Notes on Logic

Martes, Nobyembre 19, 2013

SUPPOSITION OF TERMS
                Supposition is the property by which a term stands for a definite one of the various things it
can stand for (Bacchuber, 1957, p.230). A term can stand as a material image, as a subject or
predicate of a sentence, as something pertaining a reality, or as pertaining to something or someone in
reality.
Consider these examples:
1.       Chair has five letters.
2.       Chair is an absolute concept.
3.       Chair is a furniture.
4.       A chair is used to block the pathway.
In Example 1, “chair” stands as a material image, the word itself. In Example 2, “chair” stands
for an essence or whatness that exists only in the mind; that is because the whatness of “chair” in this
example cannot be “absolute concept” except only in the mind. In Example 3, “chair” stands for it real
essence or whatness because it tells us what the chair really is. It must be noted that in this example
the supposition of “chair” does not actually imply an actual existence of a chair. [1] In Example 4,
however, “chair” stands for an actually existing chair. Yet in all four examples, “chair” has exactly the
same meaning, signification, and definition; that is, the examples do not indicate equivocal meanings
of the term “chair”.

                Shift in suppositions of terms in reasoning will lead us into error. Thus, to avoid this kind of
error, it is important to be able to identify the supposition of a particular term in a particular
statement.
                Consider this invalid argument:
Philosophy means love of wisdom. Existentialism is a philosophy. Hence, existentialism means love of
wisdom.
                One who does not know anything about supposition will readily claim that this argument is
valid. However, deeper analysis will show that this argument is invalid. We will explain why this is so
after we discussed the kinds of supposition.

KINDS OF SUPPOSITION
A.      Material Supposition
It is the use of a term for the spoken or written sign itself, but not for what it signifies (Bacchuber,
1957, p.231). In the following examples, the supposition of “chair” is material: “Chair rhymes with
hair,” and “Chair has R as its last letter”. In all these usages, chair is really a furniture, but the fact
 that chair’s being a furniture has nothing to do with the fact chair rhymes with hair, or that its last
letter is R. Hence, in these examples we only consider the material make up of the word “chair”.

B.      Formal Supposition
Formal supposition is the use of a term not for the sign itself, but for what it signifies. In the example
“Chair is a furniture”, chair has a formal supposition because it is not the word chair that is a furniture
but what the chair signifies that is a furniture.

Types of Formal Supposition

1.       Logical Supposition
It is the use of a term for what it signifies not as it exists in the real order but as it exists only in the
mind. For example, “chair” can signify as concept, as a subject of a sentence, as inferior to the term
“furniture”, etc., but in all of these significations, “chair” does not refer to the chair in the real order
but to the chair that is a product of mental construct.
Other examples:
        Man is an absolute concept.
        Elephant is the subject of the sentence “No elephants are pink”.
        Monkey is inferior to the term mammal.

2.       Real Supposition
It is the use of a term for what it signifies in the real order. The supposition of  chair is real in the
sentence, “The chair is used to block the pathway” because it refers to something in the real order.
Other examples:
        Man is a rational animal.
        Elephant is a mammal with long proboscis.
        This monkey is a primate.
Real supposition is on one hand, either absolute or personal, and on the other hand, either essential or
accidental.
        Types of Real Supposition
a.       Absolute and Personal
A real supposition is absolute if it is used to refer to the whatness or essence as such and not to
something or someone that bears this whatness or essence. For example, in the sentence “ Man is
rational”, man refers not to anyone but to the essence of man as such.
        Other examples:
                        Elephant is a mammal with long proboscis.
                        Chair is a furniture designed as a single seat.
                        Kindness is the highest virtue.
A real supposition is personal if it is used to refer not to the whatness or essence as such but to
something or someone that bears this whatness or essence. In the sentence “The man is
rational”, man refers to someone who has the essence of “man”; hence, it is personal.
        Other examples:
                        The elephant I saw yesterday has a very long proboscis.
                        A chair is used to block the pathway.
                        These persons are innocent.
 It is very important to note that statements using terms with absolute supposition do not assert the
actual existence of the terms’ signified objects. For example, the sentence “Superman is a superhero”
does not imply the existence of Superman in reality. This is not true, however, in statements using
terms with personal supposition. For example, the statement “Superman saved Mary Jane” implies the
existence of Superman in the actual order.
b.      Essential and Accidental
A real supposition is essential if the term is predicated of essential attributes, i.e., attributes that
make a thing or a substance what it is. In the sentence “Man is rational”, man has an essential
supposition because rational is an essential attribute that makes man as man.
        Other examples:
                        The elephant is a mammal with long proboscis.
                        Chair is a furniture.
                        All men are mortals.
A real supposition is accidental is the term is predicated of accidental attributes, i.e., attributes that
do not make a thing or substance what it is. In the sentence, “A man took his seat”, man has an
accidental supposition because taking a seat is not what makes man as man.
        Other examples:
                        Elephants can be used in circuses.
                        The man has a dirty face.
                        Birds migrate from one continent to another.

Exercise (taken from Bacchuber, 1957, p.235)

Which of the kinds of supposition treated in this section are illustrated by “man” (or “men”) in
each of the following propositions?
1.       Man is a rational animal.
2.       Man is one syllable.
3.       Man is a universal concept.
4.       Man is predicable of many in exactly the same sense.
5.       Man is a creature.
6.       All men are mortal.
7.       Man is mortal.
8.       This man is mortal.
9.       Man exists and has existed for many thousands of years.
10.   Take man away from woman and all you have left is wo.
11.   Some men are singing.
12.   “Some men” is the subject of the last proposition.
13.   A man is a week and sinful creature.
14.   A man made those footprints.
15.   Man has three letters.
 [1] For another example, consider the sentence “Superman is a superhero.” The term “superman” has
the same supposition with that of Example 3; and as what we said with that example, this same
example does not imply the actual existence of its subject. However, if the sentence is “Superman
went to New York”, the supposition of “superman” here implies the actual existence of “superman”
which is the same with that of Example 4.

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%20suppositions%20of%20terms,term%20in%20a%20particular%20statement.

Definition
A definition is a statement that gives the meaning of  a term.
-          Derived from the Latin word definire which means to enclose within limits or to make boundaries or
limits
-          The boundary of a field is defined by indicating the limits within which a field is confined and
bounded which it is marked off from other fields; similarly, a term is defined by indicating the limits
within which it is used and by which it is marked off from other terms.
-          Definition is not a proposition or sentence but a term, generally a complex term.

Parts of a Definition
1.       Definiendum – the word that is defined
2.       Definiens – the phrase that explains the definiendum

Kinds of Definition
I.                    Kinds of Definition Based on Usage

A.      Lexical Definition
A lexical definition (Latin, lexis which means “word”) is the definition of a word according to
the meaning customarily assigned to it by the community of users. It simply reports the meaning which
a word already has among the users of the language in which the word occurs. A dictionary or lexicon
comprises this kind of definition.
E.g.:   Lexicon - dictionary: a reference book that alphabetically lists words and their meanings, e.g. of an ancient language
                            River -     large natural channel of water: a natural stream of water that flows through land and empties into a body of water such as
an ocean or lake

B.      Stipulative Definition
A stipulative definition is a kind of definition in which a new word or term is coined in order to
signify a meaning or object for which no word in the language has previously been given.
For example, the word selfie has been invented in order to signify a person who loves to take
picture of himself or herself.
Suppose that another living creature was found in another planet. Surely, there is no word in
our language to signify such creature. We, then, have to stipulate that the creature shall be known by
this or that particular name. Doing this means making a stipulative definition.
C.      Precising Definition
The purpose of a precising definition is to reduce the vagueness of a word. There are terms in
our language which must have precise definitions because some future actions are based on our
knowledge of them.
For example, the arguments for or against contraception requires a clear, precise, and
unambiguous definition of life of human organism because such definition implies the moral bearing of
contraception.
Other examples which need precising definitions are legal terms like “theft”, “murder”,
“private property”, “rights”, and “sovereignty” since the definition sets the condition of understanding
laws and legislative praxis.

D.      Theoretical Definition
Theoretical definitions attempt to define an object according to its true nature, and not
necessarily according to the way the word is used by a community of users.
Take, for instance, the definition of table salt as sodium chloride. Unless the persons involved
have some acquaintance with elementary chemistry, this would be a bad definition, for it would define
the familiar in terms of the unfamiliar. For those acquainted with the principles of chemistry, however,
this definition is the best one, for it reveals the real nature of salt. Other familiar theoretical
definitions are “force equals mass times acceleration,” or “light is electromagnetic energy (of a certain
range of wavelengths).” For scientific purposes, theoretical definitions are necessary and cannot be
replaced by other types of definitions. A theoretical definition answers the question, “What really is
x?” where “x” is the object whose name is to be defined.
Philosophers, too, are interested in theoretical definitions. The desire to know what is really
the nature of “human person”, “knowledge”, “existence”, “being”, “beauty” etc., tells us why
philosophy today have so many branches like Philosophy of the Human Person, Epistemology,
Existentialism, Metaphysics, and Aesthetics which endeavour to get correct theoretical definitions of
the objects just mentioned.

E.       Persuasive Definition
Some definitions are intended either mainly or at least partly to influence attitudes. Persuasive
definition, under which these definitions are categorized, incites either favourable or unfavourable
responses to the object so defined. Here are examples of persuasive definitions:
Democracy is a government of the weak, inferior race.
Democracy is a government of the people by the people for the people.
A dictator is one who achieves greatness by violence in the political sphere.
Love is only an illusion on people who do not know the difference between reality and fantasy.
Contraception is the deliberate prevention of unwanted pregnancy so that families may be able to give
the best care to their children.
Contraception is the wilful interference of God’s will so that children who would have seen the light of
day are deliberately prevented from doing so.
Persuasive is not really concerned with revealing the true nature of the concept defined but of
influencing attitude by using phrases that appeal to one’s emotion.
II.                  Kinds of Definition Based on Extension and Intension

A.      Extensional Definition
Also known as Denotative Definition, it is a way of defining a word based on giving examples of the
things or objects referred to by a term. For example, defining a computer for someone who never saw
a computer before would be utterly lacking. It is important, therefore, to show him or her a computer.
Showing a computer to describe a term “computer” is an extensional definition.
                2 Types:
1.       Definition by Example – a definition in which we list or give examples of the objects denoted by the
term
2.       Ostensive – an extensional definition which merely points out an object referred by a term.
3.       Quasi-ostensive – an extensional definition which does not only point the object referred to by the
term but also gives a description about the object being pointed out.
Extensional or denotative definitions are important especially when a term requires a
demonstration in order to be understood. For example, one cannot define “color red” without pointing
to something that is of color red.
There are, however, serious limitations of extensional or denotative definitions. One limitation
is that a person who uses this kind of definition is that he may not be able to articulate what the thing
really is because he knows only what the thing is like. Articulation of meaning is important because it
clarifies ambiguity in understanding, and more importantly, it indicates the depth of understanding a
person has of a particular term. Another reason is that extensional definitions cannot define terms that
have no extension. For instance, how can we extensionally define terms like “length”, “infinite”,
“nothingness”, “value”, etc?

B.      Intensional Definition
Also known as connotative definition or definition by comprehension, it is a way of defining a word by
giving its meaning. Giving the meaning of the term may be done through giving its etymological origin
or its synonym, or stating the essential attributes of the concept signified by the term.
4 Types:
1.       Etymological Definition - Defines a word by giving the meaning of the word or words from which it is
derived. E.g. Philosophy is derived from philos, a Greek word which means “loving,” and Sophia, which
means “wisdom”.
2.       Definition by Synonym - Defines a word by giving a synonym (either of the same language as the word
to be defined or of a different language) that is better known than the word to be defined.
E.g. anthropos means man, to confect means to put together
3.       Operational Definition – A type of intensional definition widely used in science. It defines a word or
an occurrence by stating the necessary conditions that are required in order for something to be called
such a term. It has a form “Something is X, if and only if…”
For instance, X is magnetic, if and only if, whenever any piece of iron, nickel or cobalt is placed
closed to it, it attracts the latter toward itself.
Another example: X is harder than Y, if and only if, when a point of X is drawn on the surface of Y,
X scratches Y.
4.       Definition by Genus and Difference or Real Definition – is regarded as the best type of definition
because it tells us what a thing really is. It is defining a term by giving a larger class to which the
concept signified by the term belongs (called as genus) and stating the properties that a concept has
that differentiates it from other concepts under the same genus (called as difference).
For example:
Man is a rational animal. (“Animal” is the genus because it is the larger class to which the concept
“man” belongs. “Rational” is the difference because it is what differs man from all other animals.)
Girl is a young woman. (Genus = woman; Difference = young)
Triangle is a plane figure bounded by three straight lines. (Genus = plane figure; Difference = bounded
by three straight lines)

Limits of Real Definition:

a.        Only common terms can be defined by real definition. Proper names such as names of places, things,
or people are identified rather than defined.
b.      Transcendental concepts (“being”, “thing”, “something”, and so on) cannot be defined by a strict
definition but can only be described.
c.       Supreme genera (“being”, “substance”) cannot be defined by real definition because they do not have
genus.
d.      Immediate data of experience like color, taste, smell, etc. cannot be defined by real definition.

Rules of Definition:
1.       A definition should state the essential attributes of the object being defined.
Essential attributes are attributes which make the object what it is. So, a good definition of
“X” must be able to answer the question “What really is X?”
The definition of man as a rational animal satisfies this criterion, for it tells us what man really
is. However, defining man as an animal who is capable of speech violates this rule because being able
to speak is not what makes man as “man”.

2.       A definition should be neither too broad nor too narrow.

When a definition is too broad, it might include objects which are not proper extensions of the
term, and when it is too narrow, it might exclude objects which are really extensions of the term.
For instance, if we define man as a bipedal mammal then we have to include, based on that
definition, other mammals which are also bipedal like apes. Or, if we define man as  a rational animal
with two legs, two hands, and one head, then our definition is too narrow since it would exclude
people who do not have complete legs or hands.

3.       A definition must not be circular.

This means that the definiendum must not appear in the definiens. A definition violates this
rule when the term that is supposed to be defined is used to define itself.
Examples of definition that violates this rule:
                “Sympathy” is the feeling of a person who feels sympathetic.
                “Fallacy” is an argument that is fallacious.
 A “circle” is a plane figure that has a circular shape.

4.       A definition should not be expressed in figurative, obscure and ambiguous language.
Good definitions do not use metaphor or figurative languages. The purpose of definition is to
give us clear idea of what a thing is, and using figurative language will not allow us to achieve that. No
matter how appealing such a definition, still it gives no clear idea of what it tries to define. It also
defeats the purpose of definition if we define words using other words that are more unfamiliar and
obscure.
Examples of definition that violates this rule:
                An elephant is an animal with a long prosboscis.
                A lover is someone who gives you sunshine.
                God is the alpha and the omega.

5.       A definition should as much as possible be affirmative, rather than negative.

The purpose of definition is primarily to tell us what a thing is, not what a thing is not.
Examples of definition that violate this rule:
                A plant is a living thing that is not an animal.
                A girl is a person who is not a boy.
                Life means the opposite of death.
But there are terms which are essentially negative, and a defining such terms requires negative
definition. Hence, such negative definitions do not violate this rule. Here are the examples:
                A bald person is someone who has no hair in the head.
                A mute person is someone who cannot speak.

                Nothingness is the absence of existence.

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