Adaptations of Plants to Various Habitats

Organisms have developed structural features that enable them to live successfully in their
particular habitats. Plants found beneath the canopies of trees are adapted to low light
intensities by having broad leaves.
Xerophytes

These are plants that grow in dry habitats i.e., in deserts and semi-deserts.
They have adaptations to reduce the rate of transpiration in order to save on water
consumption.
Adaptations
- Reduction of leaf surface area by having needle-like leaves, rolling up of leaves and
shedding of leaves during drought to reduce water loss or transpiration.
- Thick cuticle ;leaves covered with wax to reduce evaporation.
- Sunken stomata, creating spaces with humid still air to reduce water holes.
- Few, small stomata, on lower epidermis to reduce water loss.
- Stomata open at night to reduce water loss .
- Deep and extensive root systems for absorption of water.
- Development of flattened shoots and for water storage.
Mesophytes

These are the ordinary land plants which grow in well-watered habitats.
They have no special adaptations.Plants found in constantly wet places are called hygrophytes.
- broad leaves to increase surface areas for transpiration and thin to ensure short
distance for carbon (IV) oxide to reach photosynthetic cells and for light penetration.
- Raised stomata above the epidermis to increase the rate of transpiration.
- They have grandular hairs or byhathodes that expel water into the saturated
atmosphere.This phenomenon is called guttation.
Hydrophytes (Water plants)

Water plants are either submerged, emergent or floating.

Submerged Plants Floating Plants

- Have leaves with very thin walls. - Have broad leaves to increase the surface area
for water loss.
- Have no stomata. - Have more stomata on the upper surface than on
the lower surface to increase rate of water loss.
- Presence of large air spaces and -Their structure is similar to that of mesophytes.
canals(aerenchyma) for gaseous exchange and
buoyancy.
- Are rootless, hence support provided by water.

Halophytes (Salt plants)

These are plants that grow in salt marshes and on coastlines.

- Have root cells that concentrate salts and enable them to take in water by osmosis.
- They have salt glands which excrete salts.
- Some have tiny leaves to reduce water loss.

Page 1 of 7
Pollution

Effect of Pollution on Human Beings and other Organisms

Pollution is the introduction of foreign material, poisonous compounds and excess nutrients or
energy to the environment in harmful proportions.
- Any such substance is called a pollutant.
Effects and Control of causes of Pollutants in Air, Water and Soil
- Industrialisation and urbanisation are the main causes of pollution.
- As human beings exploit natural resources the delicate balance in the biosphere gets
disturbed.
- The disturbance leads to the creation of conditions that are un-favourable to humans
and other organisms.
Sources of Pollutants

- Motor vehicles release carbon (II) oxide, sulphur (IV) oxide, and nitrogen oxides and
hydrocarbons.
- Agricultural chemicals, fertilisers and pesticides.
- Factories, manufacturing and metal processing industries. They release toxic substances
and gases as well as synthetic compounds that are bio-undegradable. They release solid
particles or droplets of poisonous substances e.g. arsenic, beryllium, lead and cadmium.
- Radioactive waste: Leakages from nuclear power stations and testing sites release
radioactive elements like strontium-90 which can eventually reach man through the food
chain.
- Domestic waste and sewage are released raw into water bodies.
- Oil spills from accidents in the seas and leakage of oil tankers as well as from offshore
drilling and storage and processing.
Water Pollution

In most cases, chemical wastes from industries are discharged into water.

- Toxic chemicals such as mercury compounds may be ingested by organisms.

- Insecticides like DDT, and weed-killers eventually get into the water and contaminate it.
- Oil and detergents also pollute water.
- Excess nitrates and phosphates from sewage and fertilisers cause overgrowth of algae
and bacteria in water. This is called eutrophication.
As a result there is insufficient oxygen which causes the deaths of animals in the water.

Page 2 of 7
 Human Diseases

The term disease denotes any condition or disorder that disrupts the steady state of well being
of the body.
Health is a state of physical, mental and emotional well being in the internal environment of the
body. Some of the causes of diseases are due to entry of pathogens and parasites.
- Pathogens include bacteria, viruses, protozoa and fungi.
- Parasites are organisms which live on or in the body of another organisms.
- Vectors are animals that carry the pathogen from are person to another.
- Most are ectoparasites that transmit the disease as they feed.
Bacterial Diseases
Cholerae Typhoid

Causative agent: Causative agent:

- A bacterium Vibrio cholerae. - The disease is caused by Salmonella typhi.

- Transmission - It is spread through water and food - Transmission is through contaminated water
contaminated by human faeces containing the and food.
bacteria.
Signs and symptoms Signs and symptoms

- Severe diarrhoea that leads to excessive water loss - Fever

from body. - Muscle pains
- Abdominal pain - Headache
- Vomiting - Spots on the trunk of the body
- Dehydration which may lead to death. - Diarrhoea
Prevention and Control - In severe cases mental confusion may result
and death.
- Adequate sanitation such as water purification Prevention and Control
sewage treatment and proper disposal of human
faeces. - Boil drinking water.
- Vaccination - Proper sewage treatnient.
- Public and personal hygiene e.g washing hands - Proper disposal of faeces, if not flushed use
before meals and washing fruits and vegetables, deep pit latrines.
boiling drinking water. - Observe personal hygiene e.g. washing hands
- Carriers should be identified, isolated and treated before meals.
during outbreaks. - Washing fruits and vegetables.
- Use of appropriate antibiotics. - Use of appropriate antibiotics.
- Correcting fluid loss by injecting fluids or by
administration of oral rehydration solutions.

Page 3 of 7
Protozoa Malaria
Malaria is caused by the protozoan plasmodium.
The most common species of plasmodium are:
- P. falciparum,
- P. vivax,
- P. rnalariae and
- P. ovale with varying degree of severity.
Transmission

Is by female anopheles mosquito as it gets a blood meal.

Symptoms

- Headache
- Sweating ,
- Shivering,
- high temperature (40-41 0C) chills and joint pains.
- The abdomen becomes tender due to destruction of red blood cells by the parasites.
Prevention and treatment

 Destroy breeding grounds for mosquitoes by clearing bushes and draining stagnant
water.
 Kill mosquito larvae by spraying water surfaces with oil.
 Use insecticides to kill adult mosquitoes
 Sleeping under a mosquito net.
 Take preventive drugs.
 Use appropriate anti-malarial drugs.
Amoebic dysentry (Amoebiasis)

This disease is caused by Entamoeba histolytica.

The parasites live in the intestinal tract but may occasionally spread to the liver. Transmission

They are transmitted through contaminated water and food especially salads.

Symptoms

o Abdominal pain, nausea and diarrhoea.

o The parasites cause ulceration of the intestinal tract, which results in diarrhoea.
Prevention and Treatment

- Proper disposal of human faeces.

- Boiling water before drinking.
- Personal hygiene e.g. washing hands before meals.
- Washing vegetables and steaming particularly salads and fruits before eating.
- Treatment of infected people with appropriate drugs.

Page 4 of 7
Parasitic Diseases

1. Ascaris lumbricoides
 Ascaris lumbricoides lives in the intestines of a man or pig, feeding on the digested food
of the host.
 The body of the worm is tapered at both ends.
 The female is longer than the male.
Mode of transmission

- The host eats food contaminated with the eggs, the embryo worms hatch out in the
intestine.
- The embryo worms then bore into the blood vessels of the intestine. They are carried in
the bloodstream to the heart and then into the lungs. As they travel through the
bloodstream, they grow in size. After sometime, the worms are coughed out from the air
passages and into the oesophagus.
- They are then swallowed, eventually finding their way into the intestines where they
grow into mature worms.
Effects of Ascaris lumbricoides on the host

o The parasites feed on the host's digested food.

o This results in malnutrition especially in children.
o If the worms are too many, they may block the intestine and interfere with digestion.
o The worms sometimes wander along the alimentary canal and may pass through the
nose or mouth. In this way, they interfere with breathing and may cause serious illness.
o The larvae may cause severe internal bleeding as they penetrate the wall of the intestine.
Adaptive Characteristics

- The female lays as many as 25 million eggs. This ensures the continuation of the species.
- Eggs are covered by a protective cuticle that prevents them from dehydration.
- The adult worms tolerate low oxygen concentration.
- Have mouth parts for sucking food and other fluids in the intestines.
- Has a thick cuticle or pellicle to protect it from digestive enzymes produced by the host.
Prevention and Treatment

- Personal hygiene e.g. washing hands before eating.

- Proper disposal of faeces.
- Washing of fruits and vegetables.
- Using appropriate drugs -ant-helmintics.
2. Schistosoma
Schistosoma or bilharzia worm is a flat worm, parasitic on human beings and fresh water snails.
(Biomphalaria and Bulinus.) The snail act as intermediate host.

Mode of Transmission

- Schistosomiasis also known as a bilharsiasis is caused by several species of the genus

schistosoma.
- Schistosoma haematobium - infects the urinary system mainly the bladder.
- S. japonicum and S. mansoni both infect the intestines.

Page 5 of 7
 - Schistosoma haemotobium is common in East Africa where irrigation is practised and
where slow moving fresh water streams harbour snails.
- It is spread through contamination of water by faeces and urine from infected persons.
- The embryo (miracidium) that hatch in water penetrates into snails of the species
Biompharahia and Bulinus.
- Inside the snail's body, the miracidium undergoes development and multiple fission to
produce rediae.
- The rediae are released into the water and develop to form cercariae which infect human
through:
- Drinking the water
- Wading in water;
- Bathing in snail-infested water.
- The cercaria burrows through the skin and enters blood vessel.
Effects on the host

 Inflammation of tissues where egg lodge.

 Ulceration where eggs calcify.
 Egg block small arteries in lungs leading to less aeration of blood.
 The body turns blue - a condition known as cyanosis.
 If eggs lodge in heart or brain, lesions formed can lead to death.
 Bleeding occurs as the worms burrow into blood vessels (faeces or urine has blood).
 Pain and difficulty in passing out urine.
 Nausea and vomiting.
 When eggs lodge in liver ulceration results in liver cirrhosis.
 Death eventually occurs.
Adaptive Characteristics

 The female has a thin body and fits into small blood vessels to lay eggs.
 Eggs are able to burrow out of blood vessel into intestine lumen.
 Many eggs are laid to ensure the survival of the parasite.
 Large numbers of cercariae are released by snail.
 The miracidia and cercariae larvae have glands that secrete lytic enzymes which soften
the tissue to allow for penetration into host.
 The male has a gynecophoric canal that carries the female to ensure that eggs are
fertilised before being shed.
 Has suckers for attachment.
Prevention and Control

- Drain all stagnant water

- Boil drinking water.
- Do not wade bare feet in water.
- Wear long rubber boots and gloves (for those who work in rice fields).
- Eliminate snails, by spraying with molluscides.
- Reporting to doctor early when symptoms appear for early treatment.

Page 6 of 7
Page 7 of 7