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MATHEMATICAL BASIS OF THE FOOTWEAR LAST DESIGN USING REVERSE

ENGINEERING

Article  in  Теорія та методика фізичного виховання · January 2020

DOI: 10.18372/2415-8151.16.14332

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 THE MATHEMATIC BASICS OF DEVELOPING A
3D SHOE LAST SHAPE USING THE REVERSE
ENGINEERING METHOD
T. Lypskyi, Ph.D. student
L. Chertenko, Ph.D. in Engineering Science, associate professor
S. Harkavenko, D.Eng.Sc, professor
Kyiv National University of Technologies and Design
Kyiv, Ukraine

Problem statement. Modern approach to designing shoe

shapes is focused on specialized powerful 3D graphics systems that
allow performing many operations related to modeling the surface of
a last. In this, the reverse engineering method is generally used, when
a certain basic shape, which is deformed and modified according to a
given purpose, is taken as the foundation of a future last.
In this case, the main difficulty lies in finding a compromise
between the correspondence of the last parameters to foot
measurements and perfect design solutions. This problem is
especially relevant in the field of custom-made footwear as in this
case, manufacturers produce impressive and elegant shoes according
to the customer's foot parameters.
Designing a shape with the help of reverse engineering
involves the use of a basic last [1], from which it is possible to obtain
the required shape by applying a set of 3D modeling graphical
features. Due to the fact that the base of initial shapes is quite
limited, it is often necessary to modify the initial last in different
ways using various features.
There is still no scientifically grounded method for designing a
fashion shoe last based on customer’s foot parameters in the CAD
software environment.
The automation of the process of designing shoes and fittings
has been widely used in the field of manufacturing sports shoes and
comfortable shoes, among others. For designing orthopedic footwear,
CAD/CAM technologies are introduced at well-equipped European
enterprises, while in our country, the use of the innovative systems
and advanced equipment is extremely limited due to their
expensiveness and low customers’ payment capacity. The most
difficult task is the automation of design processes for the
development of 3D shapes of shoes and equipping enterprises related
to the field of manufacturing custom-made shoes. This is caused by
the following:
- Complexity of organizing project-related processes because of
the wide variety of shapes and parameters of feet, each of which
must have a separate shape of the last corresponding to it;
- Absence of scientifically grounded methodology and
recommendations on designing the shapes of custom-made lasts
(not orthopedic ones);
- Impossibility of repeated production of lasts for each customer
in case of negative experience.
In Ukraine, in addition to the above factors, such reason as the
high price of specialized computer systems and additional equipment
is also relevant. However, the field of production of custom-made
footwear is very promising from an economic point of view in terms
of development, modernization, and introduction of the latest
technologies since lately, more and more people have been turning to
the ateliers manufacturing custom-made shoes because of the lack of
possibility to satisfy their needs with ready-made mass-produced
shoes. Customers, among which there are many middle-class and
upper-middle-class people, need shoes that are made on the basis of
individual foot measurements, have original design, etc. With this,
the main element that ensures the quality of the ordered shoes is a
shoe last.
The analysis of recent studies and publications. Many
contemporary scientists from the United Kingdom, Spain, Japan,
China, Hong Kong, etc. set complex tasks related to computer-aided
design of 3D shapes of lasts based on individual foot parameters in a
computer graphic environment. In their scientific works, it is
suggested to select from the base of the scanned lasts the one that is
as similar as possible to a customer's foot in terms of physical
parameters, and then to modify it until the required shape is obtained
[2, 3]; to compare customer's foot with the standard foot model,
which served as the basis for the development of the required design
of the last, and to make the necessary modifications to the shape of
the last [4]; to use a modification grid to calculate the necessary
adjustments to the shape of the last based on modifications that were
made to the shape of the standard foot model to adjust it to the
parameters of the studied foot [5]; to use the discrepancy card to
determine the correspondence of the last [6]. In this, the main focus
is on the development of the ways to determine the most fitting (in
terms of its parameters) shape of the last, which will serve as the
base for designing a new customized last. However, to implement
this approach, there must be a huge electronic database of virtual
lasts at the enterprise, which is not always possible. Apart from that,
none of the works provides detailed recommendations for adjusting
the parameters of the basic last for the construction of a new
customized shape. As practice shows, this is the greatest problem.
Objective. This paper aims to develop an algorithm for the
method of designing a new custom-made last shape in a graphical 3D
environment, as well as devise a mathematical model of its
modification in accordance with the basic parameters of the foot and
the design.
Main Body
Complex and irrational 3D shape of the last can be represented
in a digital form as a polygonal model or a grid of rational bicubic
splines. The initial information for their construction is obtained with
the help of specialized devices (3D scanners) and it comprises a
point cloud in 3D space.
Designing a last with the help of reverse engineering involves
scanning of the initial last, from which a new one will be obtained by
performing certain modifications of the shape of the basic last. Such
modifications can be mathematically described as geometric
transformation matrices. Most often, such functions as moving,
rotating, scaling, etc. are used for this.
Each point of the last surface (xi, yi, zi) corresponds to the
point in 4D space (xi, yi, zi, 1), and to realize the main modifications,
we will use the matrices with the dimension of 4 ˟ 4. The matrix of
displacement from the point (x0, y0, z0) to the point (x, y, z) is as
follows:
1 0 0 x  x0
0 1 0 y  y0
T (1)
0 0 1 z  z0
0 0 0 1

The scaling matrix is also constructed based on a three-

dimensional matrix:
 Kx 0 0 0
0 Ky 0 0
S (2)
0 0 Kz 0
0 0 0 1
Кх is the factor of scaling the shape along the X axis;
Ку is the factor of scaling the shape along the Y axis;
Кz is the factor of scaling the shape in terms of height along the Z
axis.
The matrix of rotation with respect to the OY axis at angle α is
as follows:
cos  0 sin  0
0 1 0 0
Ry  (5)
 sin  0 cos  0
0 0 0 1

In the process of last deformation with the aim of modifying

its design in accordance with the parameters of the height of the heel
lift in 3D environment, it is necessary to apply a set of the following
transformations:
M = T ・ (R・ (T−1)) (6)
Then, the matrix of modifying the last when rotating its heel
part around the axis passing through the center of the inner ball will
be as follows:
cos  0 sin   x cos   z sin   x
0 1 0 0
M (7)
 sin  0 cos  x sin   z cos   z
0 0 0 1

Practical experience of designing a new last for manufacturing

custom-made shoes using the basic shape and reverse engineering
method dictates the following sequence of steps and calculations:
1) Obtaining initial information for design by scanning the foot
and the last (file containing 3-D coordinates of surface points);
 2) Measuring basic length, width, and girth parameters of the
foot and the last including Lf, Ll-b, Wf, Wl-ball, Gf, Gl-ball (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1 Major Geometric 3D Parameters of a Shoe Last

3) Calculation of the theoretical parameters of a last based on

the foot, taking into account all the necessary requirements and
factors (Llast-theory, Glast-theory).
4) Comparison of theoretical parameters and the parameters of
a physical last.
5) Analysis of the shape of the last to check for compliance
with the order and design requirements.
6) Editing the dimensions of the last in terms of length, width,
and height.
7) Adjusting the height of the heel lift (Hh) (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2 The Parameters of Modification of the Last Shape When

Changing the Height of the Heel Lift
Where Nm – the shoe last size according to metrical system. Nm=Lf (240, 245, 250,
255, ……), mm
8) Modification of the individual sections of the last shape in
accordance with the peculiarities of customer's foot structure.
9) Checking last parameters for compliance with the foot
parameters and design requirements.
10) Adjusting the shape of the last according to the type of shoes
and technological requirements of production.

The process of calculating theoretical parameters of the last is

based on the parameters of the foot and it takes into account the
features of biomechanics and physiology of a foot [7].
Theoretical calculation of the length of the last bottom surface
for adult population groups is as follows:

Llasttheory  L f  Р  S  L f  Р1  Р3  S (8)
where Lf is foot length,
Р1 is the overmeasure for the increasing length of the foot when
walking;
Р3 is the decorative overmeasure;
S is the shift of the bottom surface in the heel part.

To further calculate the scaling factors, it is also necessary to

calculate the length of projection of the last onto the XY plane (see
Figs. 1 and 2).
Ll  XY  0.73L f  cos a1  0.27L f  Р  0.73( Ll b  Р  S )  cos a1  0.27L f  Р (9)
where Llb is the last bottom surface length measured on the physical
sample,
а1 is the angle of the last heel part lift.

When calculating girth parameters of the last (Fig. 2), foot

measurements, as well as the influence of biomechanics, physiology,
technological features of the workpiece materials, etc. are to be taken
into account. After summarizing all the factors that affect the
calculation of the parameters of the last according to the analyzed
studies, there was obtained the following formula for the theoretical
calculation of the last girth:
       
Glasttheory  G f  G f  (10)
100
where Gf is the perimeter of the foot section,
 Glast-theory is the perimeter of the corresponding last section;
ϕ is relative allowable foot compression;
φ is relative increase of girth when moving;
ε is relative stretch of the workpiece by the foot;
δ is relative value of shrinkage of the workpiece after its removal
from the last;
λ relative overmeasure for the increase of the foot size (only for
children’s lasts).

The factor of scaling the last in terms of length is calculated

based on the required increase (decrease) in the length of projection.
(0.73  cos a1  0.27) L f Lf L
КL    lasttheory (11)
( Lb l  P  S )  (0.73 cos a1  0.27) ( Lb l  P  S ) Ll b
𝐿𝑙−𝑏 is the length of the bottom surface of the last that was selected
from the base; it was calculated in software environment;
𝐿𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡−𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦 is the theoretical length of the last bottom surface that
was calculated based on foot parameters;
а1 is the angle of the last heel part lift.

The factor of scaling the last in terms of width and height is

calculated as follows:
Gballtheory
КW  (12)
Gl ball
𝐺𝑙−𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑙 is the girth of the last from the base which was measured
through the middle of the balls in software environment;
𝐺𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑙−𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦 is the theoretical girth of the last in balls; it was
calculated based on the corresponding girth of a foot.
The angle of rotation of the backpart (heel-instep part) around
the center of the inner ball is calculated as follows:
H `h Hh
a  arcsin  arcsin (13)
0.73L f 0.73L f
where Hh is the initial height of the heel lift of the basic last
Hh` is the new height of the heel lift according to the design of a
new last.

Thus, the process of modifying the shape of the last, which

was carried out in accordance with the adjustment of its basic
physical dimensions and the height of the heel lift, can be presented
in the form of an algorithm (Fig. 3).
 To calculate the resulting last deformation matrix, which
includes the scaling of the shape and rotation of the backpart (heel-
instep part), it is necessary to multiply the scaling and rotation
matrices:
Llast theory
0 0 0
Ll b cos  0 sin   x cos   z sin   x
Gball theory
T1  0 0 0˟ 0 1 0 0 =
Gl  ball  sin  0 cos  x sin   z cos   z
Gball theory
0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Gl  ball
0 0 0 1

Llasttheory Gballtheory
cos a 0 sin a  x cos a  z sin a  x
Ll b Gl ball
= Gballtheory (14)
0 0 0
Gl ball
Llasttheory Gballtheory
sin a 0 cos a x sin a  z cos a  z
Ll b Gl ball
0 0 0 1
where а is the angle of rotation of the heel part
Х = 0.73Lf is the distance to the center of the head of the first
metatarsal bone;
Z = 0.07 Lf is the height to the center of the head of the first
metatarsal bone.

This will be the final version of the resulting deformation

matrix.

Conclusions. Thus, in the work, there has been developed the

algorithm of the process of designing a new last based on the
scanned shape of the customer's foot using the reverse engineering
method. Apart from that, there was calculated the mathematical
model of the geometric modification of the complex 3D shape of the
last that is made during the design process. With this, scientifically
grounded parameters, which are built on the anthropometric structure
of the foot, were used as the basis of the algorithm and mathematical
model of last modification.
Fig. 3 The Algorithm of the Process of Designing a New Last Based on the
Parameters of the Customer’s Foot and the Basic Shape of the Last in a
Graphical 3D Environment

Prospects for future research. The proposed algorithm of the

design method should be further developed with the aim of
subsequent modification of the last shape with consideration of the
greater number of foot parameters under study, as well as obtaining
the possibility of modifying the last type. Further modification of the
last shape will involve the adjustment of its individual sections in
accordance with the peculiarities of the foot shape, as well as
structural and technological features of footwear.

References
1. Ravindra Goonetilleke The science of footwear. – 2013, Taylor
& Francis Group, 692 p.
2. Özgü Hafizoglu Özkan A Research on Footwear and Foot
Interaction through Anatomy and Human Engineering / Izmir,
2005 – 155 р.;
3. Shuping Xiong, Jianhui Zhao, Zuhua Jiang, Ming Dong (2009) A
Computer-aided Design System for Footfeature - Based Shoe
Last Customization/ Hong Kong, 2009 – рp. 11-19;
4. L. Kos and J. Duhovnik. A System for Footwear Fitting Analysis.
In Proc. International Design. Conference Design, 2002. Р. 1187–
1192;
5. M. Mochimaru, M. Kouchi, and M. Dohi. Last Customization from
an Individual Foot Form and Design Dimensions. Ergonomics, 2000
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6. A. Luximon, R. S. Goonetilleke, and K. L. Tsui. Foot
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Design and Applications, 2005, 2(1): рp. 11–18;
7. Chertenko L. P. Development of the computer technology of
designing of the inside form of footwear and details of a bottom
part. PhD thesis in speciality Technology of shoe and leather
goods. - Kiev National University of Technologies and Design,
Kiev, 2003, 190 p. (In Russian)

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