pumping. This was checked carrying
out pumping tests including step drawdown tests in
the tube wells. The rates for pumping tests were
selected carefully in order to avoid the saline water
intrusion. However, it was noted that selected rates
were not large enough to effect the depletion of
groundwater table even in the nearby observation
wells (with an exception of one tube well, KTTW
01). Low drawdowns created some difficulties for
estimating hydraulic properties of the aquifer. The
hydraulic parameters of the aquifer were calculated
using steady state formula (Jacob, 1950) and aquifer
test computer software.
Figure 3.11 shows 60 minutes step test
(drawdown Vs time) and Figure 3.12 shows 72 hours
continuous long duration test (both drawdown and
recovery Vs time) of one representative well; KTTW
01.

222
 Table 3. 2 Calculated Transmissivity for test tube
wells

Draw downs are plotted on the arithmetic scale

versus time on the logarithmic scale (1), and
Transmissivity is determined from the slope of the Table 3.3 Values of Transmissivity, Hydraulic
straight line through the use of the following Conductivity and Storavity of KTTW 01
equation:
T = 2.3Q / 4π∆s (1) The Transmissivity and Hydraulic conductivity
Where T is Transmissivity and ∆s is the drawdown on KTTW 01 were calculated using different type
across one log cycle. of methods in the Aquifer test computer software.
When the well loss is presented in the pumping The values of Transmissivity, Hydraulic
well, the Storage Coefficient cannot be determined conductivity and Storavity on KTTW 01 are given
by extending the straight line to the line of zero in Table 3.3
drawdown. Even where well loss is not present, the For future operations, safe yields (pumping
determination of the Storage Coefficient from rates), duration of pumping, pump installation depths
drawdowns in a pumping well likely will be and pumping water levels were calculated based on
subjected to large error because the effective radius the results of steady state, test results. The details
of the well may differ significantly from the of recommended pumping depths and corresponding
“nominal” radius (Watt, 1983). Calculated pumping water levels are given in Table 3.4. The
Transmissivity for test tube wells using equitation total quantity of 2800 m3/day can be obtained from
(1) is given in table 3.2. six wells safely, as shown in the table 3.4.

Table 3.4 Details of Recommended Pumping Depths and Corresponding Pumping Water Levels

223
 Results reveal that Construction of three more Transmissivity and Storage Coefficient of the aquifer
new wells will fulfil the total present daily demand. is very high (0.035 m2/s, 0.103) and therefore a large
The abstraction rate of the tube wells should be quantity of water can be withdrawn from the aquifer.
restricted to an average discharge of 25 m3 per hour. The 20 year projected demand can be supplied from
For the projected demand for next 20 years, 20 wells the aquifer through 20 tube wells or dug wells.
will be adequate from which each well supplying The shallow sandy aquifer is very vulnerable to the
25 m3 per hour. pollution, which is aggravated by high population
It should be noted that the drawdown of the density of the area. At present, there is no risk of
pumping wells was very low and was in the range saline water intrusion, however over pumping may
between 0.4 and 0.7m even at high rate of pumping cause saline water intrusion and create
(700 l/m). This is mainly because of high environmental problems.
Transmissivity (0.0312 m2/s) of the aquifer.
The groundwater in the study area can be used 05. Recommendations
effectively and safely by controlled pumping, which Construction of a well field can be proposed
maintains the cone of depression at small orders of in this study area. One of the following three designs
magnitude. Therefore, construction of large diameter can be used for the construction, depending on cost
dug wells will be an ideal solution to obtain better effectiveness and the construction difficulties. i). 04
results and in addition dug wells can provide good individual dug wells. ii). 05 dug wells, one is in the
storage capacity. Construction of a dug well field center of other four wells and these four well should
with proper spaced wells or dug wells with screened be connected to the center well using horizontal
laterals could be a good solution for the future water laterals and iii). A dug well with six horizontal
supply scheme. laterals. The length of the lateral should be more
Another coarse sand layer was found at depths than 10m. The recommended diameter of the dug
between 13 and 24m, and is a good aquifer. It is not well is 6 or 8 m and depth is up to 10 m. Intermittent
directly connected to the upper aquifer, because of pumping system is recommended from the centre
clay layers. The quality of water was found to be well. Abstraction of large quantities such as over 25
saline and therefore did not further investigate for m 3 per hour may cause upcoming of salinity
water supply under this study. interface. The effect of tidal variation to the interface
between fresh water and seawater must also be
3.5 Problems Related to Groundwater studied.
Abstraction A certain distance from wells should be strictly
Although shallow groundwater reserves in the protected against the contamination. Recharge can
study area have a capacity to cater to projected be enhanced by developing of the catchment area
demand, quality problems may arise due to pollution around tube wells. Another protection zone with
or contamination during long term pumping. Saline 350m radius can be developed as an effective
water intrusion will take place, due to over pumping environmental zone, where people in this zone have
and as a result depletion of groundwater levels could to be educated on the effect of groundwater
take place. The shallow aquifer can be contaminated contaminations. Latrine pits in this zone should be
due to effluents and sewage disposals of the town. completely sealed in order to avoid groundwater
contamination.
04. Conclusions
The Kattankudy aquifer is an unconfined 07 References
shallow sandy aquifer, which extend as intermittent 1. Cooray, P.G., 1967, The Geology of Ceylon,
layers from 2 to 22 m depths. The main aquifer unit Quaternary Deposit
occurs between 2 to 11 m depth covering about 90% 2. Foster, S.S.D. 1984, “African Groundwater
of the study area. The groundwater recharge is about Development; The Challenges for Hydrogeological
4,078,250 m3 per year. With specific yield of 22% Science” In Walling, et al. eds.,1984,3-12.
(2,178,000 m3), the projected demand of 9,173 m3 3. Groundwater Investigation at Kattakudy, 1999.
per day can be easily supplied from this aquifer. The Mini Well Systems (Pvt) Ltd., (Unpublished).

224
4. Jacob, C. E., 1963, Determining the permeability 10. Sapukotana, U., Kodippili,. Groundwater
of water table aquifer: U.S. Geological Survey Water Management in Sri Lanka (Report).
Supply Paper 1536-1, p.1245-1271. 11. Silva,H.D., Roberts, P., 1994, Identifying
5. Johnson Division UOP, 1982, Groundwater Salinity in the Brigalow Landscapes of North-
and Wells. A reference book for the water well Western NSW-Hydrogeological Investigation. Mini
industry. Workshop, Australian Society of Soil Science Inc.
6. Hantush, M. S., and Jacob, C. E., 1955, Non- March 10 – 11.
steady radial flow in an infinite leaky aquifer: 12. Thieis, C. V., 1935, The relation between the
Transactions of the American Geophysical Union, lowering of the piezometric surface and the rate and
Vol. 36, p. 95-100 duration of discharge of a well using groundwater
7. Lawrence, A.R., Chilton, P.J., storage: Transactions of the American Geophysical
Kuruppuarachchi. D.S.P., 1988, Review of the Union, Vol. 16, p. 519-524.
Pollution Threat to Groundwater in Sri Lanka. 13. Todd, D.K., 1980, Groundwater Hydrogeology,
J.Geological Society of Sri Lanka, Vol, 1, p.85-92. Second Edition.
8. Panabokke, C.R., Kodituwakku, K.A.W., 14. Todd, D.K., 1980, Groundwater Hydrogeology,
Pathirana. S.R.K., 2001, Monitoring of Agro-wells Second Edition.
in the Sandy regosol Area between Nilaveli and 15. Watt James, G., 1983, Basic Ground-water
Kuchchaveli. Hydrology, U.S Geological Survey.
9. Panabokke, C.R., 2001, Report on Agro-wells 16. WHO (World Health Organization). 1993.
Monitoring of the Nilaveli-Kumburruppidi Coastal Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, Geneva.
Sand Aquifer in Trincomalee District.

225
 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

36. Rainwater Harvesting for Water Resources Management

in Himalayan Region of Tehri Garhwal, Uttaranchal
*G. K. Khadse *A.V. Talkhande *P. S. Kelkar *M. V. Nanoti

Abstract :
The Himalayan region of Tehri Garhwal has scattered habitations. The water resources
like springs and streams are scanty, non-perennial and unsafe. Rainwater harvesting
structures for roof water and spring water harvesting were suggested for optimal utilization
of rainfall water. The roof water harvesting structures are provided with filters and
chlorination facilities for safe potable water supply. The pre and post intervention assessment
of the work carried out included baseline socio-economic survey, parasitic investigations,
and water quality assessment. The know-how and transfer of technologies by appropriate
technological intervention has resulted in improved and safe water supply in project villages.
The beneficiary’s opinions, perceptions, apprehensions as well as expectations from this
technological intervention reflect positively towards the achievements of anticipated benefits
and impacts. The demands and desires expressed by people of other villages in the region
to implement the similar project in their respective villages is self explanatory towards the
success and popularity of the water resources based development project as evident from
these studies.

Introduction inadvertent human interventions. The water

Water supply for basic needs and food resources are mostly non-perennial and may not be
production, along with managing waste and safe in terms of quality due to some of the following
pollution to minimize risks to human health and well causative factors:
being, has been a foundational aspect of conceptions • Steep gradient induce quick run-off and heavy
of development since last three decades. The erosion
Himalayan region of Tehri Garhwal has scattered • Water scarcity and far away availability water
habitations in the villages with scanty, non-perennial sources at high elevation difference or drudgery
and unsafe water resources. This region, somehow involved in bringing water in hilly area
lagging behind in village upliftments due to remote • Terrace agriculture and habitat cause bacterial
and non-approachable places. An attempt was made contamination of water
to study the sustainable water resources • Topography pose problems in design,
management with particular reference to rainwater distribution, O&M of public water supply
harvesting and environmental protection of the The region need be looked with innovative
streams for safe drinking water supply with active ideas, deviating from conventional concepts and
public participation, training and awareness regulatory norms for development. For this purpose
programs in Chamba block of Tehri Garhwal district. community based water resources development and
The remote villages in this region depend upon management with imparting training and awareness
hilly water sources, particularly streams and springs, is pre-requisites. Some of the innovative ideas,
which are scanty in native state as well as due to which can be implemented in the region, are as

*National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, Nagpur

226
follows: Study Area
• Contour compatible gravity schemes for water The study area comprises a group of villages
harvesting and drinking water supply in Chamba block of Tehri Garhwal district in
• Surface run-off retardation structures to Uttaranchal (Fig. 1). The area lies between 300 18'
withhold water for extended period, using to 30 0 25' N latitude and 78° 20' to 78° 30' E
innovative ideas and material longitude and in the catchment of Maniyar river
• Development of water aeration techniques which is a tributary of Bhagirathi river. The altitude
availing natural elevation gradient ranges between 1150 m and 1900 m. The area is
• Propagation of cost-effective and socio- hilly with undulating physiography. The stream
economically viable options through assimilative courses are fairly straight and the general surface
awareness build-up. slope of the area is upto 30°. The Krol Belt of Lesser
Himalaya dominates the geology of the area. The
Objectives rocks comprise massive gray limestone, dolomite
Technological interventions for sustainable and some bands of phyllite, slate and quartzite. The
water resources management in Himalayan villages area represents the southeastern closure of the
with particular reference to rain water harvesting regional Mussoorie syncline. Because of undulating
and environmental protection of the streams and topography, land use is of very diversified nature,
springs for safe drinking water supply and sanitation which varies from agriculture, horticulture, forestry
is the primary objective of the study along with and wastelands.
following associated objectives. The study area falls in the sub-tropical climatic
• Delineation of strategies for sustainable zone of the Himalaya. Climatic conditions tend to
availability of water change within short distances due to rapid changes
• Construction and demonstration of rain water in topographic and altitudinal aspects. There is a
harvesting structures contrast in temperature and rainfall in between
• Application of site specific water treatment valleys, foothills and mountain tops. Average annual
technologies for safe drinking water supply to rainfall in the area is around 1200 mm confined to
villages four months from June to September. The sparing
• Improvement in sanitation and environmental rains are experienced during October-November.
health During winter, the area experience snowfall at an
• Demonstration of benefits of environmentally altitude of 1500 m and above. The temperature
compatible intervention. changes with respect to altitude, falls by 1.7° C with

Figure 1 : Study Area

227
rise in every 300 m. The maximum temperature • Development of surface run-off retardation
recorded in the previous decade is 26.7° C in June structures i.e. Chaals for groundwater recharge
while the lowest recorded temperature is 2.5° C in • Safe drinking water supply through sand
January. The relative humidity is more than 50% filtration and disinfection
throughout the year. • Development of water aeration techniques
availing natural elevation gradient
Traditional water harvesting systems in study area • Propagation of cost-effective and socio-
Since antiquity, people in the Tehri Garhwal economically viable options through assimilative
area draw water from small water harvesting awareness build-up.
structures (naula) and natural springs (dhara). Naula
is method of ground water harvesting whereby the Methodology
water is collected by making a stonewall across a Reconnaissance visit was undertaken in study
groundwater stream. For treatment and purification area for selection of villages for technological
of naula water, leaves of medicinal plants and fruits intervention and training and awareness camps.
like aonla were added periodically. Big shady trees Training and awareness camps were organized in
were planted near naulas to reduce evaporation. It selected villages. Design and commissioning of
is a custom of the local people to worship naulas rainwater harvesting structures viz. Chaals and
and trees. This had a two-fold effect - it taught roofwater harvesting tanks along with filtration units
villagers to keep naula clean and to conserve water, and pot chlorination was suggested in project
besides protecting the vegetation cover in the villages. Water quality assessment and health survey
recharge zones. Various anthropogenic reasons (parasitic investigations and blood for hemoglobin)
caused majority of the naulas to dry up and have in the project villages was conducted before and
pushed the rest to the verge of extinction. Most after technological intervention.
important cause of this is overwhelming dependence
upon piped water, prolonged ignorance of the Selection of Villages
traditional structures, and breakdown of the social The preliminary visit was undertaken in
mechanism for maintaining these structures. Chamba block of Tehri Garhwal for selection of the
Ironically every third village of the region is affected villages for rainwater harvesting. The selection was
by an acute water shortage. made based on the existing scenario in terms of site-
specific situation of water supply, necessities for
Potential for Rainwater Harvesting improvement and requirements of the villages. The
• Topographic constraints can be used in villages visited for the possible implementation of
implementation of safe water supply schemes, e.g. technology intervention are: Than, Lawadhar,
contour compatible gravity schemes for water Bidgaon, Paturi, Kotmaniyar, Nakot, Kodiya
harvesting (Ramgarh), Rani Chauri, Sabli, Chhati. Out of these
• The roofs are generally slanting and villages, 4 villages viz. Than, Lawadhar, Bidgaon,
traditionally made of slate hence water can be easily Paturi, were studied in detail for annual water
collected from these roofs making use of metal sheet availability and water requirement for village
drains population.
Table 1 : Daily water requirements of the four studied villages of Chamba block
Population Cattle Daily water requirements
population Drinking Other For cattle Total
@ 7 litre household @ 20 litre (in litre)
uses @ 30 litre
Than 415 242 2905 12450 4840 20195
Lawadhar 190 46 1330 5700 920 7950
Bidon 338 87 2366 10140 1740 14246
Paturi 338 154 2366 10140 3080 15586

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 Table 2: Estimates of the water likely to be drinking water can be made available. Development
harvested from one roof (40 sq m) during of rainwater harvesting system for drinking water
different months of the year source is one of the appropriate solutions for these
problems. It involves relatively low cost and less
Month Monthly water harvested from time for implementation and provides an almost
one single roof (in liters) entirely safe raw drinking water supply that does
January 2472 not require costly purification or treatment
processes.
February 3376
In hilly region stream/seepage water harvesting
March 3652 can be considered as one of the most appropriate
April 2372 technology for providing safe drinking water in
areas where sufficient rainfall is available. For
May 3396 implementing the strategy of spring water
June 4544 harvesting, selection of suitable sites on springs for
July 10940 construction of structure, detailed hydro-geological
flow data, quality of stream water for drinking
August 10044 purpose were analysed. The strategy of the work is
September 4948 to store the water for drinking and agriculture
purposes after rainy season.
October 1100
November 588 Factors considered for rain water harvesting
December 2220 The rainfall, geology, physiography, land use,
climatic conditions and social set up are the basic
Total 49652
factors considered to choose the proper technique
of rainwater management for rainwater harvesting
Lawadhar, Paturi, Bidon and Than have 30, from surface and rooftops. Study of rainfall pattern,
50, 45 and 71 houses respectively. On an average amount and intensity, nature and types of catchment
the covered area of each house is of the order of 40 area mainly taken into consideration to decide the
sq m. Estimates of the water thus collected from capacity of structures. The deeper water level
the roof during different months are given in Table indicates the higher scope of rainwater harvesting
1. The data shows that except for the months of for artificial recharge of groundwater. The demand
October and November the water harvested would of water and period of scarcity is also considered in
fulfill majority of the house-hold requirements planning and designing of rainwater storage
(75%) for the family of 5 and having two cattle. If structures. The social acceptance and economics and
the household does not have cattle its roof is potent availability of land influence the planning of
enough to fulfill its water requirements. Based on rainwater harvesting and therefore considered
the actual demographic figures the water that can scientifically.
be harvested from the rooftop in different villages
is presented in Table 2. Precautionary measures for rooftop water
harvesting
Rainwater harvesting structures • Smooth roof surface is desirable for easy flow
In hilly region, people use water from springs of water
or seepage from hills coming out as through flow. • The roof should not be under trees to prevent
Many times such water is not fit for drinking dirty leaves and bird droppings
purposes. Women have to fetch water from wells, • Ferro cement tanks are properly sealed to keep
ponds, lakes etc. from long distances and climb few out mosquitoes, insects, lizards etc.
hundred meters which consume lot of time and • Before the onset of monsoon or after one or
energy. In case, rainwater-harvesting schemes are two rains, the roof is properly cleaned and the water
constructed in the village, the adequate and safe is diverted away from the storage tanks to ensure

229
collection of clean water importance of water management and looked
• Filters are cleaned periodically to remove forward to the learning of new things and practicing
impurity and dirt them in the village
• The ferro cement tank is periodically cleaned • Such activities were also demanded by the
at least before the start of rainy season people of another villages in the region, which
• All joints are regularly checked for leakage and showed the significance, and development of
repaired wherever necessary interest. This also indicated the popularity and
positive impact of the work done in this project
Water Filtration and Disinfection
Water filtration units were installed at the top Conclusion
of roof water harvesting tanks for the removal of The development of technologies for
roof dust coming into tanks with roof top water. The sustainable water resources management in
filter units comprised of gravels and graded sands. Himalayan villages by rainwater harvesting for
Chlorination pots have been suggested for rainwater groundwater recharge and safe drinking water
harvesting tanks for disinfection of water and safe supply with environmental protection was the main
water supply for drinking purpose. focus for implementing the project. The design,
development and commissioning of rain water
Summary harvesting structures viz. Chaals and rooftop water
The salient observations and discussion harvesting tanks with the introduction of pot
pertaining to work carried out are as follows: chlorinator has resulted improved groundwater
• Development of Chaals on surface were found recharge and safe water supply respectively in study
suitable for groundwater recharge in the area area.
• Rooftop water harvesting structures found The environmental awareness programs and
suitable and sufficient for fulfilling the water need training has interactive participation to change
of individual houses for domestic uses during current non-scientific thinking and practices.
scarcity period Improved sense of belonging expressed by way of
• The filtration units in rooftop water harvesting active participation by the community of villages
structures and pot chlorinator system are successful encourages the activities of the project. The demand
in safe water supply. This technology is simple, and desires expressed by people of other villages in
economical and most practically suitable hence, the region to implement the same project in their
conveniently adopted for rural area respective villages is self explanatory towards the
• During the project, it was noticed that the rural success and popularity of the approach adapted.
people in general understood and realized the

Enhancing recharge of groundwater through

traditional Chaals Roof top water harvesting Structures

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 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

37. Rain Water Harvesting In Urban Areas And Its Impact

* K. Dwarakanath

Abstract
Urban centres in India are facing an ironical situation today. On one hand there is
acute water scarcity and on the other the streets are often flooded during the monsoons.
This has led to serious problems with depletion of water table on one side, deterioration of
chemical quality of ground water on the other side. Most of the traditional water harvesting
structures in cities have been neglected and fallen into disuse, worsening the urban water
scenario. One of the solutions to the urban water crisis is rainwater harvesting-capturing
the run off.
Under such type of situation, rain water harvesting recharge pits play a major role
not only for raising the depleted water table by way of improving the yield in the bore wells
but also for improvement in chemical quality of ground water. This is practiced on a large
scale in cities like Chennai, Bangalore, Delhi, Hyderabad, where rainwater harvesting is a
part of the State policy. Now-a-days awareness is being created through media, newspaper,
television, mass awareness camps, training programmes amongst the general public. People
on their own going for construction of recharge pits to safeguard their own bore wells and
even the Municipal authorities made it a mandatory for construction of recharge pit for
approval of the plan.
The present paper deals with impact of rainwater harvesting on yield and quality of
the bore wells and also on the Nation’s economy through public awareness and campaigns
by discussing with two case studies in Hyderabad city.

INTRODUCTION harvesting of water collected from rooftop is

Rain water harvesting is defined as a method discussed in more detail, as the present paper deals
for inducing, collecting, storing and conserving local with rainwater harvesting in urban areas.
surface run-off for agriculture in arid and semi-arid
regions. Three types of water harvesting are covered Broadly rainwater can be harvested for two
by rainwater harvesting. a) Water collected from purposes :
roof tops, courtyards and similar compacted or i) Storing rainwater for ready use in containers
treated surfaces is used for domestic purposes b) above or below ground
Micro-catchment water harvesting is a method of ii) Charged into the soil for withdrawal later
collecting surface runoff from a small catchment area (ground water recharging)
and storing it in the root zone of an adjacent infiltration
basin. The basin is planted with a tree, a bush or Rain water harvesting can be harvested from
with annual crops c) Macro-catchment water the following surfaces.
harvesting, also called harvesting from external
catchments, is the case where runoff from hill-slope Rooftops: If buildings with impervious roofs are
catchments is conveyed to the cropping area located already in place, the catchment area is effectively
art hill foot on flat terrain. available free of charge and they provide a supply
Out of the above-mentioned three types, at the point of consumption.

* Scientist - B, Central Ground Water Board, Southern Region, 3-6-291, Hyderguda, Hyderabad - 500029
Tel. : 03222873 Email : rdsr-cgwb@nic.in

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Paved and unpaved areas i.e. landscapes, open below in the form of two case studies one at
fields, parks, storm water drains, roads and Osmania University and another at Author’s
pavements and other open areas can be effectively residence of Hyderabad city Andhra Pradesh..
used to harvest the runoff. The main advantage in
using ground as collecting surface is that water can 1st Case Osmania University Campus,
be collected from a larger area. This is particularly Hyderabad
advantageous in areas of low rainfall. Rain Water harvesting through Artificial
Recharge to ground water was taken up tin Osmania
Water bodies : The potential of lakes, tanks and University campus as one of the activities of “ Fresh
ponds to store rainwater is immense. The harvested Water Year,2003” with the mission “ Fresh Water
rainwater can not only be used to meet water for All” . The project was executed by the Osmania
requirements of the city, it also recharge groundwater University with the technical guidance of CGWB,
aquifers. Hyderabad. at a cost Rs. 24.10 lakhs.
The main objectives for constructing the
Storm water drains: Most of the residential structures are as follows
colonies have proper network of storm water drains. Large roof top area is available to tap rain water
If maintained neatly, these offer a simple and cost for augmenting ground water resource.
effective means for harvesting rainwater. If The recharge structures in the campus were
maintained neatly, these offer a simple and cot mainly constructed for demonstrative purpose as a
effective means for harvesting rain water. model
The decision whether to store or recharge Learned and opinion builders of the future, pass
water depends on the rainfall pattern and the potential through these portals hence very useful to educate
to do so, in a particular region. and bring awareness to the society.
For example, Delhi, Rajasthan and Gujarat Presence of learned and researchers to pursue,
where the total annual rainfall occurs during 3 or 4 monitor, evaluate and assess the impact of the
months, are examples of places where groundwater artificial recharge structure in scientific lines
recharge is usually practiced. In places like Kerala, independent of Central Ground Water Board.
Mizoram, Tamil Nadu , Bangalore, and Hyderabad Permanent field demonstrative structure for
where rain falls throughout the year barring a few M.Sc Hydrogeology students.
dry periods, one can depend on a small sized tank
for storing rainwater, since the period between two Location
spells of rain is short. Wherever sub-strata is Osmania University campus is located in the
impermeable recharging will not be feasible. Hence, heart of the twin cities of Hyderabad and
it would be ideal to opt for storage. In places where Secunderabad. The topography of the area is highly
the ground water is saline or not of potable standards, undulating, sloping generally towards NNW-SSE
the alternate system could be that of storing coinciding with the drainage pattern in the region.
rainwater. Geologically the area us occupied by Granites and
Beyond generalizations it is the requirement that Gneisses of Archaean age. Ground water occurs
govern the choice of water harvesting technique. under semi-confined to confined conditions and the
For example, in Ahmedabad, which has limited development of ground water in the area is mostly
number of rainy days as that of Delhi, traditional in the form of open wells and borewells.
rainwater harvesting tanks, known as tankas, are Library and Arts college buildings were selected
used to store rainwater even today in residential for Roof top rainwater Harvesting purposes as the
areas, temples and hotels. large roof area is available. A small landscape garden
A rainwater harvesting system comprises pond lis also selected for de-silting and strengthening.
components of various stages – transporting The normal rainfall of the area is 810 mm and the
rainwater through pipes or drains, filtration, and dependability of rainfall is 74%. Rainfall from 1970
storage in tanks for reuse or recharge. to 2004 indicates slightly decreasing trend, which is
The impact of the rainwater harvesting insignificant. The structures constructed are as
structures both on quality and quantity is discussed follows.

232
 Site Pits Recharge Monitoring the recharge pit, slotted part of the casing of the
wells wells bore well in weathered portion is twined with coir
(Piezometres) rope and the pit was refilled with 40 mm metal in the
Opp. Lib. Building 3 3 2 bottom, followed by 20 mm metal and coarse sand
Behind Arts College 2 2 2 on the top. The top 1 m of the pit is left vacant for
storage of water. The metal and sand constitutes
Landscape pond - - 2
filter material.
The landscape garden pond was desilted to the
The depth to water level varies from 5 to 20 tune of 4376 cu.m earth material. The leakages were
m.bgl in the campus area. The general depth to plugged and the bund was strengthened.
water level varies from 10 to 20m.bgl and the yield In order to monitor the impact of roof top rain
of the dug well ranges from 40 to 90 cu.m/day during water harvesting through artifical recharge
pre-monsoon period, whereas during summer it structures, two piezometers at downstream of
varies from 20 to 45 cu.m/day. The geophysical landscape garden pond were constructed. At each
surveys, indicate that the weathered thickness at location, one shallow piezometer depth ranging from
these location vary from 5 to 13mbgl and followed 10 to 18 m and one deep piezometer depth ranging
by fractured zone up to a depth of 60 m.bgl. from 48 to 50 ml.bgl were constructed. These
Based on the hydrogeological and geophysical piezometer wells are being monitored since July,
surveys, sites were selected to construct three 2004. It is observed from the hydrograph of the
recharge pits with recharge bore wells to recharge piezometer that the water levels have behaved
the rain water from Lilbrary building and two differently in shallow piezometer and deep
recharge pits and two recharge borewells to harvest piezometer wells.
the rain water from Arts college building. Besides In response to the rain water recharge the depth
landscape garden has been taken up for de-silting to water level started raising sharply during the first
and strengthening the pond to enhance the recharge week of July, 2005 and remained shallow between
capacity. In all 5 recharge pits with 5 recharge bore 1.5 and 4.5 m up to November, 2005. After
wells were constructed in the Osmania University November, the water levels have started falling
campus. sharply and continuously. It indicates that as long as
The total roof rop rainwater availability from recharge to ground water was present during rainy
Library building is 1200 cu.m/year, whereas it is 900 season, water levels raised. After the cessation of
cu.m/year from Arts college building. Rainwater rainfall, the water levels fallen down due to the
falling on these two roofs passes through a vertical dissipation of water laterally. This phenomenon is
pipeline and goes into number of desilting chambers observed in all the shallow piezometer wells.
constructed within the channel. Afterwards, the In deep piezometres, constructed in fracture
water enters into the storage sump of 25,000 liters zone, indicates that once the shallow water levels
capacity nearby Library building and 30,000 litres are attained, falling of water levels after monsoon is
capacity near Arts college building. The excess rain generally less and more or less remained steadily
water from the sumps pass through a filter bed in even up to March, 2006. Since the slotted pipes
the recharge pit and reaches shallow aquifer, while have been arranged, water goes into the deeper
part of the collected water after filtration reaches fracture aquifer and hence there is a sharp rise of
the deep aquifer, through recharge bore wells water levels during the monsoon period.
constructed within the recharge pit and recharging In general the hydrograph of all the six
the aquifer further. After meeting the requirement piezometer wells are showing the rising trend within
of recharge pits and recharge bore wells, if any rain the period of two years. The total amount of rain
water is let, discharge into the landscape garden pond. water recharge from June, 2004 to March, 2006 is
The capacity of the recharge pits varies from about 3550 cu.m from these two building alone, which
55 to 95 cu.m and designed in such a way tht the pit otherwise could have gone into drains.
dimensions are almost three times the highelst volume There is a large scope in Osmania University
of rainwater that can be collected from single day. campus as large roof top area is available to harvest
After construction of recharge bore well with the rain after through artificial recharge structures.

233
If similar artificial recharge structres are taken up, it following the necessary norms such as filling up of
is imperative that no shortage of water supply is faced big boulders on the bottom, followed by medium size
by Osmania University. Though at present, the boulders and sand on the top. The pit was
shortage is being felt only durilng summer, it is very constructed with the dimension of 1 m x 1m x 2m.
likely that water shortage may increase in future. It The roof top area available was 100 sq.m and the
is right time to take up roof top rain water harvesting harvested water from roof was recorded as 59 cu.m.
methods either to collect rainwater directly of either Water harvesting potential = Rainfall (mm) x
recharging to the ground water in the similar lines, Area of catchment x Runoff coefficient (0.2 to 1)
the Central Ground Water Board has shown by the The rainfall received was ranging from 800 –
demonstrative rain water harvesting methods. 900 mm during the Southwest monsoon in the year
2004-2005. After the onset of the monsoon nearly
2nd case : Author’s residence 300 to 400 cu.m or rain water has been harvested
The author’s residence in Vanasthalipuram is through the recharge pit at different spells of rainfall
located in Ranga Reddy district, Hyderabad. The and later the yields and water levels were measured
building was constructed with a roof area of 100 in the bore well. To all of a sudden surprise, the
sq.yards in 150 sq.yards plot area during the year, static water level in the bore well raised to 4.0 m bgl
August 2003. To meet the need for construction from the previous level of 21.0 m and the yield has
purpose and also for future domestic water been increased from the existing 0.25 lps to almost
requirement a bore well of 115 m dia (41/2") was 1 lps (3 times more) and now the bore well is able to
constructed to a depth of 75m in the North East sustain for 2 hours continuously without any
corner of use. Geologically the area is underlained interruption. Accordingly a water sample was
by Granites of Archaean age. The first fracture was collected and analysed in the laboratory.
met in the borewell at a depths of 17 to 18 m.bgl Regarding chemical quality variations in
with a meager discharge of 0.25 lps under semi- chemical constituents prior to the construction of the
confined conditions. The second fracture was pit and after construction of the pit are as follows.
encountered at 59 to 60 mbgl under confined
conditions without any discharge and noticed as a Results of Chemical Analysis
fracture based on the change in the rate of penetration (in ppm)
of drilling and also the local hydrogeological
conditions.. There was no discharge of water coming Before const- After const-
-ruction of pit -ruction of pit
out of the borehole was found during the time of Name of the Chemical Date of sample Date of sample
drilling and appeared to be almost dry. After Constituent collection collection
removing the drill rods, the water level was measured 1-12-2003 1-12-2005
in the borewell and recorded as 21.0 m.bgl. pH 6.94 6.3
Accordingly a water sample was collected and 0
EC (at 25 C) 1065 930
analysed in the laboratory. The well used to sustain
pumping for 10 to 20 minutes only twice in a day. Total Hardness as CaCo3 335 300
Due to insufficient water in the borewell the owner Calcium Ca++ 104 80
was forced to purchase the water for construction Magnesium Mg++ 23 24
purpose.
Later on after a gap of 8 months the owner of Sodium Na++ 78 74
the residence has opted for construction of first floor Potassium K+ 0.7 1*
in the same house and approached the Municipal Carbonate Co3 -2
0 0
authorities for approval of plan. Thanks to the -2
Bicarbonate HCo 299 250
Municipal authorities for insisting and made it a 3

-
mandatory, that unless the Rainwater Harvesting Chlorides Cl 89 110*
Recharge pit is constructed the plan will not be Sulphates So4 -2
58 53
approved for construction of 1st floor. Accordingly Nitrates No3-2 112 65
the owner has constructed a rain water harvesting
Fluoride 0.84 1.01 *
pit about 3m away form the present bore well after

234
 A perusal of the chemical constituents of the 300/- to Rs.400/- per month and after construction
data clearly shown that the P H, EC, calcium, of the pit it is now reduced to Rs. 150/- to Rs. 200/-
magnesium, sodium, carbonate, bicarbonate, and also in the form of saving money.
sulphates, nitrates has been reduced gradually when It is very much coincides with the proverb
compared to the sample collected prior to the “Power saved is power generated and it has got very
construction of the pit and now the ground water good impact on the economy of the individual
quality is potable and fresh comparatively. If the rainwater harvesting is taken up
Regarding in the increase in ranges of chemical collectively on the community basis the impact on
constituents like Potassium (0.7 to 1), Chlorides ( 89 economy would be not only on the individual but also
to 100) and fluoride (0.84 to 1.01), clearly shows the on the block/district/state.
recharge of 2nd fracture encountered in the bore well
at a depth of 59-60m with no yield. Now, the second Conclusions
fracture has been completely saturated due to the Rainwater harvesting structures such as
recharge through the recharge pit constructed 3 m recharge pits play a major role in the present scenario
away from the bore well. especially in the urban areas, not only in improving
The data also proves the concept of phreatic the chemical quality, but also in improving the yields,
aquifers recharging the other aquifers at semi- saturating the dried up fracture zones in the bottom
confined and confined conditions in the form of and finally saving the power consumption in the form
vertical hydraulic connectivity. In the present case, of energy and money. It creates lot of impact on the
the water after recharging the first fracture at the economy of the individual resident block/district/state
depth range of 17-18 m. Subsequently moved as well as the country. If every individual household
downwards by saturating the entire weathered and owner / apartment owner/builders implement these
fracture system and recharging the 2nd fractures at methods, by way of construction of recharge pits or
the depth range of 59 – 60m and also got connected any other suitable rainwater harvesting methods in
with the formation at that depth. their own household premises, it not only improves
The increase in Fluoride, Chloride clearly the ground water levels, but also saves the energy
confirms that the aquifer now after construction of and money and also sustainable water supply for
the pit is in full contact with the formation at 59-60m domestic purpose. This can be implemented more
depth as we, go deeper and deeper the fluoride efficiently by creating awareness among the citizens
content in the formation increases and it has been of local residential areas by creating mass awareness
proved practically in the present case. Though the programmes / training programmes regarding the
Fluoride has been increased it is within the potable importance of rainwater harvesting structures. If the
limits of 1.5 ppm Government implements vigorously by construction
of these structures as models at public places such
Findings as office buildings, universities, college/school
Prior to the construction of the rainwater premises, public places, parks etc., and also creates
harvesting pit the static water level was 21 meters awareness among the public by video, audio,
and after construction of the pit it was recorded as newspapers, etc., the so called concrete jungle can
4.0 m bgl be converted back to green belts in the urban areas
Prior to construction of pit, the yield was 0.25 not only by keeping the aquifer saturated throughout
lps and after the construction of the pit it increased the years but also economical in the form of saving
almost 3 times at a discharge rate of 1 lps power in their own area/block/district/.state/country.
Prior to construction of pit, the bore well used Only the precaution is very much needed is the
to sustain for 10 to 20 minutes twice a day and after recharge pit should be constructed very carefully
construction it is sustaining for a continuous pumping following all the specifications and periodic
of 2 hours without any interruption in the discharge. maintenance, otherwise the bore well will become
Prior to construction of pit the power defunct and sustainability is lost.
consumption in the form of electricity bill was Rs.

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 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

38. Efficient Management of Harvested Rain Water – A Case Study

*Er. Pradeep S. Bhalge **Mrs. Charu Bhavsar

Abstract
Our ancestors were far ahead in field of rain water harvesting and water
management. India receives monsoon rainfall which is highly erratic in both space and
time. Since pre-historic times efforts are made to over-come the monsoon dependant
calamities, sinchan like shortfall in rainfall, over-rainfall etc; so as to adjust with the
nature. The country was ruled by various dynasties and all of them were very much
particular in promoting the rain-water harvesting and irrigation development. They
were providing financial aids for construction of water harvesting devices for holding
water both on ground surface and under ground features. But they never interfere in
the water management is ours. Ownership lie with the community. Repairs and water
management were totally in the hands of the community. They were taking almost care
for equitable distribution of water stored. Therefore the techniques and the system last
is for centuries to-gather. But in the present days the water resources are the properties
of the Government. Potential to the tune of 3.812 million hectares are created in
Maharashtra. But there is wide gap between the creation and utilization of irrigation
potential. The government is responsible for repairs, maintenance and water distribution,
due to which the peoples lost their affection towards the water resources. Their
participation in water management is going on reducing. The efficient and traditional
community managed systems were being pushed in the verge of extinction. There are
few evidences that the people overcome the above problems by uniting to- gather.
This paper will illustrate the case study of Indore Minor Irrigation tank ( Nasik District).
On this tank, the rain water harvested in utilized by well conceived planning of the
people. The beneficiaries of Indore village of Nashik district united to gather, formed a
water user association, took the charge of the reservoir, and developed a community
managed irrigation system by coupling the traditional irrigation techniques with the
modern engineering applications and succeeded in irrigating 200% more area than the
potential created. This paper gives the details of their fantastic ideas about rain water
harvesting, the equitability in distribution of harvested water, adoption of the advance
irrigation method and high yielding crops, efficient and optimum use of harvested water.

Introduction created. The gap between the potential created and

Maharashtra is situated in the southwest of India. utilization is increasing day by day. There is urgent
The total geographical area is 30.8 million hectare, need to adopt improved water policy and advance
out of which 22.50 million hectares are cultivable. irrigation techniques to bridge the gap between the
At the end of year 2004, 3.812 million hectares potential created and utilized. Agriculture has been
irrigation potential is created by harvesting the rain the prominent occupation to provide foods and fibers
water. The harvested water are stored in various to the growing population of the state. The state
reservoirs. But the state lags in utilization of potential economy is dependent upon the agriculture

*Assistant Engineer Gr.II, Jayakwadi Project Circle, Aurangabad

**Member of Indian Council for water and Culture, Aurangabad.
email addresses.: pradeepbhalage@yahoo.co.in, charubhavsar@yahoo.co.in

236
production. Irrigation facility is regarded as the key night time. There is uncertainty in water supply.
element of irrigated agriculture, the modern Water charges are levied according to the area
agriculture and irrigation practices play a key role in irrigated and not on the volume of water supplied to
alleviating rural poverty. the field. due to which tendency to use excess water
The water resources, reservoirs, distribution is developed among the farmers. These results in
systems etc. are the property of the Government. deep percolation losses, leaching of fertilizers below
They are wholly governed by the Government. The root zone, run off at the end of borders and furrows,
rain water harvested in the reservoir is released as water logging and salinity. The present water
per the availability and demand of the beneficiaries application methods are not efficient, though they
and water tax is collected from the users. are adopted over large area in command of irrigation
Maintenance and repairs of the head work, projects thus reduces the efficient use of harvested
distribution net work up to the outlets is the water. The reasons for this type of irrigation
responsibility of the governments and maintenance practices are,
of the net work below the outlets i.e. field channels, 1. There are no incentives to the farmers for
water courses are the responsibility of the farmers. efficient water use.
The farmers do not take part in maintenance work 2. The farmers do not worry about the wastage of
of the distribution system. They fills that it is the water, as they are not to pay on volumetric basis.
responsibility of the government only. The water 3. The rotation of water supply schedule is not
taxes are so meager that, it can not be sufficient to implemented as it is planned on paper.
maintain the schemes. Due to low maintenance the Therefore the beneficiaries will try to tap as
conveyance losses goes on increasing, this result in much water as possible, when their turn is on. The
to the lower down the utilization. head reach farmers apply excess water, while the
tail reach farmers do not get water at all. In the
Purpose night time some of the farmers diverts the irrigation
The government comes to the conclusion that water in to the drain, they are not penalized. The
without farmer’s participation efficient water field channels are not well maintained as the farmers
utilization is not possible. To improve the performance are not organized to share the water as their
of irrigation sector, Government has promoting the responsibility. The flow rate in each chak (Piece of
users participation, water awareness and capacity land under command of one out let) is standardized
building. Under this program, Number of water users as 30 Liter per second. But in most of the cases the
associations is being formed under the command of out lets do not have discharge more than 10 liter per
irrigation projects. In many cases the water second. The present water policy does not permit
management is handed over to them. A case study farmer to let water in to the well. All above features
of Jai Malhar water users Association, Indore village, drives the farmers mind to apply maximum irrigation
Nasik district of Maharashtra State [India], is taken water.
to review of the success of the implementation of The present water distribution practices do not
the reformed policy and the efficient use of the allow a farmer to irrigate more area in the same
harvested water. quantum of water. On the other hand he will be
penalized for irrigating more area than the sanctioned
Present water allocation area for growing the crops. The water demand is
In Maharashtra state, water is allocated on the vary from out let to out let. The flow time vary from
basis of the designed crop pattern, the demand of one day to seven days. It is very difficult to regulate
the farmers, and availability of the water in the the flow rate in the main irrigation canal. Thus the
reservoir. The water is released on the basis of the operational schedule gets disturbed. The end result
sanctioned crop area in a given season. The quantity of this type of operation practice is heavy water
is to be releases at fixed interval to satisfy the crop losses.
water demand, but in actual practice the quantities
and rotation period is fluctuates, since water is Reformed water policy
charged on area basis, farmers do not irrigate in As the area under the command of an irrigation

237
managerial staff is large, it is difficult for them to to irrigate in the hot weather. The tank gets empty
maintain and keep watch on each and every field. in two or three irrigation rotation. More than 15
Thus Maharashtra Government has decided to hand Acres of land can not be irrigated by letting the water
over the command area to the beneficiaries. The in to the canal since its renovation. The tail enders
water users associations (WUA) of the beneficiaries never gets water. As there was acute shortage of
are now formed. The command area is being handed water, the farmers were raising crops like Millet,
over to the WUA. In some cases the formalities Green gram, Black Gram etc in the rainy season.
are completed. Water will be released to them on And crops like Wheat and Gram in the Rabi season.
volumetric basis. Overall distribution, controlling and Due insufficient and uncertain water supply from
management of irrigation, maintenance is done by the reservoir, the yields of the crops were not enough.
water user association. As agriculture was the only source of income, the
farmers were getting more and more poor day by
Benefits of WUA day.
1. Freedom of crop planning To over come the problems the beneficiaries
2. Conjunctive use of water is allowed united to gather. After lot of discussions and
3. Flexibility in water scheduling brainstorming following decisions are taken by them.
4. Freedom of water distribution 1. Decided to form water users association to take
5. Saved water can be use in the next season over the management of the irrigation in to their
6. Efficient water use hands.
7. Equitability in water distribution 2. To reduce the conveyance losses, decided to
8. Quickly setting of the conflicts. adopt pipe distribution net work only. For that they
have taken the decision to close the irrigation sluices.
A Case study 3. Group of 3 to 7 farmers having fields side by
The Indore village is situated 25 Kilometers away side or at convenient are to be formed. Each group
from the district head quarter Nasik, Maharashtra will laid a common PVC Pipe line to carry the
(India). The monsoon rain fall occurs in month of discharge form the distribution chamber to the
June to mid of October. After the monsoon rains secondary distribution chamber. And every individual
are over, it was nor possible to raise the crops without will laid a separate pipe line from the secondary
supplementary irrigation. In the summer days the distribution chamber to their own field, at their own
peoples were neither getting water for irrigation nor cost.
for drinking. To overcome the water crises problems, They united to gather and formed a WUA
in the year 1972, Government has constructed one named as “ Jai Malhar Lift irrigation co operative
Percolation tank of 0.45 Mm3 capacities. In the society, Indore village, Nasik district, Maharashtra
period 1989-1992, the government has taken a state (India). It is worth to know their equitable and
decision and converted this percolation tank in to a sustainable water distribution techniques. The details
Minor Irrigation tank. For that purpose the height of are given below.
the dam is raised. Thereby the storage capacity of
the tank is increased up to 0.89 Mm3. Two irrigation Equitable distribution of available water in the
sluices one at the left flank and one at the right were reservoir
installed. Thus 100 hectare irrigation potential is Total 115 no share holders are registered. A jack
declared to be achieved. Villages under the command well of three meter diameter is constructed inside
are Indore and Madakejamb. the reservoir. As shown in the figure 1, a main
The tank never get fill with water since its distribution chamber is constructed on a higher
construction. It was governed by the irrigation ground near the dam. Two submersible pumps of
Department, Government of Maharashtra. The 25 HP each are installed on the jack well. The
maintenance, repairs and operation was done by the discharging capacity of each pump is 50 lps. A rising
Irrigation staff working under the government. The main pipe of 315 mm diameter is laid. It carries the
irrigation was done in the Rabi seasons only i.e. water lifted by the two pumps, and delivers inside
October to February. The tanks could not have water the main distribution chamber. The diameter of the

238
distribution chamber is 3 meter and the depth is kept time. As the total discharge of the two pumps is 100
as 2 meter. 115 PVC pipe pieces of 63 mm dia and lps, then it is equally divided in to 115 members, and
300 mm in length are fixed over the vertical wall of each of them will get nearly one lps discharge over
the chamber. They are fixed exactly at one level. the running period. If one of the pumps is shut down,
They work as out lets. There number is equal to the then the discharge of one pump will be equally divided
number of share holders. The water delivered inside among them as said above. In the existing flow
the chamber is divided equally among the all 115 irrigation systems lot of conflicts arise. But theses
pipes and flows out. Group of three to seven farmers are avoided in this system as there are no head,
are formed middle and tail enders.
1. When the power is on the pumps will run and
the water will get collected in the main distribution 2. The maintenance of rising main and the pumps
chamber. From this chamber it gets distribute equally is the responsibility of the WUA.
from the outlets fixed on the peripheral vertical wall.
The water from the out lets fall in to peripheral 3. The maintenance of the pipe lines is not the
chambers. The number of outlets letting water in to responsibility of the WUA. It is the common
a peripheral compartment is dependent upon the responsibility of the farmers in that group.
number of farmers in that group. All peripheral
compartments receive water at the same time. The 4. Collection of the water charges and paying it to
water collected in the compartment is then carried the Government is the responsibility of the WUA.
through a pipe line of that group, up to the secondary
chamber constructed at the common point; this 5. As the command area of the tank is small i.e.100
chamber has one common compartment, where the hectare, only one WUA is formed on this tank.
water coming through the pipe line gets collected
first. The vertical wall has pipe out lets of equal 6. Government staff of irrigation department is
diameter. The number of pipe out lets is equal to the measuring the water level in the tank at the start
members in that group. The water coming out from and end of a cropping season. Accordingly Volume
each out let is then collected in individual or of water utilized by the Association as a whole is
compartment/chamber. From this chamber the water calculated and water charges are levied. Thus the
is conveyed to the individual’s field. Thus all the share government will get revenue on the basis of
holders will get equal quantum of water at the same volumetric basis.

239
7. All the beneficiaries contributed in the cost of of wondering for searching jobs in the Cities.
Construction of the rising main, pumps, elevated 8. It becomes possible to produce export quality
distribution chamber etc. Every group had made grapes and vegetables.
their own financial arrangements for their common 9. Able to adopt advance irrigation techniques such
conveyance. The WUA has purchased and fixed as Drip and Sprinkler irrigation.
one Electric transformer of 160 KV to get 10. The area under Grape is increased from 2 hectare
continuous electric supply of required voltage. The to 100 hectare.
WUA is also responsible to collect the electricity 11. The irrigation potential is increased from 100
charges and pay to the respective office. It is hectare to 200 hectare.
important to note that they do not relay on the 12. Income from the farm is increased from Rs12000
Government for the cost of the above said to Rs125000 per hectare.
components.
Conclusion
Results 8640 Cubic meter water is sufficient to irrigate
After the implementation of the scheme 2 hectares of land with advance irrigation techniques.
following changes are observed. It is concluded that peoples participation play a
1. The conveyance water losses are reduced to very key role in sustainable development. When the
zero, thus saving in large amount of water. beneficiaries get the filling that the irrigation system
2. Equitable distribution of water is their ownership, they do very well. This will help
3. Water is delivered to the farmers in command in following ways.
as well as non command area of the tank. Thus 1. They will have affection to the water resources.
extending the irrigation benefits to the villagers. 2. They will maintain the system in a good
4. Cost of pipe line is saved due to group formation. condition.
5. Every group has a group head. He is authorized 3. They will use the available water very efficiently.
to solve the dispute among them if arises. 4. The expenditure of the Government will save
6. Due to involvement of people’s participation, the 5. 100 % of the potential created will be utilized.
scheme runs smoothly as the powers and 6. Alleviate the rural poverty.
responsibility are decentralized. Can achieve efficient and optimum water use
7. The youngsters turn to wards the farming instead with easy management.

Calculation of water allocation

240
 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

39. Rainwater Harvesting – Critical Evaluation

*Sulakshana Patil **Er. Rajendrakumar V. Saraf

Abstract
Surface water and underground water are naturally replenished and recharged with
rainwater. Lakes and dams are well known for arresting and store the rainwater by
manmade efforts. However it cannot satisfy demands of growing urbanization and
industrialization. There are and will be continuous efforts to find out alternative methods
to satisfy water demand. From 1990 onwards rainwater harvesting is considered as
simplest, economical to store and recharge underground water. No doubt that rainwater
harvesting is proved successful at many places. Because of varying geographical &
geological conditions rainwater harvesting cannot be considered as the only & best
solution to be implemented at all the places. There are the disadvantages of rainwater
harvesting which are not yet seriously studied. Some of key factors to be evaluated are as
follows,
a) Characteristics or rainwater
b) Composition of soil and rocks
c) Physical and chemical interaction between rain water and underground soil strata
Rainwater is without dissolved solids. Its Langlier index is negative and is highly corrosive.
If rainwater comes in direct contact with underground soil strata of bore well then leaching
of chemicals from soil & rocks cannot be ruled out.
Rainwater is collected, analyzed during rainy seasons. Effect of rainwater on the various
material, soil and rocks are studied. The findings are presented in the paper. It is found
that rainwater is highly corrosive. Chemicals are either dissolved or leached out from the
material coming in direct contact with rainwater. Therefore it is recommended that the
direct or enhanced recharging of ground water is to be critically evaluated along with
likely side effects of change water quality. An integrated approach is must to implement
rainwater.

Introduction activities for development cause harsh and often

Carrying capacity of Environment provides irreversible damage to the environment. Many of
the base for Development activities. Resources are our current practices for development activities if
provided by supportive capacity and wastes are not properly checked & evaluated can put at serious
assimilated by the Assimilative capacity. risk. It may alter the living world so that it will
Development Pyramid is shown in Figure –1. Strong unable to sustain life in the manner that we know.
desire to have better quality of life is resulted into Therefore critical evaluation of our activities is must
the collision with natural environment. Human to avoid collision that our present course will bring
about.

*Research Associate ** Director SGES Enviro Academy, Pune

21, Radhakrishna, Near SBI, Paud Road, Pune –38, watersgs@vsnl.com

241
 Rainwater harvesting is considered as a best
DEVELO PMEN T P Y R A M ID alternative to bridge the gap between the demand
BE TTER
Q U A L IT Y
and supply. Presently rainwater harvesting is
O F L IF E considered as tool to relieve stress on supportive
E C O N O M IC P R O G R E S S capacity of the environment, save money, and
M O R E G O O DS , M O RE JO BS recharge groundwater. Many people in the world
D E V E L O P M E N T A C T IV IT IE S have continued to rely on rainwater harvesting
practices. It is being practiced for a. Drinking water,
RESO URCES W ASTE PRO DUCT
b. Domestic water, c Water for livestock, d. Water
S U P P O R T IV E C A P A C IT Y A S S IM IL A T IV E C A P A C IT Y for small irrigation. e. To replenish ground water
C A R R Y IN G C A P A C IT Y O F E N V IR O N M E N T
levels.
Figure – 1 Because of stress on water supply only
Development Pyramid quantitative factor is being considered and the
impact on water quality is either ignored or seriously
Water is the most important resource of not considered. Authors have made efforts to
Supportive capacity for the development. Rapid critically evaluate Rainwater harvesting & carried
change in quality of life couple with urbanization out studies to find out the adverse impacts if any on
and industrialization is creating stress on our the surrounding materials.
valuable water resources. Drinking water is
becoming a rare commodity. There is rapid Hydrological Cycle
development of cities and urbanized population. The Precipitation of water in form of rain and
surface and the underground water resources are snow is governing factor of Hydrological cycle
getting exploited to satisfy the rising water demand. Water falls on ground not only for the human being
Our most of the surface water resources are but also for entire natural flora and fauna. Natural
seasonal. Constructions of dams and manmade water cycle in said region has defined the ecosystem.
reservoirs are helping to relieve the stress on water It also has great impact on human habitation. Fate
demand .At many places, water is being transported of precipitated rainwater is shown in Figure 2. Part
from water resource trough cannels and close of water is retained as water in biomass & soil
conduct pipe. The distance may vary from few km moisture. Surface runoff is naturally stored in water
to more than 50 km. The gap between water supply bodies like ponds, lakes and rivers. Water percolates
and demand is rising with reference to quantity and through soil and rocks to join the ground water
quality too. storage. In the hydrological cycle, the part of
Besides, traditional water resources are rainwater percolates trough the soil and it remain
getting dried because of both natural and manmade as free, bound and store water under the ground.
activities. Where surface water is not available in Ground water recharge is a natural process
plenty the ground water is exploited. However at depending on the rainfall, soil and rock strata.
many places the ground water is contaminated due
to natural and manmade activities. The over
EVAPORATION
exploitation of underground water has upset the
balance of natural ground water recharge and ground
SURFACE RUNOFF &
water supply. In ideal case, preferably the rate of TOTAL STORAGE WITHOUT SURFACE
PRECIPITATION RUNOFF
ground water recharge shall be more than the ground BOUNDARIES

water draw. The results of overexploitation are as

GROUNDWATER
follows, RECHARGING
GROUND
WATER
Decline of ground water table
WATER TRANSFERRED
Shortage in water supply
TO BIOTIC LIFE
Change in water quality
BIOMASS
Intrusion of saline water in coastal area
Deepening of ground water structures Figure – 2 Fate of Rainwater

242
Rainwater harvesting Socio economical background
When natural rainwater storage & ground
water recharge process are enhanced by manmade Collection & storage of rainwater is based on
activities is called as Rain Water Harvesting. It is physical efforts of collection and enhance
totally dependent on rain & not on constant flow of percolation for recharging of ground water aquifers.
water. Rainwater Harvesting is a way to capture the It is being implemented by the following methods.
rainwater when it rains & store above ground or Collection on the ground using natural
charge the underground and use it later. Rainwater contour
harvesting can also be defined as the redirection Define manmade constructed tanks or
and productive use of rainfall. Basically harvesting reservoirs
involves variety of methods used to get as much Obstruction of flow to increase the rate of
water as possible out of each rainfall. Obviously percolation and ground water recharging
the rainwater harvesting is possible only where the Putting barricades in surface runoff to store
rain falls. the water for longer period to enhance ground water
Rainwater harvesting can be traced back recharge
through human history almost as far as the origin Construction of the percolation tank to
of agriculture (1). These ancient practices sustained increase ground water level in nearby area
ancient people when conditions would have Direct recharge of dug and bore well with rain
otherwise totally prevented agriculture. Some of water
present practices are the modified versions of Prevention of losses trough evaporation and
primitive type of irrigation. This method may have seepage
been used extensively by the Indus Valley The last alternatives is integration of above
Civilization.Traditionally, rainwater harvesting has
been practised in arid and semi-arid areas. Our Construction of manmade lakes and reservoir,
farmers very well know rainwater harvesting. They dams & percolation tanks to recharge ground water
construct the bunds for their paddy field to store are the well-known methods for collection and
the water. It was practiced in Southeast Asia, China, storage of rainwater in defined catchments area.
North Africa, Middle East and North America. In
India, reservoirs called tankas were used to store Rainwater harvesting in Urbanized Area
water; typically they were shallow with mud walls. The superstructure constructed on the ground
Ancient tankas still exist in some places. Rainwater helps the faster drain of rainwater to near by natural
may also be used for groundwater recharge, where stream or river to avoid flooding of ground and
the runoff on the ground is collected and allowed disruption in traffic. This manmade surface and
to be absorbed & percolated, adding to the quick disposal method give less time to percolate
groundwater. In India this includes johads, or ponds into the natural ground to replenish the substructure
which collect the run-off from small streams in wide aquifers. Therefore it is thought to store & increase
area. the rainwater recharging into the ground. In city like
Pune & Chennai it is must to have Rainwater
Rainwater Collection and Storage harvesting in new building constructions. However
Rainwater is only water sources but there are followings are the critical factors for
limits on its collection & storage etc. The key factors implementation of rainwater harvesting.
to be considered for the proper techniques of Non-availability of open land
rainwater management are, Drastic reduction in natural ground water
Rainfalls pattern recharge due to change in surface runoff for human
Geology (Soil and rock characteristics) settlements
Topography & surface run-off Construction of non-porous structure like
Land use road, buildings etc. on the ground
Meteorological data Availability of space for water storage
Human settlement Economics of implementation e.g. cost of

243
water storage tank Ionic reactions that result in dispersion of clay
Contamination of rainwater due to emission particles and swelling of colloids in a sand and
from industrial domestic activities gravel aquifer
Natural conditions including natural slopes Iron precipitation & rise in heavy metals
are altered for human settlements content
Varying rainfall pattern Biochemical changes in recharge water and
the groundwater involving iron-reducing bacteria
Groundwater Recharge or sulfate-reducing organisms
The rising demand for water has increased Differences in temperature between recharge
awareness towards the use of artificial recharge to and aquifer water
augment ground water supplies. Artificial recharge
is a process by which excess surface water is Impacts of Rainwater Harvesting on water
directed into the ground either by spreading on the quality
surface, by using recharge wells, or by altering Rains are the condensed water vapors and so
natural conditions to increase infiltration to in unpolluted area falling rainwater shall be without
replenish an aquifer. It refers to the movement of any solids. Therefore rainwater is highly corrosive.
water through manmade systems from the surface It will have tendency to dissolve / leach solids from
of the earth to underground water bearing strata surrounding medium. When it precipitates from the
where it may be stored for future use. Artificial clouds, gases & particulate matter both from natural
recharge (sometimes called planned recharge) is a and manmade emission become the parts of
way to store water under ground when water is in rainwater. Once it falls on the ground top layer of
surplus to meet demand at the time of shortage. This soil get fully saturated with water. Water in soil is
is one of the more modern applications for water in three forms free, capillary and bound water.
harvesting. Rainwater runoff from buildings, Depending on permeability of soil free water
parking lots and other man-made structures is percolates downward. Downward movement of
funneled into seepage ponds or deep wells in order water is shown in Figure – 3. Part of water from
to directly recharge aquifers. This seems to be soil also moves upward due to evaporation. During
simple & easy task to convert rainwater into percolation it passes through different strata of soil
underground water reserves. However following and rocks. When it passes through soil it dissolves
probabilities cannot be overruled. abundantly available chemicals like Calcium,
Recharge water may be redirected Magnesium, and Sodium etc. The water with
downstream to a river or pond dissolved solids then percolates further through the
In urban areas it may enter the sewer system voids and fractures in the rocks. Leaching out from
Surface water is also much more likely to lower strata of soil and rock is depending on solids
cause erosion in water percolated through the upper layer. There
Presence of contaminants such as fertilizer may be extraction and deposition when water
and chemicals & Suspended sediment in the percolates from one layer to other layer. The ground
recharge water, including organic and inorganic water quality is result of interaction of water with
matter surrounding soil & rock medium and it remains
Enhance rate of percolation can change unaltered for many centuries as result of natural
Geochemistry equilibrium.
Chemical reactions between the recharge Gibbs stated that there is a close relationship
water and the native groundwater, the aquifer between the composition of water and lithology of
material or both an aquifer (2). Soil and rock formation is different
Direct contact of rain water with bottommost at different places. From the natural cycle it can be
strata may cause leaching of solids and change water definitely concluded that there is natural rate of
quality percolation for groundwater recharging. The
Entrained air in the recharge water characteristics of soil and rocks determine the
Microbial growth in the well ground water quality. Hence the geology of

244
particular area has a greater influence on the over time, and the use of aquatic chemistry modeling
occurrence and quality of water and it’s movement. for predicting potential water quality problems for
Many times ground water carries a higher mineral a specific, proposed recharge project.
content than the surface, when there is slow
circulation and longer period of contact. Change Problem areas
in ground water quality with the passage of time The various alternatives for Rainwater
has a hydrologic significance. The quality also harvesting along with the appropriate method are
varies due to a change in chemical composition of well documented. It is observed that all these
formations. The geochemistry of the aquifer is methods are based on physical efforts of collection
controlled by the surface topography of the and enhance percolation, to recharge the ground
underlying formations, the thickness and water. Many successes stories are highlighted and
permeability of the alluvial deposits. The ground discussed to promote rainwater harvesting. Because
water chemistry is controlled by the composition of stress on water supply only quantitative factors
of its recharge components as well as by geologic are being considered. However rainwater quality
and hydrologic variations within the aquifer. The and its interaction with soil and rocks & impact on
concentration of Calcium and Magnesium in ground groundwater quality are either ignored or not taken
water may be due to rock weathering and aquifer seriously.
material. High iron content in Assam & fluoride in Critical evaluation of Rainwater harvesting
Rajasthan are some of the examples of interaction is given above. Experiments are planned to assess
between percolating water and soil. rainwater quality of direct precipitation and the
rooftop collected water. Study of leaching due to
rainwater on various materials is planned & carried
PRECIPITATION out in the Laboratory.

RAIN FALL Location

Collection of Rainwater is carried out in the
SOIL MOISTURE
Building located on the Paud Road, Pune,
Maharashtra State. Building was constructed in year
CAPILLARY FREE BOUND 1990. It has the RCC rooftop with waterproofing.
WATER WATER WATER
This terrace is open & not use for any activity.
Precipitated rainwater on rooftop comes out through
PERCOLATION the pipe and falls on the terrace below.
SOIL
Duration
ROCKS Samples are collected during most of rainy
AQUIFERS days from 4th July to 22nd September of 2006.

Figure – 3 Rainwater Sampling

Groundwater Recharge Precipitated rainwater is collected in the clean
plastic tub of 30-liter capacity placed on the terrace
G. Fred Lee (3) recommended the evaluation of laboratory. Rainwater collected from 10 AM to
of the potential water quality problems associated 5 PM is used for analysis. Collected rainwater is
with a proposed groundwater recharge project along then transferred into 50 liter HDPE drum having
with quantification of the aquatic chemistry of the wide mouth and airtight lid.
recharge operation. Contributing to that evaluation Clean plastic bucket of 15 liter is placed below the
are a compilation and evaluation of existing water pipe on the terrace of laboratory to collect rooftop
quality data, development of a monitoring program water. Rooftop water is then transferred into 100
to collect reliable data to describe the chemical liter HDPE drum having wide mouth and airtight
characteristics of the recharge and aquifer waters lid.

245
Rainwater Analysis and then in oven for 2 hr.
Samples are immediately taken in laboratory It is cooled in desiccators, weighed &
for analysis. The analysis is carried out as per transferred into the cleaned beaker of 250 ml.
Standard Methods for Examination of Water & Measured quantity of rainwater is added to
Waste Water (4) and Bureau of Indian Standards ensure that material is totally under water.
(5). Calcium, Magnesium & Sodium are the major Beaker is then covered with Aluminum foil
ingredients of soil and rocks. Therefore leaching of to avoid falling of dust etc. It is kept at room
these can change pH, Alkalinity and hardness. Total temperature for given time.
hardness & Calcium determination will confirm the After completion of time material is taken out
leaching by rainwater. Therefore a. pH, b. Alkalinity, and washed with distilled water, dried in oven,
c. Total hardness, d. Calcium, e. Total dissolved cooled at room temperature and weighed.
solids are the parameters selected to assess the Water in the beaker is analyzed for pH,
impact of rainwater on various materials. Alkalinity, Total hardness, Calcium, & Total
dissolved solids.
Experiment Sets to Study Corrosiveness of Alkalinity and hardness are reported as
Rainwater CaCO3. Calcium is reported as Ca.
Experiments are carried out in five sets. TDS are total dissolved solids determined
Material used and parameters studied are given in after evaporation of water at 1050 C.
Table –1. Calcium & Total Dissolved solids leach out
are calculated as given below,
Methodology Volume of rainwater after leaching, l x Ca or
Soil, River sand and Crushed sand are used TDS mg/l x 100
as it is. Ca or TDS Leach out, % =
Piece of metal is physically cleaned, wash g/100 g of material used
with dilute Hydrochloric Acid and then finally with Weight of sample material x 1000
Distilled water.
For other materials, foreign materials are For metals total solids leach out is determined
removed by handpicking & washed with distilled by loss in weight of the sample metal piece & then
water. Water is soaked by tissue paper, dried in air calculating loss on percentage.

Table 1. Material used and parameters Studied

246
Results all the samples.
Figure – 4 gives variation in pH. 31 of pH of roof top water varies from 7.1 to 10.95.
Samples of precipitated rainwater & 18 samples of 14 samples are having pH more than 8.5.
roof top water are collected & analyzed. For roof top water, Alkalinity Total hardness and
pH of precipitated rainwater varies from 6.21 Calcium varies from 30 to 100 mg/l, 10 to 70 mg/l
to 7.88. 19 samples are having pH less than 7.0. & 8 to 24 mg/l respectively.
Total hardness & Total dissolved solids are nil in

Figure-4 Variation in pH

12
10
pH of Sample

8
6
4
2
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31
Number of Sampling Days

Precipitated Rainwater Roof top water

Results of 5 experiments sets are summarized in table 2

Table –2 Results of Experiment Sets

247
 In Experiment sets 1, 4 & 5 there is rise in pH, plaster/RCC slab of roof top.
Alkalinity and Total hardness of rainwater after Cement is susceptible to leaching with
leaching. This confirms that rainwater if comes in rainwater.
contact with materials leaching takes place. Leaching of calcium from Cement Block and
In Experiment Set 1, there is rise in pH, Cured RCC block reconfirm the leaching of Calcium
alkalinity and hardness. Maximum leaching is from from cement plaster and RCC slab of the Building.
river sand. If roof top area is 100 m2, total rainfall 50 mm
In Experiment set 2, there is considerable rise & Calcium in rooftop water 24 mg/l as Calcium
in pH, Alkalinity, Total hardness and calcium. then 0.12 kg of Calcium will be leached out from
Leaching of solids from oyster shell is highest. the cement of roof. This sounds alarming to protect
In Experiment set 3, amongst metal only Iron rooftop from corrosion due to rainwater.
shows loss of 0.114% in seven days. Aluminum & Marble, conch shell and oyster shell are
copper are resistant to rainwater. Calcium carbonate. Marble is from mineral and
Calcium does not leach out from Amygdaloidal conch shell and oyster shell are from animal origin.
Basalt however loss of solids is 0.035%. Rainwater extracts calcium from all these materials.
Leaching of Calcium from Weathered These materials can be used along with river and
Amygdaloidal Basalt in five days is 0.011% & for crush sand for stabilizing rainwater for harvesting.
Weathered Basalt & Fine grain Basalt it is Amongst soil, river sand & crush sand leaching
respectively 0.004% & 0.005%. is minimum with soil and maximum with river sand.
Solids leach out from all the rocks. It confirms This may be attributed to calciferous material like
that leaching takes place when rainwater directly conch shell and oyster shell etc. present in river
comes in contact with the rock. sand.
Rainwater extracts calcium from Cement Rainwater is highly corrosive for Iron and non-
Block. All values of pH, Alkalinity, hardness and corrosive for Copper and Aluminum. Use of
calcium are very high. Total dissolve solids rise is unprotected Iron structure may get quickly corroded.
from 0 to 796 mg/l. Leaching of solids from cement Rainwater leaches out calcium and solids from
block is 0.909% in 5 days. all the rocks commonly found in aquifers. It
Cure concrete block is comparatively resistant indicates that other solids based on Magnesium and
than cement block. Extraction of chemicals is heavy metal present in rock can be leached out with
maximum within 24 hr. Calcium leach out from the rainwater.
Cure RCC block. There is marginal rise in the Enhance rate of percolation and recharge can
leaching with extension of time. Leaching of cause drastic change in ground water quality.
Calcium is in range of 0.015% to 0.027% & for Excessive pumping of ground water has
solids is 0.135% to 0.181%. lowered the ground water table. Besides water is
becoming saline. This has happened because of
Conclusions imbalance between natural recharge and draw of
Rainwater in Pune is acidic. Acidic pH of ground water. Vice versa if the recharge of ground
Rainwater may be due to dissolution of gases like water is enhance by rainwater harvesting then it may
Carbon dioxide etc. Variation in rainwater pH needs increase the ground water table and cause the serious
further investigation. problem of increase in salinity of soil and change
Alkaline pH of roof top water is likely due to in soil flora and fauna.
leaching of calcium from the cement. This indicates Similarly if rainwater directly comes in contact
that the building surface exposed to rainwater is with lower strata of soil and rock it can change water
subjected to corrosion due to rainwater. quality and weather the rock at faster rate. Over
Inter relationship between the pH of rainwater period of time it may change the geochemistry.
& roof top water cannot be established Rainwater shall be stabilized before directly
Alkaline pH, Alkalinity, Total hardness and recharging to well. Sources of Calcium carbonate
Calcium in roof top water confirm that rainwater like shell, pieces of marble, limestone & river sand
leach out Calcium & other solids from the cement etc. may be used as filtering and stabilizing medium.

248
 Organic and inorganic chemicals emitted due PALMBAJP/
to vehicular traffic and other domestic and industrial 2) Gibbs R. J (1970). Mechanisms Controlling
activities can get deposited on rooftop and leach World’s Water Chemistry. Science. 170, 1088-1090
out with rooftop water. These chemicals may present 3) G. Fred Lee. Water Quality Aspects of Ground
in micro level can contaminate the underground water Recharge Chemical Characteristics of
water over period of time. Recharge Long term Liabilities of Recharge Projects.
Therefore rainwater harvesting is to be http://www. gfredlee.comlascegwr.htm
critically evaluated and carefully implemented to 4) Standard Method for the Examination of Water
avoid any adverse impact due to collision of human & Wastewater, American Public Health Association,
activities with the nature to have more water. NW, DC20036, 1994
Relevant Standards for Water Analysis by Bureau
References of Indian Standards, Manak Bhavan, 9 Bahadur
1) John Palmbach, Traditional Water Harvesting. Shah Zafar Marg, New Delhi
http://academic.evergreen.edu/g/grossmaz/

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 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

40. Efficient and multiple use of water in the Penganga River Valley
*A. A. Ghate **Pradeep Bhalge

Introduction Km or more the only option will be the river valley

If we get plenty of water from rain then why it project. The river valley project may be suitably
is necessary to harvest rain water is the general planned as multipurpose project catering various
presumption in common sense but this presumption needs such as Hydro Power, Irrigation, Flood
need to be replaced by conservation of water. Protection, Fisheries, Water games & Tourism etc.
Recently we visited Tilari Project in Sindhudurg The planning and implementation of river valley
district of Maharashtra. The average rainfall in this project to conserve water on very large scale is also
region is 3400 mm. Similarly in Konkan Region one of the very effective means, hence in this paper
where rainfall ranges from 2400mm to 3000 mm a case study of one of the major project on Penganga
there exist scarcity of drinking water in Summer. river named Sahastrakund Hydro Electric project is
In Konkan area bull carts with drum are observed discussed.
in summer to fetch a water for drinking purpose.
Unless we harvest the rain, rainfall does not fulfills Location and site selection for dam.
the needs of people, neither in Rajasthan nor in River Penganga is one of the major tributary
Cherapunji. The daccan platue of Maharashtra of Godavari. Its length is 673 km. It rises from
having compact black basalt, does not permit water Madha of Tq. Dist Buldhana. This river has 36.60m
to percolate. The water table is already going deep fall named “Sahastrakund fall” at about 376 Km
due to pumping water with electric pumps, instead from origin. The river has great “ S “ type curve and
of taking measures to harvest rain water, people in if a cut for first U loop of this curve is made then a
this region are taking very deep bore up to 600 feet level difference of 113 m is available. The yield from
deep or more. if we allow to draw water from such free catchments of 2553 Km2 is available at Kautha
a deep bore holes, there will be scarcity of water Tanda site is 434 Mm^3 at 75% dependability. After
even more severe than Rajasthan. On the other hand all completion of all ongoing & planned project in
peoples in Rajasthan will have plenty of water due Penganga river basin , the irrigation utilization in
to methods and traditions they have adopted and the year 2030 will be only 22% . This reveal that it
practiced for rainwater harvesting. is most un tapped river basin of Maharashtra. The
second irrigation commission headed by Dr.
Means & ways of Rain Water Harvesting Madhavrao Chitale has strongly recommended
Rain water harvesting at starting point of runoff taking the irrigation project in back logged area
can be achieved by Continuous Contour Trench where irrigation utilisation is less than 30%. A hydro
(CCT), plugging of small nalla in series in steps, Electric and Irrigation project is planned on this river
grass bunds across contour etc. For larger catchments at Katha Tanda i.e. on the up stream of Sahastrakund
Village tank, Percolation Tank, Storage Bandhara , water fall.
Minor Irrigation Tank and Medium Irrigation Tanks
will be the options depending upon size of Special feature of the proposed dam site are as
catchment and geological conditions. follows :
For very large catchments such as 2500 Sq. (1) Forest Land coming under the submergence

*Assistant Engineer Grade II , Water Resources department, Govt. of Maharashtra

**Assistant Engineer Grade II , Water Resources department, Govt. of Maharashtra

250
is totally avoided. (ii) The water released from tail race channel can
The site just upstream of fall selected be supplied to canal network having irrigation
previously was not suitable due to flat surface of potential of 30,000 Hect of ICA ( approximately) .
river . The forest area proposed under submergence
was more than 2000 Hector so this site is rejected (iii) The dead storage capacity of Sahastrakund
and a suitable alternative site is now proposed. main dam and Saddle dam can be used for fisheries
development.
(2) Overlapping of command of UPP project is
avoided. (iv) The water from Sahastrakund main dam is to
The left bank canal and kayadhu branch canal be diverted to Saddle dam. The bed level of saddle
restricts shifting the site at upstrem side. The dam dam is at about 335 m whereas MDDL of
line shifted on downstream side will submerge Sahastrakund dam is 380 m hence land up to 380
forestland. Now the alternative proposed site is so m level can be used as Galper land for rabbi
located that it will solve the above problems. cultivation. This land will be 3000 Hect.

(3) The water is proposed to be diverted via open Water availability for Sahastrakund Hydro
cut canal to saddle dam to utilize 80 m head for project.
Hydro Power generation. The yield study done at CDO Nashik has found
that 75% dependable yield of 434 Mm³ is available
(4) The submergence of land and number of from free catchment below Isapur & Sapli dam. The
villages to be re habilitated are kept less as far as water allotted to the Maharashtra upto confluence
possible. of Aran river to Penganga is worked out to be 1400
Mm³. The lower Pengang Project is planned to utilize
One River & Two Gorges entire 1400 Mm3 water by constructing one single
The dam across river Penganga submerges a dam at village “Chanka”. The irrigation potential of
large fertile land and villages adjacent to bank of the project is 1,60,000 Hect . Out of which 50 %
river. In view to save these lands (2549 Hect) and i.e. 85000 Hect is proposed through very high level
fore villages from submergence a saddle dam is lifts. Some lifts are even more than 250 m head,
proposed in adjacent gorge. In this portion a barren seems impracticable . The water lifted by consuming
land of 800 Hect will be submerged and it has a scare electricity should be used very carefully and
storage capacity of 129 Mm3. Due to storage water only through pipe distribution.
in this valley portion 2549 Hector of land and fore
villages will be saved. An evaporation losses of 1) The water from Sahastrakund Hydro Electric
water for more than 60 Mm³ would also be saved. project will be permitted to some extent for small
This saved water enhances Hydro power generation lifts, managed and constructed by farmers at their
and it will irrigate 10200 Hect of more land if it is own cost. The small back water lifts up to 391 m
again picked up at downstream side of this project. level will have a irrigation potential of 8000 to 9000
Hect. This lifts will pacify the needs of water of
Multi purposes of Project those villages whose land comes under
(i) The Sahastrakund project will generate Hydro submergence. Availability of water due to galper and
power of 25 MW and 59 million units year utilising small individual lifts will create the positive effects
80 m head. Hydro power is green energy as it does in the minds of project affected farmers. A direct
not burn any coal or uranium or gas etc . This project irrigation outlet from saddle dam can be proposed
can earn “carbon credit” which can be sold in at higher level of 355m.This will have irrigation
international market because it is a Hydro Project. potential of 2000 Hects land.
The entire project cost of Hydro components can
be recovered only through sales of “carbon credit” 2) The saddle dam is like an “artificial lake”. It
(i.e. C.C.) in international market. will have tourist attraction by creating facilities such
on boating, sport fishing and garden, water games

251
on downstream side . The road way adjacent to full farm will be the responsibility of that farmer. This
reservoir level will itself create a pleasure driving system is already successfully implemented at Indore
along this road. in Nasik District.

3) Drinking water problem of number of villages Advantages of this system.

including Mahur will be solvedby implementation 1) Micro distribution to individual farmers
of SHEP. through pipes hence saving of expenditure on field
channel, minor. The land acquisition, construction
4) Due to assured water supply dairy business and maintenance cost will be saved. The water will
and other cottage industries, poultry farms etc. will be carried through pipes hence grate saving in
grow in this area , which will solve rural transmission losses of water.
unemployment problems and will prevent migration
of rural population to cities to some extent. 2) A water supply to single defaulter farmer could
be terminated without disturbing others . This can
5) The flash floods create havoc. This project will be possible only in this system. This will result in
mitigate the flood .Villages on the banks of river recovery position of irrigation department.
will be rehabilitated at project cost. This will solve
the problems of already food-affected villages on 3) The farmers can use water as per his own
the banks of penganga river. suitable timing. This will result in good utilization
of water as per individual need and as per crops need.
Efficient equitable water distribution system
through P.V.C. pipes 4) The departmental roll will be limited to
The present traditional practice of open canal releasing water to distribution chamber only. Hence
flow distribution system is not very much efficient overall cost will be very less.
. In this system a discharge of 30 lps is released at
one single point and further distribution is left with 5) The water on volumetric basis will be given to
the farmers. Entire system is open to sky . Farmers each farmer hence farmer will be motivated to use
at head works gets ample water where as tail end of sprinklers and drip irrigation system to save water.
farmers does not get sufficient water. To remove all This will result in extra income and more land under
these discrepancies in distribution, water will be irrigation from the same quantity of water .
supplied to common distribution chamber only. This
chamber will distribute water equally to a group of 6) The farmers will store extra water in their wells.
120 to 150 farmers, through pipes fitted at equal Due to this ground water table will be increased.
level having same diameters. The clubbing of pipes This will result in economic and conjunctive use of
will be permitted as per farmer’s groups Convening canal and ground water.
the water from distribution chamber to individual

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 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

41. Water Resources Development for Sustainable Cotton Production

at CICR, Nagpur : A Case Study
*K. S. Bhaskar *P. N. Mendhe *M.R.K. Rao *B. M. Khadi

Abstract
Rain water is the only source of all the fresh waters and a single drop of it count
a lot. Water harvesting is thus a crucial means for reducing soil and nutrient loss,
sustaining the fast depleting upper and lower soil strata and finally to increase ground
water recharge. India is agriculture-based country, which cannot grow without ample
water for irrigation. Under rainfed situation, water is the main yield-limiting factor
and its economy is dependent on total rainfall, its availability and distribution.
Considering the above facts and challenges, detailed studies on rain water availability,
water harvesting, storage capacity and recycling at Panjari Research Farm of Central
Institute for Cotton Research, Nagpur covering land area of 176.08 ha was carried
out. Rainfall availability, distribution, onset and cessation of rain was worked out.
Whole research farm area of the Institute was converted into 4 blocks and in each
block bigger Farm ponds having varying storage capacity has been constructed to
store excess run off water. Below each farm pond, big size masonry open well has
been constructed to increase recharge capacity of irrigation wells, suited to big farmers
of the region. But for the small farmers of the region, micro-water harvesting ponds
of size 20×20×3m3 on shallow (<45 cm deep), medium deep (45-90 cm deep) and very
deep (>90 cm deep) Vertisols has been constructed for excess rain water collection
and storage from one hectare cotton field. Various agronomic practices to conserve
rain water were also developed. Results from long-term study indicated that total
annual average rainfall at Nagpur was 1156.33 mm while seasonal rainfall was 917.43
mm with moderate year to year variation. Out of 87 years rainfall, 39(44.83%) years
were considered as sufficient and 48(55.17%) years as deficit. Through moisture
conservation practices, 2-3% soil moisture could be increased in the soil and due to
that 2-3 q ha-1 seed cotton yield has been increased. On an average, more than 0.35-
0.40 million liters excess run off water was collected from one hectare cotton field
grown on shallow, 0.45-0.50 million liters from medium deep and 0.55-0.60 million
liters from very deep Vertisols which was found sufficient to irrigate 0.40-0.50 ha
cotton field by giving one flood irrigation at early boll development stage and through
drip about 0.80 ha land area could be irrigated by applying two protective irrigations,
first at flowering and second at peak boll development stage. Irrigation water through
drip could be economised by saving of 40-53 % irrigation water with high (>90%)
irrigation efficiency which enhanced seed cotton yield of 3-5 q ha-1 over no irrigation.
Rain water management not only enhanced seed cotton yield it also reduce runoff
and soil loss considerable and in the same time increased percolation and recharge
capacity of irrigation wells tremendously.

*Corresponding Author:Principal Scientist (Agronomy) Crop Production Division, Central Institute for
Cotton Research, P. B. No. 2, Shankar Nagar P. O. Nagpur - 440010. E-mail : ks_bhaskar2005@yahoo.com
Ph. 0712-2237873 (R) 09423680523 (M) 07103-275549-Ext 253 (O)

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Introduction have used simple techniques that are suited to their
Our ancient religious texts and epics give a region and reduce the demand for water. In view of
good insight into the water storage and conservation the same, study on own water resource development
systems that prevailed in those days. Over the years, at CICR, was conducted and number of farm ponds,
rising populations, growing industrialization and percolation tanks and open wells has been
expanding agriculture have pushed up the demand constructed to meet the irrigation requirement of
for water for agricultural and also for other uses. cotton and also drinking water.
Efforts have been made to collect water by building
dams and reservoirs and digging wells; some Materials and Methods
countries have also tried to recycle and desalinate Detailed rain water management studies have
the available waters. Water conservation has been conducted at Panjari Research Farm of Central
become the need of the day. The idea of ground Institute for Cotton Research, Nagpur covering land
water recharging by harvesting rainwater is gaining area of 176.08 ha. Total, weekly and monthly rainfall
importance within India and in many countries of from 1916-2002 for 87 years was recorded and
the world also. Rain water is the main source of all analyzed. Whole research farm area was converted
the fresh waters and its harvesting is thus a crucial into 4 blocks and in each block varying sizes of
means for reducing soil and nutrient loss, sustaining varying capacities water harvesting, percolation
the fast depleting upper and lower soil strata and tanks and Farm Ponds has been developed to store
finally to increase ground water recharge. excess run off water from inside as well as from
Availability of pure water able to meet the demand outside also. Below the each farm pond, big size
of a growing human population is one of the most open well has been constructed and excess rain
vital problems, which the world faces today. India is water has been collected, stored and recycled to
agriculture-based country, which cannot grow cotton, others and horticultural corps. Big size water
without ample water for irrigation. Water is the main harvesting and storage system at the farm is well
yield-limiting factor under rainfed situation and its suited to big farmers of the region was developed.
economy is dependent on total rainfall, its availability But in case of small farmers, micro-water harvesting
and distribution. About 15 % area of the earth is ponds of size 20×20×3m3 each on shallow (<45 cm
covered by water, even than about 47 crore people deep), medium deep (45-90 cm deep) and very deep
of the world are facing water problem. According (>90 cm deep) Vertisols has been developed for
to World Bank Survey (1998) that after 25 years, excess rain water harvesting and storage from one
130 crore people will not get pure water and it will hectare cotton field. Additionally, a open well little
be a root course of dispute. According to UNPF, away and below the farm pond at the lower side of
the present rate of 1.4 % increase in population, the pond has been constructed to increase recharge
India will cross 1.38 billion population during 2050 capacity of irrigation wells. For irrigation, Electric
and at present country has crossed 1.270 billion motors, Diesel engines have been installed and
population. It is obviates that the requirements of suitably connected with micro irrigation system to
water for food, feed, fodder, fibre and fuel will facilitate irrigation to cotton and cotton-based crops
increase in addition to develop industrial and other during Kharif and wheat and gram during Rabi.
infrastructures. In this connection, efficient rain Additionally, 20 ha land has been put under
water management is essential, only because it will horticultural crops and micro irrigation has been
recharge the ground water, increase the irrigation provided. At the Research Farm, two way system
potential and finally protecting the crops from for rain water management has been adopted, first
moister stress. Conservation of water in the in-situ moisture conservation in which number of
agricultural sector is essential since water is agronomic practices has been adopted and in second
necessary for the growth of plants and crops. Various system, excess run off water has been collected
methods of water harvesting, recycling and through drainage channels and stored in the water
recharging have been developed and applied all over harvesting ponds and recycled to cotton crops during
the world to tackle the problem. In areas where Kharif and wheat and gram during Rabi and side
rainfall is low and water is scarce, the local people by side to Horticultural crops also.

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 Table 1 : Rainfall distribution pattern at Nagpur

Rainfall range Rainfall frequency Per cent rainfall Years of rainfall Years of rainfall Rainfall
(mm) (years) (years) sufficiency deficit pattern
600-800 6 6.9 39 48 Medium
800-1000 22 25.3 44.8% 55.2% Medium
1000-1200 25 28.7 - - Med. to high
1200-1400 18 20. - - High
1400-1600 11 12.6 - - Very high
1600-1800 4.0 4.6 - - Very high
1800-2000 1.0 1.2 - - Very high
Source: Bhaskar et al., 2005.
Long term rainfall data revealed that the mean total rainfall goes waste as runoff and it could be
annual rainfall in the region is 1156.1 mm, while the managed and stored in the farm ponds of different
mean annual rainfall during 1916 was 1253.9 mm sizes and storage capacities at different locations in
which was reduced to 975.00 mm in 2002. each block of the farm. So far following 8 big farm
It indicates that the trend of total annual rainfall ponds and percolation tanks have been developed
decreases year after year. Mean seasonal rainfall at the farm in different blocks to catch the excess
was calculated to 917 .43 mm during the cropping runoff water from inside and outside of the farm
season with moderate year to year variation. Out of area as detailed below :
87 years rainfall, 39(44.83%) years were considered
as sufficient and 48(55.17%) years as deficit. About 165 ha catchment area has been
Highest rainfall frequency was ranges between covered with 365 lakh litre rain water storage
1000-1200 mm, with 28.7 % rainfall of the total. It capacity. About 90 ha land area could be irrigation
indicates that the rainfall pattern of the study area by giving one protective irrigation to cotton corp.
fitted in medium to high rainfall zone (Table 1). After using stored rain water of the farm ponds,
Rainfall seized out during middle to last week of now well water is the main source for life saving
September and cotton crop required additional water irrigation to cotton and other crops.
for plant growth and development which leads to
soil moisture deficiency and it start wilting in shallow Runoff Collection : Runoff availability in cotton
to medium deep soils. crop in water harvesting ponds on different soils
indicated that on an average maximum (3.8-5.6 lakh
Farm Ponds Development & Area to be Irrigated litres) rain water was harvested from very deep soil,
Result showed that 30-40 % rain water of the closely followed (3.3-5.6 lakh litres) by medium deep

Name of Number ponds Catchment area Total water storage Estimated area to
farm block developed covered in each capacity (lakh litres) be irrigated @ 4 ha cm
block (ha) irrigation water (ha)
Block I 3,7,8 75 177 44.25
Block II 1, 4 49 50 12.50
Block III 2,5 6 41 136 34.00
Total 8 165 363 90.75

255
and the lowest (2.5-4.6 lakh litres) in shallow soil (Table 2).
Table 2. Rainwater availability in water harvesting ponds develop on different type of soils

Source: Unpublished work of Bhaskar, K.S.

Economization of Rain Water for Irrigation sufficient soil moisture in shallow soils, high
The field experiments on advance sown hybrid temperature coupled with high wind velocity compel
cotton were conducted at Central Institute for Cotton the soils to fall in moisture deficiency, and due to
Research, Nagpur. The response of micro-irrigation that cracks and crusts are formed on the upper soil
on seed cotton yield, water and fertilizer use surface which hamper and sometime restrict root,
efficiency showed a very encouraging results. Over shoot growth and makes the plant growth difficult.
the existing irrigation practices, the comparative Under such situation, if rains are not occurs, plants
response of drip, sprinkler and open furrow irrigation mostly first wilted and dried at this stage. But after
has indicated a significant difference in water 4-5 leaves, there is no danger to cotton plants it will
requirement (31 % less), gross water requirement not die and tolerate dry spell of about 15-20 days or
(31% less), water application efficiency (69%), so. To overcome this situation, following physical
water distribution efficiency (17%) and water measures are found essential to save the crop free
storage efficiency ratio (83%) over sprinkler and from drought effect:
open furrow. This showed that through drip irrigation Keep the fields free from weeds.
system, huge amount of water, fertilizer and labour Light interculture operations like Bakhar (Dora)
could be saved. has to be done to conserve the excess soil moisture,
it will protect the plants from drought for shorter
Rain Water Management in Cotton period.
A. In-situ moisture conservation 30-40 days advance sowing of cotton crops
It has been experienced that cotton crop through drip or sprinkler have been found suitable
suffers from moisture stress some time from very for conservation of soil moisture and efficient use
early stage or immediate after sowing and also at of rain water
peak flowering stage to peak boll development stage. Sowing of cotton crop on side of the ridge on
It is highly susceptible to drought at 2 to 4 leaf stage. shallow to medium deep soils have been found
This happen when scanty rainfall conditions occurs suitable for conservation of soil moisture during
and due to that less soil moisture availability in the drought period
soils is being increased for the time being, mainly Farm yard manure (FYM) @ 5 t ha-1 at the
due to high temperature, high wind velocity and high time of sowing make it porous & friable which found
evapotranspiration rate. Cotton plants needs helpful in boosting the plant growth at initial stage.

256
 Plastic or organic mulching found helpful in Water Storage
moisture conservation, reducing evaporation and After each rainfall, excess runoff water which
increasing seed cotton yield. was accumulated in the water harvesting ponds was
Under truant monsoon condition, dry sowing measured through measuring device and accordingly
of cotton on side of the ridge found helpful to escape total water available in the pond was sum up to get
from drought effect. total quantity of water after depleting total water
losses. However, the harvested rain water could be
B. Ex-situ moisture conservation stored in the water harvesting ponds on soils of
Water harvesting : Collection of excess rain water, varying depths for a period of about 3 to 3.5 months
storage and recycling at critical stages of plant starting from first week of July uptill time of essential
growth, when crop needs water to continue its irrigation that is first week of October.
proper growth and development. It is estimated that
under the existing rainfall conditions of Nagpur about Cotton-Fish Farming System
4 to 5 lakh litres of excess runoff water from 900 to In the water harvesting ponds, Institute has
1000 mm seasonal rainfall during the peak rainy developed cotton-fish farming system. Fish culture
season could be harvested from one ha cotton field from July to October for a period of about 4 months
and stored safely in the water harvesting ponds of was developed in the ponds filled up from harvested
size 20x20x3 m3 each under shallow, medium deep rain water. Four (Katala, Rohu, Mrigal and Cat fish)
and very deep soils. Harvested rain water could be were reared in the ponds. Out of the four breeds,
made available for recycling to cotton crop at critical Cat fish a most black soil loving breed with fast
stages of plant growth from last week of September growth was found suitable and it has given 700 g
to second week of October. per fish maximum body weight. On an average of
about 360 g weight was recorded which was sold
Water Harvesting Technology @ Rs 80 kg-1 with a estimate gross return of Rs
Technology for small farmers : The Central 43,000 per pond of size 20 x 20 x3 m3 from fishes
Institute for Cotton Research, Nagpur has developed plus Rs 14000.00 from additional yield of cotton
suitable technology for small and big farmers of the obtained due to recycling of water with gross amounts
region.The water harvesting pond of size 20x20x3 of Rs 47000.00. After deducting all the expenses,
m3 were developed on shallow, medium deep and incurred including digging cost of pond (Rs 32,000),
very deep black cotton soils of the farm. The excess sum of Rs. 25000 per year in the first year itself
runoff water was collected from one hectare cotton were earned by cotton-fish farming system.
field and stored and recycled to cotton crop at various
crop growth stages. Looking to the requirement of Critical Stages of Cotton for Irrigation
the small farmers in the region this technology for Four (square formation, flowering, early boll
runoff collection, storage and time of recycling to development and peak boll development) critical
cotton crop has been developed at the research stages in cotton for irrigation were identified. Among
institute and also transferred on the farmers field. these, peak boll development stage is very critical,
if irrigation is not provided at this time to cotton crop,
Technology for big farmers : The farm ponds of the biomass and seed cotton yield would be reduced
different sizes for storing the excess runoff water drastically by about 5 to 8 q ha-1 in shallow to medium
has been developed at the institute in different blocks deep soils.
considering the rainfall availability and quantum of
run off generated. In view of the same, six water Recycling of Stored Rain Water
harvesting ponds of varying capacity has been The results from 7 years research study
developed at the farm and excess runoff water conducted at Central Institute for Cotton Research,
during rainy season is being collected, stored and Nagpur indicated that the mean maximum seed
recycled to cotton crop only to fulfill the irrigation cotton yield of 18.15, 18.03 and 15.03 q ha-1 was
requirement of cotton during Kharif as well as for recorded in shallow, medium deep and very deep
wheat and gram during rabi season. soils respectively, when irrigation @ 4 ha cm of rain

257
water at peak boll development stage was given to adopting drip and sprinkler irrigation system.
cotton crop. Cotton yield before and after this stage
decreased the seed cotton yield (Table 3). Irrigation Irrigation Efficiency
effect on seed cotton yield was almost equal in Cotton crop does not require more irrigations,
shallow to medium deep soil, while it was less in it need timely irrigation with good drainage condition.
very deep soil. This showed that the yield of the However, one irrigation @ 4 ha cm irrigation water
cotton could be increased by about 4 q in shallow at peak boll development stage in rained cotton was
and about 5 q in medium deep soils by giving one found effective in maximizing the seed cotton yield
irrigation to cotton at peak boll development stage, by 20.05, 20.58 and 18.63 q ha -1, which was
while about 2 q only in very deep soil over no irrigation. increased by 49.3, 32.9 and 22.6 per cent
This showed that shallow to medium deep soils are respectively over no irrigation in shallow, medium
very responsive to irrigation as compared to very deep and deep soils. On the other hand, seed cotton
deep. In very deep Vertisols, cotton can be cultivated yield was decreased by irrigating the crop before
without irrigation in the region under normal climatic and after this stage in all the soils during all the years.
condition. Further, it may be concluded that the yield One irrigation @ 4 ha cm water at peak boll
of cotton could be increased by about 25 % in development stage was found remunerative and
shallow to medium deep soils due to irrigation from viable over two irrigations, first at early boll and
stored rain water over very deep soil (Table 3). second at peak boll development stage.

Irrigation Potential Additional Benefits due to Adoption of

It is estimated that during Ist and IInd week of Watershed -based Research Technology
October, 0.5 to 0.8 ha cotton field in shallow, 0.7 to ♦ The recharge capacity of irrigation wells has
1 ha in medium deep and or similar area in deep been reported to increased more than 1 meter
soils could be irrigated from harvested rain water ♦ Soil loss reduced to lowest limit of about 2-3 t
@ 4 ha cm irrigation water at early boll to peak boll ha-1
development stage. By economizing the harvested ♦ Not a single drop of water and a soil particle left
rain water, 50% addition land could be irrigated by unattended.

Table 3. Effect of irrigation through harvested rainwater on the yield of rainfed cotton on soils
of varying depth. 7 (1995-2001) years mean yield

Source: Bhaskar, (2003)

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 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

42. Water Management in Intermittent Supplies : A Case Study

*Prof. R. K. Khitoliya **Shakti Kumar Arora *** Manpreet Singh Bedi

Abstract
In the present scenario 1/6 th of the world’s population does not have access to potable
water. Most of them live in the urban areas. Rapid population growth and migration from
rural areas are further worsening the situation by imposing extra burden on existing water
utilities.
The primary task of water utilities is to deliver affordable water in required quantity
and quality to consumers under sufficient pressure through a distribution network. This
task entails the need to understand the technical aspects and hydraulic behavior of flow in
the network.
The system of water supply adopted in most of the developing nations is of intermittent
nature, India being one of them .The paper deals with various problems encountered in
intermittent water supply distribution networks. These supplies are unique and need a
different approach for design and modeling other than for continuous supplies. For such
purpose an accurate and efficient network analysis is required.
The paper takes a case study of existing water distribution network in a small town on
the periphery of Chandigarh using a hydraulic analysis software EPANET .On the basis of
its results , recommendations have been proposed to make the existing system more efficient.

Introduction excess water stored earlier to fetch fresh water

In developing countries like India, due to intake for use or storage.
financial and resource availability constraints it is • Water quality is at high risk in the intermittent
practically not possible to operate water supply water supply networks due to outbreak of water born
systems for twenty-four hours a day. Therefore diseases due to ingress of contaminated water
intermittent nature of supply over a period of eight through leaking pipelines during non-supply hours.
hours or less is considered adequate to supply the • The consumers are likely to install individual
drinking water. But intermittent system suffers from connections at a level below the distribution line
following disadvantages and thus try to draw as much water as possible during
• The very idea behind intermittent supplies of non-supply periods .
less water consumption is under clouds due to • It may cause causing negative pressure to
wastage habits of consumers. develop inside the distribution pipelines during the
• A consumer is likely to keep the water taps non-supply periods
open even after supply period. This may result in • Due to intermittent supply the network is not
wastage of water once the supply is restored expected to serve for instantaneous fire demand.
• The consumer is more likely to dispose of Thus separate fire fighting arrangements are made

* Professor & Head, Post Graduate Environmental Engg. Department, P.E.C. Chandigarh
** Senior Lecturer ,Civil Engineering Department, P.E.C., Chandigarh
*** M.E. Evironmental Engineering ,Ex -Student, P.E.C. Chandigarh

259
by constructing separate storage tanks. distribution networks are designed on principles
• A number of air valves and sluices are required based on continuous supply but operated on
to be fitted in the distribution system which are intermittent systems. There is a severe disparity in
required to be operated while opening or closing the design and operation. Due to present design
the supply. practice the consumers residing near water resources
draw maximum water while those residing away are
Computer modeling can be used to make deprived of adequate water quantity and adequate
intermittent supplies more efficient and user pressure.
friendly.The single most important consideration in In the conventional model the demand of the
water distribution system operation and planning is consumers are not dependent on the network
to assure adequate level of service at all points in pressure, where as in an intermittent water
the system under varying conditions of loading distribution network supply of water at a node is
criterion. It includes dependent on the available pressure .The supply to
1. Maintenance of flow rate, water quality and consumer is dependent on the available pressure.
pressure (head at various points in the system within These considerations are not incorporated in the
specified bounds, which can vary with time). design of water distribution networks based on
2. Management of storage in such a way, as to continuous water supply. At the operational stage
balance in supply and distribution the distribution of water is achieved by providing
head dissipating devices like throttle control valves.
For determining level of service there is need The scenario is not modeled at the designed stage
to know the impact of demand changes on the level and may deprive a large chunk of consumers and
of service. Such knowledge would aid in developing simultaneously overly benefiting others.
control strategies to maintain the level of service.
From the planning point of view ,it is required to Hydraulic Modelling in The Epanet Software
evaluate the adequacy of storage of proposed EPANET is a computer program that performs
networks, additions with respect to increase in total extended period simulation of Hydraulic and water
demand. Both these needs can be met by simulating quality behavior within pressurized pipe networks.
the behaviour of the system over a period of 24 hour- A network consists of pipes, nodes (pipe junctions),
48 hours under changing demand patterns. A pumps, valves and storage tanks or reservoirs.
computer-aided model of a distribution system can EPANET tracks the flow of water in each pipe, the
calculate the pressures and flows in that system. pressure at each node, the height of water in each
Results from model however are only as accurate tank during a simulation period comprised of
as the data with which they are determined .The multiple time steps.
present paper uses EPANET software as a tool to EPANET models a water distribution system
analyze water distribution in Kaimbwala locality in as a collection of links connected to nodes. The links
outskirts of Chandigarh. represent pipes, pumps, and control valves. The
nodes represent junctions, tanks, and reservoirs.
Distinctive nature of intermittent supplies EPANET can help assess alternative
Intermittent water supplies are unique and need management strategies for improving water quality
different approach for design and modeling other throughout a system. These can include :
than the continuous water supply systems. • altering source utilization within multiple
Water demand and water supplied are the two source systems,
terms used interchangeably in conventional model • altering pumping and tank filling/emptying
for the design of water distribution networks based schedules,
on continuous supply of twenty four a day. But in • use of satellite treatment, such as re-
most developing countries like ours the water chlorination at storage tanks,
supplied is less than the demand. The water • targeted pipe cleaning and replacement

260
A Case Study-Kaimbwala, Chandigarh Table No.l
Background - Kaimbwala comes under the Pipes Description
administration of Union Territory of Chandigarh.
Geographically the inhabitation’s terrain is
undulating as it is situated in the backdrop of
Shiwalik hills. It has all the basic amenties like Water
supply system, Sewer system, Community health
center, school,markets etc.

Distribution System -The distribution system itself

is a complex network of transmission mains, Pumping Stations -There are three tube wells used
distribution pipelines, pumping stations, booster for supply of water to the locality. Out of these three
pumps, and ground water reservoir and storage tank. tube wells namely t/w no. 6, t/w no.7 and t/w no.8,
The mains and sub mains has the size ranging from t/w no.6 and 8 are used to fill the storage reservoir
200mm, 150mm and 100mm along with small house from which the water is further pumped out while
connection pipes. Kaimbwala has total pipeline the t/w no.7 is used directly for water supply to the
length of 4500 meter. The pipe diameter along with locality. T/w no.7 and the storage reservoir are
pipe length is given below in Table No 1: located on the opposite sides of the locality. From

261
the storage reservoir, the water is pumped up by the pipe roughness, pipe diameter etc was provided
using booster pumps. Booster pumps are two in in the property box of all the pipes.
number. Ground water is the source of water.
Demand Calculations
Preparation of the Model In this model it is assumed that the water
From the original drawing of the distribution demand is equal to the water supplied. Thus the total
network provided by the public health division, the water supplied was calculated from the available
distribution network was reproduced on the graph data and thereafter the per capita demand.
paper. It was difficult to show or mark the every Total discharge of both tube wells (As per actual
house on the graph sheet and then on the model. So measurement) = 1770+ 910 = 2680 LPM
the whole network was divided in to the different Total population of locality = 1950 persons Unit
junctions where each junction represents a definite demand per person = 2680/1950 = 1.374 LPM
set of houses. Each junction is given a serial number (For a supply of 3 hours a shift, two times a day)
like jl, j2, j3, etc. X-Y co-ordinates were given to
all the junctions of the network, which were needed Results and Conclusions
for computer-aided model. General - The system which can not be measured
After junction markings the co-ordinates of all can not be managed. The purpose of this study was
the junctions were noted down from the graph sheet. to measure the critical components affecting the
In similar fashion the elevations, which were performance of real water distribution system. The
measured earlier as per junction locations of all the simulation was carried out for 24hr period but
junctions were noted down on the separate plain considering only IST shift of supply hours from 6am-
sheet. Next job was to draw these junctions on the 9am. The detailed results for morning supply hours
EPANET software and then assigning them the at 7:05am is shown in Table no.2 and 3.
required properties calculated above, in the
properties box of each junction. For creating an Node Results - Govt. of India, Ministry of Urban
EPANET model following network elements were Development manual on water supply stipulates a
used. minimum residual pressure of 7m, 12m and 17m
• Junctions for single storey, double storey and triple storey
• Pumps buildings respectively at the end of design period.
• Valves But the results are not attained even during the initial
• Tanks periods Of commissioning. The residual pressure
• Reservoirs were checked at few points (Table no. 4.) and found
• Pipes to be very lo and ranging from 1m to 5m at the high
To draw the network X-Y co ordinate’s limits elevation points in the locality at the time
were set up in the software from the graph sheet. measurement. It clearly shows that the system is
First of all, all the junctions were put in model in under performing than the desired level of service
serial order from the tool box of the software and for residual pressure requirements.
then their required properties were assigned to them.
Similarly other major points like the reservoirs Pipe Results - With available infrastructure of water
representing groundwater, pumps, booster pump and supply it is only possible to measure the velocity
storage tank was drawn on the model network with and flow in the pipes From the analysis of pipe
their required properties. The storage tank network it is clear that carrying capacities of pipes
dimensions and the different levels were physically are sufficient to serve the present requirement and
measured in the field and then incorporated the data make serve for many years to come.
in the properties box.
After the marking of all the major points and Recommendations -The study is not complete
incorporation of all the required data on the unless some concrete suggestions are made to
computer aided model these points were then joined improve the system problem. This study has focused
by the lines representing pipes. The pipe data like on the hydraulic performance of the system. And

262
accordingly the aim is to improve this requirement. The existing pumps are running at very low head
The two changes practically feasible to increase the due to high water with drawl. If the supply hours
system performance are are increased then the same pumps will deliver more
1) By replacing existing booster pumps or head after the time, when most water demands are
2) By increasing the supply hours. met. This will ensure residual pressure at the terminal
nodes as per minimum pressure norms.

263
264
265
References 4. Timothy D Hirrel, “Automating water
1. H.S.Rao and Don W Bree, Jr “Extended Period consumption data manipulation” Journal of AWWA,
Simulation of Water System part A” ASCE Journal August 1986 page 49.
of Hydraulic Div, Feb 1977, HYZ page 97. 5. Robert M. Clark and Richard, “Developing and
2. H.S.Rao and Don W Bree, Jr”Extended Period applying the water simulation model” Journal of
Simulation of Water System part B” ASCE Journal AWWA, August 1986 page 61.
of Hydraulic Div., March 1977, HY3 page 281. 6. Promod R Bhave, “Calibrating Water distribution
3. Uri Shamir and Charles D.D.Howard, network models” ASCE, Journal of Environmental
“Engineering Analysis of Water Distribution Engg Vol; 14 No 1, Feb 1983.
System” Journal of AWWA, September 1977 page 7 S.K. Garg. “Water Supply Engineering” Vol 1,
61. July 1992,Khanna Publishers Delhi

266
 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

43. Performance Evaluation of Rain Water Harvesting

- A Case Study in Chennai City
*A. Jebamalar **Dr. G. Ravikumar

ABSTRACT
Chennai, the capital of Tamil Nadu State receives an average of 1300 mm of rainfall every
year, but this rainfall occurs in short spells of a high intensity and nearly 65 percent of the rainfall
is lost due to surface runoff and evaporation. With the open space area around houses and buildings
being cemented, rain water, which drains off from terraces and the roofs, was draining into low
lying areas and not percolating into the soil. Thereby, precious rainfall was being squandered, as
it drained into sea eventually. In order to increase the ground water potential and to maintain
sustainable development of water resources, rain water harvesting is the only solution. Rain
water harvesting means “ Catch the rain water where it falls”. It is the activity of direct collection
of rain water. The rain water collected can be stored for direct use or can be recharged into
ground water for later use. In cities, due to shrinking of open spaces rain water can be harvested
only as ground water. Understanding this Government of Tamilnadu has made rain water harvesting
(RWH) in houses as mandatory and the people have implemented the same, as per official records.
It is necessary to monitor the impact of implemented RWH for its possible impact on improved
ground water storages& quality. This paper attempts to narrate the study being made to investigate
the efficacy of implemented rain water harvesting in Padmavathi Nagar, Chennai.
In order to derive the RWH information Questionnaire survey was conducted and the
information is derived through the coding sheet.86% of them implemented RWH using open well
through filter while 14% had resorted to percolation pit. To study the improvement in ground
water potential ,23 wells were chosen for continuous monitoring of water levels and for quality, 3
well samples are used. Electrical resistivity survey was conducted to study the soil lithology. To
assess the past performance of qround water potential and quality, previous data of water level
and quality is needed which is obtained from Central Ground Water Board, Chennai from the
year 1995- 2004
Ground water potential assessment for the Padmavathi Nagar was carried out by water
level fluctuation method, which is one of the most accurate and frequently used methods. Ground
water estimation committee- 1997 norm was used to estimate the change in storage. The study
area is divided according to the well locations based on the Thiessen Polygon Approach to
calculate the area of influence. Based on the soil type and well depths change in storage have
been estimated and the possible recharge is calculated by adding storage and ground water draft
which is obtained from population details by assuming 100l/day/capita is extracted from ground.
The analysis was done from the year 1995-2005 and it was found that possible recharge is increasing
in the area after the provision of RWH.
The water samples (totally three) were collected for each month from the study area and
analyzed in wet chemistry lab. Water quality parameters selected for the analysis are pH, Electrical
conductivity, Total dissolved solids, corbonate, Bicarbonate, Total Hardness, Calcium, Magnesium
and Chloride and checked with IS10500-1991.It was found that all parameters are within the
permissible limit. So It is concluded that ground water recharge is increasing after the provision
of RWH and quality is maintained within the permissible limit in Padmavathi Nagar, Chennai.

*Asst.Professor, Velammal Engg. College, Ambattur, Chennai-66

**Asst. Professor, Centre for Water Resources, College of Engineering, Guindy, Anna University, Chennai – 25

267
INTRODUCTION was recharged at the expense of Rs.1500/-. The
Due to ever increasing population, construction rise in water level up to one meter was recorded in
of buildings and exploitation of ground water by the recharge well and adjusting dug wells. The quality
the city dwellers result in the lowering of ground of ground water was also improved as nitrate
water level. The problem of water scarcity in urban concentrations got diluted considerably to desirable
areas can be solved by saving the rainwater through limit. They conclude that such a practice, if
appropriate RWH techniques. The stored or replicated on a large scale can bring out sustainable
recharged water can be used at the time of stress as augmentation to ground water reservoir.
well as for sustaining the quantity and quality of Vijaya Kumar (2005) in his article has
ground water. Any artificial recharge techniques has reviewed the evaluation of ground water resources
to match the rate of rainfall with the infiltration rate by Ground water Estimation Committee (1997)
and recharging is to be done to the location of the Methodology . The GEC, 1997 recommended that
aquifer. This means that RWH has to be designed groundwater recharge be estimated by ground water
site-specific. Also, there is no mechanism to test level fluctuation or specific yield approach, since
the efficacy of RWH systems implemented in this method takes in to account the response of
various places. So an attempt has been made to test ground water levels to ground water input and output
the efficacy of RWH in respect of improved quantity components. Regarding the frequency of water level
& quality of ground water . This paper attempts to data, pre and post monsoon observations preferably
narrate the present study being made to investigate in successive years, are the minimum requirement.
the efficacy of implemented rain water harvesting It would be deal to have monthly water level
in Padmavathi Nagar, Chennai. measurements to record the peak rise and maximum
fall in the ground water levels. In units or sub areas
RAIN WATER HARVESTING STUDIES IN where adequate data on ground water fluctuations \
INDIA are not available, ground water recharge may be
Deepak Khare et al (2004) have reviewed the estimated using rainfall infiltration method. He
impact assessment of RWH on ground water quality concluded that GEC 1997 methodology has
at Indore and Dewas, India. The impact assessment considerable scope for refinement and improvement
of roof top rainwater harvesting on ground water by using Remote sensing & GIS techniques &
was carried out with the help working tube wells to spatial variations distributed parameter modeling
improve the quality and quantity of ground water. has to be under taken by the use of FD & FE
The roof top rainwater was used to put into the methods.
ground using sand filter as pretreatment system. This
lead to a reduction in the concentration of pollutants STUDY AREA DETAILS
in ground water which indicated the effectiveness Chennai, the capital of Tamil Nadu State, the
of increased recharge of aquifer by roof top rain oldest of the presidential cities in India and the
water. He observes that in certain areas, the amount fourth largest Metropolis of the country, is selected
of total and faecal coliform were observed high in as the study area. In Chennai city Padmavathi Nagar
harvested tube well water than normal tube well is chosen .The lay out map is shown in Figure 1.
water. The reason of this increase was poor It is located in between Vadapalani and
cleanliness of roof top and poor efficiency of filter Virugampakkam having a plot area of 16,556 m2
for bacterial removal. The author concludes that and roof area of 8,584 m2 approximately. It has 69
quality mounting of rainwater harvesting is an plots out of which 59 were constructed with
essential prerequisite before using it for ground buildings. In that, 10 are apartments containing an
water recharge. average of 10 flats. The soil condition of this area
Sharma and Jain (1997) describe the ground is clayey in nature up to 5 feet and after that it is
water recharge through roof top rain water sandy in nature. The average depth of water table
harvesting in urban habitation. In Nagpur city an from ground level is 8.5 m. The water colour is
experiment was conducted where 80,000 litres of yellow. In this area, all the houses have only roof
water collected from the roof top of 100 m2 area top RWH systems. Most of the RWH systems are

268
connected to open wells through filters. getting some water from Chennai Metro water.

Figure 2 : Thiessen Polygon map of

IMPACT OF RWH ON GROUND WATER Padmavathi Nagar
RECHARGE
In order to study the impact, totally 23 wells
were taken for continuous monitoring of water levels
and 3 wells for quality analysis from Oct 2004 to
April 2005.Also secondary data of monthly water
level (1995-2004)and yearly water quality(1995-
2004) were collected from Central Ground Water
Board ,Chennai. Ground water potential assessment
for the Padmavathi Nagar was carried out by water
level fluctuation method, which is one of the most
accurate and frequently used methods. Ground water
estimation committee - 1997 norm was used to
estimate the change in storage. The study area is
divided according to the well locations based on
the Thiessen Polygon Approach to calculate the area
of influence which is shown in Figure 2. Electrical WATER LEVEL FLUCTUATION METHOD
Resistivity Survey was conducted to study the soil The water table fluctuation method was
lithology profile which is shown in Figure 3. Based employed for computing rainfall recharge for the
on the soil type and change in water level, change monsoon and non-monsoon seasons. This method
in storage have been estimated. In order to estimate is based on a water balance approach. The approach
the ground water draft, as pumping data was not followed in the method is essentially a lumped
available it was calculated from population details parameter approach. Hence, the spatial variations
which was got from Padmavathi Nagar Resident’ s of individual components in the water balance
Welfare Association. Assuming100 litres per person equation are not considered.
per day was extracted from the ground as they are The ground water balance equation in non

269
command area is given by Per day consumption = 680 * 100
RG- D G - B+I S +I = S (GEC Norms 1997), = 68000 litres/day = 68 m3 /day
which is simplified as Consumption for 242 days = 68*242 = 16456 m3
R =S+DG Available storage on April
R= Possible recharge (RG - B+I S +I) 2005 (Table 1) = 4069.85m3
Substituting the expression for storage increase S Stage of ground water development during Sep 2004
in terms of water level fluctuation and specific yield - April 2005 = 16456/(16456+4069.85) = 80.17%
the equation becomes, Possible recharge = 4069.85+16456 = 20525.85 m3
R = h*Sy * A+ D G = 0.81 m3/ m2
h is Rise in the ground water level, Sy is specific
yield The same way, Stage and possible recharge was
A is influence area of the well, Dg is ground water calculated for all the years from 1995 to April 2005
draft which is obtained from population details and it was analyzed. Rainfall volume also calculated
to see the influence in every year. Table 2 shows
Stage of ground water development (%) the summary of recharge and stage in Padmavathi
Existing ground water draft * 100 Nagar and Figure 4 shows the impact of RWH on
=
Net annual ground water availability ground water recharge. It shows that in the year
1995, though the consumption is less i.e
Stage of Ground Water Development & Possible approximately 13140 m 3 as because of less
Recharge in Padmavathi Nagar population, this area could have possible recharge
(a) January 1995 - December 1995 of 12604.71 m3 though the annual rainfall is 1560.7
Stage of ground water development was mm. But after the provision of RWH i.e the year
calculated using secondary data of water level and 2002, though the consumption is more i.e
population details and by substitute in equation approximately 23542.5 m3 the possible recharge was
(4.3), possible recharge was calculated. found to be 27748.26 m3 though the annual rainfall
Stage of ground water development in the year 1995 is 1313.4mm which is less than the year 1995. Hence
Per day consumption = 360 * 100 the recharge is increasing from 0.49 m3/ m2 to 0.81
= 36000 litres/day m3/ m2 from the year 1995 to 2005, this is said to be
= 36 m3/day the impact of RWH on ground water quantity.
Consumption for 365 days = 36*365 = 13140 m3

Available storage at the end of December 1995 = 70000

25489.43*0.15*(1.36-1.5) = – 535.29m3 60000
Volume in Cubic Metre

50000
Stage of ground water development in the year 1995
40000
= 13140/(13140-535.29) = 104.25%
Possible Recharge = – 535.29+13140 30000

= 12604.71 m3. 20000

= 0.49 m3/ m2 10000

0
(b) September 2004 - April 2005
05
03
95

96

97

98

99

00

01

02

20
20
19

19

19

19

19

20

20

20

Stage of ground water development during

il
pr
-A

September 2004 - April 2005 was calculated using

4
00
p2

Consumption Rainfall volume Rainfall recharge

the primary data of water level and Table 1 shows
Se

the change in ground water storage and area of

Figure 4 : Impact of RWH on ground water
influence of each well was calculated using Thiessen
recharge in Padmavathi Nagar
Polygon method.

270
Table - 1 : Change in ground water storage during September 2004 - April 2005

271
 Table 2 Summary of recharge and stage in Padmavathi Nagar

Table - 3 : Drinking water quality standards as per IS:10500 - 1991

272
 Table - 4 : Water quality details of Padmavathi Nagar area

IMPACT OF RWH ON GROUND WATER CONCLUSION

QUALITY Ground water recharge is assessed based on
The water samples (totally three) were GEC Norms 1997 using water level fluctuation
collected from the study area and analyzed. In method. In Padmavathi Nagar, the recharge is
general, the quality of water is determined by increasing from 0.49 m3/ m2 to 0.81 m3/ m2 from the
physical, chemical and biological parameter. Here year 1995 to 2005. Water quality analysis is done
water quality parameters selected for the analysis once in a month and it was found that all parameters
are pH, Electrical conductivity, Total dissolved are within permissible limit in Padmavathi Nagar.
solids, Carbonate, Bicarbonate, Total Hardness, So It is concluded that ground water recharge is
Calcium, Magnesium and Chloride. Table 3 shows increasing after the provision of RWH and quality is
IS: 10500 -1991 drinking water quality standards. maintained within the permissible limit in Padmavathi
Water quality of this area from the year 1995 - Nagar, Chennai.
2004 was got from Central Ground Water Board
and this was compared with the present quality REFERENCES
details. Table 4 shows the water quality details of 1. Deepak Khare, Ramakand, Ojha and Srivatsava,
Padmavathi Nagar area. Water quality parameters R.K.(2004), “Impact Assessment of Rainwater Harvesting
on Ground water Quality at Indore and Dewas, India.”
such as Total dissolved solids, Total Hardness and Journal of Indian Water Works Association, Vol. XXXVI,
chloride are compared from the years 1995 - 2005 No.2. pp.123-128.
and is presented in the Figures 5 to Figures 7.These 2. Sharma S.K. and Jain., S.K(1997), “Ground Water
parameters are also compared with Indian Standards Recharge through Roof Top Rain Water Harvesting in
and found that all parameters are within the Urban Habitation.”- International Conference on
Management of Drinking Water Resources.
permissible results. So it can be concluded that water 3. Vijaya Kumar S.V. (2005), “Evaluation of Ground
quality parameters are maintained within permissible Water Resources: Ground Water Estimation Committee
limits because of RWH. (1997) Methodology”-Workshop on Management of
Ground water in Coastal and Deltaic Regions, pp.18-25.

273
 Chloride (mg/l) Total Hardness (mg/l) Total Dissolved Solids(ppm)

0
150
300
450
600
0
150
300
450
600
750
0
300
600
900
1200
1500
1800

5/1/1995 5/1/1995
5/1/1995
5/1/1996 5/1/1996
5/1/1996
5/1/1998 5/1/1998
5/1/1998

6/1/1999 6/1/1999
6/1/1999

5/1/2000 5/1/2000
5/1/2000

6/4/2001 6/4/2001
6/4/2001

274
5/1/2002 5/1/2002
5/1/2002

Date
Date
Date

5/1/2003 5/1/2003 5/1/2003

24/11/2004 24/11/2004 24/11/2004

17/12/2004 17/12/2004

Figure - 7 : Comparison of Chloride

17/12/2004

Figure - 6 : Comparison of Total Hardness

5/1/2005 5/1/2005 5/1/2005
Figure - 5 : Comparison of Total Dissolved Solids

13/2/2005 13/2/2005 13/2/2005

19/3/2005 19/3/2005 19/3/2005

22/4/05 22/4/05 22/4/05

 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

44. Town Planning & Water Management

Nagpur - A Case study
*Awantika Chitnavis

Urban India is growing incrementally but its The fact that sustainable planning and development
infrastructure has failed to keep up with the demand does not only reduce the costs of infrastructure but
and even today cannot provide the required essential can reduce long term investment and maintenance
services to its urban citizens. This has been a failure costs will not be part of the calculations as long as
of policy and planning rather than of shortages. town planning has low priority. The Authorities
That sustainable development is essential for show little inclination to undertake long term
our survival on this planet and hence should be the planning and in urban areas, which are on the fast
established basis for planning is accepted all over track, ecologically sustainable development loses
the world. India is a signatory to many international out to “development” which requires little planning
charters over the years. But unfortunately the ground but demands high capital inputs.
reality is quite different. The concept of sustainable An analysis of an urban centre like Nagpur can
development has gained acceptance only in limited demonstrate the shortcomings of our planning and
circles, and it is has remained little more than a catch policies. In Nagpur the situation may not be good
phrase. On sustainable development the UN says but it is better than many other cities in India and
“It needs to be realized by all concerned that in the the damage can still be undone, but only if the
long run, and even in the medium term, there is no policies are changed and the political will to push
conflict between environmental protection the changes through, exists.
promotion and health development on the one side,
and economic growth on the other: promotion of Water conservation in Nagpur
environment and health is essential for sustainable As per the information provided by Nagpur
development.” Municipal Corporation website- “there are several
Sustainable development is the key to good natural water bodies within the city limits including
water management. For good water management, a 12 lakes, two rivers and five nallahs. The lakes
very clear-cut policy and political will is required. (Gorewada, Futala, Ambazari, Sonegaon,
It cannot succeed only with individual initiative. The Sakkardara, Gandhisagar, Lendi Talao, Naik Talao,
initiative will have to be taken by the local Dob Talao, Pandhrabodi, Sanjay Nagar Khadan and
authorities, because the success of the individual Pardi) cover an area of about 3.13 sq. km. The Nag
can be wiped out by the failure of the city. and Pili rivers cut across the city and are 15.73 km.
Even otherwise, what comprises of sustainable and 12.11km. in length respectively. Besides these,
development is not always agreed upon. This Chamar Nallah, Shakti Nagar Nallah, Hudkeshwar
problem in acerbated due to a skewed understanding Nallah, Swawalabmi Nagar Nallah and Sahakar
of the word “sustainable”. It is more often than not Nagar Nallah also flow through the city. Though
taken to mean financially and not ecologically exact data is not available, it has been observed that
sustainable. That is the critical difference that can all the water bodies are highly polluted.”
make and break a good water policy. If the direction Exact data is not really required as nearly 100
of planning is not defined to be ecologically % of Nagpur’s sewage finds its way into the rivers
sustainable, you cannot have a good water policy. and lakes without treatment. According to a study

*309, Sir Gangadharrao Chitnavis Marg, Civil Lines, Nagpur - 440 001

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undertaken by CGWB (Central Ground Water and new constructions of area equal to or more than
Board), the nitrate levels in wells in the proximity 300 sq. m. shall have one or more rain water
of the Nag river are particularly high. In my harvesting structures such as open well or bore well,
childhood, we used to drink water from the well in or underground storage tank or percolation pits. The
our family home in Mahal. Today the water is not owner/ society also has to ensure the maintenance
potable. This story is repeated all over Nagpur, and of these structures. In case of non-compliance with
has resulted in an enhanced demand for treated water aforementioned rules, NMC would levy a charge
thus adding to the city’s requirement. up to Rs. 1000 per annum per 100 sq. m. of built up
It is the same story with the lakes and Ambazari area.
lake which used to supply water to the city is NMC says that it is currently examining the
polluted. However few changes have been made in potential of reuse of reclaimed water. In this context
the planning processes, which allowed development, it has commissioned a study with technical support
which would pollute the lake. Water conservation of USAID to examine the feasibility of
is not likely to succeed unless such issues are ironed implementing the same. Under this pilot project,
out, as rainwater harvesting will result in the wastewater from houses and business centres will
collection of contaminated water thus perpetuating be piped through sewers to wastewater treatment
the increasing demand for treated water. plants where it would progress through primary,
Today, water is brought 30 km away from secondary and tertiary stages of treatment before it
Nagpur, from Pench thus adding to the cost and is disinfected and put into the separate distribution
increasing the ecological footprint of Nagpur. system for reuse. The recycled water would be used
CGWB studies have shown that apart from the in industries, cooling and ash handling in power
outskirts of Nagpur where there is a shortage of plants, landscaping, irrigation in orchards etc. NMC
water, Nagpur has a very high water table and the has declared that “...In order to enhance the positive
city’s requirements can be met with the water outcomes while minimizing the risks of wastewater
resources within Nagpur and with rainwater use, there exists feasible and sound measures that
harvesting methods. However to undertake such a need to be applied...” in this context.
challenge, a policy should be in place, and planning MAHAGENCO has already signed a MOU with
undertaken to ensure that the authorities are NMC to use recycled water for thermal power
committed to this cause. This cannot and will not generation.
happen with individual initiatives only. Despite these measures there is no clear-cut
Apart from water pollution there are other policy, which provides for the planning processes
causes, which rise directly from faulty development to be ecologically sustainable. The policy needs to
and add to our water woes. Rapid development is encompass and connect all aspects of planning
increasing the paved surfaces within the city. This which affect water management.
is true of the roads and also construction projects,
and is ultimately going to reduce the volume of water Storm water drainage
absorbed by the ground and therefore this is an Water conservation and storm water drainage
important factor to be taken into consideration in are two aspects of water management in cities. As
the planning process. these two areas overlap, water harvesting techniques
will not succeed without a well-planned storm water
Initiatives undertaken by the Authorities for drainage system. Though rain water harvesting has
water conservation found its way into the DCR of Nagpur, storm water
The byelaws now make rainwater harvesting drainage has been neglected.
and adoption of water conservation measures The biggest disaster Nagpur faces year after
mandatory in all buildings from March 2005. The year are floods, and these damage, disturb and
byelaw envisages that no building permission will destroy lives. This very serious issue needs to be
be granted unless provision is made for rainwater- addressed on an urgent basis. Little attention has
harvesting scheme. As per the regulation, all layout been given to the cause of floods. Flood control
open spaces, amenity spaces of housing societies measures are taken on an ad hoc basis every year. It

276
is said that the administration is geared up for the 2. Excess run off of rainwater due to increase in
floods, but do we really need to have floods? Nagpur paved surfaces in the case of roads and new
does not have large rivers, and the flooding is mainly development.
caused during storms or incessant rains. You can
do little against Nature’s fury except mitigate the Until recently most of Nagpur was drained by
effects. But when the planning or the lack of it is the natural slope of the land. As there were no
the cause of flooding, it is a double tragedy. compound walls, the water used to flow into the
Each year the flooding within the city storm water drains by the roadside by natural
increases. In response the river has been canalised, gradient. Today, due to the construction of
nalas and drains cleaned but to little effect. The compound walls and due to the raising of existing
causes of flooding then have to be found elsewhere ground levels of individual plots & roads, the natural
and it is in the planning policies that the solutions drainage pattern has been modified. There are no
will be found. With the flooding of Mumbai the regulations to ensure that the citywide drainage
spotlight has turned on the storm water drainage network is maintained. The storm water drain
systems, which have been completely neglected. network on the road should collect water not only
Should we wait for disaster to strike Nagpur before from the road but also from the layouts and plots
we act? adjoining the road. When the layout plan is
Apart from low lying areas many of which are sanctioned, it has to be established that the water
within the catchment areas of the city, similar from the layout can be collected by the roadside
problems exist in many parts of the city which are drain or that it can be drained out in any other way,
not low lying and should not be flooding at all. through a nallah. The drainage pattern is established
when a layout is made, it cannot be re-established
Why does Nagpur flood? every time new development comes up. This is
There are many reasons for the flooding that common sense, however if you search for rules or
takes place in Nagpur which can be corrected with guidelines for the planning of the drainage system
proper planning :- within any city it is difficult to find many references.
A. Planning issues The reason the developers and the owners of
1. Unauthorised construction within the river property are raising their plot levels is to ensure that
basins and the nalas connecting them. the rain water will drain into the storm water drain
2. Canalisation of the river, which will actually on the roads. This has happened because there is no
cause more flooding, as the volume of the river basin storm water drainage plan that the city adheres to.
reduces. The storm water drains are aligned with the level of
3. Construction within water catchment areas of the road, and as the road is raised so is the drain.
lakes and within lakes. Eg In Pandhrabodi a layout This has resulted in the storm water drains within
has been constructed inside half the lake. Part of many layouts having no outlet for their storm water.
the remaining lake has now been leased to a Tennis Some layouts, which were earlier well drained, have
Association. In Sonegaon, a layout has been started flooding. In many cases where the road has
constructed within the catchment area. These been raised, the water from the road actually enters
layouts will always be prone to flooding. the plots. No modifications have been made to the
4. Natural water courses have been blocked for design of the roads to ensure that water excess water
example the construction of a slum within a valley run off is harvested thus reducing the volume added
next to WCL, Civil Lines. to the drainage system.
5. Modification of natural contours which has
disturbed the natural drainage for eg. raising of Provisions in the Acts, Rules & Regulations
ground levels within individual plots It is interesting to examine various guidelines,
rules and regulations provided for the planning &
B. Design issues design of storm water drainage at various levels.
1. Faulty slopes and alignment of the roadside There are only a few and far in between:-
storm water drains. 1. As per the model guidelines prepared by the

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Institute of Town Planners, New Delhi and published JNNURM (Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban
by the Ministry of Urban Affairs & Employment, Renewal Mission)
Government of India of the Urban Development JNNURM was launched in 2005 to upgrade
namely “ Plans Formulation & Implementation the infrastructure of our cities through planned
Guidelines – “The drainage system for any city is development. The primary objective of JNNURM
governed mainly by natural drainage course and is to create economically productive, efficient,
topography.” That is the only mention that can be equitable & responsive cities. However though the
found which relates specifically to the use of JNNURM specifies that the development should be
topography for drainage and that too in the model sustainable, the emphasis is still on the financial
guidelines. aspects. The dictionary definition of the word
2. Section 22 of the MRTP Act has been laid sustainable is:- 1. able to be maintained and 2.
down that the contents of the Development Plan exploiting natural resources without destroying the
should indicate the manner in which the ecological balance of a particular area.
development shall be carried out in terms of Unfortunately by focusing on the first meaning and
drainage [sub-section (c)] & proposals for flood not clearly defining sustainable development, a
control and prevention of water pollution [sub tremendous opportunity has been lost. This will
section (j)]. affect about 60 cities which have been selected
3. The definition of “Building operations” in the under this mission with a project outlay of 50,000
MRTP Act, 1966 includes erection or re-erection crores over 7 years.
of a building or any part thereof, roofing or re-
roofing of any part of a building or of any open Some of the components permissible under
space, any material alteration or enlargement of a JNNURM which directly affect water management
building, any such alteration of a building as is likely are :
to affect an alteration of its drainage or sanitary Urban Renewal i.e redevelopment of inner
arrangement or materially affect its security or the (old) city areas [this includes items like renewal of
construction of a door opening on any streets or land sewerage/drainage/solid waste disposal systems];
not belonging to the owner.” Water Supply (including desalination plants) and
4. It is mandatory for layouts to install storm sanitation - Sewerage and Solid Waste Management
water drainage, but this is mentioned only in the - Construction and improvement of drains/storm
requirements of drawings to be submitted for water drains & Preservation of water bodies. Hence
building sanction in the DCR, and there is no there is tremendous scope to change the way cities
regulation framed to ensure that the drainage must are developed.
form part of a network at the city level. Sections As Nagpur is one of the cities selected under
185 to 189 of the City of Nagpur Corporation Act, JNNURM, the NMC has prepared a CDP (City
1948 specifically authorise the Municipal Development Plan) which is available on its website.
Commissioner to provide for drains under any land In the section “Storm water drainage”, the CDP
belonging to other persons and also to drain premises states that, “the need for storm water drainage is
in combination and this has been done to ensure purely a result of rapid modern urban growth. With
proper drainage even in areas which have no natural houses, roads, footpaths etc. coming up, the
drainage. As per Section 184 of the City of Nagpur permeable area gets reduced and rainwater starts
Corporation Act, the storm water drainage has to logging up. Thus storm water drainage service
be separate from sewage, but often the private storm becomes imperative to avoid water logging and
water drains are connected to the sewage lines resultant wear and tear of roads. Nagpur City has a
leading to choking. very good natural drainage pattern. The city has a
However even these limited provisions in the suitable topography with a natural gradient in one
Acts are not implemented. A major opportunity to direction i.e. from west to east. There are two major
retrieve the situation has been provided by the storm water carrying streams. The Nag river starts
JNNURM from Ambazari lake’s overflow weir at the western
end of the city and runs through the middle of the

278
city towards the east. It caters to the storm water strengthened in terms of coverage and capacity. The
drainage requirement of part of west Nagpur, south total investments planned in this sector are Rs.246
Nagpur, central Nagpur and east Nagpur. The second crores.”
river or the Pili river starts from the waste weir of Unfortunately the policy and planning stand
Gorewada at the north-west end of the city and runs untouched and no study is planned to understand
through the north to the eastern end of the city. It and examine the causes of flooding. Some of the
caters to the storm water drainage requirement of steps taken to prevent flooding in fact have added
part of west Nagpur and north Nagpur. Besides to the flooding such as canalisation of the rivers. If
these, there are some important connecting nallahs the existing systems are not rectified even 246 crores
also running along and across the city, connected to is going to achieve little. In order to find the
the Nag and Pili rivers. shortfalls of the existing system, it would be
The CDP states that at present, only 30-35 % necessary to conduct a survey and study the existing
of the road network is covered by the storm water ground realities.
drainage system of open drains and closed drains.
Almost all storm water drains are over flooded due The Costs of Flooding
to carrying both storm water and sewer flow. In the Apart from the damage caused to individual
monsoon (peak period), there are problems of back citizens, the cost of damage to public bodies is
flow in the sewers that lead to unhygienic conditions considerable. The direct costs can be quantified, but
and outburst of epidemic. it is the hidden costs, are actually far higher. The
It has been accepted in the CDP that the natural flooded areas contain water, which is mixed with
drainage of Nagpur is very good. But there is no sewage. This water enters and pollutes lakes, wells
provision to ensure that it continues to remain so. and other water sources. Pollution of water and
By including the rivers under storm water drains creation of environment conducive to mosquitoes
the CDP has lost the opportunity of rejuvenating results in epidemics and health problems.
the rivers, which will affect the water conservation In the words of WHO “While national planners
initiatives of the city. The logic is that the rivers are view health and environment improvement as a
not rivers any more but carry sewage water. social imperative and indispensable for sustainable
However the reason that no water flows through development, arguments have often erupted
the rivers basins except in the monsoon is the concerning the right balance between the allocation
damming of the Nag River at Ambazari lake and of resources for environment and health on the one
the damming of the Pili River at Gorewada. Though hand, and for economic growth (life-style
these are not big rivers, the conversion to a drain is enhancement) on the other. This is despite the fact
man made phenomenon and an open sewer flowing that there is scientific evidence to show that progress
through the city can never be acceptable. towards any development goal is hampered when
the population suffers from ill-health and life-
Steps the NMC intends to take under JNNURM support-systems are degraded.”
have been broadly spelled out According to the World Health
“NMC must focus on the rejuvenation of the Organisation, urban malaria, which was a
Nag and Pilli rivers, nallah canalization and the negligible problem at the time of launching of
consequent strengthening of the natural drainage the eradication programme in 1958 in India,
system. Lake rejuvenation must be included in the accounts for 14 to 15% of the total malaria
development process as a priority area. All the roads cases. Natural and man-made disasters often have
must have storm water drains to prevent flooding serious implications for human health as also the
during peak periods. The CIP has made provisions environment. When health and environment are
for rejuvenating the natural drainage pattern through undermined, the sustainability of development is
the de-silting of the natural drains, rivers and nallahs, compromised.
and removal of the blockages in the natural drainage
paths. To support the natural system, the storm water What needs to be done in terms of Town Planning
drainage network along the roads will also be • A policy shift is required to ensure that the

279
direction planning takes particularly at the local level With water becoming an increasingly scarce
is ecological sustainable. resource, we cannot allow our water sources to get
• Modifications should be made in the Town polluted on one hand and promote water
Planning Acts to ensure that the spirit of the policy conservation on the other. Our planners need to take
shift is clear and unambiguous. a firm hold of the policy and change its direction so
• The DCR should be amended to add rules, that the agenda is to make it ecologically sustainable
which will ensure that water management is a part and hence people friendly. Many cities around the
of planning at all levels and modification of the world have taken such initiatives and profited from
natural contour should not be allowed. them, and take pride in it. The internet reveals
• The rivers, lakes, water bodies need to be websites dedicated to such sustainable city
demarcated and no development should ever be initiatives. These include among others Vancouver,
allowed in them. There should be specific provisions Canada, San Francisco, US, Birmingham, UK. With
in the DCR to ensure this. our fount of traditional wisdom and having remained
• The design of roads, drains and public a traditional society, we should have been leading
amenities should be modified to include water the world. In order to secure our future we have no
harvesting systems such as swales, soakaways, options to change the direction of our planning to
holding ponds and the use of pervious surfaces. In make it ecologically sustainable.
India, Madras has incorporated water-harvesting
systems in the road design.

From Sustainable Building Design Manual Vol 2

Published by TERI

280
From Sustainable Building Design Manual Vol 2
Published by TERI

281
 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

45. Efficacy of Rainwater Harvesting Structure In

Vallabhipur Village in Vallabhipur Taluka of Bhavnagar District
*Ujas H. Pandya **D. T. Shete

ABSTRACT
Rainwater harvesting encompasses a wide range of spatial scales from impoundment
of runoff from large catchments by damming rivers and streams to collection of rainwater
from rooftops. Vallabhipur village of Vallabhipur Taluka of Bhavnagar district in Gujarat
is selected as main study area. After analyzing and correlating data regarding observation
well and RWH structure like percolation pond linear regression between rainfall & SWL
and rainfall & EC is carried out. Study period considered is from 1982 to 2004. The RWH
structure was constructed in 1989. Objectives of the study are, to analyse the effectiveness
of the RWH structure constructed, to find out the increase in SWL and decrease in EC, if
any, after the construction of RWH structure, to relate the pre and post-monsoon SWL and
EC with pre and post-construction periods of RWH structure. By analyzing the results
obtained for village Vallabhipur of Vallabhipur Taluka, one can conclude that the models
of linear regression of pre and post-construction periods are used to find out the increment
in levels of SWL and EC. The predicted increments in level are compared with the observed
increments in level and the difference can be found. If one can use model of pre-construction
period for the data of post-construction period then RMSE comes highest which proves
that for fluctuations of SWL and EC model derived by using data of pre-construction period
is not suitable for post-construction period. Higher value of RMSE indicates higher errors
in SWL and EC which shows that RWH structure constructed are helping in ground water
recharge. From graphs showing relationship between rainfall and difference between pre
and post-monsoon SWL and showing relationship between rainfall and difference between
pre and post monsoon EC at Vallabhipur, one can see that during pre-construction period
difference between pre and post monsoon SWL decreases as rainfall decreases but in post-
construction period difference between pre and post-monsoon SWL increases even if rainfall
decreases. During pre-construction period difference between pre and post-monsoon EC
increases as rainfall decreases but during post construction period difference between pre
and post-monsoon EC decreases even if rainfall decreases. It indicates that ground water
recharge had occurred due to RWH structure.

INTRODUCTION water available on earth. Rainwater harvesting is

In some parts of the world, rainwater the process of collection and storage of rain water.
harvesting schemes have been developed and used Objectives of the study are, to analyse the
for collecting and preserving fresh water. Some effectiveness of the RWH structure constructed, to
ancient structures in India incorporated rainwater find out the increase in SWL and decrease in EC, if
harvesting systems. Rainwater is purest form of raw any, after the construction of RWH structure, to

*Temporary Lecturer, ujaspandya@yahoo.co.in **Professor & Director, dtshete@yahoo.com

Water Resources Engineering and Management Institute, Faculty of Technology and Engineering
The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, Samiala-391410 wremi@eth.net

282
relate the pre and post-monsoon SWL and EC with continuous data is divided in two parts like pre-
pre and post-construction periods of RWH structure construction period and post-construction period i.e.
1982-1989 and 1990-2004. Coefficient of
AREA OF STUDY correlation (r) and root mean square error (RMSE)
Main study area is restricted to Vallabhipur are determined for models of both the periods. For
Village in Vallabhipur Taluka of Bhavnagar district each individual period, 60 % data are used for
located on costal belt of Gulf of Khambhat. In order determining model with the help of curve expert
to assess the effectiveness of the RWH structure, software and remaining 40 % data are used for
data of observation well in Vallabhipur Village have checking the model. Error can be calculated by
been taken into consideration deducting calculated value from observed value and
then root mean square error can be calculated by
METHODOLOGY simple mathematical calculations. By using 100 %
In order to perform linear regression, curve data new model can be determined and thus for each
expert software has been used. Linear regression is period one can get two models. From both the
carried out for increment in annual rainfall (X) and models that model is selected which gives lesser
increment in levels (Y). Levels include static water value of root mean square (RMSE) and value of
level (SWL) and electrical conductivity (EC). Entire coefficient of correlation ( r ) should be nearer to 1.

RESULTS
Table 1 : Coefficient of correlation and RMSE of pre and post-construction periods of
Pre-monsoon SWL by linear regression

Model number Data Coefficient of RMSE

correlation (r)
Pre – construction period
1 60% (1982-1989) 1 0
40% check 1.74
Post – construction period
2 60% (1990-2004) 0.88 0.39
40% check 1.98
60% (1990-2004) in model 1 1.92

Table 2 : Coefficient of correlation and RMSE of pre and post construction periods
of Post –monsoon SWL by linear regression

Model number Data Coefficient of RMSE

correlation (r)
Pre – construction period
3 60% (1982-1989) 1 0
40% check 2.16
Post – construction period
4 60% (1990-2004) 0.21 1.48
40% check 0.69
60% (1990-2004) in model 3 2.25

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 Table - 3 : Coefficient of correlation and RMSE of pre and post construction periods of
Pre-monsoon EC by linear regression
Model number Data Coefficient of RMSE
correlation (r)
Pre – construction period
5 60% (1982-1989) 1 0
40% check 1,277.89
Post – construction period
6 60% (1990-2004) 0.91 380.38
40% check 3,706.11
60% (1990-2004) in model 5 1,378.66

Table - 4 : Coefficient of correlation and RMSE of pre and post construction periods of
Post – monsoon EC by linear regression
Model number Data Coefficient of RMSE
correlation (r)
Pre – construction period
7 60% (1982-1989) 1 0
40% check 552.76
Post – construction period
8 60% (1990-2004) 0.97 89.35
40% check 1.67 4.17
60% (1990-2004) in model 7 512.48

ANALYSIS Nos. 3 and 4 should be used for pre-construction

One can see from Table 1, RMSE calculated period and post-construction period respectively.
by using model No. 1 is 0 and RMSE calculated by One can see from Table 3, RMSE calculated
using model No. 2 is 0.39 for pre-monsoon SWL in by using model No. 5 is 0 and RMSE calculated by
pre and post-construction periods respectively. If using model No. 6 is 380.38 for pre-monsoon EC
one can use model No. 1 for the 60% data of post- in pre and post-construction periods respectively.
construction period then RMSE comes to 1.92 If one can use model No. 5 for the 60% data of
which is the highest in the Table. Thus it proves post-construction period then RMSE comes to
that for pre-monsoon fluctuations of SWL model 1,378.68 which is the highest in the Table. Thus it
Nos. 1 and 2 should be used for pre-construction proves that for pre-monsoon fluctuations of EC
and post-construction periods respectively. One can model Nos. 5 and 6 should be used for pre-
see from Table 2, RMSE calculated by using model construction and post-construction period
No. 3 is 0 and RMSE calculated by using model respectively. One can see from Table 4, RMSE
No. 3 is 1.48 for post-monsoon SWL in pre and calculated by using model No. 7 is 0 and RMSE
post-construction periods respectively. If one can calculated by using model No. 8 is 89.35 for post-
use model No. 3 for the 60% data of post- monsoon EC in pre and post-construction periods
construction period then RMSE comes to 2.25 respectively. If one can use model No. 7 for the
which is the highest in the Table. Thus it proves 60% data of post-construction period then RMSE
that for post-monsoon fluctuations of SWL model comes to 512.48 which is the highest in the Table.

284
Thus it proves that for post-monsoon fluctuations of between pre and post-monsoon EC decreases even
EC model Nos. 7 and 8 should be used for pre- if there is decrease in rainfall. It indicates that ground
construction period and post-construction period water recharge had occurred due to construction of
respectively. It is also seen that there is considerable RWH structure and due to that value difference
increase in RMSE value obtained by model No. 2 between pre and post-monsoon EC decreased.
when used for 60% data of post-construction period
than the RMSE value obtained by model No. 1 when CONCLUSIONS
used for 60% data of pre-construction period. By analyzing the results obtained for village
Moreover when model No. 1 is used for 60% data Vallabhipur of Vallabhipur Taluka, one can conclude
of post-construction period then RMSE obtained is that the models of linear regression of pre-
not only the highest but it is significantly higher than construction and post-construction periods are used
the RMSE obtained by model No. 2 when used for to find out the increment in static water level and
the same data. This means that there are meaningful electrical conductivity. The predicted increments in
variations in the EC in the post-construction period. level are compared with the observed increments in
Graphical representation of rainfall and level and the difference can be found.
difference between pre and post-monsoon SWL is If one can use model of pre-construction period
shown in Fig-1 and their values are given in Table 5. for the data of post-construction period then RMSE
One can see from Fig-1 that during pre-construction comes highest which proves that for fluctuations of
period in year 1984-1985 rainfall is decreasing from SWL and EC model derived by using data of pre-
0.353 m to 0.268 m and difference between pre and construction period is not suitable for post-
post-monsoon SWL is also decreasing from 0.8 m construction period. Higher value of RMSE indicates
to 0.2 m. But during post-construction period in year higher fluctuations in static water level and electrical
1999-2000, rainfall is decreasing from 0.361 m to conductivity which shows that rainwater harvesting
0.233 m and difference between pre and post- structure constructed is helping in ground water
monsoon SWL is increasing from 0.3 m to 1.5 m. recharge.
Thus one can see that during pre-construction period From graphs showing relationship between
difference between pre and post-monsoon SWL rainfall and difference between pre and post-
decreases as rainfall decrease, but in post- monsoon SWL, one can say that during pre-
construction period difference between pre and post- construction period if rainfall decreases then
monsoon SWL increases even if rainfall decreases. difference between pre and post-monsoon SWL also
It indicates that RWH structure constructed is decreases but during post-construction period
helping in ground water recharge due to that ground difference between pre and post-monsoon SWL is
water level raise. increasing even if rainfall is decreasing. This
Graphical representation of rainfall and concludes that due to construction of rainwater
difference between pre and post-monsoon EC is harvesting structure there is rise in static water level
shown in Fig-2 and their values are given in Table 5. due to ground water recharge.
One can see from Fig-2 that in pre-construction From graphs showing relationship between
period during year 1984-1985 rainfall is decreasing rainfall and difference between pre and post-
from 0.353 m to 0.268 m and difference between monsoon EC, one can say that during pre-
pre and post-monsoon EC is increasing from 0 m construction period if rainfall decreases then
mho/s to 370 m mho/s. But during post-construction difference between pre and post-monsoon EC
period in year 1994-1995 rainfall is decreasing from increases but during post-construction period
0.7 m to 0.469 m and difference between pre and difference between pre and post-monsoon EC is
post-monsoon EC is also decreasing from 100 m decreasing even if rainfall is decreasing. This
mho/s to - 200 m mho/s. It proves that during pre- concludes that due to construction of rainwater
construction period difference of pre and post- harvesting structure there is rise in static water level
monsoon EC increases as there is decrease in rainfall due to ground water recharge.
but during post-construction period difference

285
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Table 5 : Relationship between rainfall and difference ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
between pre & post – monsoon static water level &
electrical conductivity at village Vallabhipur in The study is based on research scheme on
Vallabhipur Taluka “Performance Evaluation of Rainwater Harvesting
and Salinity Prevention Structures”, worth Rs.
Year Rainfall Difference Difference
between between 15,41,020 funded by Department of Science and
pre-monsoon pre-monsoon
& post - & post -
Technology, Government of India during 2005-2007.
monsoon monsoon Authors heartily acknowledge the help rendered by
SWL EC
m m m mho/s the Department.
The data used in the study are provided by
1982 0.260 0.300 550
Gujarat Water Resources Development Corporation,
1983 0.790 1.650 -38
1984 0.353 0.800 0
LTD., Gandhinagar. The authors wholeheartedly
1985 0.268 0.200 370
acknowledge the assistance given by the
1986 0.277 0.300 300 Corporation.
1987 0.262 0.500 100
1988 0.678 1.300 300
1989 0.560 2.400 400 REFERENCES
1990 0.634 0.500 -1,690 Ahluwalia, P.P and Pancholi, D.M.,(1992) -
1991 0.327 0.900 -300 “Ground water development by artificial recharge
1992 0.581 0.600 -300 in salinity affected south west coastal region of
1993 0.318 0.500 100 Saurashtra”, Journal of Engg Geology, Vol. XXI,
1994 0.700 2.000 100 No.. 1 and 2, Pp 151-153.
1995 0.469 0.600 -200
1996 0.379 1.000 400
1997 0.472 2.650 -895
1998 0.564 -1.430 -1,218
1999 0.361 0.300 600
2000 0.233 1.500 800
2001 0.625 2.600 -1,900
2002 0.510 0.500 1,600
2003 0.564 0.600 -1,100
2004 0.594 0.100 1,700

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 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

46. Study of Experiments on Roof Top Rainwater Harvesting and

Surface Rainwater Harvesting for Recharging of Wells
*Dr. N. M. Kanhe **Dr. A. G. Bhole

Abstract :
Since all sources of water is ultimately rain, all water systems are in effect, rain water
harvesting systems, but a difference in catchments. While previously catchment works were
far off from the rural urban areas it served, now the cities and villages itself are seen as
catchments for its water requirements. Rooftop paved areas and unpaved areas in entire
city is therefore, be managed as water provision area. The process of rainwater harvesting
would encompass catching rain water, directing to an appropriate location, filtering if
required and storing it for used.
Centre of science for villages, Wardha has done various experiments for raising ground
water level. Some of these experiments were found very much successful. This paper provides
the details of various procedures and experiments carried out by CSV, Wardha for ground
water table recharging which include recharging of Borewells by Soakpit method, rainwater
or ground water recharging of open well.

RAINWATER HARVESTING available. Its quality usually is usually better than

The process of rainwater harvesting would that of ground water. It is soft hence it can lower
encompass catching rainwater, directing to an the quantity of detergent and soaps required for
appropriate location, filtering if required and storing cleaning. Soap scum and hardness deposits do not
it for used. Storage could be in tanks, sumps, ponds, occur. There is no need for a water softener as it is
lakes. Wherever appropriate conditions are often required in the treatment of well water. Water
permitting, recharging of ground water would also heaters and pipes are free of the deposit caused by
qualify as storage. Harvested water could be used hard water and that’s why they last longer. Use of
immediately as a first choice thus saving city water Rainwater can ease up the huge stresses on the
level supplies or ground water for future date or centralised water supply systems. Rainwater may
decision could be to store it for later use, say during be charged into the ground water aquifers through
water shortage days. Rain water is the most viable any suitable structure like dug wells, bore wells,
water supply option. recharging trenches and recharging pits etc.
Rainwater is free source of nearly pure water.
It can be used to supply potable water and non - APPROCH OF CSV TOWARDS RAINWATER
potable water. For non- potable uses, like watering HARVESTING
landscapes, it is ready for use, as it falls from the Center of science for villages (CSV), Wardha
sky. For portable use, rainwater must be treated to has done various experiments for raising ground
remove diseases causing organisms. water level. Some of these experiments were found
very much successful. Details of these experiments
Advantages of Rainwater use are given in this paper.
Rainwater is quite pure source of water

*Senior Lecturer in Civil Engg., G. H. Raisoni College of Engineering, Nagpur e-mail : narendra_mk@hotmail.com
**Environmental Engineering Consultant, Nagpur

288
Typical Structure For Roof Top Rainwater pipes reclamping.
Harvesting System
Following steps were taken for installing a well 2. Recharging of Bore Wells by Roof Top Rain
designed roof top rain water harvesting system Water
· The slope of the roof was made appropriately In the second constructed block, all the outlets
and preferably towards the direction of storage and of roof top were connected using PVC pipes and
recharge. some masonry work on the top of roof. All the water
· Design of gutters and down pipes was suitably over roof is collected and allowed to flow to the
made according to site rain fall characteristics and bore well which is near by that building. Two bore
roof characteristics. wells in the campus were connected by the PVC
· First 2.5 mm rainwater was diverted by using pipes, Specially designed filter is attached at the
first rainwater separators. end of this pipeline near the bore well as shown in
· Water filters were then installed for trapping Figure 2. This filter prevented the entry of inorganic
solid organic / inorganic materials. The filtered / organic solids to enter into the borewell. An outlet
water was then either stored in ferrocement tank for periodic cleaning of this filter was also provided.
for future use or it was collected in sump for The total cost incurred for installation of pipes,
recharging the groundwater. fitting and for provision of copper plate filter was
Rs. 3700 /-. The operation and maintenance aspect
EXPERIMENTS DONE AT CSV CAMPUS is considered in this for periodic cleaning of copper
1. Collecting Roof Top Rain Water into the plate filter. After this rainwater harvesting it was
Tanks found that the borewell which was previously
yielding water water upto mid March have started
yielding upto the April end. The percentage increase
in the yield was 34%.

Precautions taken while using roof top rain

water
The roof terrace was always kept clean.
Regular maintenance schedule was strictly
followed. It was ensured that insecticides , rusting
irons, manures or detergents and such things were
not stored on the roof which will contaminate the
rainwater. Adequate overflow for storage system
was provided for unexpectedly heavy rains. Storage
system was prevented from pollution.
Fig. 1 Roof top rainwater collection
in ferrocement tank 3. Rainwater on Ground for Recharging of
Open Wells
A ferrocement tank of 1000 Liters capacity was Area near CSV campus has a huge catchment
installed near the office shed of 400 sq.ft. area and area. Water over this large catchment was made to
all roof top rain water was collected in the tank flow through the trunk drains and channels to meet
through suitable pipeline. This water was utilized the main cannels flowing by the sides of farms.
for various purposes when the scarcity of water All the ground water flowing over the ground
started in early summer. The expenditure of pipeline in the campus and near by farms, collected through
and ferrocement tank was approximately Rs. 2000 trunk and main channels was allowed to flow to
/- which has a pay-back period of 2 years if the open well. Before entering into the open well, the
supply of water in scarcity period is considered water was passed through the underground filters.
through tanker. Negligible operation and Two under ground filters to the both sides of the
maintenance cost is required for tank cleaning and well were constructed in following manner:

289
 Metallic filter is fixed slightly above in the inlet in upward direction
Fig. 2 : Bore well Recharging by Roof top rain water harvesting

• First two pits of 6ft wide and 6ft deep having should remain between the stones so that rain water
length slightly less than half the length of should pass through it.
circumference of the well were excavated. • When complete pit was filled with stones the
• The trench connecting wells and the pits top was covered with plastic. Excavated soil is
excavated were connected with a PVC pipe having spread over the plastic. A gate was also provided
6 inch. diameter. This pipe is kept 6 inch. above the for entry of rain water into the pit. Gates were
bottom of the pit. Same procedure was repeated provided in both the pits. Drains were excavated in
for another pit. the direction of the gate so that rain water falling
• Both the pits were filled with large size stones. on the ground would be collected by these drains
While filling the stones care was taken that the gap and would enter through gates and after filtration

Fig. 3 Recharging of Open well

through rainwater

290
this rain water would be collected in the open well. was proved useful. It was observed that the average
The total expenditure for pipes, excavation and yield of the borewells was increased by 34%.
filters provision was Rs. 15,000/-. Initially the borewells which yielded water upto mid
March, after recharging yielded upto April end.
4. Recharging of Bore Wells by Soak Pit • In the open well, the level of water first
Method increased by 3.2 m. Later it went down to effective
Roof top rain water was collected using PVC 1.8 m. This showed additional ground water
pipe line from the building unit No. 3 and allowed recharge through open well.
to soak in the soak pit constructed around the bore • The cost of these installations varied from Rs.
well a shown in the figure. The impurities, if present 1500 / to Rs. 15,000/- depending on the area covered
in water got trapped into the soil and boulders and and the other accessories such as filters installed.
the rainwater was then allowed to meet the Thus in a very considerably small amount rainwater
groundwater, thus recharging it. The expenditure for harvesting systems can be implemented.
this system was around Rs. 1500/- inclusive of
pipelines and construction of soak pit. CONCLUSIONS
It can be inferred that the methods
implemented by CSV Wardha really proved
beneficial for ground water recharging, from the
observations in increase in the yield of borewells
and open wells in small amount investment. Such
systems should be implemented at all possible
houses and campus. It is the duty of every individual
to conserve water, as it is rightly said that charity
begins at home.
“WASTE NOT THE SMALLEST THING CREATED
FOR GRAINS OF SAND MAKE MOUNTAIN
SAME IS WITH WATER,
FOR TOGETHER THEY CAN CREATE OCEAN.”

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Author is indebted to Dr. Sameer Kurve,
Director and the staff working at CSV, Wardha for
the opportunity to study the systems and for
providing the drawings and other related
information furnished herewith.

REFERENCES
Fig. 4
• Interim Report, Centre of Science for Villages,
Dattapur, Wardha., 2004
RESULTS • “Preparation of Compendium Document for
• The rainwater which was collected in Guidelines to Rain Water Harvesting Process
ferrocement tank of 1000 litres capacity can be through Literature and Field Study,” Project carried
utilized for washing at basins after a small out by A.S. Polytechnic students under the guidance
disinfection achieved through chlorination. It was of Dr. N. M. Kanhe, 2005 – 2006
really proved useful in the time of scarcity of water. • “Rainwater Harvesting Implementation,”
• The recharging of borewell through pipes and report by Er. Deepak Dhote, Maharashtra Jeevan
copper plate filter and also through soak pit method Pradhikaran, Wardha.

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 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

47. Roof –Top Rainwater Harvesting System

for Institutional Campus
*A. R. Tembhurkar **Anand Gharad ***Avinash. Powar
****Narendra Bhalerao ***** S. DurgaPrasad

Abstract :
Need for water conservation is deeply felt worldwide. Rooftop rainwater harvesting
system is looked upon as one of the most feasible and economical ways of water
conservation. With increasing problem of water scarcity, planning and designing rooftop
rainwater harvesting is gaining wider importance to meet ever-increasing water demand
and ground water depletion. It helps in recharging ground water and supplements the
water demand, encouraging use of water on more sustainable basis. The paper highlights
the case study wherein a rooftop rainwater harvesting system is planned and designed
for an institutional campus to cater additional water demand for gardening and
landscaping purpose and recharging the ground water with the excess amount of
rainwater harvested.

1. Introduction any rain. As a result of the seasonal nature of rain,

Water is our most precious natural resource India can make use of more than 20 percent of its
and the most essential element for human being’s potentially available fresh water resources. It is
prosperity and wealth. Indeed water is life itself. It reported that the per capita availability of renewable
is also the soul of all economic activity and fresh water in the country has fallen over last 50
development around the world. Earlier water was years. The water table is rapidly falling with
present in plenty and a demand was less, thus it unregulated, over-exploitation of groundwater.
was many times taken for granted that it is abundant. India’s ground water resources are almost ten times
However with rapid increase in industrialization and its annual rainfall. Like surface water, nearly 85
development, an acute scarcity of water is felt. percent of the ground water is used mainly for
Despite of the fact that water is scarce, it is still irrigation [6]. But most of the governments do not
being used recklessly further aggravating the water have adequate laws or regulations to protect their
scarcity problem. A large amount of water is being water systems.
used in agriculture, industries and urban areas[3,4]. It is, therefore, necessary that the country
In most of the developing countries the fresh must have a clear-cut water management policy for
water supply comes in the form of seasonal rains. the next 50 years[2]. Rainwater harvesting which is
Such rains do not provide enough of time for being practiced for several years should again be
efficient use during the monsoon. India, for instance, reinvented to solve the problem of water scarcity.
gets 90 percent of its rainfall during the summer A holistic, conjunctive and integrated approach
monsoon season, which lasts from June to should be adopted towards water management
September. For the rest of the months there is hardly policies. In urban areas the roof top rainwater

* Senior Lecturer in Civil Engg., Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology (VNIT), Nagpur
** Project Engineer (Civil), Hindalco Industries Ltd. Muri, Ranchi
*** Assistant Engineer (Construction), APSL, Champa, Chattisgharh
**** Software Engineer, Satyam Computer Service ltd., Secunderabad
***** PG Student, IIT, Madras

292
harvesting should be encouraged to meet the ever- 8. The basic elements of rooftop rainwater
increasing water demand and recharging harvesting system were designed.
groundwater[1].
VNIT campus is found to be having sufficient 3. Present Status of Water Usage for Gardening
number of potential rooftop catchments where Purpose in the Campus
harvesting can be suitably done. Moreover, in the 3.1 Study Area The Visvesvaraya National Institute
recent years, additional water demand for lawns and of Technology, Nagpur (VNIT) Nagpur is one of
gardening has also increased which is currently met the first six Regional Engineering Colleges
through pumping from bore wells causing loss of established under the scheme sponsored by
energy, money and valuable resource. Against this Government of India. VNIT is uniquely placed to
backdrop it is felt to plan and design a roof top contribute significantly to the quality of technical
rainwater harvesting system, mainly to satisfy the manpower to maintain and enhance the
additional water demand for watering lawns and technological pre-eminence of the state. VNIT has
gardens. It is also envisaged to use the excess a beautiful green campus of about 233.5 acres near
rainwater harvested to recharge ground water, Ambazari Dam. The infrastructure on the campus
supplement the existing water supply whenever includes the departments & laboratories buildings,
required and meticulously use water on more hostels, residential accommodation for teaching &
sustainable basis. non-teaching staff and other amenities (Figure 1).
The present landuse pattern on the campus is as
2. Methodology Adopted for Planning and shown in Figure 2. There are good numbers of roofs
Designing of Roof Top Rainwater Harvesting which has a potential of rainwater harvesting.
System The climate of Nagpur City is extreme in all
The following method was adopted to plan the three seasons. According to the past 20 years
and design a roof top rainwater harvesting system data obtained from the Meteorological department
for the campus: Nagpur, the annual rainfall ranges from 814.6mm
1. Study area was identified and data was (min) to 1753.6 mm (max). The intensity of rainfall
collected on infrastructure, existing population and is high during the rainy season months of June to
probable expansion on the campus from the Civil September and at the same time it rains continuously
Maintenance Department of the Institute and rainfall for 1 to 2 days duration. The highest average rainfall
data for previous 20 years was collected from the is 352 mm in the month of July at its peak is in the
metrological Department, Nagpur. month July end and August. The severe rains of
2. Site survey was done to identify the potential continuous duration for 1 to 2 days are observed in
roof top catchments areas the month of August.
3. Measurement of roof top catchments areas
and location of rain water pipes were done 3.2 Existing Water Demand
4. The potential rainwater quantity to be Presently the water is supplied through
harvested was estimated. corporation main water supply mains. Water is first
5. Existing and the proposed water demand for received in big sump near professor’s quarter and
gardening purpose was estimated by measuring area is then pumped two times in the morning and
of existing gardens and lawns by actual evening. About 450000 to 500000 liters/day of water
measurements in the field and area of the proposed through Municipal Corporation pipe connection is
gardens and lawns with the help of electronic supplied to the campus for residential demand and
planimeter from the plan. institutional demand. The additional domestic water
6. Assessment of the quality of rainwater requirement whenever required as well as water for
harvested was done based on the analysis of lawns and gardens is supplied through nine dug
rainwater from four select sampling stations wells and three bore wells on the campus, which
7. Integral planning of rooftop rainwater amounts to about 24% total water usage. The
harvesting system for watering for gardening and existing water usage from various sources is given
landscaping on entire VNIT campus was done. in Figure 3.

293
4. Planning and Designing of Rooftop Four major zones viz I, II, III, IV were identified
Rainwater Harvesting System and a storage tank for each zone was designed to
A rooftop rainwater harvesting system was supply water for gardening of specified lawns in
planned and designed considering a design period their respective zones. The capacity of the storage
of 30 years. This system was designed only from tank was calculated considering maximum deficit
academic point of view. The amount of rainwater condition which mainly prevails in summer season.
to be harvested from the rooftop catchments area It is decided to use the excess water than designed
identified is calculated by multiplying the measured volume for recharging ground water through the
rooftop area by runoff coefficient and the average existing abandoned wells. Filters are designed
intensity of rainfall. The runoff coefficient of the having filter sand depth of 40cms and gravel of
slab roof was taken as 0.9 where as for sloping roof 25cms for the excess rain water and provided before
with asbestos sheets as 0.75. The average intensity discharging into the abandoned well to recharge the
of rainfall for estimation was taken as the mean ground. The amount of harvested rainwater
value of the intensity of the rainfall in the last 20 contributing to each storage tank and its water
years data, which works out to be 1122.96 mm. The demand for gardening and lawns estimated
estimated rooftop rainwater yield from all potential alongwith the dimensions of the designed storage
rooftop identified on the campus is 38285.52 m3. tanks and filters are given in Table 2.
The amount of potential rooftop rainwater harvested
is found to be quite high. However in the present 5. Conclusions
study, only partial rainwater quantity was considered The campus has huge potential of roof top rain water
during planning and designing of rooftop rainwater harvesting. The present designed roof top harvesting
harvesting system. system, would meet fully the additional water
The rainwater quality was determined by demand for lawns and gardens. An integrated system
analyzing the water quality parameters using the using full potential of the rooftop rainwater can also
procedures recommended for analysis of water in supplement the existing water supply and help in
Standard Methods of Examination of Water and recharging the ground water. Institutions should be
Waste Water. The range of values of different encouraged to practice rooftop rainwater harvesting
parameter of water quality is given in Table 1. The on their campus which would promote self-
rain water quality was found to be slightly acidic sufficiency and helping to foster an appreciation for
with values ranging from 5.77 to 6.83 whereas little this essential and precious resource.
amount of alkalinity was also present. The hardness
of the rainwater was very less in the range of 28.45 References
mg/l to 30.64 mg/l indicating that the water is soft. 1. A.G.Bhole (2002), ‘ Rainwater Harvesting in Urban
MPN value was observed in samples from two Areas”, Workshop on “ Rainwater Harvesting in Urban
sampling station indicate bacterial contamination Areas” at Institution of Engineers (India) Nagpur local
perhaps, the rooftop runoff got contaminated with centre 0n 26th Oct. 2002, Pg. 9
2. Central Ground Water Board, Ministry of Water
the bird dropping, decaying leaves etc. at roof top.
Resourcees (2000), “ RainWater Harvesting and Ground
Based on the above, in the present study only Water Recharge” ‘The Hitvada’ 23rd May 2000
few potential rooftops from each zone was selected 3. C.D.Thatte(1994), “ Matching Water Supply with
based on their location, for design of rainwater Growing Demands” IWWA , Vol XXVI (02), 67- 72
harvesting system, for satisfying the water demand 4. K.Balachandra Kurip (1994), “ Community Managed
for lawns and gardening purpose for all the seasons. Traditional Water supply System in Rural South India”
The water demand for gardening and lawns were IWWA Vol XXXI (03), 1-12
estimated by multiplying the area of lawns and 5. S.K.Jain, S.S.Hastak, R.D.Jadhav (2002), “Rainwater
garden with normal water requirement of 1.5 inches Gardening in Public Gardens in Nagpur City” Workshop
per week. A 33% increased water requirement is on “ Rainwater Harvesting in Urban Areas” at Institution
of Engineers (India) Nagpur local centre 0n 26th Oct.
considered in the summer months of April and May
2002, Pg. 3
and half of the normal water requirement is 6. www.rainwaterharvesting.org 7. www.sustainable.com
considered in the month of June and September. 8. www.unep.org 9. www.geocities.com

294
 Figure 1 Layout Plan for VNIT Campus, Nagpur

Figure 2 Figure 3
Landuse Pattern in the Campus Existing Water Demand
Satisfied by Various Sources
87% - Open Space Area

4.67% –Area of Road 1.16% - Area of Hostels

3.36% – Residential Area 0.67% - Area of Lawns and Gardens
2.60% - Area of Departments 0.54% - Area of Other Amenities

295
 Table 1
Quality of Rainwater Harvested

Sr. No. Parameters Value (Range)

1 pH 5.77 – 6.83
2 Turbidity, NTU 14 - 27
2 Alkalinity, mg/l 52 – 180
3 Chlorides, mg/l 10 – 11
4 Total Hardness, mg/l 28.46 – 30.64
5 Calcium Hardness, mg/l 21.42 – 22.6
6 BOD, mg/l 7.1 – 23.5
7 MPN 0 – 23

Table 2
Design Details of Components of Roof top Rainwater Harvesting System

Zone Cumulative Cumulative Volume of Dimensions Dimensions

rooftop Water Demand Water Storage of Storage of Filter
Rainwater for Gardening Required Tank (m) Units (m)
Yield (m3) & Lawns (m3) (m3)

I 3771 1575 680 17.1x11.4x3.5 2.8x2.2x1.25

II 7570 2105 747 18.0x12.0x3.5 4.0x3.1x1.25

III 967 434 192 9.8x6.5x3.0 2.9x2.2x1.25

IV 3941 525 54 5.2x3.5x3.0 1.4x1.1x1.25

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 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

48. Rain Water Harvesting

A Solution To Water Scarcity For Narkhed Town
*H. C. Landge **V. V. Bannore ***Y. B. Katpatal

ABSTRACT
Drinking water is the basic need of the human being. It can be made available either from
ground water or from surface water resources available in rivers, dams and tanks. For villages
and small towns, generally ground water is drawn for drinking and other purposes. Continuous
withdrawal of ground water results in substantial depletion of ground water available in aquifers.
Therefore the need of the hour is to replenish the depleted aquifers by arresting surface runoff
in monsoon and allow it to percolate to the thirsty aquifers.
On the onset of the new Millennium the Government of India and almost all the State
Governments have geared up to face the grave situation that has cropped up and further going
to deteriorate in respect of water supplies for various reasons. The ensuing 2 or 3 decades will
be the tough days of water supply engineers. The present situation of water is alarming and
unless serious steps are taken, the next war will not be for power, territory, but for water.
In context of above, the live example of Narkhed town depicts a situation where ground
water is wildly consumed by human beings. This situation is not only in Nagpur district but on
all over the country. Narkhed town is located on Nagpur Delhi Railway line at about 90 Km
from Nagpur and is a well known marketing centre of oranges. It is surrounded by orange
orchards. The town was facing acute water scarcity in year 2001 due to scanty rainfall and the
problem is solved to some extent by adopting rain water harvesting. This paper describes a
success story of rain water harvesting.

HISTORY OF WATER SUPPLY STATUS requirement of the town. GSDA has undertaken
The population of Narkhed town in 1991as per hydro geological survey of this town and
census was 19669 souls. The water supply scheme surrounding area in year 1974-75 which revealed
was executed by Maharashtra Jeevan Pradhikaran feasibility of bore well sites on the bank of adjacent
(MJP) in 1979 with one supply well on the bank of Madar River and Khadki Nallah. These bore wells
Khadki Nallah, one tube well and two bore wells, were high yielding with yield ranging 30000 liters /
as source. This scheme was designed to provide 70 hour to 60000 liters / hours.
litre per capita / day water upto year 2006. As time passed, due to heavy withdrawal of
After few years of commissioning of water water from these high yielding bore wells within
supply scheme, the source i.e. supply well was town and nearby vicinity for drinking as well as
observed to be insufficient to meet the designed irrigational and Horticultural purposes, the
requirement. Thereafter as per Ground Water Survey underground water storage in aquifers substantially
and Development Agency’s (GSDA) reduced, and as a result, the high yielding bore wells
recommendations, bore wells were taken on every become non-yielding, and this area was declared to
or alternate years to meet the balance water be in “Dark Watershed”

*Chief Engineer, Maharashtra Jeevan Pradhikaran Nagpur Region, Nagpur

**Sub Divisional Engineer, Maharashtra Jeevan Pradhikaran Sub Division , Narkhed.
***Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, VNIT, Nagpur.

297
 In the year 1996 GSDA suggested to take which improved to 24 in Dec. 2001 after the monsoon
surface water as a source for Narkhed town as a as shown in figure 1.
permanent solution. Based on GSDA’s new Looking at forthcoming summer 2002, it was
recommendations MJP prepared a scheme costing found necessary to implement an interim water
Rs. 23.00 crores and Govt. of Maharashtra (GOM) supply scheme, which could provide sufficient water
approved the same in July 1998. But because of to Narkhed town for near future years, and get the
multiple constraints, the scheme couldn’t be taken scheme executed before March 2002.
for execution. By this time Narkhed town was
getting water supply 40 to 50 Lpcd from various PHYSIOGRAPHY AND DRAINAGE
sources and depending on rainfall, the town started The town falls in the water shed no. WRJ-I a
facing problems in summer. part of Wardha Jam Sub Basin and it is situated on
In year 1999 there was excellent rainfall (see NW part of Nagpur District. The Narkhed town
Rainfall Data) of 1237.80 mm, but monsoon in the forms a part of the mini water shed WRJ- I, (3/5).
year 2000 and 2001 was very less. During this This mini water shed falls in survey of India
monsoon the rainfall was 537.6 mm and 549 mm toposheet No. 55 K/II. The geographical area of the
respectively. The Scanty rains in two consecutive mini water shed is 31.09 sq. km. The other villages
years resulted in acute water scarcity in Narkhed which are included in this water shed are Mohadi
Town. All the private wells near Narkhed town were (Dalvi), Palasgaon, Bramni and Sardi. The area is
acquired for drinking water supply. In October 2001 moderately to gently sloping. General slope of the
i.e. immediately after monsoon, due to continuous area is towards south west, which is the direction of
withdrawal of ground water 25 bore wells out of 31 principal slope. The major river i.e. Madar river and
bore wells went dry. The total quantity of water its tributaries flow from North to Southwest
supplied to Narkhed town in June and December direction and drain out the area to the maximum
2001 through various sources are given in Table 3. extent.
The per capita supply in June 2001 was only 13

Figure 1: Period wise water supply scenario

NARKHED TOWN WATER SUPPLY SCHEME, DIST- NAGPUR

1766470 LITERS
70.66 L.P.C.D.
1800000
1562500 LITERS
1496400 LITERS
64 L.P.C.D.
1600000 60 L.P.C.D.
1380990 LITERS
55 L.P.C.D.
1400000

1200000 855000 LITERS

981400 LITERS
39 L.P.C.D. 34 L.P.C.D.
1000000 860900 LITERS
813030 LITERS 792000 LITERS 35 L.P.C.D.
32 L.P.C.D. 32 L.P.C.D.
800000 610960 LITERS
24 L.P.C.D.
600000
327680 LITERS
400000 13 L.P.C.D.

LITERS
200000

0
JUNE-2001 DEC-2001 JUNE-2002 DEC-2002 JUNE-2003 DEC-2003 JUNE-2004 DEC-2004 JUNE-2005 DEC-2005 JUNE-2006

PERIOD

298
GEOLOGY OF THE AREA and moderately to highly fractured basalt is found
The geophysical investigations of the water which is most significant from water storage point
shed area WRJ-I (3/5) carried out by GSDA are of view. The depth of this layer varies from 20 m to
worth mentioning. The composition of surface and 43 m as shown in figure 2. Lastly alternate layers of
the strata below earth surface can be depicted from hard massive basalt fractured in same area and
these investigations. The top most soil layer is about fractured basalt below it, are found. The fourth layer
1.0 m to 1.2 m. The second zone consists moderately of fractured rock ( basalt) is the one where the huge
to highly weathered basalt, the depth of which is 2 storage of water can be done successfully by storing
to 3m followed by a third layer of hard compact water in check dams and letting it seep through
massive basalt, the depth of which is widely varying recharge structures. Type and depth of strata at
from 1.50 m to 16 m . Under this third layer of salient locations are given in Table I.
massive basalt, the fourth layer of weathered basalt

TABLE 1 : Table showing the type and depth of the strata

299
 Water column
1.5 to 2.5m

Soil layer 1 to
1.2m
Perforated
pipe casing
of 3m length
and Highly
200mmdia weathered rock
2 to 3m

Bore well Hard compact

of massive basalt
200mm 1.5 to 16m
dia 30 to
35m deep

weathered
basalt
moderately
to highly
fractured
20 to 43m

Figure 2 : C/S of the recharge bore well on the upstream side of the Check-dam

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 Table 2: RAINFALL DATA OF NARKHED

THE INTERIM SCHEME machineries and works related to recharging of water

The MJP and the GSDA, the agencies of GOM into aquifers through filters
responsible for investigation, planning and This scheme was taken for execution in Dec.
execution of water supply schemes, had jointly 2001 and was partly commissioned in April 2002.
undertaken the work of investigation of sources to The partial commissioning provided 4.00 lakh litres
provide immediate relief to residents of Narkhed. water in addition to original 3.88 litres being
Sites for construction of weirs to arrest flowing rain provided before commissioning. With this the per
water in Madar River and Khadki Nallah and to capita water supply increased from 16 litres to 32
construct recharge structures to fill the arrested water litres and the citizens of Narkhed town were relieved
into thirsty aquifers were finalized. from water scarcity, to some extent.
The hydrogeological survey was carried out By the time of commencement of Monsoon
and accordingly bore well sites were finalized at nine 2002, weir on Khadki Nallah was completed and
places and sites for weir one each at Madar River was ready for harvesting rainwater. The arrested
and Khadki Nallah were selected. Based on this, water was let in into the hungry aquifer with the use
the interim scheme costing Rs. 110.00 lakh was of dried bore well located on the bed of Khadki
prepared and was sanctioned by GOM in Nov. 2001. Nallah, upstream of weir. The dried bore was
This scheme consists of construction of two supply modified by replacing its top casing pipe of three
wells, two check dams, bore wells, pipelines to meter with perforated pipe and was surrounded by
transmit water to existing reservoirs, Pumping filter media. In monsoon 2002 and in post monsoon

301
period, a huge amount of water (i.e. 172 ML) was CONCLUSIONS
refilled to replenish the aquifer due to which the dried It may be concluded after the observations
bore well located by the side of Khadki Nallah and made at Narkhed that Rain water Harvesting and its
Pimpalgaon village started yielding. It is worth while usage for recharging has resulted in increase in the
to mention that this area was mainly responsible for aquifers storage and Narkhed town is getting its
providing drinking water to Narkhed town and benefit. It may be emphasized here that wherever a
because of this replenishment only, in the year 2002 part of water supply scheme is planned based on
Narkhed town could get sufficient water from bore ground water as source, it is very significant and
wells of this area. important to take measures for conservation and
Before monsoon 2003, the weir across Madar recharge of ground water with the help of rain water
River near Ramana was ready for similar purpose. harvesting.
In monsoon 2003 and post monsoon period of 2003,
a total quantity of 235 ML of water from both the REFERENCES
weir site was refilled to replenish aquifers. Looking • Brown, F.F., and D.C.Signor, Ground water
to the advantage of rain water harvesting in the year recharge, Water resources bull., v.8, pp152-160,
2003, the GSDA has suggested to construct one more 1974
recharging structure across Kamal Nalla in Ramana • Bouwer, H., 1989, System for artificial
Area. recharge of ground water, International workshop
The work of this weir & two recharging bores on appropriate methodology for development and
on upstream side were completed in the November management of ground water resources in
2003 & were kept ready to arrest water of monsoon developing countries, organized by national geo-
2004. physical Research institute, Hyderabad, pp. 315-324.
In monsoon 2004 and 2005 and post monsoon • Dept.Econ. and Social Affairs, Ground water
period of 2004 and 2005 a total quantity 325 ML of storage and artificial recharge. Natural resources/
water from three weir site was refilled to replenish water ser. 2, United Nations, New York, 270pp. 1975.
aquifers, in the above years. This quantity of water,
after the losses and other usage, is made available
to the town for drinking purpose. The total quantity
of water supply to Narkhed town in Dec. and June
from 2001 to June 2006 is given in Table 3.
Thus considering rate of supply as 50 Lpcd and
the present population 25,000 souls, the demand of
the town for water can be fulfilled without any
additional expenditure for about 3 months (till
March). The rainwater harvesting and recharging
measures taken up as above in year 2002 resulted
as a boon for meeting water demand of Narkhed
and Municipal Council did not require any extra
efforts for the same.

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 Table No. 3 : Narkhed town water supply status – Statement showing the quantity of water supplied to Narkhed Town in the month of
June & December from year 2001-2006 and present position on 11.7.2006

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 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

49. Planning Rain Water Harvesting System For

Nirma University Campus
*Anurag Singh *Aasim Mansuri *Dhaval Panchal
*Dhaval Shah *A. K. Singh *S. S. Kolte

Abstract
There has been acute scarcity of fresh water in Gujarat, this can attributed
to change in urban living standards leading towards higher and higher consumption
pattern. Due to over exploitation of groundwater, the water table has reached to
alarming depth in deep aquifers that necessitates other major concern. The annual
rainfall distribution has been erratic and inconsistent for dry regions during last
century. Above problems may lead to limited dependence on surface and sub-surface
water for domestic consumption in future, but alternative water sources are to be
explored to attain uninterrupted supply. The possible solution to alternative water
source can be explored through rainwater harvesting. Rainwater harvesting refers
to collection and storage of rainwater for immediate use. The rainwater can be
used directly for many purposes rather then letting it flow in the drainage in case of
urban areas and can also be used for various industrial purposes. There have been
several successful examples on rainwater harvesting from urban areas to rural water
supply schemes. Rainwater harvesting offers major benefits such as (i) reduced
dependency on external water supply source, (ii) consistent and
uninterrupted supply, (iii) maintaining groundwater level in the locality. Vikram
Sarabhai Institute of Development Interaction (VIKSAT) Ahmedabad has successfully
implemented several rainwater harvesting systems like Gujarat Jal Sewa Training
Institute Gandhinagar, groundwater recharge structures for village Sargasan that
has solved many water woes of the village.
This paper attempts to find the potential of rainwater harvesting for an
institutional building of Nirma University campus in Ahmedabad. During monsoon
rainfall, the rainwater accumulates on several locations and ultimately drains out
without benefit. The stored rainwater through this study can find many useful
applications such as toilet flushing, gardening, and groundwater recharge wells.
The system can also be used to meet the demand supply gap by providing clean
drinking water facility and ease out our dependence on public water supply. The
detailed design and cost aspects are broadly covered in the full length paper.

*Graduate students and Assistant Professors, Civil Engineering Department, Institute of Technology, Nirma
University Ahmedabad-382481
(#corresponding authors: E-mail. anurag1720@yahoo.com or anupam.singh@gmx.net Fax. 02717.241917

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 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

50. Rainwater Harvesting in North West Indian Himalayas : A review

* Dr. Ritesh Arya

Abstract :
Lots have been said and written about rainwater harvesting in the peninsular
and Indo-Gangetic plains of the Indian subcontinent and the technique has really
helped it recharging of groundwater resources in many parts.
The present paper however contradicts the basic concept of rainwater
harvesting and its utilisation in the North West Indian Himalayan regions because
of obvious reasons.
Water in mountain regions is generally required in the month of March to
June in the Lesser Himalayan region (before the monsoons) but rains are not
available at that point of time and in December to March in Higher Himalayan
regions, Ladakh which are devoid of any rainwater throughout the year.
In Lesser Himalayan regions when rain falls on the steep slopes it causes
flooding and silting of check dams which were initially meant to store the proposed
rainwater resources in the lower reaches. General geomorphology and geology of
the area also makes this rainwater harvesting concept more harmful rather then
helpful in the hill states. These proposed check dams become potential threat to the
underlying villages once they are flooded mostly with silt and garbage dumps/ fecal
contaminants from the upland sources. These tanks break/leak once they are not
able to withstand the hydrostatic pressure and cause unnatural disaster downstream.
Therefore basic concept of rainwater harvesting looses its real significance in the
hills. Moreover unscientific recharge of the groundwater using rainwater may lead
to polluting of our natural resources both land and water.
Main emphasis in the hills to solve the water problem should be to tap
groundwater resources which has been a neglected field in the past and still is an
undiscovered and unutilized mineral resource of the hill states in the region. Our
studies in the area for the past 15 years have clearly shown that groundwater holds
the key to solve the water problem of the region on economical and sustainable
basis.
However in the Changer belts located in the foothills of the Shiwalik
hills, the rain water concept has really changed the socio economic status of the
people.

168 Arath Bazar Kasauli 173204 Himachal Pradesh

E-mail : aryadrillers@yahoo.com Mobile : 09417040106

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 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

51. Rainwater Harvesting In Hostels 12 and 13 Of IIT Bombay

* R. Reddy *A . K. Rastogi

Abstract
Growth in almost all the sectors (industrial, agricultural and
municipal) have put an increasing pressure on the limited freshwater
resources. Conventional projects such as damming rivers and water
transport to urban areas have several environmental problems. Rain water
conservation is cost effective, relatively easier to carry out and is useful
in managing our limited resources. It can be practiced either through
aquifer recharge or through storage in depression and ponds. In this
paper technical aspects of the proposed roof water harvesting for the
hostels 12-13 at IIT Bombay have been considered. Paper examines
various components and especially design aspects of roof water
harvesting technologies including their effectiveness. Various design
considerations for calculating volume of tank have been discussed and
the most appropriate method is used for the estimation of volume in the
present case. Available commercial products are compared with innovative
simple technologies with an emphasis on cost efficient alternatives.

Keywords : estimation of tank capacity, components of roof water system,

underground RCC tanks, first flush mechanism, gutters for conveyance,
Ferro cement tanks.

Department of Civil Engineering, I I T Bombay, Powai, Mumbai

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 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

52. Rain Water Harvesting (RWH) in Rural Area A “Case Study”

*Dr. Syed Ariff **N. Lakshmipathy

Abstract
Rainwater harvesting will make an important contribution to resolving water shortages
in the future. For at least three millennia, people across the world have harvested rainwater
for household, livestock and agricultural uses, but rainwater harvesting has become more
and more neglected since the advent of large centralized water supply systems, in spite of
their high-energy input and serious environmental problems.
Rain Water Harvesting is a way to collect or capture the rainwater when it rains, store that
water above ground which will also increases the water level in the ground or charge the
underground such as sumps, tanks and wells which is used it later. This happens naturally
in open rural areas.
The first step in designing a rainwater-harvesting scheme is a preliminary feasibility
study, which involves site visit and inspection.
The study includes
• Site Condition
• Rainwater incident on site
• Quantum of harvestable rainwater
• Consumption pattern
• Evaluate existing water supply assets
• Best means to conserve water
In view of this, a village by name peddapalli- kothur village, peddapalli post, K.G.F-
563121. Was selected for the said Rain Water Harvesting project. Approximately
300+families are residing surrounding the village. The present water resource are not
sufficient for various purposes as for our survey, therefore we felt necessary to carry out a
Rain Water Harvesting program for the village through NSS volunteers of Golden Valley
Institute of Technology (G.V.I.T), Oorgaum post, K.G.F-563120. Camp by adopting various
cost effective methods as a case study .This program has helped the village people to
overcome the shortage of water for both drinking and irrigation purposes. We believe that
rainwater has to go in alliance with river and groundwater as equivalent freshwater
resources.

*Prof. In Dept of Mining Engineering, G. V.I.T, Smith Road, Oorgaum post, K.G.F-563120.
Office phone no: 08153-261219 Ext-110, E-mail: sariff_ariff@yahoo.com
**[National Service Scheme (NSS) Program Officer], Senior Lecturer, Dept of E&E Engineering,
G.V.I.T, Smith Road, Oorgaum post, K.G.F-563120.
Office Ph.08153-261219 Residency Ph. 08153-261589 Mobile ph. 09448962313.
E-mail: nlpj_lakshmipathy@yahoo.co.in, nlpj_lakshmipathy@rediff mail.com

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 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

53. Environmental Impacts in Utilising Rainwater

*K. S. Patel *Saro] Sharma

Now days, in some location rainwater are polluted due to rapid

industrialization and urbanization in unsusceptible ways. The impurities include
both biological and chemical pollutants. Rainwater quality varies for a number
of reasons. Particularly during the last three decades, “acid rain” has affected
the quality of the collected water. A number of collected rainwater samples have
exceeded the WHO values in terms of total coliform and faecal coliform. In
addition, high heavy metal values can sometimes be attributed to the composition
of certain roofing materials - thus it is recommended that for roof water collection
systems, the type of roofing material should be carefully considered. The
environmental impacts (i.e. health, climate change, etc.) in utilizing rainwater,
sources of pollutants and their remediation are discussed.

*School of Studies in Chemistry, Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University, Raipur-492010, CG,

E-Mail: patelks55@hotmail.com

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 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

54. Rain Water Harvesting : Imperative to Surmount the Critical

Hydrogeological Condition tn Urban Area of Balasore, Orissa, India
*Shreerup Goswami **Saumyasree Pradhan

Abstract
The groundwater boom is turning to bust. Balasore (21° 30’08" N; 86° 55' 21") is one
of the most populated, industrial town of Orissa State. This eastern coastal town is located
about 11 km onshore from the Bay of Bengal. It occupies an area of over 19.43 sq km within
the Balasore District. Though the township isicm the bank of the Budhabalanga River, the
total water supply for its entire population 1.28 lakhs is managed through groundwater by
Balasore Municipal authority.
Therefore high discharge production tube wells have been constructed for this purpose.
There are few aquifers (2-5) encountered at different places in the subsurface up to a depth
of 100m with a total thickness ranging between 12-42 m. The hydraulic conductivity of
aquifers ranges from 8.7 m/day to 47m/day. The average gradient of phreatic water table
is 1.20m/km. Total domestic water supply in the town by means of deep tube wells (44 nos.)
has been estimated to be 17.85 MIX) (Brahma, 2005). Moreover, a number of industries
such as Birla Tyres, Polar Latex, Emami Paper Mill, Ispat alloy, Oriplast etc. along with
few small scale, cottage industries depend solely on ground water for their use. There is no
major irrigation project in this district. The nearby agricultural lands are irrigated
exclusively by groundwater. Such heavy withdrawal of groundwater by accentuated pumping
of a large number deep tube wells causes critical hydrogeological conditions in Balasore
urban area. As a result a ground water trough with lowest elevation of -1m from the mean
sea level has been formed. This trough, along with reversal of natural hydraulic gradient,
defunctness of deep tube wells, diminishing yields of deeper aquifers and unproductive
nature of shallow aquifer (Brahma, 2005) causes cumulative environmental impact on the
ground water regime. The problem is further aggravated due to the presence of unproductive
finer elastics below 100m depth of the said area.
The only solution to this acute and delicate problem is rain water harvesting, a
old technology of this area gaining popularity in a new way i.e. the principle of
collecting and using rain water from a catchments surface. A few years back, Balasore
had highest number of ponds and was an industry less district of the state. Due to
rapid urbanization and industrialization the number of such catchments surface has
lessened and infiltration of rainwater into the sub-soil has decreased drastically. The
old existing water bodies (ponds) have been dried up and reclaimed for the construction

*Department of Environmental Sciences, Fakir Mohan University, Vyasa Vihar, Balasore-756019 (Orissa), India
**Department of Bioscience & Biotechnology, Fakir Mohan University, Vyasa Vihar, Balasore-756019 (Orissa),
India
309
and industrial activity. As a result recharging of groundwater has diminished. Hence
the administrators, public, NGOs should be aware of various techniques of storage of
rain water on surface (in structures like underground tanks, ponds, check dams, weirs)
for future use and their recharge to ground water by constructing the structures like
recharge pits, trenches, recharge wells and shafts etc. The existing hand pumps and
dug wells of Balasore urban area can be utilized for recharging the shallow and
deeper aquifers by putting the water into them. However, before diverting the water
into dug wells and hand pumps, the water should be passed through filter media.
Though, the number of ponds has been reduced a lot in last few years, there are still
few water bodies (Known as pokhari) in the Balasore urban area. They are Golapokhari
near Balasore Municipality, Bhimpura Pokhari in Bhimpura Gaon, Mirza Pokhari in
Gopal Gaon, Jhadeswar Pokhari near Jhadeswar temple, Sunhat Chandan Pokhari,
Mathsahi Chandan Pokhari, Gadgadia Pokhari near Gadgadia square, Darji Pokhari
in Rani Patna, Chandra Gadia in Azimabad, Santikanan Pokhari in Mallikasrjpur;
Nua Pokhri near Jail Road, Sahadevkhunta Chandan Pokhari, Balia Phokhari etc. Free
flow rainwater run off must be diverted into these nearest water bodies and depressions by
the Municipal Authority and other agencies, which will certainly create additional recharge.
In Balasore, where rainfall is throughout the year barring a few dry periods, so public can
depend on a small sized tank for storing rainwater, since the period between two spells of
rain is short. Moreover, methods like water spreading, rooftop collection, and roadtop
collection of rainwater should be carried out to save Balasore form acute problems arising
due to over exploitation of ground water. Thus the discussed artificial recharge in Balasore
area can improve infiltration and reduction in run-off, as a result groundwater levels and
yields can be improved. Thus it can reduce strain on Municipal water supply and can
improve the ground water quality. Therefore harvesting rainwater is a common responsibility
of Balasore public, administrators, different institutions and NGOs for harnessing and
sustaining the comfy life as it will provide drinking water, domestic water, water for livestock,
water for small irrigation, a way to replenish ground water levels and a way to arrest sea
water intrusion in this coastal area. As individuals, groups, and community, let us wake up
before it is too late and not only understand what rainwater harvesting is all about but also
implement measures to harvest rainwater in our houses, complexes and put it into the soil
for our subsequent use.

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55. Scope for Rainwater Harvesting in Nagpur City

*P. K. Jain **P. K. Naik

ABSTRACT
Nâgpur is the largest city in central India and the third largest city in the western
State of Maharashtra after Mumbai and Pune. With a population of 2.1 million (2001
Census) and an area of 217.53 km2, Nagpur is the nation’s 13th largest urban
conglomeration and 114th largest city in the world (143rd largest urban area in 2006
in terms of population). The city receives a supply of 256 million litres per day (mld)
of surface water, but the net supply available to the consumers is about 130 mld after
accounting for distribution losses, especially due to pipeline leakages and non-
domestic bulk supplies. Against a demand of 135 litres per capita per day (lpcd) as
per the norm prescribed by the Central Public Health and Environmental Engineering
Organization (CPHEEO), the city dwellers in average receive an amount of 77 lpcd,
which is about half of the prescribed norm. Therefore, most of the households resort
to ground water pumpages as an alternative source of water supply.
Certain areas of Nagpur city face water scarcity even during the winter, and the
problem aggravates when the existing ground water structures, such as dugwells and
borewells, which normally caters to the demand, get dry due to low monsoon recharge.
The recent spurt of constructional activities and expansion of roads throughout Nagpur
city has drastically reduced the area facilitating ground water recharge from rainfall
infiltration. The quality of ground water is also fast deteriorating due to urbanization
impacts and public apathy towards this great resource. Remedial measures are thus
essentially necessary to improve the ground water supply scenario. Harvesting
rainwater and surface runoff seems to be a viable option. With an average annual
rainfall of 1242.2 mm and roof area of 20.51 km2, the volume of water generated on
roof tops of the city is estimated at 25.5 million m3 (MCM). Accounting for about 10%
losses, the total volume of rainwater available to the city is estimated at about 23
MCM. However, very little attempt has been made so far to tap this vast resource. The
present paper briefly describes the scope of rainwater harvesting in Nagpur city and
suggest remedial measures.

*Central Ground Water Board, West Central Region, Narain College Building, Shah Alam Tolnaka, Ahmedabad- 22
**Central Ground Water Board, Central Region, N.S. Building, Civil Lines, Nagpur – 440 001. Ph. 9423106185.
Email. pradeep.naik@water.net.in.

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56. Conjunctive Water Management - Sustainable approaches

to Integrated Water Management
*R.V.R. K. Prasad *Valsson Varghese *A. M. Badar *D. P. Singh

Introduction of water users to manage an immediate situation, it

Using Groundwater and Surface Water Together is also possible for conjunctive use to unintentionally
Surface water and groundwater typically have harm the groundwater basin and other groundwater
a natural hydrologic connection. Conjunctive water users who are not involved in conjunctive use but
use is an approach that recognizes this connection are reliant on the same groundwater basin. An
and tries to utilize it to use the overall water supply alternative to conjunctive water use is conjunctive
more efficiently. Some view groundwater use by water management. The difference between the two
individuals to supplement limited surface water is more than semantics. Conjunctive water
supplies as conjunctive water use. Others envision management engages the principles of conjunctive
conjunctive water use as large, elaborate regional water use, where surface water and groundwater are
water management programs that store large used in combination to improve water availability
volumes of surface water below ground during and reliability. But, it also includes important
normal and high rainfall years and then pump large components of groundwater management such as
volumes of groundwater from storage during monitoring, evaluation of monitoring data to develop
drought years. Fundamentally, both examples local management objectives, and use of monitoring
illustrate conjunctive water use even though they data to establish and enforce local management
differ in scope, scale, and the degree of coordination policies. Scientific studies are needed to support
required among water users. Both are using surface conjunctive water management. They provide
water and groundwater together to improve the important data to understand the geology of aquifer
overall availability and reliability of water. Both may systems, how and where surface water replenishes
share common purposes for using surface water and the groundwater, and flow directions and gradients
groundwater in combination such as managing of groundwater.
diminishing surface water supplies, convenience,
economics, and using water reasonably and Components of Conjunctive Water Management
beneficially. Conjunctive water management has two
principal components, irrespective of whether it is
Distinguishing Conjunctive Water Use From practiced by individuals or implemented by a group
Conjunctive Water Management of individuals as a coordinated program. These
Conjunctive water use primarily changes the components are commonly referred to as: Recharge
timing in the flow of existing water sources by and Recovery
shifting when and where it is stored and does not
result in new sources of water. Conjunctive use is Recharge Methods
often incidental as water users intuitively shift Aquifer recharge is dependent on many factors
between surface water and groundwater sources to such as the required recharge rate and recharge
cope with changes and shortages. While conjunctive volume which is related to water demand, the area
use may prove successful for an individual or group available for recharge, the surface and subsurface

*Department of Civil Engineering, KDK College of Engineering, Nagpur

312
geologic conditions in the groundwater basin, the surface water is not readily available or if surface
availability of surface water for recharge, and the water conveyance facilities must be constructed to
ability to distribute a surface water supply over the provide surface water into areas that have
groundwater basin to accomplish recharge. historically relied upon groundwater. Regulations
on where water can legally be conveyed and
Natural recharge is the simplest method of concerns about environmental impacts from new
replenishing groundwater in almost all basins. Water surface water facilities can be important factors
percolates into the aquifer system from some affecting the feasibility of in-lieu recharge.
combination of surface water sources such as
streams, rivers, lakes, surface water conveyance Following is an alternate and less effective
facilities, precipitation, and applied irrigation water. form of in-lieu recharge that is accomplished by
Natural recharge may also occur from subsurface choosing to not plant an annual crop for a season.
inflow from other parts of the groundwater basin. This recharge method removes demands on the
This recharge method requires no infrastructure or aquifer system in areas that rely on groundwater to
surface water supply other than what already exists irrigate and leaves this water in the aquifer system
through natural conditions. Natural recharge is for later use. This form of recharge, if practiced over
typically the slowest method of replenishing the a large enough area, may create third party economic
aquifer system and is relatively unmanaged. impacts on rural communities and local
governments. Somewhat related, Regulated Deficit
Direct percolation recharge is accomplished by Irrigation (RDI), is another form of in-lieu recharge
ponding water in percolation basins where it that may be practiced in permanent orchard and vine
infiltrates downward into the aquifer system. crops and in perennial alfalfa crops to lessen
Percolation basins constructed on highly permeable demands on the aquifer system. When RDI is
geologic materials can result in a rapid, efficient, practiced in perennial crops, irrigation is reduced in
and economical way to recharge the aquifer. This controlled amounts at specific stages of crop
recharge method usually requires large dedicated development to benefit the crop or to minimize the
areas for recharge and, unfortunately, such surface risk of crop injury as a result of withholding water.
and subsurface geologic conditions are not common The potential for in-lieu recharge from RDI is site
in many areas. Percolation basins require a means specific because deficit irrigation may already
of conveying water into the ponds on a regular basis knowingly or unknowingly be in practice. Fallowing
and usually require annual maintenance to sustain and RDI are not as productive at recharge as in-lieu
soils at high percolation rates, to control aquatic recharge because there is no deep percolation of
weeds, and to maintain basin structures, all of which applied surface irrigation water to the aquifer
represent a continuing expense for conjunctive water system.
management.
Aquifer injection is another method of recharge.
In-lieu recharge is a variation of natural recharge. Water is injected into the aquifer system by operating
This recharge method is accomplished by providing a well backwards. It has the advantage of working
surface water to areas that customarily use in almost all geologic conditions and in relatively
groundwater. The aquifer system partially recharges small areas where other recharge techniques are less
from the application of surface irrigation water and suitable. Aquifer injection is relatively expensive
seepage of surface water from conveyance facilities. when used on a large scale that requires a number
At the same time, it reduces demands on the aquifer of injection wells. The usual costs for well
system from groundwater extraction and leaves more construction, pump operation, and mechanical
groundwater in aquifer storage for later use. Unlike maintenance exist with aquifer injection plus
direct recharge, in-lieu recharge can be implemented additional costs are necessary to treat the water prior
under virtually any soil and geologic conditions. to injection. The water for injection must be free of
However, in-lieu recharge can be very complex and turbidity, bio-matter, bacteria, and viruses and the
expensive to implement if attempted in an area where water chemistry must be compatible with the water

313
quality in the aquifer system, otherwise, concerns long term and to avoid unwanted problems for other
with water quality, clogging of well screens, or water users.
clogging of the pore space within the aquifer system
surrounding the injection well may arise. Operational Approaches
The length of the recharge and recovery cycle
Recovery of Groundwater is a critical operational consideration in conjunctive
The recovery component of conjunctive water water management. Cycle length can broadly be
management removes water from aquifer storage categorized into three modes of operation: Short
during times when it is needed. Recovery is Cycle, Annual Cycle and Long Cycle
primarily accomplished by extracting groundwater
from wells. However, in less common situations Short cycle conjunctive water management
natural recovery of shallow groundwater occurs recharges water and then recovers that water over a
when it discharges into surface water sources such course of days, weeks, or perhaps months. An
as streams, rivers, and lakes. Depending upon the example of short cycle conjunctive water
historical source of surface and groundwater used management might involve using aquifer injection
in a basin, groundwater extraction from wells can for recharge and then within days or weeks that same
be categorized into two types: Direct extraction water is recovered by direct extraction. The same
recovery and Groundwater substitution recovery well is used for injection and extraction. This short
cycle approach has been used to service peak daily
Direct extraction recovery is when wells are used and maximum monthly water demands in some
to extract groundwater in areas that have historically areas. This is a relatively expensive operational
used groundwater and the water is then used directly approach but it is not cost prohibitive in some
on the overlying lands. Direct extraction also instances.
includes water that is extracted from the aquifer and
conveyed to other areas for use. Annual cycle operational approaches are similar to
those used to manage surface water reservoirs. Water
Groundwater substitution also relies upon wells is recharged in months when surface water supplies
to remove water from aquifer storage but in this case become available and then recovered during periods
groundwater is substituted for surface water that of peak demand. Recharge and recovery are typically
would have customarily been used on the overlying done within the same year to sustain a balance. The
lands. This leaves the surface water in the cost and complexity of this type of conjunctive water
watercourse for utilization elsewhere. management approach can vary because a variety
of recharge methods may be considered. This type
Challenges in Conjunctive water management of operational approach may or may not be coupled
operations with re-operation of surface water reservoirs.
With conjunctive water management, recharge
and recovery are cycled over a period of time to Long cycle conjunctive water management is
balance them. Conjunctive management can and commonly referred to as “water banking projects”.
typically does, cause larger than normal declines in The aquifer system is typically recharged during
local groundwater levels during more intensive years of abundant surface water availability and
periods of recovery and may pose problems for other recovery is done in a year or consecutive years of
groundwater users in the basin who may not be part drought when there is a surface water shortage. Any
of the conjunctive management effort. Conversely, combination of recharge and recovery methods can
during periods of recharge groundwater levels may be implemented. Usually the operation of surface
become higher than normal and lead to problems reservoirs is closely coordinated with long cycle
for other water users. Effective groundwater level conjunctive water management to transfer water
monitoring and basin management objectives are the from short-term reservoir storage to long-term
primary tools to assure that operational approaches groundwater storage. Several technical factors will
to conjunctive management are sustainable in the determine the appropriate cycle length. The distance

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between the primary recovery area and any use) partially responsible for spring and river
unintentional surface water recharge or discharge depletion that potentially results in injury to senior
areas such as streams, rivers, or lakes is important. surface water right holders. Many unanswered
Also, the permeability and storage capacity of the questions still exist relative to conjunctive water
aquifer system will influence the operational management. These questions include :
approach. Long cycle operations are more efficient • To what degree does depletion of surface water
and productive when the primary recovery area and sources constitute injury to a surface water right
unintentional recharge or discharge areas are further holder?
apart and for aquifer systems with higher • To what individual degree are the many ground
permeability. Short cycle and possibly annual cycle water users in a basin responsible for a depleted
operations are more appropriate when areas of surface water supply?
recharge and recovery are in proximity and for less • How should depletion rates be determined?
permeable aquifer systems. • How can the prior appropriation doctrine best
be applied when the time lags from pumping to
Water Rights and Conjunctive Management depletion effect are so long that curtailing pumping
Part of the importance of surface and ground may have no effect on surface water supplies for
water interaction lies in water rights systems. years in the future?
Surface and ground water in many of the western • Are junior ground water users responsible for
states are managed under the Prior Appropriation depletion resulting from past pumping practices?
Doctrine. The doctrine generally follows the
principle of “first in time is first in right”. That is, These and other questions are yet to be
a priority is established for water rights that are based answered. The next decade will no doubt witness
on the date that the water was first put to beneficial significant changes in water management and use.
use. Junior priority rights may be fully or partially
curtailed in times of short water supply to ensure Public Participation
that senior appropriators (water right holders) Direct public participation creates a potential
receive their full appropriation (legal share). for significant improvements in the decision-making
Application of the Prior Appropriation processes of natural resource management. In the
Doctrine to conjunctively managed surface and case of water resources management, participative
ground water systems is much more difficult than approaches depend on highly effective
application to the exclusively surface water systems communication between specialist and non-
for which it was initially adopted. Diversion of specialist stakeholders, based on their shared
surface water from a stream impacts downstream understanding of technical and local knowledge. As
users in an amount nearly equal to the rate of a result, collaboration between stakeholders,
diversion, often within a period of a few days or decision-makers and specialists engages a large part
less. Ground water pumping effects propagate of the activities of water resources management and
through an aquifer in all directions. Ultimately, these research agencies. However, there is growing
effects may reach surface water bodies and result in evidence that such programs have failed to deliver
depletion. Rates of depletion, however, often are the shared understanding necessary for effective
less than pumping rates and extended over much management. A large part of this misunderstanding
longer periods of time. may be due to uncertainties created by the changing
socio-political context of direct public participation,
Conjunctive Management Rules as well as changing bio-physical conditions driven
In general, surface water rights on a River and by land-use and climate change.
tributaries were developed before water rights for This research seeks to identify barriers to
irrigation wells. Consequently, ground water communication and mutual learning under
pumping rights for irrigation are typically junior to uncertainty between specialists and non-specialists
surface water rights. Conjunctive management rules in water resources management, through a
hold junior ground water users (excluding domestic comparative examination of the structures of mental

315
models articulated by these two groups. The concept local levels where the unique set of conditions is well
of model structure, deriving from general systems understood and where interested water users can
theory, refers to the assumed arrangement of causal participate and remain informed. Institutional
and informational relations between variables in a constraints, environmental concerns, economic
system. In the context of this research, systematic considerations, and the political climate are also
models are regarded as cognitive structures whose important when implementing conjunctive water
comparative similarity reflects shared understanding management. R. Buckminster Fuller said, “Optimize
as a pre-requisite for effective communication. the way we use the world’s resources. Do more with
less. Don’t wait for the politicians. See what needs
Conjunctive Water Management – A Creative to be done and do it.”
Process
Conjunctive management can involve a variety References
of water management components and different 1. ROCKSTRÖM J (2001) Green water security
operational approaches that may cross political or for the food makers of tomorrow: Windows of
institutional boundaries. There clearly is no “one- opportunity in drought prone savannahs. Water Sci.
size-fits-all” approach to conjunctive water Technol. 43 71-78.
management. It requires balancing recharge with 2. WORLD BANK (1997) World Development
recovery and monitoring to validate the conjunctive Report 1997. World Bank, Washington DC. 354 pp.
water management. Management should occur at

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 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

57. Water Resources Management In Solapur City

*Pradeep K. Naik **A.V.S.S. Anand **D. Venkateswaran

Abstract
This paper describes the impact of urbanization and the exploding population
on the ground water regime in a fast growing city, Solapur, in central India, giving
special emphasis on the management of the present and ultimate demand of water in
2020 AD. Pollution threat to the ground water regime has also been studied. The
objective is to apprise the city planners and administrators of the effects of
urbanization on the ground water regime in a fast growing medium-sized city where
the infrastructure developments are not in conformity with the rapid growth in
population. The areal extent of Solapur increased five fold from 33.03 km2 to 178.57
km2 in the year 1992 with the inclusion of 13 adjoining villages within the city limits.
With such a sudden expansion, Solapur was soon identified as one of the fast growing
cities in India in the decade 1990-2000. With a population of 907,400 (2003), it is
the 37th most populous city in the country and 8th in the State of Maharashtra.
Solapur city with an area of 178.57 km 2 receives a recharge of about 24
million m3 of ground water from various sources. Reduction of recharge, as usually
assumed due to urban impacts, could not, however, be well established. Instead,
there was a rise in recharge as water use in the city grew from time to time and more
and more water was supplied to satisfy the human needs. Compared to mid-seventies,
ground water levels have increased within the main city area due to increased
recharge and decreased ground water abstraction. However, outside the main city
area, there is a general decline in ground water levels due to increased ground
water utilization for irrigation purposes. Ground water quality deterioration has
been highly localized due to urban impacts. Water quality has deteriorated during
the last 10 years, especially in dugwells, mainly due to misuse and disuse of these
structures and poor circulation of ground water. However, in case of borewells,
comparison of the present water quality with that in mid-70s and early 80s does not
show any perceptible change. Deeper ground water tapped by borewells can still be
used for drinking with caution.
The city is currently supplied with about 120 million liters per day (MLD) of
surface water, while the actual water requirement is about 145 MLD. The shortfall

*Central Ground Water Board, Central Region, N.S. Building, Civil Lines, Nagpur – 440 001, India, Ph.
+91-712-2565314/2534415; Fax. +91-712-64391, *Email: pradeep.naik@water.net.in
**Central Ground Water Board Central Ground Water Board, State Unit Office, Gurudham Building, No. 50-
50-29/7, Balayya Sastry Layout, Seetammadara (West), Vishakhapatanam – 530 013

317
of 25 MLD is currently met by about 2600 borewells. The city is poised to have a
population of ~1,725,000 by 2020 at a growth rate of 4% per annum, and the water
requirement is estimated at 269 MLD. With the upgradation of the present sources of
supply, a quantum of 200 MLD of water could be available to Solapur city in 2020.
The shortfall of 69 MLD could be met by other sources, such as ground water that
can contribute about 113 MLD.
Considering the rapid expansion of Solapur city beyond 2020, it needs to
constantly endeavor to explore new sources of water, whether ground water or surface
water. Ground water sources may be tapped to the maximum possible by renovating
the old dugwells once operational in the city and by drilling appropriate number of
deeper borewells at strategic locations in the city. Industries may be encouraged to
tap the ground water sources to the maximum possible for industrial uses. High yielding
borewells (yielding >5000 L/h) may be fitted with motors and may be used for local
water supply through stand posts at several locations in the city. Massive projects
also need to be taken up for artificial recharge of aquifers for augmentation of the
ground water resources and also for dilution of the harmful chemical constituents in
ground water. Central Ground Water Board estimated a potential of 3 MCM of
additional water availability due to rainwater harvesting based on the rooftop area
of 5.35 km2 in 1991. With the present growth rate, the rooftop area of Solapur city
will be about 16.60 km2 in 2020 with a potential of about 9.80 MCM of harvested
rainfall. Steps need to be taken up by SMC for making it mandatory for every new
building to have its own rooftop rainwater harvesting structure.

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 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

58. Solar Distillation : An Effective Approach for Energy

and Water Conservation
*Ishan Purohit *M. L. Dewal *V. N. Kala

Abstract :
Supply of drinking water is a major problem in underdeveloped as well as in some
developing countries. Along with the food and air, water is a basic necessity of human being.
Man has dependence on rivers, lakes and underground water reservoirs for fresh water but
the pollution of rivers and lakes by industrial effluent and sewage has caused scarcity of
fresh water in many towns and villages near lakes and rivers. Surveys show that about 79%
of water available on the earth is salty, only 1% is fresh and the rest 20 % is brackish. Often
water sources are brackish (i.e. contain dissolved salts) and/or contain harmful bacteria
and therefore cannot be used for drinking. In addition, there are many coastal locations
where seawater is abundant but potable water is not available.
There are still 1.3 billion people with insufficient drinking water supplies and a number
of peoples/animals die each day from illnesses related to their drinking water. Even filtration
provides little more than an expensive, even fatal, illusion. If the filter has been in place too
long, which is hard to determine, bacteria flourishes and the danger is greater than ever. The
costs for new filters must also be considered. This leads to a situation where users, particularly
in poorer countries, risk their health and their lives due to lack of money. The UV sterilisation
method, often over-estimated, requires a lot of maintenance and is often only able to sterilise.
Suspended solids are often insufficient, chemicals and heavy metals are not removed.
Distillation of brackish or saline water, wherever it is available, is one of many processes
that can be used for water purification. However the conventional distillation processes
such as multi-effect evaporation, multi-stage evaporation, this film distillation, reverse osmosis
and electro-dialysis are energy intensive techniques and are not feasible for large fresh
water demands. Therefore solar distillation is an attractive alternative because of its simple
technology, non-requirement of highly skilled labor for maintenance work ad low energy
consumption. In the present study the water purification through solar energy utilization is
highlighted along the design and development in solar still technologies. Some energy related
problems are also discussed on the basis if International Energy Outlook 2005.
Key Words: Desalination, Solar distillation, Energy crisis, Solar stills

1. Introduction salty/brackish oceans. In their thirst for water, people

When the available water is either polluted or have looked longingly throughout history at this
mineralized solution of the drinking water by some endless supply. Some brackish, or slightly salty water,
means such as distillation, vapour compression etc. is found inland. Today, more than ever, many people
About 98 percent of the water on earth is in the believe that desalting ocean water and brackish

*G. B. Pant Engineering College Ghurdauri, Pauri, Uttaranchal 246 001, INDIA
Fax: 01368-2280330, Telephone: +91-9411050117 E-mail: purohit_ishan@yahoo.com,

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water holds the answer to the ever-increasing of seawater desalination the steam rises, leaving the
demand for fresh water in many areas. The salt in salt behind; as the steam cools in the container, it
seawater is mostly the same substance as common condenses into fresh water. Every day, the sun
table salt. A person can safely drink water that evaporates millions of tons of water from the ocean’s
contains less than 1/2 pound of salt to 100 pounds of surface. The water vapour then condenses and falls
water, or 0.5 kilogram to every 100 kilograms. But back to earth as fresh water. More than 90 percent
seawater has about seven times this amount of salt of the world wide installed sea water desalination
therefore this ca be not use for drinking and other capacity is based on distillation process. One of the
domestic application directly. main advantages of distillation process is that it
Adequate quality and reliability of drinking requires heat only up to 120oC which can be supplies
water supply is a fundamental need. There are many from any cheap fuel; while in reverses osmosis,
methods of converting brackish water into potable vapour compression and electro-dialysis processes,
water and some of the processes are now some mechanical or electrical energy is sued.
commercially available; Distillation devices are divided into four main types
Desalination : In this method the brackish or saline of sub processes:
water is evaporated using thermal energy, and the 1. Single effect distillation/Multi effect
resulting steam is collected and condensed as final distillation;
product. 2. Vapour Compression Distillation;
Vapour compression : In this process of distillation 3. Single stage/Multiple stage /Multiple effect
water vapour from boiling water is compressed multiple stage flash distillation; and
adiabatically and vapour gets superheated. The 4. Solar distillation.
superheated vapour is first cooled to saturation
temperature and than condensed at constant Solar energy is abundant, never lasting, and
pressure. This process is drived my mechanical available on site and pollution free energy. However
energy. the cost of its collection and utilization becomes
Reverse Osmosis : In this process saline water is high because it is diffuse, of low intensity ad
pushed at high pressure through special membranes intermittent and therefore requires some kind of
allowing water molecules selectively to pass and thermal energy storage. But for application like
not the dissolved salts. distillation of brackish water, the intermittent nature
Electro-dialysis : In this method water is passed of solar energy will not limit its use and distilled
through a pair of special membranes, perpendicular water will be produces as and when solar energy is
to which, there is an electric field. Water does not available. Because of the simplicity of apparatus
pass through the membranes while dissolved salts design, requirement of fresh water and free
pass selectively. availability of thermal energy, work in the field of
In many parts of the world like arid and semi solar energy is in progress for more than 100 years.
arid areas and coastal areas where plenty of
underground water is available but this is highly 2. Energy Requirements for Water Distillation
saline (2000 ppm to 3500 ppm) and therefore unfit The energy required to evaporate water is the latent
for human consumption. The ocean covers some heat of vaporization of water. This has a value of
70.8 percent of the earth’s surface containing about 2260 kilojoules per kilogram (kJ/kg). This means
1350 million cubic kilometers of saline water that to produce 1 litre (i.e. 1kg since the density of
containing about 35000 ppm impurities out of which water is 1kg/litre) of pure water by distilling
about 28000 ppm is common salt, sodium chloride, brackish water requires a heat input of 2260kJ. This
which is also an essential part of out body. The does not allow for the efficiency of the heating
maximum level of acceptance of salt content in fresh method, which will be less than 100%, or for any
water for human consumption is only 500 ppm. recovery of latent heat that is rejected when the
Distillation process is considered to be one of water vapour is condensed. It should be noted that,
the simplest and widely adopted techniques for although 2260kJ/kg is required to evaporate water,
converting sea water into fresh water. In the process to pump a kg of water through 20m head requires

320
only 0.2kJ/kg. Nearly 65 Btu are received by one requirements for human survival and growth. The
square mile of land on a sunny, summer day. This extraction, conversion and utilization of fossil fuels,
amount is roughly equivalent to 15,000 barrels of especially during the last century, have led to serious
petroleum. Distillation is therefore normally environmental degradation. The availability and
considered only where there is no local source of consumption of energy is an index of prosperity of
fresh water that can be easily pumped or lifted. a country. We need more energy due to population
Human beings need 1 or 2 litres of water a day growth, industrialization, more agricultural
to live. The minimum requirement for normal life production, and rising of living standards. The
in developing countries (which includes cooking, energy consumption per person in India is very low
cleaning and other domestic applications) is 20 and it is about 610 kwh/year whereas China is 1400,
litres per day (in the industrialized world 200 to Germany 6900 and USA 13000 with world average
400 litres per day is typical). Yet some functions of 2400 kwh/year. The Human Development Index
can be performed with salty water and a typical (HDI) in India is also very low i.e. 0.6. The HDI is
requirement for distilled water is 5 litres per person a composite index and is directly proportional to
per day. Therefore 2m² of still are needed for each the energy consumption per year per capita. The
person served. Solar stills should normally only be present electric installed capacity in India is about
considered for removal of dissolved salts from water. 1,26,000 MW and the energy demand growth is
If there is a choice between brackish ground water around 8 to 9 percent per year which shows that we
and polluted surface water, it will usually be cheaper shall needing around 1,00,000 MW additional
to use a slow sand filter or other treatment device. capacity by 2012. Moreover, the fossil fuels are
If there is no fresh water then the main alternatives expected to last for a limited period only and their
are desalination, transportation and rainwater costs might increase further with their increasing
collection. Unlike other techniques of desalination, scarcity. As a consequence interest grew in the
solar stills are more attractive, the smaller the development and dissemination of environmental
required output. friendly renewable energy technologies on a global
For outputs of 1m³/day or more, reverse level. Their development assumes more significance
osmosis or electro-dialysis should be considered as for developing countries as many of these resources
an alternative to solar stills. Much will depend on are available locally and these countries are under
the availability and price of electrical power. For stress to find resources to meet the increased energy
outputs of 200m³/day or more, vapour compression requirements of their growing population with a
or flash evaporation will normally be least cost. The desire to live with an improved quality of life. India
latter technology can have part of its energy as an energy hungry country is suffering from energy
requirement met by solar water heaters. In many scarcity. Around 20% population of the country has
parts of the world, fresh water is transported from not been linked with the power grid. The country
another region or location by boat, train, truck or needs 9% (25000 MW per year) of the annual
pipeline. The cost of water transported by vehicles growth in electricity (the installed capacity was 1,
is typically of the same order of magnitude as that 26,000 MW in 2004). More than 70% of the power
produced by solar stills. A pipeline may be less generation in country is being by coal based thermal
expensive for very large quantities. Rainwater power plants which contribute a huge fraction of
collection is an even simpler technique than solar emission (Fly ash, SOx, NOx and GHG) and hence
distillation in areas where rain is not scarce, but create the serious environmental problems. The
requires a greater area and usually a larger storage earth receives 170,000 million MW of energy from
tank. If ready-made collection surfaces exist (such sun viz. about 10000 times the world’s present
as house roofs) these may provide a less expensive energy consumption. India being a tropical country
source for obtaining clean water. is blessed with good sunshine over most parts, and
the number of clear sunny days in a year also being
3. Energy Crisis and Need of Solar Energy for quite high. In India, based on the radiation available
Water Distillation in different parts of the country the total solar
Energy is one of the most essential radiation (radiation received on horizontal surface)

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over 80% of it receives on an average 520 watts transparent plastic or a sloping sheet of glass. The
per square meter per day. The country receives solar salt water turns to vapour under the sun’s heat. The
energy equivalent to more than 5,000 trillion kWh vapour rises until it hits the underside of the dome or
per year; which is far more than its total annual glass, where it condenses. The fresh water runs
energy consumption. The daily average global down into collecting troughs. This type of
radiation is around 5.0 kWh/m2 in northeastern and distillation produces little water. In one day, such a
hilly areas and up to about 7.0 kWh/m2 in western basin in a sunny climate can produce only about a
regions and cold desert areas with the sunshine hours pint of water per square foot (5 lit/m2) of the basin’s
ranging between 2300 and 3200 per year. surface area. A basin type solar still is the simplest
and building block unit of solar desalination.
4. Solar Distillation There are a number of other approaches to
Solar water distillation is a solar technology water purification and desalination, such as
with a very long history and installations were built photovoltaic powered reverse-osmosis, for which
over 2000 years ago, although to produce salt rather small-scale commercially available equipment is
than drinking water. First known use of stills dates available. In addition, if treatment of polluted water
back to 1551 when they were used by Arab is required rather than desalination, slow sand
alchemists. Other scientists and naturalists used stills filtration is a good option. Several types of solar
over the coming centuries including Della Porta stills have evolved with time. These include single
(1589), Lavoisier (1862), and Mauchot (1869). The effect basin type stills, multiple effect stills, single
first “conventional” solar still plant was built in 1872 or multiple wick stills, inclined tray or stepped stills,
by the Swedish engineer Charles Wilson in the the multi-stage-flash distillation stills, solar film
mining community of Las Salinas in what is today covered stills, and solar concentrator stills etc.
northern Chile (Region II). This still was a large However, so far, the basin type stills using single
basin-type still used for supplying fresh water using effect distillation has only been used for supplying
brackish feed water to a nitrate mining community. of fresh water for isolated communities or for small
The plant used wooden bays (1.14 m by 61.0 m) supplies of water such as for battery charging,
which had blackened bottoms using logwood dye
and alum. The total area of the distillation plant was
4,700 square meters. On a typical summer day this
plant produced 4.9 kg of distilled water per square
meter of still surface, or more than 23,000 liters per
day (>6,000 gallons per day) (Harding, 1883). This
plant was in operation until 1912. Even today one
can find thousands of shards of glass and chunks of
accumulated salt at this historical solar site.
Solar energy is a potential source for
desalination of saline water in areas characterized
with good sunshine, scarcity of fresh or rain water
and relatively small decentralized water demands
(Malik et al, 1982). In a solar still the solar energy Fig. 1 : Classification of solar distillation systems
can heat water up to the point of evaporation. As
the water evaporates, water vapour rises, condensing analytical purposes etc. Figure 1 presents the
on the glass surface for collection. This process classification of solar distillation system.
removes impurities such as salts and heavy metals 4.1 Basin Type Solar Still
as well as eliminates microbiological organisms. A simple basin type solar still (Figure 2)
Solar distillation units can therefore be used to consists of an insulated shallow basin lined or
effectively remove many impurities ranging from painted with a water proof black material. The basin
salts to microorganisms. Solar distillation can be can normally hold 5-20 cm depth of saline or
done by filling the still and covering it with a brackish water to be distilled and is covered with a

322
sloped (single or double sloped) glass or specially capacity of output and quality of water is to be
treated plastic sheet supported by an appropriate evaporated.
frame (and sealed tightly to reduce vapour leakage). The thermal efficiency, h of the solar still can
A condensate channel runs along the lower edge of be defined as the ratio of the amount of thermal
the transparent cover (glass/plastic), which collects energy utilized in evaporating the water in a certain
the distillate and carries the same outside the solar time interval to the incident solar energy within the
still. A suitable arrangement is made for filling the same time interval. Experimentally this can be
basin with saline water continuously or on a periodic evaluated from following expression
basis. Solar radiation after transmission through
Qe M L
cover glazing is absorbed in the water and basin η= = D w (1)
leading to an increase in the basin water temperature. As Gs As I s
The warm water in the basin loses heat by
evaporation, convection and radiation to the cover where Q e represents the energy utilized in
and by conduction through the base and edges of evaporation and MD the distillate output, As the
the still. The water evaporated from the basin finally aperture area and Is the intensity of incident solar
condenses on the underside of the glass/plastic radiation.
cover, slips down into the condensate channels and In addition the thermal performance of the
through them out of the still for use. Figure 3a and basin type solar is evaluated under the No load test
3b represent the various heat and energy transfer and vapour tightness coefficient. Under the no load
mechanism in a single basin type solar still. test conditions, the energy balance on a basin type
The thermal performance of a solar still mainly solar still can be written as
influenced by operating as well as construction
parameters. The climatic parameters mainly
ηo I s = U L ,st ( Tbs − Ta ) (2)
prevailing wind velocity, ambient temperature, solar
radiation & loss coefficient affects significantly the
thermal performance of the distillation system. The which gives G lass C o ver
distillated output increases with wind velocity, ηo ( Tbs − Ta )
ambient temperature and solar radiation. It is also = (3)
U L ,st Is
affected by the number of glass cover, angle of
inclination of glass, salt concentration, thermal

B lack ened B asin L in er

Figure 2a. Schematic diagram of a single sloped basin type solar still

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 I s

q rgs q cgs

αI s q ew g
q rw g q cw g
qs

Tw

qb

Figure 3a. Energy flow diagram of a single sloped basin type solar still

Figure 3b. Various energy transfer mechanism in a single basin type solar still

with Tbs representing the temperature of the basin as the product of the transmittance of glass cover to
surface at stagnation. the absorptance of the basin surface. It may be noted
The ratio of the optical efficiency and overall that the transmittance of the glass cover may change
heat loss coefficient as obtained above may be used with the tilt of the cover glazing. Table 1 and 2
as a measure of performance for basin type solar presents the ratio of optical efficiency to overall heat
still. This ratio primarily depends upon the loss coefficient under various values of prevailing
constructional parameters of the still. Under no load wind speed and incident solar radiation respectively.
test condition the optical efficiency can be defined For the estimation of leakage from a solar still,

324
a Vapour Tightness Coefficient may be introduced temperatures are falling. The daily yield per m2/day
as a measure of its performance in retaining the in a still mainly depends upon the temperature
water vapour within the enclosure prior to its difference between the evaporative and conducting
condensation. It can be defined as the ratio of the surfaces. A number of attempts have been made to
actual distillate output to the theoretical output, i.e. maximize the daily yield per m2/day in a single basin
Actual Distillate Output still in a passive mode by changing its design to get
Vapour Tightness Coefficient =
Theoretical Distillate Output maximum temperature difference between the
(4) evaporative and condensing surfaces.

The Vapour Tightness Coefficient of a solar 5.1 Single Slope Solar Still with Condenser
still can be determined experimentally by carefully (Faith, 1998)
measuring the time variation of solar radiation, The glass cover is used for transmission of
ambient temperature, wind speed, water temperature solar energy as well as for condensation of water
and distillate output at periodic intervals. However vapor evaporated from water surface in the
there is no any specific test standard for conventional still. The latent heat is given to the
determination of the thermal performance of solar glass cover which raised the glass cover temperature
stills. and hence reduces the overall temperature
difference between the evaporative and condensing
5. Various Designs of Solar Stills surface during the process of condensation. In order
A single basin stills have been much studied to increase the difference the condensing surface is
and its heat and mass transfer mechanism is well separated from the solar still. There is a little
defined now. Its maximum attainable efficiency is condensation on the slopped surface; mainly
around 25% and the distillate output as a function condensation takes place in the attached condenser
of solar radiation is greatest in the early evening due to transfer of vapour from solar still chamber
when the feed water is still hot but when outside to condensing chamber. In this case the still
efficiency is increased by 45% (Figure4).

Table 1 : Ratio of the Optical Efficiency with the Overall Heat Loss Coefficient of Single
Basin Type Solar still at Various Wind Speeds

V (m/s) Ratio of Optical Efficiency to Overall Heat Loss Coefficient of Basin Type Solar Still
Is=500W/m2 Is=600W/m2 Is=700W/m2 Is=800W/m2 Is=900W/m2 Is=1000W/m2
0 0.116 0.115 0.113 0.112 0.110 0.109
1 0.113 0.111 0.109 0.108 0.107 0.106
2 0.110 0.109 0.107 0.106 0.104 0.103
3 0.109 0.107 0.105 0.104 0.103 0.101
4 0.108 0.106 0.104 0.103 0.101 0.100
5 0.107 0.105 0.103 0.102 0.100 0.099
6 0.106 0.104 0.102 0.101 0.100 0.098
7 0.105 0.103 0.102 0.100 0.099 0.098
8 0.105 0.103 0.101 0.100 0.099 0.097
9 0.104 0.103 0.101 0.099 0.098 0.097
10 0.104 0.102 0.101 0.099 0.098 0.097

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 Table 2 : Ratio of the Optical Efficiency with the Overall Heat Loss Coefficient of Single
Basin Type Solar Still at Various Solar Radiation(s)

Is(W/m2) Ratio of Optical Efficiency to Overall Heat Loss Coefficient of Basin Type Solar Still
V=0.0 m/s V=2.0 m/s V=4.0 m/s V=6.0 m/s V=8.0 m/s V=10.0 m/s
500 0.116 0.110 0.108 0.106 0.105 0.104
550 0.115 0.109 0.107 0.105 0.104 0.103
600 0.115 0.109 0.106 0.104 0.103 0.102
650 0.114 0.108 0.105 0.103 0.102 0.101
700 0.113 0.107 0.104 0.102 0.101 0.101
750 0.112 0.106 0.103 0.102 0.101 0.100
800 0.112 0.106 0.103 0.101 0.100 0.099
850 0.111 0.105 0.102 0.100 0.099 0.098
900 0.110 0.104 0.101 0.100 0.099 0.098
950 0.110 0.104 0.101 0.099 0.098 0.097
1000 0.109 0.103 0.100 0.098 0.097 0.097

Figure 4. Schematic diagram of single sloped solar still with condenser

chamber to increase the distillate output. This is

referred as solar hybrid distillation system.
5.2 Hybrid single slope solar still (Abu-Quadir 5.3 Reverse Absorber Solar Still (Tiwari and
et. al., 1996) Suneja, 1998)
The condensing chamber of single sloped solar In this case (Figure 6) the condensing cover is
still with condenser (Figure 5) has been improved separated from the surface receiving solar energy
for faster condensation. The proposed change in unlike the conventional solar still. The solar
design used electrically operated fan and condensing radiation is allowed to be absorbed at the bottom of

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 Figure 5. Ray diagram of hybrid single slope solar still

Figure 6. Schematic view of reverse absorber solar still

Figure 7a. Schematic diagram of a tilted multiple wick type solar still

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 Figure 7b. Cross sectional view of multi wick type solar still

solar still after transmission through the glass cover. evaporating and condensing surface can be increased
It consists of a cylindrical reflector integrated to the by fast cooling of the condensing surface. This can
solar still and is based on the concept of an inverted be achieved by increasing heat transfer coefficient
absorber flat plate collector. The evaporate water is from the condensing surface to atmosphere. In this
condensed on inner surface of the condensing cover model impure water is enclosed in a transparent twin-
after realizing its latent heat of condensation. Due one arrangement. Solar radiation trapped within the
to separation of condensing cover (cold surface) and enclosure heats up the water which causes
receiving of solar energy surface, the temperature evaporation and then condensation of the inner
difference between condensing cover and water
surface is increased for higher yield.

5.4 Multi-wick Solar Still (Sodha et al., 1981)

In this design, maximum temperature
difference between the condensing cover and water
surface can be achieved by the reducing the heat
capacity of the water mass in the basin. A water
film is maintained on the absorber for fast heating
and quick evaporation. The water film is achieved
by using a porous multi-wick (jute cloth). Each jute
cloth layer is separated by other by providing a black
polythene sheet between them so that jute cloth can
act independently. Jute cloth sucks the water from
reservoir due to capillary to the inclined plane. The
surface is inclined to an optimum angle to receive Figure 8. Schematic view of conical solar still
maximum solar radiation. The condensed water is
tricked down under gravity to the channel provided surface o the transparent cone (Figure 8).
at lower end of the solar still (Figure 7). 5.6 Active single slope solar still (Kumar and
Tiwari, 1996)
5.5 Conical Solar Still (Malik et al., 1982) In active solar stills, the temperature differences
In the design of multi-wick solar still, the area between the evaporative and condensing surfaces
of evaporating and condensing surfaces are equal. are increased by feeding the additional thermal
In this design, the temperature difference between energy from the flat plate collector in to the basin

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 depends on such factors as the capacity of the
treatment plant and its location. Desalting brackish
water costs less than desalting seawater. Engineers
and scientists are continuing to work on the
development of less expensive methods of
desalination. In this way solar energy utilization for
desalination can found the important place. The
thousands of desalting plants around the world
together produce more than 31/2 billion gallons (13
billion litres) of fresh water each day. A large facility,
such as the plant in Al Jubayl, Saudi Arabia, can
produce about 250 million gallons (950 million
litres) of fresh water daily. Although desalting plants
meet only a small part of the world’s daily demand
for fresh water, they are essential to millions of
people
Many desalting plants are small facilities that
serve isolated military posts, oil-drilling crews in
deserts, island resorts, and industrial plants. The
largest numbers of plants are in the Middle East,
where fresh water sources are scarce. As the cost
for desalting water drops, more and more towns and
cities may begin using desalted water.
Fig. 9 : Active Solar Still (a) with single collector and
(b) with a number of solar collectors 7. Conclusions
Resource availability, technological
of solar still (Figure 9a and 9b). The FPC is integrated appropriateness and energy environmental
to the basin of still. The water in basin is circulated interaction are the building block parameters for the
through FPC either in natural circulation mode or a implementation of any technology. India is blessed
forced circulation mode depending upon the by very good amount of solar radiation which is the
requirement. The connecting pipes are insulated to resource energy source for solar distillation. Indian
avoid thermal losses from the hot water in the pipe as a developing country is strongly suffering with
to ambient during hot water circulation through it. In energy crisis as well as drinking water problem due
active still, the water in basin is heated directly as to exponential growth of population, infrastructure
well as indirectly through a FPC. A number of other development etc. India, the world’s sixth largest
models viz. emergency (plastic made) still, hybrid energy consumer, plans major energy infrastructure
rainwater collection still, greenhouse solar still etc investments to keep up with increasing demand -
are designed, developed and their thermal particularly for electric power. Nowadays in the
performance has been studied by various modern rend of LPG (liberalization, privatization
researchers. and globalization) policies the energy is being the
most effective parameter. Even a small change in
6. The Future of Desalting petroleum and fuel policies can strongly affect the
All methods of desalination are costly, largely economy of any country. This effect is very
because desalting plants use large amounts of influensive for the developing country like India
energy, and energy is expensive to produce. In which is suffering by strong energy crisis. The
addition, plants must pay to dispose of the salt that energy consumed in water distillation is very high
is removed during the desalination process. It costs and expensive. There may be environmental impacts
from about $4 to about $7 to produce 1,000 gallons of power used in desalination plants. In addition
(3,800 litres) of fresh water from seawater. The cost the salt decomposition corrosion of metals and lot

329
of other problems are associated with commercial 5. Cooper P. I., (1969b), Digital simulation of transient
desalination. Solar distillation may be an effective solar still processes, Solar Energy, 12, 3, 313-331.
technique especially for poor peoples due to its low 6. Cooper P. I., (1972), Some factors affecting the
initial investment and long life. This can be an absorption of solar radiation in solar stills, Solar Energy,
13, 4, 373-381.
effective approach towards rain water collection and
7. Duffie J. A. and Beckman, Solar Engineering of
its utilization for domestic application as well as thermal processes, John Welly and Sons, New York.
for drinking water. Indirectly using solar distillation 8. Garg H. P. and J., Prakash, Solar Energy:
systems a big amount of electricity may save and Fundamentals and Applications, Tata McGraw Hill, New
hence the users can play an important role in saving Delhi.
the environment because solar energy is a renewable 9. IEO, International Energy Outlook: 2005,
source of energy. Official Energy Statistics from the U.S. Government,
Solar distillation units can also be a part of Washington, 2005.
modern buildings and using a proper planning of 10. Malik M. A. S., Tiwari G. N., Kumar A. and Sodha
residential buildings water and energy can be M. S., (1982), Solar Distillation, Pergamon press, New
York.
conserved utilizing solar energy for purification of
11. Purohit I., Testing of Solar Thermal Devices and
waste water. In costal areas where the drinking water Systems, Ph. D. Thesis, India.
is the major problem solar energy can be the best 12. Putting Energy in the Spot Light, BP Statistical
solution for purification of ocean water due to good Review of World Energy, June 2005
availability of solar radiation throughout the year. 13. Rai G. D. (2004), Solar Energy Utilization, Khanna
A big amount of energy, economy along with the Publishers, New Delhi, India.
effective conservation of water and energy can be 14. Sharma V. B., and S. C. Mullick (1991), Estimation
made utilizing solar energy and hence an important of heat transfer coefficients, the upward heat flow, and
contribution in environment protection can be evaporation in a solar still, ASME Journal of Solar
achieved. Energy Engineering, 113, 41.
15. Sharma V. B., and S. C. Mullick (1993), Calculation
of hourly output of a solar still, ASME Journal of Solar
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