A Genel 2019 Energy Transit PDF

Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 22 (2019) 185–214
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Engineering Science and Technology,

an International Journal
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jestch
Review
Energy transition from molecules to atoms and photons

N. Khan a,⇑, E. Kalair b, N. Abas c, A.R. Kalair a, A. Kalair a
a
Department of Electrical Engineering, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Park Road, Islamabad, Pakistan
b
Shifa Tameer-e-Millat University, Islamabad, Pakistan
c
Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Gujrat, Hafiz Hayat Campus, Punjab, Pakistan
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Historic energy transition from fire to wire was driven by light, heat, and electricity. Fossil fuels phase and
Received 10 December 2017 form transitions from solid (coal) to liquid (oil) occurred in centuries, liquid (oil) to natural gas in several
Revised 4 March 2018 decades and natural gas to shale in a few decades. Energy transition from molecular fossil fuels to atomic
Accepted 4 May 2018
energy was driven by nuclear fission, atomic energy to photons by laser fusion, solar cells and artificial
Available online 22 August 2018
photosynthesis. Grand energy transition from wood to the wire was primarily interest and economy dri-
ven, unaware of the environmental consequences. Oil depletion, sustainability, climate change and envi-
Keywords:
ronmental issues force the scientists to inspire the stakeholders for mandatory energy transition from
Fossil fuels
Climate change
molecular fossil fuels and atomic reactors to renewable energy sources. Oil depletion geared up renew-
Renewable energy able energy transition, the discovery of shale gases accomplished the solid to gas phase transition partly
Energy cloud and nuclear fusion slowing down fast renewable energy transition policies. Evolution of extreme weather phenomenon in
the form of heat waves, hurricanes, smog, famines and floods again forced the stakeholders to resume
the renewable energy transition policies. Innovative technologies, smart grid, energy efficiency and con-
servation ideas have played their role well. Advances in solar, wind and wave energy technologies have
rendered renewable, and alternative energy sources cost competitive with fossil fuels. When renewable
energy becomes cheaper than coal and oil, the climate change deniers can have no excuse resist the
renewable energy transition. Lexus nexus is nuclear fusion and artificial photosynthesis. This paper
reviews past, present and possible nature inspired future energy transitions.
Ó 2018 Karabuk University. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC
BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
2. Grand energy transition (GET) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
3. Molecular energy sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
4. Atomic energy sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
5. Photonic energy systems (PES) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
6. Wind and water watts (WWW) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
7. Energy, Economy, and environment (EEE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
8. Efficiency, Technology, and conservation (ETC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
9. Smart energy cloud (SEC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
10. Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
11. Future work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: nasrullahk@comsats.edu.pk (N. Khan), naeemkalair@uog.edu.pk (N. Abas).
Peer review under responsibility of Karabuk University.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jestch.2018.05.002
2215-0986/Ó 2018 Karabuk University. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
186 N. Khan et al. / Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 22 (2019) 185–214
1. Introduction than an internal combustion engine. We waste 60%–70%of bio-

chemical energy due to bungling technologies, which have a lot
Energy transition definition is critical in determining the dura- of potentials to save energy. Energy conservation culture has to
tion of energy transition. Energy transition is defined as the transi- be transformed into energy conscious society through financial
tion from 5% to 80% or peaking of energy consumption for and spiritual incentives [9]. The international community donated
particular lighting, heating, cooling, transport or power service in mobile solar plants to earthquake victims in Nepal and hurricane
a specific sector [1,2]. History of British energy transitions from victims in Porto Rico as a goodwill gesture. Solar heating and cool-
the invention of key technology to 80% share of energy consump- ing gifts will reduce public reliance on power and gas utilities.
tion may vary from 50 (shortest) to 95 (average) and even 245 Energy flow study of the village family farming system in develop-
(longest) years [3]. The wind turbine was invented in 1880s and ing countries shows the annual demand of 4164 GJ to produce
solar cell in 1950s, yet it might take many decades to reach 80% 2317 GJ output in the form of biomass and food. Fuel demand is
level. This definition has room for improvement as none of the met with agricultural residues, cattle dung, and tree biomass. Per
fuels is used to produce 80% power. A suitable definition may capita, energy consumption in farming sector is 7.90 GJ/y out of
include 20–30% share of particular fuel in the global energy mix. which per capita cooking energy is 6.90 GJ/y. The shift of cooking
Energy transitions from human muscle power to horse, horse to energy load on solar thermal may significantly improve overall vil-
the railway, coal fired railway to the airplane, and electric traction lage energetic flux ecosystem. Human, animal and cropping ener-
took a few decades, not centuries. The rate of energy transition getic system efficiencies are 2.52%, 37.76% and 655.45%
towards renewable energy resources is even faster today. Technical respectively [10]. The agriculture sector in village ecosystem plays
limitations are delaying nuclear fusion, which will have even a major role due to natural rain and river waters. Motor driven
faster transition rate, once the experimental technology becomes tube wells may use public swimming pools to recover oil and
available. power expenditures. The integration of energy saving culture is
It is interesting to analyze the experience of earlier energy the first step toward grand energy transition. Wood is considered
transitions, observe currently unfolding energy transitions and a sustainable source of energy. Forests supply fuel wood and liveli-
perceive the scope of future energy transitions. Agriculture transi- hood, but forests based lifestyle is reducing jungles to cause eco-
tion from hunter gathering to domesticated ox driven ploughs took logical risks. To store CO2 in hardwood for a long time the third
thousands of years and cultivation practices from ox to oil fired world people should be given some alternative form of energy.
tractor driven ploughs and engine driven water wells took cen- Akin to biomass CO2 based fuels are also sustainable as they do
turies. More recently, the transition from ox or engine driven water not add net CO2 in the atmosphere. Conversion of CO2 into fuels
wells to electric motor driven tube wells took decades. The solar and value added products helps to cope climate change. Carbon
and wind power driven crucible water pumps are unfolding today. is being converted into blue crude using Fischer-Tropsch (FT)
Energy transition from crude to candle took a long time, compared method yet FT diesel gives off huge CO2 on combustion.
to gas and electric lights [4,5]. The technology and economy are Increase in energy demand and economy are also important fac-
drivers of energy transition. Energy transition rates are faster in tors in energy phase and form transition. The world is still stuck to
developed countries compared to developing countries. Energy fossil fuels due to lack of energy capacities in alternative low car-
transition rate depends on demand which is hard to control from bon options despite clean electricity. Local alternative options like
the supply side. Government policy initiatives may mobilize com- the geothermal energy in Iceland, hydropower in China, the solar
munities, which later may become a social norm. Better services potential in Africa, wave energy potential in UK and wind energy
and social acceptance may accelerate energy transition. The supply in Germany also play their role. The countries with huge fossil fuels
disruptions and climate change hypothesis have accelerated reserves usually have higher solar potential too. Low carbon energy
energy transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources sources are intermittent in nature, which hardly meet sustainabil-
[6]. We live in an interest driven society; if it exists, the rest is done ity requirements for high energy demand countries. Many coun-
by people. The fuel transition from oil to CNG in many countries tries have renewable energy resources but lack financial
was driven by lower prices and better millage. Taxi drivers contin- resources to harvest their free energy. A farmer can use a wind tur-
ued CNG for better millage even after the cost of petrol was equa- bine to pump the water instead of using coal fired power, but he
ted to CNG. Energy transitions are usually economy, technology, has no money to buy the turbine. All farmers in Punjab use coal
and quality driven events. Business communities often create fired power to operate their tube wells as they have no money to
lock-ins due to their vested interests, natural events, media, and buy solar cells to harvest the free potential. Utilities do not play
wise leaders break the barriers [7]. Large oil companies opposed their role in convincing farmers due to their business interests.
solar and wind at start later joined the mainstream. However, a US Department of Energy (DOE) wants to decouple economy
coalition of business and politicians or business background leader from energy by efficiency, but Jevons Paradox might be the next
may strengthen the lock-ins and reverse the decade’s long progress barrier. It is hard to imagine life without light, transport, health,
in the right direction. This problem is more severe in democratic education, fuel, and food chain systems. Shifting transport, heating
societies where opinions of Ph.D. scientists and school leavers have and cooling with solar energy can reduce 70% fossil fuels demand
the same weight. Scholars and analysts propose to fix a certain and 50% greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Giving a chance to
level of education for voters. At least local and global parliaments science and frugality can protect humankind from climate change
should debate issues before passing any general ruling against and austerity. It is argued the global energy demand can be met
widely held belief on a scientific basis. Scientists generally have with wind, water, and solar powers [11,12]. Smart grid provides
nothing to do with voters, however, the recent global political DC, AC and high frequency AC/DC hybrid bus topologies for power-
shifts have started emphasizing voters’ education and awareness. ing industrial, commercial, submarines and airplanes with wood,
Energy thrives on energy as life thrives on life. Plants and trees wind, water and solar fuels [13]. Energy transition from fossil fuels
convert sunlight into chemical energy to sustain the global food to renewable is a long journey akin to transition from woods to fos-
system. Nature uses eight photons to convert one CO2 molecule sil fuels having several inhibitory frontiers to harness [14]. Our
into chemical energy, whereas, combustion engine converts forefathers and their sire lived for tens of centuries without elec-
30%–40% chemical fuel energy into mechanical energy [8]. Energy tricity, sedans, and airliners, but, we are accustomed to the
conversion efficiency of the human body is 25%–30% that is lesser bespoke way of life. Mac and chap avail the health, education,
N. Khan et al. / Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 22 (2019) 185–214 187
media, and communication facilities never available to ancient (SIR) led to assembly lines which further accelerated the growth.
kings. Energy systems have changed from woods to fossil fuels Machine tools, automobile, rubber, glass, electricity, telegraph,
and electricity in last 300 years. Shifts from fossil fuels to hydrogen radio, and electronics industries marked a significant change. Oil
and renewable, and from uranium to plutonium can increase the and gas fired engines reduced coal fired steam engine pollutions.
usage time of fossil fuels from hundreds to thousands of years Electric motors and generators further reduced emissions. Hans
[15]. The modern way of life is a blessing of fossil fuels discoveries Christian Orsted related electricity to magnetism in 1820 and
and innovative inventions. James Clerk Maxwell (UK) connected the light to electromagnetic
Ancient energy systems consisted of animal power, wood, com- fields in 1862. The construction of first thermal power plants in
post, windmills, and waterwheels. Coal fired steam engines jump- 1882 (USA& UK) led to the production of bulk clean power. The
started the industrial revolution from 1820 to 1860 when the oil Niagara Falls hydropower station was completed in 1896. The
and gas fired internal combustion engines accelerated the growth invention of oil, gas and nuclear power plants changed the panop-
rate. Wood, coal, oil and natural gas were dirty energy sources, tic world view. Fiber optic communication networks and intelli-
yet nobody cared due to lack of ecological conscience. Electricity gent machines are weaving the threads for World Brain. Manual
lent a hand to drive out pollution and smog yet could not replace to assembly line inventions have to be transformed into automatic
due to its roots in fossil fuels. Hydro and nuclear power sources to intelligent machines. Computers have made an easy solution to
are each 6% of total global energy demand today. Oil crises in the many complex problems at the expense of decline in deep mental
1970s, due to Arab-Israel war and Iranian oil embargo, led to the thinking which is necessary to understand the big wheel of nature.
beginning of solar, wind, geothermal, bio-energy, wave and tidal Engine, electricity, automobiles, electronics, the computer, air-
power sources, which are yet <20% of global energy demand. Major planes, Genetic Code, Heart transplant, bullet trains, internet, and
energy and power innovations appeared in the 19th century, which mobile, are the breakthrough inventions of 19th and 20th cen-
provide 80% of the global energy demand today. Except for nuclear turies. The discovery of fossil fuels mediated the completion of
and solar power technologies, no fossil fuel compatible energy industrial revolutions. Major power and energy related discoveries
source has ever been invented, despite widespread education and and inventions from Stone Age to the 21st century are shown in
research facilities. Modern society is hitting the defining moment, Fig. 1.
where energy return on energy invested (EROI) has started declin- Discoveries and inventions timeline generally shows future
ing. We have to be realistic about energy, economy and the environ- innovations are bespoke versions of past contraptions. Discoveries
ment. Our planet can feed zillions of people but is unable to fulfill and inventions change social fabric and civilization. Ramble from
one person’s desires. After the climate change conscience, we all fire to wire is now transitioning from conventional to smart and
do know our fossil fuel energy systems are uncouth, yet we are liv- super smart energy networks [17]. Energy cloud prevails from the
ing like a fish that pollutes the waters wherein she lives. China and rollout of smart meters followed by replacement of major power
India are the largest Asian sharks, which pollute the atmosphere. It system elements. Solar panels would soon cover smart zero energy
is time to develop alternative sustainable, regenerative energy buildings (ZEB) to thatched roof houses. Birds will feel uneasy from
sources to say goodbye to fossil fuels as we said ta-tato electric wind farm blades and common people from food chain disruptions.
low efficiency Edison’s bulb. Bulb and fossil fuels served humanity Energy security authorities would be worried about power, gas, oil
for 137–150 years as before them wood, crude and gas lights served and water lifeline disruptions. After shale discovery, there is little
our forefathers, yet everything retires at its own turn. It is time to fear of fossil fuels depletion, and climate change threats are real.
understand sustainability for continuity of energy, sustenance and Energy is a physical property of things that can be transferred to
better risk management [16]. The fossil fuels that we are using other objects, transformed from one phase into other forms, but
today are remains of ancient zoological and biological organisms. can neither be created nor destroyed. Energy occurs in the form of
Ancient forests were converted to fossil fuels, and present living light, heat, sound, potential and kinetic forms. Chemical, nuclear,
biomasses will become verve vestiges for next generations. Ice electrical, magnetic, mechanical, gravitational, thermal and radiant
cores studies give life to dead fossils that scientists can imagine forms are examples of potential energies. The kinetic energy occurs
how climate change ended pretty plants and large animals. Are in blowing winds, ocean waves, tides and sprinting waters. Water-
the green forests and zillions of people the verve vestiges of future falls have both kinetic and potential energies due to gravity. Sun
generations? Will they burn us in future furnaces as we have com- and gravity are primary sources of energy on the planet. Woods, ani-
busted our forerunners in combustion engines? Let us stop fossil mals, and humans themselves were the most common energy
fuels and start inventing fusion driven synthetic stars. Energy tran- sources in times of yore. Waterwheel and windmill technologies
sitions chase discoveries and inventions. The industrial revolution were common in Europe and Asia, but people said goodbye to it after
is an intuitive example of fire to wire energy transition, which the discovery of fossil fuels. The Chinese were aware of coal, oil and
may undergo another change from the electric grid to smart energy gas yet Europe came to know of Asian Sciences in the middle ages.
networks in few decades. Future consumers might become able to Europe started replacing wood with coal in the 1600s and America
connect from one country to another using pulsed energy networks started using coal in 1748, gas in 1821 and oil in 1859 [18]. America
akin to telecommunication systems and internet connections. joined the race late, due to its late discovery. Europe and America
The wood drove first industrial revolution (1750–1840) and have introduced world with electricity, which changed the whole
later coal fired steam engines. First industrial revolution (FIR) energy scenario. Stone Age did not end due to a shortage of stones
flourished iron, textile, cement, chemicals, agriculture, canals, fer- rather coming of new tools and technologies. It needs to shine light
tilizers, papers, mining, transport, roads, and railway industries. the dark spreads automatically. The Stone Age has not ceased, it
FIR delivered prosperity to society at the expense of environmental lurks around us, and might appear when we run short of energy
pollution. Agriculture and richness led to rampant growth in pop- resources. America realized the return of energy crises, during oil
ulation and construction of factories led urbanization in Europe. embargos in the 1970s, so wisely decided to launch the third indus-
This immense change frightened social scientists return to poverty trial revolution for energy independence which led to widespread
due to an exponential rise in population. Luddites started opposing research and adoption of solar, wind and wave technologies.
industrialization for fear of new. Discovery of oil and the invention Science has become a civilization which is intimately rooted in
of electricity laid down the basis of the second industrial revolu- energy saving culture. The way we produce and consume energy is
tion (1840–1914), which improved steel production by replacing unsustainable. Energy transition research involves a change in
the hot blast with Bessemer process. Second industrial revolution social behaviors, processes, technologies, and systems. A popular
Fig. 1. Energy related intuitions, discoveries and inventions.
three domains structure of energy-climate transition may include Blood power was the main source of energy before the advent of
satisfaction, optimization and transformation of resources [19]. fire. Average adult human power is 150 W which may be as high as
Way forward is smarter choices, cleaner products, and processes, 900 W for a few seconds [21]. The human body converts food into
innovations and infrastructures. Human society has always been energy at 25% efficiency. Average human body energy demand is
changing from inefficient anemic to efficient, potent energy 100 W which may vary with the type of activity. A sleeping person
sources. Electricity and hydrogen energy carriers not energy consumes minimum 81 W, and sprinting man expends 1630 W.
sources like coal, gas, oil and wood. Hither to onward is a defining Average racer consumes 1048 W on long race yet a sitting man
moment to stay stuck in the goo of fossil fuels or set out on a splen- needs expends only 116 W [22]. Average powers of an ox, buffalo,
did journey of climate friendly green energy sources. It is wise to horse, donkey, mule, and camel are 450, 520, 500, 200, 400, and
transfer all power and transport energy demands to solar, wind, 650 W respectively. Ox, horse or camel driven generators supply
water, wave and bio-energy resources while expending efforts to more competitive electricity than conventional fossil fuel power
harness hot and cold fusion technology. Failure of earlier Z plants [23]. Simple systems may be used to charge BEV, HEV, PHEV,
machine and recent laser NIF may be revisited searching potential and PEV on off grid remote roads. Two oxen driven generator may
alternatives. Goods, no matter what way these come, change the take a couple of hours to charge 150Ah battery. Handheld high
human mindset. Resonant rumblings on abundance (Infinite Fossil power battery chargers are under extensive research for electric
Fuels) decelerate great energy transition move from old time vehicle application worldwide [24]. Energy requirements for hand
smelly dead leftovers to aromatic environment friendly regenera- tools are reported in the literature. The energy flux of a typical agri-
tive energy sources. We often stick to panoptic rather than the cultural economy based village may vary from 315 to 350 kW [25].
panoramic perspective and repletion, not depletion is reminiscent Agriculture sector drives the overall village energy flux. Human
of this mindset. Nobody wants doomsday type calamities, yet muscle and animal power have traditionally played a major role
ground realities also cannot be ignored. Rampant earthquakes, in village energy ecosystem. Small scale devices like barrow, carts,
island emergences, oasis creations, flash floods, heat waves, fami- and livers multiply energy capacities. A common person cannot do
nes, weather extremities and climate changes have a macrobiotic much using muscle power, but he can do a lot using intellectual
link with the burning of fossil fuels [20]. It is time take bold deci- capability. Human, cycle and ox cart transport capacities are
sion else nature might do the same very ruthlessly. Human health, 0.12, 0.48 and 3.20 tons-km/h respectively [26]. Energy transport
culture, civic values and economies depend on environment and and storage facilities are increasing in number, size, and capacity
types of energy resources. over time.
Fig. 2. History of power scale (in kW) [28].
A 40 W photovoltaic system costs $70, and manual pump costs being intelligent machines can do what modern technology is
only $63 [21]. Human mobility, skin potential, respiration and unable to deliver. It is better to educate all to become a useful
body heat are mechanical, electrical, chemical and thermal forms member of society. Everybody must have enough to fill the abdo-
of energy produced by people. A common person needs 0.3 W to men and quench the thirst. If we do not change our way of life,
push a button, 6 W to squeeze a generator and 100 W to ride a then nature may change its way of work to transit to a new equi-
bicycle. TV remote and cell phone consume 100 mW and 2 W pow- librium. It is time to reconcile between humanity and planet how
ers. The laptop needs 10 W and TV needs 50–100 W (Jansen 1999). to fight climate change, prevent energy wars and revitalize the
Micro biofuel, kinetic, magnetic induction, piezoelectric and economy by mediating the energy transition [31]. Perhaps, it is
thermo-electric energy converters have been reported to meet time for a great energy transition from fossil fuels to solar and
instrument devices from 1 to 3 W [22]. Foot pressure powered wind energy sources [32]. Massive economy, population, climate
dielectric elastomers [27] and inductive devices produce enough change, energy and power scales require global task forces to engi-
electricity to charge mobile and smart watches during walking, neer the solution. Renewable energy experts recommend Thorium
jogging and cycling. A spherical generator with circular magnets plants [33], food experts suggest Super foods [34], computer scien-
can convert hand, leg, arm, head and body movements into elec- tists propose smart grids [35], and electrical engineers advise to go
tricity [28]. Human movement converter devices may use 3–4 V for Super grid [36] to tackle, both, power and energy transition
60–70 mAh DC batteries to electricity. Smart boots, watches and problems. IEEE has launched a campaign for HVDC grid instead
clothes are common in the market. Piezoelectric and dielectric of EHVAC grids to transform transmission systems to future Super
elasticity energy harvesters can be used in support gyms and busy grid vision based on hydrogen and distributed renewable energy
traffic roads. Energy and power capacity are on the constant rise sources [37]. Lexus nexus in power industry is to integrate floating
today. Evolution of power sources from CE 0000 to CE 2015 is power plants to existing HVAC and HVDC grids through low fre-
shown in Fig. 2. quency AC (LFAC) submarine cables [38].
Power scales vary from 1 W (flashlight) to 1 kW (kettle), 1 MW
(industry), 13GW (New York City), 23TW (global energy demand),
90TW (photosynthesis), 89PW (solar flux), 3EW (solar corona), 2. Grand energy transition (GET)
5YW (Tsar Bomba) and 5x1034W (lighting in our galaxy) [29].
Our universe consists of 68% dark energy and 32% other forms of Energy transition from conventional fossil fuels to renewable
energies. Energy transition is always taking place around us in and alternative energy sources is underway worldwide. This
one or other form. Pedal powered sewing machines, juicers, gob- energy transition is perceived as the 4th industrial revolution after
lins, dynapods bicycles already initiated the energy transitionin fossil fuels, electricity and information technology. Energy issues,
power crises hit countries [30]. The end of oil does not mean an barriers and transition challenges have been documented well in
end of electricity the man can use the technology to convert the literature [39]. The policy framework for the energy transition
human and animal power into electricity. In the worst case, we depends on socio-energy systems designs [40]. The energy transi-
might have to run the crank to charge batteries to watch TV shows. tion policy cannot succeed without public acceptance and partici-
Biomass, animal, and human power can sustain the normal life pation [41]. Supply of sustainable power and energy to
without polluting the environment. The central frequency associ- communities in future depends on the initiatives we take today
ated with human movement is 8 Hz, which is close to natural [42]. German experience shows grassroots initiatives affect the
7–8 Hz frequencies [31]. The closer we live to nature the better it is. local energy transition policy [43]. As a result of energy transition
The energy cost is the driving momentum behind all revolution- implementation in Europe top twenty power supply utilities have
ary, radical and militant campaigns. A man on the road may be of lost the business of $500 billion. Power and gas shortfalls in Pak-
no use to anybody yet he can kill many by killing himself. Humans istan have led to consumer switch over to solar energy. Pepco
was facing serious power deficits in 2011–2012 but since 2014 The Chinese started using coal and gas for heating in 3000BC and
utility sale decreased due to public solar adoption practices. Load 200BC. The Mesopotamians used crude for street lighting, which
shedding in the hot summer and gas shortfalls in chilly winter Arabs continued in the middle ages. Eternal fires were being wor-
force people look for alternative options. Energy transition move- shipped in Caucasus none dared to explore their genesis. Muslim
ments have started from India, China [44], Kenya [45] to Tanzania science sowed the seeds of science from 800 to 1300AD [49].
and Mozambique [46]. IbneHissum first time investigated a light in 1000 s. Europe started
Fire and wire were the first and last innovative inventions of using coal in 1600AD and powering steam engines in 1700AD.
human society. The journey from fire to wire and then to the wire- Europeans learnt Arab technologies during Crusade wars which
less power system is a continuing endeavor. Coal, oil, and gas were helped them starting institutionalization, Renaissance, enlighten-
under their feet and static electricity overhead yet it took them ment, scientific and industrial revolutions. Europe started the gas
more than 90 to 100 centuries in discovering fossil fuels and street lighting during the first industrial revolution and electric
inventing electricity. Nature continues undergoing ephemeral, street lighting in the 1970s. History of the great energy transition
periodic, decadal, and millennial changes over time. It takes sec- from fire to wire during the last 300 years is shown in Fig. 3.
onds to change attitudes, minutes to change weathers, hours to Coal, oil and combustible gases are solid, liquid and gas phases
change day into night, months to change summer into winter, of energy. Electricity and hydrogen are energy carriers not energy
years to engineer a way of life, decades to oceanic oscillations, cen- sources like heat and light. Energy experts regard fossil fuels also
turies to change the climate and millenniums to change civiliza- energy carriers as the ultimate source of energy on earth is a sun
tions [47]. Humankind has spent hundreds of centuries without which drives wind and water cycles [50]. Sun shines 89PW power
electricity. In long fire to wire journey, the woods, animals and on earth, and we squander 85TW daily by wasting 1.3 billion tons
humans themselves remained the primary energy sources. Five cooked foods worldwide. We are now 7.2 billion with 1.92 toe per
extinctions have occurred in the remote past and sixth major capita average energy demands that amount to 13.7Gtoe in 2015
extinction is underway. Over 400 backbone species have disap- [51]. The concept of energy transition means the steady replace-
peared in last 200 years and humans also fall in the same category. ment of dominant unviable energy sources with innovative popu-
Earlier buried plants and animals metamorphosed into coal (exo- lar energy sources. To let initiate transition process, it is important
genic) and oil or gas (endogenic) fuels. Fossil fuels were once living to engender a feel for change and stimulate it if exists already. To
species like plants and animals around so the current living species enable transition, it is de rigueur to challenge the dominant pro-
would be fossil fuels for next generations. If we use fossil fuels, duct on health, environment or economic grounds. Climate change
then nature would have to expedite disasters to maintain the nat- and oil depletion have already defied fossil fuels next is a matter of
ural sustainability of the fuel cycle. If we look at oil patterns on the alternative options. It is argued that we need a continuous energy
water, they resemble plants and animals. Perhaps they stretch supply, but renewable energy sources are intermittent and pricey.
themselves to tell us they were living species like us in the distant However, European wind and solar energy experience have shown
past, but we do not understand their symbols like their writings its feasibility under the free market tenets. We have to undergo
which were common talking knots in their times. The fossil and liv- transition before the end of fossil fuels. If we use alternative
ing fuels matter reduces to extinct and extant fuels. The role of liv- sources, then same reserves can go for several centuries. Coal has
ing fuels is to keep out of fossil fuels business as the business of become an outcast in most energy mixes except the USA, China,
government is to keep itself out of business. It is a bad mileage and India, where pariah is practiced [52]. To ensure the energy
as 98 tons of ancient animals give off just one gallon oil [48]. We phase and form transitions researchers propose to enforce
give $5.3 trillion subsidies to burn fossil fuels yet claim to be seri- metafrontier Luenberger indicator for environmentally sensitive
ous about climate change. Our romp and chomp on fossil fuels growth [53]. US utility industry has injected $4120 billion in the
mandate to nowhere. We burn our elders and our descendants will last 25 years on clean coal technologies. February 13 is labeled as
burn us. Why not stop this business by a good transition to renew- global divestment day advocating fossil free energy systems. The
able energy fuels. Global fossick led the human race to the discov- global primary energy supply of 13.5GTOE consists of 31% oil,
ery of ossuaries of dinosaurs and plants in the form of coal, oil and 29% coal, 21% gas, 10% bio, 5% nuclear4, 2% hydro and 2% renew-
gas. Coal and gas fires were known and regarded as eternal fires. able energies. Global electricity supply of 23.5 PWh consists of
Fig. 3. Great energy transition from fire to the wire.

Fig. 4. Global primary energy and electricity supply systems [54].
Urban energy transition can help farmers rely on solar pumps,

wind lights and ethanol fueled tractors [57]. After learning fire con-
trol humankind started getting energy by burning woods to warm
their bodies in winter and cook the animal hunts. Wood, coal, oil
and gas are molecular forms of fuels. Energy transition from molec-
ular, gravitational and nuclear sources to photonic fuels is shown
in Fig. 5.
Ancient people used waterwheels and windmills to harvest the
potential energy of waterfalls and wind gusts. Southeast Asian
countries have built hundreds of dams on the Indus, Ganges,
Yangtze and Darya basins in Pakistan, India, China and the Central
Asian States. Himalayan glaciers are natural mid pole to drive
water and the food chain for largest population cluster on the pla-
net. Tidal power plants in coastal regions produce lots of power
[58]. The kinetic energy of wind and waves is converted into useful
power. Indus waters, for instance, can power hundreds of hydel
stations billions of land acres to drive power and food cycles which
by insincere uphill states policies can lead to water wars. Nature
has taught us collective survival by the collective wisdom it is up
to us to comply or not. A global brain can sort out a solution to cli-
mate change, population, and oil depletion issues yet it needs
Fig. 5. Great energy transition (GET) from molecules, gravity, and gluons to coherent collective wisdom. Nuclear energy is being produced
photons.
using a fission process and efforts are underway to harness fusion
process. Artificial photosynthesis is yet another challenge to pro-
coal, gas, oil, nuclear, hydro, bio, wind, and other sources shown in duce cheap energy. There are abundant multiple sources of energy
Fig. 4. on earth. The transition from one source to another is a matter of
European top twenty utilities are scared of solar, wind and determination. Accessible fossil fuels and renewable energy
water watts due to their zillion dollars economic losses arising sources are given in Table 1.
out of the lesser capacity operation of conventional power plants World leaders have agreed to replace gradually use of fossil
[55]. Engineers wanted to solve their peak shaving solutions which fuels with renewable energy resources due to looming climate
might lead to the utilities death spiral. A demand drop of 0.40% in change crisis. We need to ensure keeping in mind increasing
2011–12 and 1.40% in 2012–2013 was noted in PEPCO when energy demand, whether sustainable fossil, nuclear and renewable
power crises wretched consumers started solar and wind power energy mix can supply 1000EJ by 2050 [59]. Global primary energy
options [56]. Utilities sales are declining worldwide due to public consumption projections are estimated to be 609–677EJ by 2020,
transitions to off-grid homegrown power sources. Pakistan is add- 666–807EJ by 2030 [60], 616–674EJ by 2020, 701–847EJ by 2030
ing 50 MW on and offshore wind and 100 MW solar desert power and 846–1151EJ by 2050 [61]. Photonic, geothermal and tidal
plants into the national grid at 132 kV level after every 19–20 resources seem to be the ultimate sources of energy on the planet.
months. This struggle is to fulfill political promise to end load Geothermal and gravity based tidal energy sources are a minor
shedding by 2017 yet in coherence with global energy transition. fraction of solar flux powering the planet. It is wise to tie to light
Table 1 joules, but it converts humidity into fresh water, which is an

Global energy reserves on the planet. energy intensive commodity.
Fossil Fuels Renewables
Reserves TWy Resources TW/Yr
3. Molecular energy sources
Coal 900 Solar 23,000
Oil 240 Wind 25–70
Fossil fuels are molecular sources consisting of coal, oil, natural
N/Gas 215 Biomass 4.5
Uranium 90–300* Hydro 3.5 gas, and shale. Buried organic materials in oxygen free conditions
Manpower 262.8 Geothermal 0.3-2 under high pressure and temperatures convert into coal, oil, and
Brute power 525.6 Wave 0.2-2 gas. Reducing conditions in coastal and land swamps transform
Dark Energy Infinite Tidal 0.3
organic matter into coal. Accumulation of organic matter under
*
Manpower was calculated by multiplying population with 100 W and 365 days. land or marine mud under the ocean floor under reducing
TWy instead of TWh. conditions converts into shale. The buried organic matter at
100–300 °C converts into oil under thermal maturation. Oil
migrates from source rock to reservoir rock with the trap. If the
knots from UUV to FIR photons, super photons and photonic mole- temperature is more than 300 °C the oil molecules break to form
cules for brighter future. Deep focus shows the fossil fuels are also natural gas. In case of too high temperature, the natural gas is con-
a form of archaic stored solar energy. Renewable energy costs were verted into CO2 [64]. Extraction and consumption of oil and gas
higher earlier, but now comparable to conventional sources. Leve- also produce CO2, which is likely to be the end product of fossil
lized costs of wind, biomass, geothermal, solar photovoltaic and fuels buried deep in earth layers. On ignition, the carbon atoms
thermal are shown in Fig. 6. in coal, oil, and gas react with air to form H2O and CO2. Diesel
Renewable energy is free in nature, yet it needs huge invest- molecules consist of 16 carbon and 18 hydrogen atoms. Gasoline
ment to harvest it. The levelized costs were unaffordable few dec- molecules consist of 8 carbon and 18 hydrogen atoms. Coal con-
ades but now are competing for conventional sources except solar sists of carbon atoms with some impurities. On combustion, carbon
energy. Photovoltaic generation costs are expected to reach produces more CO2 than all other fossil fuels. Natural gas, gasoline
10 ¢/kWh by 2020. Solar thermal costs might fall below wind and diesel molecules consist of 1–3, 4–10 and 11–18 carbon atoms.
power to 5 ¢/kWh in 2020. Fossil fuels electricity costs are rising Molecular structures of common fossil fuels are shown in Fig. 7.
with the passage of time and are most likely to surpass solar c-Si Hydrocarbon chemical energy is seated in their HC bonds. The
PV costs between 2015 and 2017 [63]. reaction of carbon molecules with oxygen and nitrogen releases
Energy transition is a slow process taking decades and cen- its chemical energy. Energy capacities of fossil fuels are shown in
turies. Earlier generations saw energy transition from molecules Table 2.
(fossil fuels) to heavy atoms (nuclear fission and electricity) and Direct coal, oil and gas combustions in transport and industrial
our generation is seeing energy transition from molecules (fossil sectors produce half of CO2, which is emitted by electricity gener-
fuels) and heavier atoms (uranium nuclear fission) to lighter atoms ation sector. More that 14–15 Gt of CO2 is emitted annually from
(hydrogen nuclear fusion) and photons. Materials industry is coal power generation which is 47–48% of global CO2 emissions.
developing solar cells capable of harvesting UV as well as IR radi- Each molecule of petrol and diesel fuels produces 8 carbon and
ations, in addition to visible light to increase solar cells’ efficiency. 18 CO2 molecules. Natural gas due to fewer atoms produces the
Drivers of energy transitions include cheaper, better and environ- least number of CO2 molecules. Only 324 g of petrol yield 1 kg of
ment friendly services in addition to social acceptance. The long CO2 and one liter of petrol produces 1268 L of CO2. The burning
journey from fire to wire is converging into waves, gluons, photons, of one 50 L tank of petrol produces 63,400 L (63.4 m3) of CO2
and phonons. Nothing goes waste in natural world and nature (Leslie, 2008). The exothermic reaction of petrol with air in the
inspired innovations are extracting energy from fields, vibrations, engine produces heat, CO2, CO, H2, NO and H, O and N atoms.
waves, and phonons. Air well does not convert wind power into Emission of SO2 depends on the percentage of sulfur in oil. Diesel
Fig. 6. Levelized costs of renewable energies [62].

Fig. 7. Molecules of diesel, petrol and methane gases [65].
Table 2 There is a lot of oil deep in the earth; however, it is more expensive
Fossil fuels energy capacities. to drill deeper to siphon it out. Energy returned on energy invested
Fuels Discovered kg CO2/kWh (EROI) determines the viability of the energy business. EROI values
Coal 1600s 0.37
of coal, gas, and oil are 80, 30 and 25 today. Shale oil and gas have
Petrol 1859 0.27 higher EROI values than conventional oil and gas.
Diesel 1860s 0.24 Global combustion of 513 billion tons of fossil fuels, from 1700
LPG – 0.24 to 2017, has led to about 1250 billion tons of CO2eq emissions
Gas 1870s 0.23
[68]. Rampant rise in GHG emissions is viewed as an unfolding
Wood Stone Age 0.39
threat to climate change, ocean acidity, global warming and envi-
ronmental pollution. Energy transition from molecules (coal, oil,
and petrol have higher emissions than natural gas. Global CO2
gas, and shale) to atoms (nuclear fission and fusion) and photons
emissions were 11.746 GTCO2 in 1970s, 20.34 GtCO2 in 1985,
(renewable energy resources) has enormous potential regarding
23.485 GtCO2 in 1995, 29.479 GtCO2 in 2005, and nearly 40 GTCO2
reducing social costs on heating, cooling, health, crops and prop-
today [66].
erty losses.
The term ‘‘Energy Transition” refers to the paradigm shift of
energy policy and sustainable system development using renew-
able energy phasing out the fossil fuels. The global energy mix 4. Atomic energy sources
consists of 87% fossil fuels, 6% nuclear and 7% renewable energy
sources. According to EIA energy report of 2006, the oil, coal and Heavy atoms like uranium release energy by fission and lighter
gas proportions in the global energy mix are 38%, 26%, and 23% atoms release energy by fusion. Atoms are viewed as a symbol of
respectively. Renewable energy resources encompass 6% bulk peace, energy, and life. Nuclear fission technology was harnessed
hydropower and 1% solar, geothermal, wind, wood, wave and tidal in the 1950s, yet nuclear fusion is still under investigation. Laser
energy sources [60]. Wood is a renewable energy source as new induced fusion energy (LIFE) project was initiated to harvest solar
trees can replace old woods. A renewable energy source doesn’t energy generation technologies in the USA. Nuclear energy is
mean at all it produces no greenhouse gases. A renewable energy regarded as a renewable energy resource due to enriched capabil-
source can be toxic, hazardous, or environmentally catastrophic. ity after depletion. Coal to oil conversion technology was invented
A renewable source can’t be used up because it can be recreated during WW-1, and nuclear technology was developed during WW-
quickly again. Fossil fuels and nuclear aren’t renewable because II. Atoms were hailed for power production and propulsion under
these fuels were created zillions years ago. Wood, ethanol, biodie- ‘‘atom for peace” program. The American Atomic Energy Commis-
sel, agricultural waste, and methane from cows have considered sion (AEC) demonstrated first 200 kW smart nuclear reactor LMFBR
renewable despite these fuels generate plenty of carbon dioxide in 1951.The Soviet Union built 5 MW Obninsk Nuclear Power reac-
and airborne pollutants. tor in 1954. US Navy steamed nuclear submarine (USS Nautilus) in
According to BP Report of 2009, the proved coal, oil, and gas 1955. The UK demonstrated first large scale 50 MW nuclear reac-
reserves are 19.8, 8.1 and 8.2 ZJ which can full energy needs for- tor, Calder Hall, in 1956. The first 2 MW portable nuclear reactor,
next several decades. The term oil-peaking and depletion means Alco PM-2A, was reported by the USA in 1960.
a situation when production cost approaches selling price [67]. Nuclear fuel used in reactor for power production has 3–5%
According to IEA a sum of $523 billion is spent on subsidies every fissionable U-235 and 95.8% U-238 which is not enough for a con-
year. Actual fossil fuel cost is higher, so $131, $104, $285 and $3 ventional nuclear explosion, which requires over 90% U-235 and
billion subsidies are given on electricity, gas, oil, and coal energies. 10% U-238 [69]. Principle nuclear reaction starts with 3 to 5% of
Solar, wind and nuclear energies are fast approaching oil prices. U-235 in the reactor, and a large portion of U-238 (95–97%) is
not fissionable. Fertile U-238 after absorbing neurons gradually power producers having 28%, 18% and 12% of global nuclear power
converts to plutonium 239 which being fissionable adds to output capacities as their combined power generations account for 58% of
power. When U-235 depletes to the natural limit of 0.7% the global nuclear power capacities [61].
nuclear fuel is considered depleted that halts operation. Nuclear Nuclear power technology is considered a civilian energy tech-
explosion grade highly enriched fuel is placed in compact vessels, nology yet many countries try to produce missiles instead of mega-
whereas low enriched uranium is spread in fuel pellets in a nuclear watts. Nuclear technology was developed for military aspiration
reactor [70]. Nuclear reactor grade uranium cannot explode like a but was found even more useful for power generation and propul-
nuclear bomb. In case of nuclear meltdown the radioactive mate- sion applications. Nuclear reactor accidents like windscale (level 5)
rial tunnels through housing finding way into the ground under- in 1957, Mayak (level 6) in 1957, Three Mile Island (level 5) in
neath. Potential dangers of meltdown noted in Chernobyl, Three 1979, Chernobyl (level 7) in 1986, Kariwa (level 3–4) in 2007 and
Mile Island and lately in Fukushima was horrible yet not as much recent Fukushima (level 7) in 2011 tarnished public opinion on
severe as a fraction of the real nuclear explosion [71]. nuclear energy policies but energy experts find energy benefits to
A nuclear reactor initiates and sustains nuclear chain reaction to hazards ratio within acceptable range. Secure power plant opera-
produce heat. Nuclear power plants, akin to thermal power station includes neutronics (fuel temperature, uncertainty, operations
tions, use heat to drive steam turbine coupled electric generator. and data files), thermo-hydraulic (coolant temperature, pressure,
A fissile uranium atom (235U) undergoes nuclear fission to produce residual heat removal and boiling capacities) and safeguards mat-
92
Kr, 141Ba, and three neutrons, which repeat the same process for ters such as fuel, concentration, structure, accidents and operator
triggering a chain reaction. Graphite (20%), light (75%) and heavy errors) akin to all other plants. Japan initially declared to suspend
(5%) water moderators are used to slow down neutrons. Some of and phase out all nuclear power plants but later resumed her
the fission products (poisons), such as 135Xe reach maximum nuclear power generation capacities. Many countries like
within ten hours and absorb neutrons to quench the chain reaction Germany, who had declared to abandon nuclear power plants,
but high input leads to eventual thermal equilibrium after 40–50 h, are reviewing their decisions. The rate of new nuclear reactor con-
and others enhance reactor output. Heat in the reactor core is pro- structions worldwide has started growing again in 2014 as shown
duced by conversion of kinetic energy of fission products to ther- in Fig. 8.
mal energy, absorption of gamma rays to produce heat and decay There are total 439 nuclear power plants on a plant which pro-
of fission products. Heat is removed by cooling reactor with water, duce 13–14% (372GW) of the world’s power and 6% of total energy
gas, liquid metal or molten salt. 1 kg of 4% enriched uranium pro- demand. World Nuclear Association and International Atomic
duces 7.2 1013 J energy, which is three million times more than Energy Commission (IAEA) consider nuclear power as a sustainable
the energy of 1 kg of coal (2.4 107 J). Nuclear power plants pro- energy source reducing carbon emissions. However, Greenpeace
duce radioactive waste and coal power stations produce toxic International and Nuclear Information and Resource Service (NIRS)
waste which also has radioactive contaminants. Coal power plants consider nuclear power as a potent threat to human being and
produce over three times more electricity than nuclear power their environment due to lack of safety measures. After a Fukushima
overall radioactive waste becomes more than nuclear power plants nuclear disaster, public representatives have started looking at
in addition to their 1 kg per kg CO2 emissions and other pollutants. old nuclear reactors as lurking calamities waiting to explode any-
The nuclear power policy involves all back to end uranium mining, time. Nuclear reactors were criticized as sitting ducks for terrorists
extraction, processing, enriching, power generation, spent fuels to cause global nuclear holocaust anywhere worldwide [73].
storing and reprocessing processes (Editorial, 2011). Nuclear Nuclear fission was demonstrated in 1945 and nuclear fusion
power is produced through non-explosive controlled nuclear 1952. Nuclear research was started for military purposes, but US
fission reactions powered steam production to drive generator government decided to use it for civil use under ‘‘Atoms for Peace”
coupled turbines. America, France and Japan are the major nuclear program [74].
Fig. 8. Global picture of nuclear power policies [72].

Nuclear fission was harnessed within a decade to produce elec- concentration of 35 g/m3. Lithium has 1 million tones reserves in
tricity yet nuclear fusion could not be harnessed since the 1950s to land and 100 billion tones in seawater at a concentration of 175
date. It is claimed the ITER will start functioning in 2020 and give mg/m3. Earthy lithium reserves can provide the world 10TWy of
off full capacity power by 2027. United States had high hopes from energy for the next ten centuries [77]. NIF scientists believe one
the National Ignition Facility (NIF) in 2009, yet it could not demon- gallon of sea water has energy more than 300 gallons of gasoline.
strate continued fusion reaction. Harnessing the technology used A 50 cups volume can give off energy equal to burning two tons
in the sun and stars to meet earthy energy demands after the of coal. Fusion reaction needs at least 4 million Jules of energy to
end of hydrocarbons (or freeze due to climate change) has been start operation. NIF is world’s largest laser based ignition facility
an engineering challenge since last seven decades. Sustained fusion which achieved short term self, the self-sustaining reaction in
burn has been achieved for short periods where in the input energy 2010 [78]. Laser induced fusion energy (LIFE) project is hope for
was far more than output energy [75]. Fission power plants are ultimate independence from fossil fuels [79]. NIF focuses 192 laser
based on the splitting of heavy atoms like uranium and fusion beams on a tiny gold cylindrical hohlraum to generate soft x-rays
power plants would be based on unification of lighter atoms like compressing a hollow shell filled with deuterium and tritium mix-
H2. Fusion power plants would have no radioactive wastes like ture to 100 times density of lead which generates 100 million
conventional power plants. The Sun produces energy by the degrees centigrade temperature and 100 billion times the earth’s
nuclear fusion reaction. Sun consumes 620 million metric tons of atmospheric pressure [80]. It releases 100 times more energy than
hydrogen per second to produce light and heat. It converts hydro- imparted by lasers [81]. If 4–5 pellets are ignited in one second,
gen into helium under high temperature and pressure thermonu- then sustainable fission can be achieved. It produces 300MJper pel-
clear conditions. Sun consists of 73.96% hydrogen, 24.85% helium, let energy which requires stable thermodynamic design [79]. NIF
0.77% oxygen, 0.29% carbon and 0.13% of nitrogen, silicon, iron, 287,000 lb, 10 m diameter target chamber is shown in Fig. 9.
magnesium and sulfur etc. It appears the D-T reaction gradually Fusion ignition refers to the moment when a controlled fusion
accumulates helium and other byproducts. Sun is made of hydro- reaction generates more energy than is needed to spark the reac-
gen ions and electrons giving spherical shape due to electrostatic tion [82]. Fusing lighter atoms into bigger atom requires huge
forces. Nuclear forces are stronger than electrical forces yet occur- energy akin to the core of the sun or stars. The laser fusion reaction
ring within a very short range. involves deuterium and tritium ignition giving 17.6 MeV energy.
Nuclear fusion takes a lot of energy to fuse two atoms into one NIF low and high foot laser pulses involve more than 300 TW laser
giving off several times more energy. One gram of matter releases power and 250 eV radiation temperatures in a few nanoseconds.
339 GJ energy under Einstein’s E = mc2 energy mass relation. The Ignition pulse energy is far more than compression pulses. In case
addition of one electron to a hydrogen nucleus needs 17.6 eV of shock ignition, the gain is 200 for 2 MJ laser pulses [83]. Fusion
energy which is one millionth of 17.6 MeV released in the D-T reaction converts mass into photonic energy which empowers
fusion reaction. D-T fusion energy barrier is 0.1 MeV which is plants and trees on which life thrives on earth. Nature uses ther-
7500 times more than hydrogen ionization potential (13.4 eV). monuclear fusion which has been harnessed yet the success of
Fusion of atoms from Hydrogen to Iron release energy and iron self- sustained thermonuclear fusion is awaited for decades. Multi-
to Uranium absorbs energy. Lighter elements should be fused, ple methods have been pointed out to achieve nuclear fusion such
and heavier elements split to release energy. We can break heavy as inertial confinement (ICF) by heating and compressing the fuel
atoms yet mending lighter atoms is under research since last seven target. Inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) uses electric fields
decades. Nature uses this technology to illumine sun and stars. to heat ions to fusion condition in Polywell, Penning trap and Mar-
Neptune has condensed metallic hydrogen without fusion reaction. ble configurations. A Polywell uses six magnetic poles to create a
A typical D-T fusion reaction involves huge energy [76]. virtual electrode on their confluence in center of spherical core
and penning trap uses four electric poles to confine the electron
D þ T ! 4 He þ n0 þ 17:6MeV to accelerate ions to create fusion conditions. Four stages of laser
The neutrons generated in D-T reaction can be used to break Li inertial confinement fusion are shown in Fig. 10.
to produce tritium fuel. ICF devices use ‘‘drivers” to rapidly heat the outer layers of a
‘‘target” to compress it. The target is a small spherical pellet con-
n0 þ 6 Li ! T þ a þ 4:78MeV taining a few milligrams of deuterium and tritium. Pulsed laser
Deuterium can also react with lithium to produce He or Be
D þ 6 Li ! 4 He þ 22:4MeV
D þ 6 Li ! 7 Be þ n0 þ 3:4MeV
Deuterium may react with He to produce energetic protons
which react with Li to produce He.
D þ 4 He ! 4 He þ Pþ þ 18:3MeV
Pþ þ 6 Li ! 4 He þ 3 He þ 4:0MeV
There are several options to obtain the sustained fusion reaction
yet initial high energy supply mechanism is under research
everywhere.
Fusion of 100 kg deuterium and 150 kg of tritium in a fusion
reactor at 35% thermal plant efficiency gives off 940 MW continu-
ously for one year. Tritium regenerated, so net fuel is lithium and
deuterium in fusion power plants. It requires only 100 kg of D,
150 kg of T and 300 kg of Li to produce 1000 MW electricity for
one year. Deuterium is abundantly available in the seawater at a Fig. 9. NIF target chamber (Courtesy of NIF Admin).
Fig. 10. Four stages of inertial confinement fusion by laser pulses [84].
known Z-pinch principle, where the fast discharge of capacitors

in a tube causes its collapse towards its centerline, under the influ-
ence of Lorentz forces. The popular fusion method includes fast
heating, compression, implosion, and ignition. Laser ignition fusion
energy (LIFE) program is the last hope for bulk energy after hydro-
carbons. Target gains for conventional, fast and shock ignitions are
shown in Fig. 11.
Nuclear fusion and artificial photosynthesis are widely hailed as
future energy sources, although research is underway, yet none is
reported successful anywhere worldwide. Researchers claim cold
fusion yet it has not been demonstrated anywhere.
A 750 MW nuclear fission reactor requires $6 billion to build
and another $6 billion to decommission it after the useful life of
60 years life. Fast breeder reactors do extend the useful life by
60 years. Sear water is a good source of nuclear fuel. Thorium bree-
der reactors are another alternative. There were 440 nuclear reac-
tors in 2009. If we want to meet all energy demand with reactors,
then it would require 15,000 reactors each with 1000 MW capacity
[89]. After every 40–50 years, they require decommissioning that
Fig. 11. Target gains for various ignition methods [88].
occupies the huge land. Fusion reactors also have their limits.
The international thermonuclear experimental reactor (ITER) has
energy heats the surface of the pellet into plasma which explodes 350 g tritium retention limit. In the case of carbon walls it reaches
off the surface. The remaining portion of the target is driven the limit in one week, the then walls have to be ablated to release
inward, eventually compressing it into a small point of extremely tritium. Despite shutdown to produce the 15TW energy it needs
high density. The rapid blow off also creates a shock wave that 1900 tons of deuterium and 56,000 tons of lithium whereas world
travels toward the center of the compressed fuel from all sides. stock has only 28 million tons of lithium which cannot go beyond
When it reaches the center of the fuel, a small volume is further 500 years. Sea water has 0.1 ppm of lithium which is better than
heated and compressed to a greater degree. When the temperature uranium.
and density of that small spot are raised high enough, fusion reac-
tions will occur and release energy. NIF aims to create a single 500 5. Photonic energy systems (PES)
terawatt (TW) peak flash of light that reaches the target from
numerous directions at the same time, within a few picoseconds. Molecules, atoms and photons are key sources of energy on
The design uses 192 pulses in a parallel system of flash lamp earth [90]. Sun is the ultimate source of light and heat energy.
pumped, neodymium-doped phosphate glass lasers. NIF experi- Wood, wind and water cycles are powered by solar energy. Desert
ments on thinner fuel targets have demonstrated successful fusion. solar power is 7650TW, ocean thermal 100TW, wind 72TW,
Diode pumped lasers have high ten shots per second repetition geothermal 44TW, hydro 7TW, biomass 7TW, waves 7TW, tides
rates, which might have better chances of success [85,86]. US iner- 4TW and coastal wave 3TW all derived from the sun. Solar energy
tial confinement fusion project is being funded under the nuclear consists of light and heat. Solar energy may be converted into elec-
weapon programs [84]. Potential drivers of inertial fusion plants tricity by photovoltaic generators and solar thermal power plants.
include 351 nm diode-pumped-solid-state lasers, krypton fluoride Sunlight is directly used for artificial synthesis to power the global
gas lasers, heavy ion beams from accelerators, and pulsed (electric) food cycle. In case photovoltaic power a 10,000 km2 desert area
power drivers that are connected directly to the load [87]. may produce 15TW. CO2 may be reduced and H2O may be oxidized
A combination of electric and magnetic fields has been tested to convert carbon dioxide into methane. Solar fuels Vs electricity
yet could not obtain self-sustained nuclear fusion. The Z machine, generation technologies have extensively reviewed in literature
Zeta Pulsed Power Facility, is the largest X-ray generator designed [91]. CO2 reduction and H2O oxidation based hydrocarbon fuels
to test materials in conditions of extreme temperature and pres- can supply energy needs without a net increase of CO2 in the atmo-
sure. It is currently used as an inertial confinement fusion (ICF) sphere [92]. Photochemical water splitting using photocatalysis
research facility. The Z machine produces plasmas with tempera- can give off hydrogen to power transport fuel cells. Suitable photo-
tures in excess of 2GK even reaching a peak at 3.7 GK. As of 2012 catalyst materials contain either transition metal cations (Ta+5 Zr+4
fusion shot simulations at 60–70 million amperes showed etc) or typical metal cation with d10 electron (Sn+4, Ga+3 etc). Ta
100–1000 fold return on input energy. The Z machine uses well and Ga oxide photocatalysts can convert UV into electricity.
Conventional electrolysis needs power and photochemical elec-

trodes produce their own power to carry out the electrolysis. UV
and IR driven photochemical splitting can play key role in mitigat-
ing energy crisis and climate change (Adel, 2014). Typical photo-
catalysts consist of TiO2, metal oxides, metal sulfides, nitrides,
oxysulfides, oxynitrides, Nano materials and Z-schemes. Photocat-
alyst performance limiting factors includes pH, band gap energy,
corrosion resistance and operating temperatures [93]. Cost effec-
tive photocatalysts are the working horse behind photochemical
water splitting. Solar energy may be used for water heating and
air conditioning. Solar technologies are usually characterized as
passive or active depending on the way these captures, convert
and distribute solar energy. Active solar techniques include photo-
voltaic panels and solar thermal collectors to harness the energy.
Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun
for space heating in winter and natural air circulations. Annual
solar flux amounts to 3,850,000 EJ (107, 030,000 TWh) energy
out of which 180,000 GW has been harvested using solar cells.
Creation of vigoron plants depends on sunlight as life thrives on Fig. 12. Graphene based materials adsorb gases directly from the air [104].
life. Nature converts sunlight into biomass, a solar cell into electric-
ity and graphene materials into motion [94]. Photocatalysts show
low performance due to large over potentials. Conversion of CO2 processes. It is an amphoteric molecule which can be adsorbed in
into fuels will be possible when photons start formatting via reduc- GTO as acid or base. The application of graphene materials for car-
tion of CO2 into solar fuels (White, 2014). Photocatalysts may be bon capture and storage is extensively reviewed in the literature
tested in photon factory for their optimum performance in UV [106]. TiO2/GO photocatalysts facilitate direct sunlight water elec-
regime [95]. trolysis which is the largest scale energy source comparable to arti-
Solar cells convert light into electricity to drive motors; gra- ficial photosynthesis and nuclear fusion [107]. Application of
phene materials transform light into mechanical motions to con- graphene to hydrogen storage is proving a holy grail to overcome
serve momentum. The graphene is a wonderful translucent high density and low volume barrier. Hydrogen gravimetric energy
material that is 200 times stronger than steel, more flexible than density is 2kWh/kg, and volumetric energy density is 1.5kWh/liter
rubber and more conductive than copper. Graphene is the very which is much lower compared to DC batteries which due to high
good conductor of both heat and electricity. When calcium is weight are not suitable for airplanes and satellite applications
added to graphene, it becomes superconductor (CaC6). Graphene [108]. At present hydrogen storage capacity ranges from 1 to
lamps are thinnest and most flexible considered suitable for ICT 1000 Hr discharge time and 50GHr to 7TWh storage capacities.
[96]. Graphene saturating absorbers can replace saturable mirrors Use of graphene based storage media may overcome the storage
to produce an ultra-short mode-locked laser pulse [97]. Direct light barrier [109].
propulsion of bulk graphene material is a dimension in automobile Nature is full of real life examples to guide humankind. Light
and aerospace engineering [41]. Graphene consists of one atom generated by sonoluminiscence process is blue to ultraviolet in
thick layer of carbon atoms covalently bonded with six neighbor- response to low frequency mechanical stimulations which is
ing carbon atoms. It looks like hexagonal net capable of converting against the general laser principle of emission at relatively lower
photons into electrons pushing host material. Common satellites frequencies [110]. Sonoluminescence compression technique has
can power themselves by solar electricity, but graphene materials potential to convert noise energy using piezoelectric, dielectric
interact with light to produce movement akin to Fleming’s left materials and sonoluminescent devices. Lightning is a natural
hand rule [70]. Sunlight and laser propulsion is a new research area example of converting electricity into thunder which can be
to convert light direct into motion without converting it into elec- reverse engineered to convert the noise into electricity. Noise to
tricity [98]. Graphene is a two dimensional sp2 bonded carbon electricity conversion principle is used in mike technology; it is a
sheet arranged in hexagonal honeycomb lattice [99]. Rampant matter of funding to increase the conversion efficiency of wide
combustion of fossil fuels causes climate change and environmen- band noise sources. Using broadband technologies we can mix up
tal pollution problems by the emission of COx, SOx and NOx gases. the spectral noise to develop wideband noise to electricity convert-
TiO2/Graphene oxide (GTO) nano-composites have a high adsorp- ers. Grösse Deutsche wissenschäftler Albert Einstein discovered
tion affinity for toxic and green gases. It is reported to absorb the principle of the photoelectric effect which led to discoveries
CO2 as well as pollutant gases [100]. GO is prepared from natural of semiconductor, organic, polychromatic, quantum dot, well and
graphite powder by Hummer’s method (Marcano, 2010) and wire solar cells. Conventional solar cells are based on the photo-
TiO2/GO nano-composites may be prepared by a colloidal blending electric effect wherein the incident photons excite electrons into
process [99;101]. Graphene photonics, plasmonics, and optoelec- higher energy levels (conduction bands) which on return emit light
tronics are new additions in semiconductor and organic materials at relatively lower frequencies. Optical resonators can convert a
to interface electronics to photonics [102]. Graphene based light green pump pulse into a dark green light pulse. Frequency
photo-detectors, lighting lamps, and hybrid materials are the cur- doubling crystals and parametric oscillators can convert any light
rent research priorities worldwide [103]. Graphene based materi- in any desired color from UV to IR. Electrons in an atom absorb
als can be used to capture, store and separate, H2, H2S, CO2SO2 light at k1to emit light at k2 such that k2 > k1(f1 > f2) as illustrated
and NO2direct from air as shown in Fig. 12. in Fig. 13.
The carbon dioxide adsorption ratein TiO2/GO (GTO) increases Solar emissions are reaching earth’s surface span 0.15–3.5 lm
with pressure but decreases with increase in temperature [100] while earth emissions in response to solar heating span 3–100
akin to open sea CO2 absorption phenomenon reported in the liter- lm spectra. Photovoltaic conversion efficiencies of available solar
ature [105]. Carbon dioxide adsorption may occur via physisorp- cells vary from 10% (thin films) to 20% (crystalline). Thin film solar
tion due to electrostatic van der waals forces or chemisorption cells have low efficiency, but it does not change with temperature.
Fig. 13. Emission of photons from excited atoms [111].
Mono and polycrystalline solar cells have higher efficiency at low tional sources by 2017. History of solar cells efficiency increase
temperatures, which decreases at higher temperatures. Flexible over last 90 years is shown in Fig. 14.
solar cells have great potential for commercial airplanes. Sunlight Concentrated solar power (CSP) plants are criticized for being a
may directly be used for direct home lightning, water heating, threat to wildlife akin to wind turbines. CSP plants burn birds by
and power generation. We convert light into electricity at 10– concentrating the heat as blades slaughter birds by rotating blades.
20% efficiency and electricity to light at 50–70% efficiencies. Over- Crescent Dunes CSP 110 MW solar thermal plant killed 115 birds
all sunlight conversion back to light wastes 80 to 90% of resource flying over heliostats in January 2015 which was attributed to algo-
which can be saved by the direct use of sunlight and heat in light- rithm mistake to concentrate more suns on air between heliostats
ing and heating applications. The modern thin film, polycrystalline and receiver [115]. Global wind power generation capacity
and mono-crystalline have efficiencies of 10, 15 and 20% [112]. achieved (370 GW) is more than the combined solar photovoltaic
Researchers have demonstrated very high efficiency solar cells, (180 GW) and solar thermal (25 GW) capacity of 205 GW. Global
but they are either expensive or difficult to fabricate commercially. solar cell deployment is increasing fast at annual 40% growth rate.
First generation solar cells were fabricated out of thinly sliced The US Government is expending all efforts to solarize the United
silicon wafers and still dominate 80% (multi-crystalline silicon States. The USA had the 6000 GWh solar capacity in 2013, which
63%) of the solar market. Single junction silicon solar cells can have within one year doubled to 12,000 GWh in 2014. Global solar
33% efficiency. Currently available solar cells cost <$1.0 per watt. power generation doubling occurs after a couple of years as shown
Second generation CdTe (16.5%), CIGS (18.4%), p-Si and a-Si thin by yellow dots in Fig. 16. Solar thermal power is relatively cheaper
film flexible solar cells cover hardly 20% of solar cell market. CdTe than solar panels due to lower efficiency. Top seven 64–392 MW
production is 4.7% and thin film 5.2% of market share. Thin film solar thermal power plants are in the USA, and next 50–200 MW
solar cells would soon cost $0.50 per watt. The third generation thirty solar thermal projects are in Spain. Concentrated solar ther-
organic dye-sensitized solar cells are in laboratory testing stage. mal power capacities of 4GW have been harnessed, and it is
Polymer solar cells may have 30–60% (32% achieved) efficiency. increasing at 44% annual growth rate worldwide as shown in
Plastic solar cells will soon reach the market and reduce photo- Fig. 15.
voltaic panel prices. They have hardly 10% efficiency which can According to IEA, the typical levelized costs of the trough, tower
be improved over time. Second and third generation solar cells and Fresnel reflector type solar thermal power plants today range
have a high potential for slashing $/W costs. Hybrid third genera- from150 to 175 $/MWh, 175 to 375 $/MWh and 250 to 370 $/MWh
tion solar cells may increase efficiency by exposing both sides to respectively.
sunlight. Fourth generation future solar cells may consist of quan- Solar thermal plants are still limited as only $18 billion was
tum dots and nanowires. Scientists are looking at how to reduce invested in CSP compared to $125 billion in solar PV and $84 bil-
wastage of trapped light in solar cells. Quantum wells and dots lion on wind power in 2011.Photovoltaic thermal (PV/T) hybrid
may enhance absorption by using fluorescent collectors, the kinetic solar collectors are emerging more popular under combined heat
energy of carries, impurity levels and hot electron effects. Metama- and power visions. PV/T systems exhibit higher exergy than alone
terials may help increase efficiency. A multilayer stack may be PV and CSP systems. PV/T liquid or air collectors are further being
used to harvest total spectrum of light flux. The idea of lumines- evaluated in terms of concentrated photovoltaic thermal (CPVT)
cent dyes like radioactive waste based power batteries can reduce systems. CO2 is excellent refrigerant for heat transfer at 31 °C
losses inside solar cell. Quantum wells, dots or wires engineer the due to its high densities [117]. Natural vegetation supplies 200EJ
band-gap of materials like SiGe quantum wells or Ge dots by chem- (55,600 TWh) in the form of wood and biofuels in addition to basic
ical vapor deposition on a silicon wafer. Narrow band semiconduc- foods. As of 2011, the cost of PV has fallen well below that of
tor materials can absorb infrared. An alternative method could be nuclear power and is set to fall further. The average retail price
the design of self-forming devices instead of stacked layers [113]. of solar cells as monitored by the Solarbuzz group fell from
Solar cells normally convert 50% light flux into electricity. If UV $3.50/watt to $2.43/watt over the course of 2011, and a decline
and IR solar cells are conceived then the efficiency of sunlight into in prices below $2.00/watt seems inevitable. For large-scale instal-
electricity conversion technology can surpass conventional conver- lations, prices below $1.00/watt are now common. In some loca-
sion devices. Despite all efforts, the solar electricity price is still tions, PV has reached grid parity, the cost at which it is
more than 10¢/kWh compared to 5¢/kWh for solar thermal power competitive with coal or gas-fired generation. More generally, it
plants. Photovoltaic power price is likely to be lesser than conven- is now evident that, given a carbon price of $50/ton, which would
Fig. 14. NREL solar cells efficiency histogram [114].
Chinese Xihe, and Indians Surya, etc. Old religious words like
Helios and Apollo are still used in the European and American lit-
erature [119]. The earth spins around its axis and revolution
around the sun - and solar system rotation around Milky Way –
and, a whole universe revolving around the great cosmic attractor
is an unimaginable complexity around us. Sun regulates our lives
as we wake up at sunrise, work actively at noon and sleep after
sunset.
The Sun radiates about 89 PW heat and light power to earth out
of which 300 to 870 TW are used in powering the wind and water
cycles. Sun supplies over 99.95% (88.74 PW) and earth under 0.05%
(44.6 TW) energies. Global 17TW energy demand can be met with
solar as well as geothermal energies. Sun is the ultimate source of
energy. Solar energy consists of light and heat. Life thrives on
energy obtained from the sun and earth. Our 17TW energy needs
can be obtained from solar as well as geothermal energy. Sun sup-
plies light and heat energies. The solar spectrum is mostly spread
Fig. 15. Accumulative solar thermal growth rate worldwide [116]. on visible and near-infrared and small part on ultraviolet. The out-
side solar photosphere is the visible interior sun is dark due to high
frequency energetic radiations. Light is born out of the hot dark.
raise the price of coal-fired power by 5 c/kWh, solar PV will be Sun supplies 3.85 YJ in one year. Biomass can supply maximally
cost-competitive in most locations [118]. 100–300 EJ per year. Wind, hydro and biomass energies are driven
We eat food chemical and absorb solar energies. Food quality by the sun, but ocean wave and tidal energies are triggered by
and weather severities affect our health and mood causing diges- lunar gravity. Sun supplies >99.95% (87 PW), earth gives off
tion and seasonal affective disorder (SAD). Humans exhibit slug- <0.049% (45 TW) and moon delivers <0.0005% (100 GW) in the glo-
gish in the morning, active at noon and worn-out after sunset. bal energy circuit [120].
The Sun is so important in our lives that the ancient people started Sun drives wind flows and water cycles constituting ecosystems.
worshipping it at all continents in archaic times. The green energy Our adherence to the sun is important for our healthy lives. You
revolution is inevitable due to climate change; however, scholars know animals stop eating after sunset which is a lesson for human-
also fear the return of Ra. Egyptians called their sun deity Ra, kind. If we transform our lives according to nature, then energy
Mesopotamians Utu, Arabs Malakbel, Greeks Helios, Romans demand automatically declines. Sunlight can be converted to elec-
Apollo, Norse Sol, Africans Liza, Americans Wi, Australians Wala, tric power using concentrated photovoltaic and solar thermal
power techniques. Solar insolation available to people in most parts

of the world varies from 3.5 to 7.0 kWh/m2/day. A normal home
uses 4–6 kWh daily, which can easily be met by 4–5 m2 photo-
voltaic panels. The principle of the solar cell was discovered in
the 1880s by Charles Fritts, and power industry was started by Edi-
son in 1882. Bruno Lange constructed a Selenium Oxide solar cell
with <1% efficiency in 1932. Gerald Pearson developed silicon solar
cell in 1956 with 5% efficiency. The modern thin film, polycrys-
talline and mono-crystalline solar cell efficiencies are 10, 15 and
20%. Researchers have demonstrated very high efficiency solar cells,
but they are either expensive or difficult to fabricate commercially.
First generation solar cells were fabricated out of thinly sliced sili-
con wafers and still dominate 80% (multi-crystalline silicon 63%) of
the solar market. Single junction silicon solar cells can have 33%
efficiency. Currently available solar cells cost <$1.0 per watt. Second
generation CdTe (16.5%), CIGS (18.4%), p-Si and a-Si thin film flexi-
ble solar cells cover hardly 20% of solar cell market. CdTe produc-
tion is 4.7% and thin film 5.2% of market share. Thin film solar Fig. 16. Average cost in cents/kWh over 20 years for PV plants.
cells would soon cost $0.50 per watt. The third generation organic
dye-sensitized solar cells are in laboratory testing stage.
Polymer solar cells may have 30–60% (32% achieved) efficiency. (EROI) for PV systems is now 10–30 which competes with oil and
Plastic solar cells will soon reach the market and reduce photo- gas business. Small scale PV system cost varies from 0.2 to 5 $/W
voltaic panel prices. They have hardly 10% efficiency which can as shown in Fig. 16.
be improved over time. Second and third generation solar cells Solar photovoltaic is a sustainable energy source. By the end of
have a high potential for slashing $/W costs. Hybrid third genera- 2011, a total of 71.1 GW had been installed worldwide, sufficient to
tion solar cells may increase efficiency by exposing both sides to generate 85 TWh/year. By the end of 2012, the 100GW installed
sunlight. Fourth generation future solar cells may consist of quan- capacity milestone was achieved. Solar photovoltaic is now consid-
tum dots and nanowires. Scientists are looking at how to reduce ered after hydro and wind power, the third most important renew-
wastage of trapped light in solar cells. Quantum wells and dots able energy source regarding global installed capacity. Solar
may enhance absorption by using fluorescent collectors, the kinetic installations may be ground based or built into the roof (solar shin-
energy of carries, impurity levels and hot electron effects. Metama- gles) or walls of the building. Annual solar cell production rates in
terials may help increase efficiency. A multilayer stack may be China (in Taiwan) started exceeding Europe, Japan, USA and the
used to harvest total spectrum of light flux. The idea of lumines- rest of the world in 2007. China today produces about 17 GWP/year
cent dyes like radioactive waste based power batteries can reduce which is two third of world total solar cell productions. Global pho-
losses inside solar cell. Quantum wells, dots or wires engineer the tovoltaic power generation capacity is increasing at a rate of 30
band-gap of materials like SiGe quantum wells or Ge dots by chem- GWP/yr. Crystalline-silicon solar cell prices had fallen from
ical vapor deposition on a silicon wafer. Narrow band semiconduc- $76.67/Watt in 1977 to an estimated $0.74/Watt in 2013. By the
tor materials can absorb infrared. An alternative method could be end of 2012, the ‘‘best in class” module price had dropped to
the design of self-forming devices instead of stacked layers. Use $0.50/watt and was expected to drop to $0.36/watt by 2017.Pak-
of grating structures can also reduce losses. The concept of nano istan has installed two 178.08 kW on-grid solar plants for Pakistan
optical antennas can increase absorption efficiency [121]. Solar Engineering Council and Planning Commission buildings in 2012. A
power production prices have come down yet far from grid parity. 50–100 MW project is in progress in 2013, and a 1000 MW solar
Solar power is more expensive compared to nuclear, and coal fired power project is under construction in the Cholistan close to the
powered plants. If sunlight of 1000 times greater area is concen- Thar Desert. Pakistan has solarized 7000 villages in Sindh from
trated on standard flat panels, it can compete oil and gas fired con- 2009 to 2013. A number 100 kW to 10 MW solar power projects
ventional power plants. Concentrating photovoltaic systems are are under construction by the private sector, and people are fast
five times more cost effective than conventional flat plate solar shifting to off-grid solar options. Street lights in big cities are pow-
panels (wike76). A comparison of solar power against conventional ered by solar LED lamps. Solar irradiance varies from maximum on
power generation technologies is shown in Table 3. the equator to minimum on poles. Insolation levels vary from place
America has achieved grid parity in Hawaii and expected to to place even in the same country. Annual solar radiation for con-
achieve in most of America by 2015. The Photovoltaic payback per- centrated solar photovoltaic (CSP) in most parts of Balauchistan is
iod was considered to be eight to11 years in 2000 but estimated 7–7.5 kWh/m2/day and between 6.5 and 7 kWh/m2/day in other
1.5–3.5 years in 2006 for crystalline silicon PV systems and 1– parts. Annual solar radiation is 5–5.5 kWh/m2/day in Southern
1.5 years for thin film solar cells. Energy returned on invested Punjab and 4.5–5 kWh/m2/day in the rest of Pakistan. Pakistan’s
Table 3
Comparison of available power sources [122].
Types Nuclear Coal Gas Wind Hydro PV

Cost ($/kWh) 0.01–0.02 <0.1 <0.1 0.4–0.5 0.1–0.3 0.8–1.2
CO2 (g/kWh) 10–50 1000 500–600 10–50 1–100 15–100
Efficiency (%) 30–45 30–45 45–55 24–54 >90 12–22
Water (kg/kWh) 30–100 15–30 15–30 <1 65–70 <1
Land (km2/GW) 1–4 10–20 1–4 50–100 75–750 28–64
Period (Yrs) 80–280 150–260 70–120 Infinite Infinite Infinite
Impacts Radioactive Toxic gases Green Pollution Noise Intermittent Climate change Toxic waste
nuclear waste gases High GWP GWP CO2 Air pollution Loss of land Visible pollution
solar power potential is estimated to be 2.9 TW out of which conditioning using natural CO2 refrigerants. ASHREA has envisaged
10,000 MW is likely to be harvested in the next decade [123]. Chi- the use of natural refrigerants in next generation heat pump appli-
nese solar power companies have installed one 100 MW solar park cation. These refrigerants include Hydrocarbons (HCs), water
in the Cholistan. It consists of 400,000 panels. The government is (H2O), Ammonia (NH3), Air and Carbon dioxide (CO2). R-50) Hydro-
working hard to end 6000 MW demand supply deficit by 2017– carbons have a low GWP compared to HCFC- HFCand exhibit good
18. Government faces huge public pressure as media anchors tell thermodynamic properties. Methane (R-50) and Ethane (R-170)
anecdotes on the similarity between lightning and national grid have extremely low boiling point makes them attractive for cryo-
both show their presence momentarily in hot summer. genic refrigeration only. Ethane (R-290), butane (R-600) and iso-
Global insolation levels (kWh/m2) are high enough between 40 butane (R-600a) are being used in modern refrigeration and small
°S and 40 °N to transform power generation from fossil fuels to heat pump units [125,126]. HCs have maximum ignition tempera-
solar energy. Southern parts of north and western parts of South ture is in the range of 420–600 °C and are flammable by nature.
America are sunlight rich regions. Most of Africa, Middle East, Cau- Ammonia (R-717) has zero ODP and GWP, excellent heat transfer
casus, Persian Gulf, South East Asia and most of Australia have properties, low molar weight and resulting high COP; however, it
abundant sun. North Pole countries like Canada and Northern Rus- is flammable and toxic. This property makes it less attractive for
sia have lesser sun but a huge amount of oil, gas, wind and water small scale refrigeration and heat pump applications [126]. Water
reserves. Earth has distributed energy resources regionally world- (R-718) has a high critical temperature, pressure and freezing point
wide as mother distributes food among children. Our primary at 0 °C which is not suitable for standard vapor compression cycle.
energy use is 539 EJ out of which we use 66–67 EJ electricity. Glo- CO2 (R-744) has emerged as a potential candidate for next genera-
bal electric energy is 11.76% of total primary energy consumption. tion refrigeration and heat pump applications. It has zero effective
The Sun is 1.4 million times larger than earth by volume and 109 GWP and ODP, non-flammable, non-reactive with copper and
times by size. Energy obtainable from all discovered and hidden stainless steel and heavier than air. It offers a high refrigeration
oil, gas and coal resources on earth are supplied by the sun in capacity of 22,600 kJ/kg at 0 (C which is 5–22 times higher than
one year. other regular natural and synthetic refrigerants. Trans-critical
The private sector is also planning to shift to wind power option properties (31.1 °C, 73.3 bar) let its working region into trans-
in high wind regions. Gharo to Keti Bandar wind corridor has the critical vapor compression cycle which has proven benefits for
potential of 50,000 MW. Our 1000 km long coastal line has huge water heating in terms of power consumption and heating effi-
potential in addition to large offshore capacity. Onshore wind ciency [127,128].
power is cheaper than offshore but if we take into account the land Existing synthetic refrigerants don’t fulfill the environmental
saving then offshore is also a good option. The world community requirements and will be discontinued sooner or later. Some exist-
has harvested more than 230 GW wind power potential to date. ing low GWP (R-152a), newly developed Hydrofluoroolefin (HFOs)
Global wind power generation capacity is about four times more R-1234yf and R-1234ze [128,129] and natural refrigerants are
than solar capacity although overall solar capacity is far more than being proposed as a replacement to existing planet warming HFCs.
wind capacity in nature. Solar capacity is partly limited by 25–30 The thermo-physical properties of some regular natural and syn-
GW annual solar cell production limit [124] Solar thermal power thetic refrigerants are calculated for the standard, Vapor Compres-
generation is very close to wind power capacity. Most of the global sion Cycle (VCC), which is being applied in existing 90% of world
collective renewable energy capacity consists of hydroelectricity heat pump applications. These properties are calculated using NIST
which now over 1010 GW. Pakistan’s hydropower capacity is Reference Fluid Thermodynamic and Transport Properties Data-
120,000 MW out of which 41,722 MW is economically viable. The base (REFPROP) V. 9.0 (Lemmon 2014). For higher Coefficient of
beauty of science is every impertinent question has a relevant Performance (COP), high vapor density, liquid thermal conductiv-
answer. Plants convert 90 TW solar energy into biomass energy ity, latent heat and lower liquid viscosity and molecular weight
at 0.1% efficiency. Land plants give off 65 TW and marine algae are the optimum parameters for VCC [130].
25TW. Out 15 TW energy demand is a tiny fraction of the available From our earlier work, it is evident that CO2 emerged as supe-
solar energy. rior in terms of vapor density and liquid viscosity, molecular
We expend over 45% of electricity in building on space heating weight and have good aggregated values of thermal conductivity
and cooling which can be transferred to solar water heating and air and latent heat [105]. Butane (R-600) is flammable and has a
Fig. 17. Properties of common synthetic and natural refrigerants.

Fig. 18. Isometric view of CO2 based solar water heater [131].
limited application area and temperature range. R-134a (HFC) has worldwide. According to global wind energy council (GWEC), the
a high GWP running under time barred permission and will be global wind power capacity may increase to 3200 GW by 2050.
phased out. R-152a and newly developed R-1234yf have accept- Wind turbines life cycle global warming potential studies show a
able GWP value but lower thermodynamic and heat transfer prop- median value of 11–12 gCO2eq/kWh. Pakistan also has 346,000
erties [131]. Heat transfer properties of CO2 such as thermal MW wind power out of which only 200 (4 50) MW power is
conductivity, density, and viscosities compared to common natu- being harvested and another 1000 MW capacity is under comple-
ral, synthetic and ASHARE new refrigerants (R-1234yf) are shown tion process. Pakistan wants to increase wind power capacity to
in Fig. 17 and the CO2 based solar water heater in Fig. 18. 10,000 MW in the next decade. Pakistan has over 120 GW hydro-
power potential which is not being harvested due to economic bar-
6. Wind and water watts (WWW) riers. Pakistan has one of the largest 25 hydroelectric power plants
built in China, Russia, Canada, USA, Venezuela, Brazil, and Para-
Wind, water, and woods are the sustainable and renewable guay. Chinese Three Gorges Project is the largest and highest
energy sources on the planet. Sun empowers wind and water Hydropower plant in the world. China is producing more than
cycles. Solar energy heats uneven land surfaces to initiate air flow. 250 GW (22% of global) hydropower and intends to produce 500
Land and ocean temperature differences cause monsoons. Temper- GW by 2050. Global hydropower generation capacity was
ature differences between the equator and poles cause air flows 1055GW in 2014. The United States of America produces
leading to trade winds, westerlies, and easterlies under Criolysis 252,000 GWh hydropower, which is <275,000 GWh non hydro
effect. The wind power potential is estimated to be 2250 EJ renewable energy sources. The share of hydropower is still more
(625,500 TWh) out of which 369GW has already been harnessed. than 62% of the total renewable energy spectrum. Comparison of
Wind power capacity is increasing at fast 44% growing rate. Typical hydro, solar thermal, solar photovoltaic, geothermal, wind and bio-
wind farms include 6000 MW Gansu Wind Farm (China), 1320 MW mass sources are shown in Fig. 20.
Oak Creek Majove (USA), 1064 MW Jaisalmir (India) and 1000 MW Pakistan Council of Renewable Energy Technologies (PCRET) has
JhimPir (Pakistan). Global wind power capacity has expanded been working on solar cells, but they have yet achieved fabrication
rapidly to 336 GW in June 2014 and more than 365 GW by the capacity of 15 kW/year which is likely to increase to 85 kW/yr
end of the year [132]. A wind turbine produces 4% of global elec- soon. PCRET can manufacture the first generation silicon solar cells
tricity generation. World wind power capacity rise from 1996 to and research on second generation thin films and third generation
2015 is shown in Fig. 19. organic solar cells has been reported successful. Organic solar cell
China (114.76 MW), USA (65.88 MW), Germany (39.16 MW) fabricated in PCRET has 1% efficiency while others have produced
and Spain or India (>22 MW) are major wind power producers 9–10% efficiency organic solar cells. PCRET has installed 538 micro
Fig. 19. Global Wind Power Capacity [133].
Fig. 20. Global renewable electricity production from 2012 to 2040 [134].
Fig. 21. Biogas plant size in terms of biogas and animals [135].
hydropower (5–50 kW) turbines in northern areas, 155 small CO2F GDPF EIF CIF
¼
(0.5–10 kW) wind turbines, 300 solar photovoltaic (100 kW) CO2P GDPP EIP CIP
ð2Þ
panels, 4000 biogas (2&5 m3/day) units, 1000 mud stoves and 21 CO2F GDPF EIF CIF
solar dryers for northern fruit industries. Biogas plants can provide
In ¼ In þ In þ In
CO2P GDPP EIP CIP
light, heat, and electricity. Plant size in terms of biogas quantity
and number of animals is shown in Fig. 21 [135]. Change in CO2 emission in reference period may be given by
Cattle farmers (Gujjers) often keep a herd of 200–300 buffaloes. [136]
Cattle dung was useless until awareness on biogas now they earn
DCO2 ¼ DGDP þ DEI þ DCI ð3Þ
equal to profits out of milk products.
Global energy consumption, population, and economy volumes
7. Energy, Economy, and environment (EEE) are expanding at growth rates of 1.5, 2.0 and 3.6% respectively.
China announces high growths in recent years, which economists
Economic growth depends on the availability of abundant doubt due to lesser rise in energy demand compared to high eco-
cheap energy resources. Fossil fuels have accelerated the industrial nomic growths others relate it to positive economic growth with
revolution at the expense of climate change. Rampant famines, the negative energy growth phenomenon. China had 1.09% growth
draughts, storms and flash floods inflict life and property losses. in electricity demand with every 1% growth in GDP from 2005 to
Climate changes are being caused by widespread CO2 emissions 2013 that fell to 0.51 in 2014. It had fallen to 0.6% in 2008 yet
worldwide. According to CO2 Now. Org, as of 2010 data, 33.4Gt quickly rebounded to 1% [137]. It may be due to solar energy in
of CO2 (91%) is injected into the atmosphere by combustion of fos- the private sector as top twenty European utilities also lament
sil fuels and production of cement, and the rest 3.3Gt of CO2 (9%) the loss of revenue after the wind power revolution. Efficiency in
comes from land use patterns most by forest and crops left over politics seems to be higher than in energy systems (Pieter, 2002).
burns. The 50% (18.4 Gt) of 37.5 Gt of CO2 goes to the atmosphere, Attempt to decouple economy from energy is underway, positive
26% (9.5 Gt) to land and rest 24% (8.8 Gt) into oceans. The BBC economic and negative energy consumption growth events also
reported the rate of CO2 emissions halted on 2013 level in 2014, noted [56], yet seems uncertain. US pledge to decrease CO2 emis-
but the British Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research claims sions by 26–28% to reduce it to 2005 level by 2025, and 80% by
the CO2 is still rising at 2.5% year rate. It is estimated the CO2 emis- 2050 by IPCC policy to decarbonize the energy sector by 2100,
sion rate will increase from 40GtCO2/y to 41GtCO2/y in 2015 [66]. but the bad news is Indian undercurrents to keep the fire burning.
The intricate relationship between energy, economy and the envi- India has pledged to spend $250 billion on solar, and wind projects
ronment is shown in Fig. 22. yet climate action can thwart its diesel and coal based economy.
Drivers of decarburization are efficiency, innovations, and tran- Smog and pollution is the fifth cause of death in India which led
sition to renewable and sustainable energy sources. Energy model- to 627,000 premature deaths in 2010 alone. Economic develop-
ing forum (EMF-22), unilateral European climate change ment at the expense of health is not growth indeed. Over 300 mil-
mitigation policies, AMPERE modeling project has led to a vision lion people have no access to electricity, yet it does not mean
of interrelating CO2 emissions with GDP and final energy (FE) con- stifling local and neighbors by the smog of diesel and coal fired
sumption by [136] power plants. Journalists coerce incumbents to supply energy
without condemning community to perilous climate change. India
FE CO2 has to brainstorm either to control population and reduce energy
CO2 ¼ GDP ð1Þ
GDP FE demand or continue sitting cringed in corner smoking coal cigar-
where GDP is the final energy intensity (EI) and FE is the final ettes [138]. Downwind countries also complain upwind smog
energy carbon intensity (CI). Reduction of economic activity (GDP) through summer monsoons to which incumbents deal with double
reduces net GHG emissions. The future evolution of carbon emis- standards and disingenuous means. Air, water and food chain sys-
sions may be estimated from the rising trend of present emissions tems fall in the international domain. Helsinki convention and
polluter-pays principle type laws are mandatory for dealing with
the demons.
Simulation studies for 2 °C temperature rise scenario shows the
atmosphere, as part of the global cycle, has a capacity of 3200Gt of
CO2 out of which 2000Gt of CO2 have already been accumulated by
combustion of fossil fuels and land use practices. We are left with a
1200Gt capacity which at an annual emission rate of 40Gt of CO2-
rate would be occupied in next 30 years. China (35.27 Mt), USA
(10.33 Mt), India (2.07 Mt), Russia (1.80 Mt) and Japan (1.35 Mt)
are the largest five CO2 emitter countries. As of 2013, the CO2 emis-
sions in China, India, and USA were growing annually at 4.2, 5.1
and 2.9% rates [139]. Indian population will increase from 1.2 bil-
lion today to over 1.6 billion by 2050. According to IPCC, one per-
son on average exhales 1 kg CO2 daily. Over 1.2 billion people
secrete 438 Mt of CO2 which is 211 times more than their total
annual CO2 emissions. Breath emissions are often assumed to be
absorbed by local plants and lakes that may not be true for over-
populated regions like Japan, Europe, Bangladesh, India, and
Indonesia. The ugly part is the extremist clerics urge poor masses
to decrease minorities by forced sterilization and increase their
Hindu population [140]. China and Europe are taking significant
measures to reduce their CO2 emissions, yet India straddles in its
Fig. 22. World population, GDP, energy consumption, and Emissions (Courtesy of usual double speak strategies. True CO2 emissions of high popula-
Bernhard Seiwald). tion countries are shown in Table 4.
Table 4
Human activities and breath CO2 emissions.
Populated Countries Annual CO2 Emissions (Mt) Total Mt of CO2 Population (Billions) Density (persons/km2)
Activities Breath
China 35.27 509 544.27 1.394 145
India 2.07 438 440.07 1.267 421
USA 10.33 118 128.33 0.323 35
Indonesia 0.433 92 92.43 0.253 138
B/Desh 0.056 58 58.05 0.159 1203
Russia 1.8 52 53.8 0.142 9
Japan 1.35 46 47.35 0.127 349
A few countries like Malta, Bermuda, and Bahrain have 1323, chain. Eating shellfish can expose you to 11,000 microplastics every
1300 and 1253 persons/km2 densities but their overall population year. We are victims of our own creation. Every sinister goes to the
is small. It is true the lakes, rivers, trees, and plants uptake human creator at the end of the day. If you bury nuclear waste in remote
breath related CO2, yet the extra may add up in the atmosphere. It seas, underwater current will bring it to your own door. River
requires a dedicated study on the number of trees, breath emis- Danube releases 1533 tons of plastics into Black Seaevery year.
sions and deforesting rates. Deforestation rates are 1,731,000 in Annual production of plastics exceeds 280 million tons without
Africa, 1,013,000 in North America, 14,375,000 in Africa and - any mechanism how to safely dispose of it [145]. Five Gyres Insti-
2,578,000 ha/y in South East Asia. Except for Europe, the deforesta- tute in Los Angeles estimated 5.25 trillion of plastic pieces, weigh-
tion is going on everywhere. Global deforestation rate of ing 268,000 tons, floating on ocean waters [19]. Our way of life is
8,885,000 ha/y means the CO2 absorption rate of trees is falling blocking earth lungs, polluting the atmosphere, contaminating
and the population is rising. The rampant rise in energy demand water and soil. Biological studies show five marine species are in
and the number of consumers increases the net flux of CO2 into critical danger, 15 are endangered, 31 are vulnerable, and 14 are
the atmosphere. nearly threatened in the future. Seabirds, turtles and fish, especially
Living deluxe life is not a crime as long as it does not affect soci- shellfish may pollute the food chain system [146]. Plastics are pet-
ety. Use of big car as you can afford fuel is akin to drilling a hole in roleum products let us think of converting them back into fuels akin
the boat since you own the hammer and chisel. Rifle and bullet are to CO2 fuels. Blue crude does emit CO2 yet lesser than black crude.
yours, not my life. United Nations have conceived rules on pollu- Reduce, reuse and recycling policy renders plastics and carbons sus-
tion of transboundary waters which we use after five to six hours tainable materials akin to biomass. Synthetic organic dyes are used
but no law on upwind air pollution that we use every second. Role in plastics, textiles, paper, leather and cosmetic industry. Synthetic
of UNO is to protect humankind, not certain race humans. The way dyes and plastics are non-biodegradable materials which ulti-
the money works must by incorporating environmental and social mately through airs and waters enter into lungs and stomachs.
protection rules like polluter pay principle. Coal fired power plants
give electricity to upwind owners, but asphyxiate neighbors down-
wind. By polluting the land, airs, waters, and space, we are working 8. Efficiency, Technology, and conservation (ETC)
against our own existence. A mosquito bites human, lizard eats
mosquito, cat gobbles lizard and dog chomps cat yet loyal to Efficiency, sensible energy conservation, solar thermal and
humankind. Mac pollutes the air, I pollute water, and you pollute hydrogen are the key drivers of the great energy transition from
land for collective global wreckage. Is it not autophagy? We worry fossil fuels to renewable energy resources [29]. We use 25 kW
more about energy, economy and population and less about envi- power to adjust indoor outdoor temperature difference of 5 °C.
ronment wherein we live. If we were serious about climate change, Insulation of homes saves average 25 kW per developing that for
we could not have exhibited lenient on soil, air and water pollu- 1 billion homes amounts to 25TW. Energy efficiency refers to use
tions. We are not fishes who pollute the water wherein lives. There of lesser energy for the same service through innovative technolo-
is hardly any place on the planet which is free from noise, EM gies, but energy conservation refers to the reduction of energy con-
waves, and pollutants. Noise affects human society as well as land sumption by the diminution of service. Reduce, recycle and reuse
and marine animals disturbing their social communications. Mar- of resources falls under energy conservation. Australian 4 MW
ine life faces more than 110 dB noise by naval transport [141]. floating PV station based waste water treatment plant is an exam-
What if anybody starts firing sound bullets when you want to ple of the optimum use of space and natural energy [147]. Effi-
sleep? Being humans, we can weep and smile the animals have ciency is the ability to avoid wastage of materials, energy, efforts,
no such ability. We have learnt from animals to design airplanes and money. Efficiency is measured as the ratio of net output to
and submarines we owe to protect their rights. What about a turtle total input. Energy conversion efficiency is the ratio of the useful
trapped in a plastic bag? Humankind and animals both have no output of input energy. Inputs and outputs may be mechanical,
experience of the ultimate fate of unnatural plastics. The plastics electrical or thermal energies. In case of the hybrid systems term
we have produced so far in last 150 years are more than enough coefficient of performance (COP) is more meaningful than effi-
to wrap the whole planet which is the dawn of Plasticene [142]. ciency. Efficiency and the term effectiveness reflect similar yet
As of 2013, China and Europe produce 24.8% and 20% of global mean different scenarios. Efficiency means doing things right,
plastics. Plastics do not biodegrade so end up in microplastic parti- and effectiveness is doing of right things akin to efficacy or quality.
cles which through rivers end up in the oceans. Vigorous ocean Nature uses three photons to fix a CO2 molecule. Gibbs free energy
gyres transport plastic pieces from one continent to others. Gyres for converting a mole of CO2 into glucose is 114 kcal, and 8 mol of
take only two months to take plastics from the middle of North photons of 600 nm wavelength contain 381 kcal which gives the
Atlantic to the United States. It was seen during a search operation ideal efficiency of 33% efficiency. Generally plant’s theoretical effi-
of Malaysian aircraft the Indian Ocean is the deepest and dirtiest ciency is assumed 11%, and average photosynthesis efficiency is
Ocean. It is estimated the 80% of marine litter comes from land. considered 3–6%. The efficiency of rice and wheat plants may be
Plastic particles (<5 mm) have entered into human respiration measured by LCpro-SD photosynthesis meter. Earlier civilizations
[143] and food [144] through the atmosphere and the marine food used crude and coal gas lights but Edison first time lit the New
Fig. 23. Typical efficiencies of natural and man-made machines.
York streets by an electric bulb in the 1970s. Electric bulbs exhibit emit CO2 at a rate of 57 Mt CO2/EJ. If we consider the CO2 emissions
2–5% efficiencies which are three times lower than energy saving reduction as part of energy chain systems, then terminal device
LED and CFL lamps. The gas turbine efficiency is 40%, but gas and efficiency (gd) may be given by
steam combined cycle efficiency increases to 60%. Turbo chargers
and new fuels have increased the engine efficiency from 33 to 2¼ e þ ð1 eÞx% ð8Þ
50%, yet the addition of HHO kits and thermo-electric generators
can increase it up to 55% [148]. Plug-in hybrid vehicles (PEV) can where multiplier x% is a reduction in losses. If loss reduction is 5%
have up to 80% efficiency due to electric motors which may further then above equation becomes
be increased to 90% by the addition of the regenerative brakes
(Peter 2010), engine waste heat powered heating and thermo- 2¼ 0:95e þ 0:05 ð9Þ
electric generators (TEG) in heat pipes. Efficiencies of various The modern energy systems have 40% economic, 55% technical
devices are shown in Fig. 23. and 90% theoretical gain potentials. Biomass is a common fuel in
Energy efficiency may be defined as the ratio of useful output to developing countries which has an efficiency of 7%. It accounts
input for 10% of global energy supply. Average efficiency of conversion
OutputðusefulÞ devices, compared to theoretical limits, is hardly 11% which is
g¼ ð4Þ more than 7% in case of biomasses. The biomasses do not add to
Input
the global CO2 circuit as the biomasses absorb the same amount
Exergy efficiency of any device in terms of mechanical work is during their growth. Real CO2 reductions take place in fossil fuels
defined as fired power plants and engines where a reduction in losses leads
to a reduction in fuel demand. Biomass burners, coolers, and engi-
OutputðexergyÞ OutputðworkÞ
e¼ ¼ ð5Þ nes have higher efficiency potential than lighting and motoring
InputðexergyÞ InputðworkÞ devices. According to World Bank report, Indian agriculture sector
The theoretical limit of exergy efficiency is unity [149]. It diffi- has 30% energy conservation potential. Most of the Asian indus-
cult to estimate exergy efficiency in terms of energies, therefore, it tries, textile mills, pulp, and paper sectors have 25% conservation
may be written as potential. Transport, buildings, foundry, glass, and ceramics indus-
tries have 20% saving potential [151]. Extensive research is under-
e¼gf ð6Þ way worldwide to save energy wastage by increasing efficiency.
Buildings [152], foundry [153], Water [154], power [155], traffic
where f is a quality factor [150]. Fuel systems have distributed [156], pulp and paper industries [157] all have 15–30% conserva-
losses from refineries to pipelines before reaching engines akin to tion potential by enhancing energy efficiency and conservation.
generator, transmission and distribution losses before electric Modern solar heat and power research uses maximum power point
motors. Fuel and electric losses become rampant in oil fueled power tracking techniques to attain 100 to 250 °C temperature in building
houses due to serial connection. In case of fossil fuel fired power integrated solar heat and power hybrid systems [158]. Common
plant the compound efficiency (eC) may be given by the product water buoyancy and density driven solar heaters give hardly 70–
of fuel transformation efficiency (ef), electric system efficiency (ee) 80 °C temperatures. Hybrid systems use power to increase output,
and end device conversion efficiency (ed) but overall COP becomes 200–300%. A normal bricks and cement
building waste 35% heat through walls, 25% through windows,
ec ¼ ef ee ed ð7Þ
25% through the roof and 15% through the floor in winder which
Hybrid systems like combine heat and power of renewable may be conserved by suitable insulation. Air conditioning load is
energy systems use multiple phases and forms of energy to 45% of total electricity consumption in summer which may be
increase the coefficient of performance (COP). A hybrid solar water reduced to 25% by whitening roof top and walls. Wise windows
heater has a COP of 3 which means 300% efficiency. Energy systems technology (WIT) can help conserve building energy in winter as
well as summer. Zero energy buildings (ZEB) and plug-in hybrid middle. The package price of the 25 kW battery is $400–$500
vehicles (PEV) reduce energy demand and increase efficiency. which may decline to $225–$275 by 2020. The cost estimate of
The committee on the transition to alternative vehicles and $300/kWh reduces to $240/kWh if 80% battery is used. US flexible
fuels in the USA assessed the potential of alternative fuels and fuel vehicle dream is likely to mature in a few decades. Battery
GHG reduction in light duty vehicles (LDVs) fleet. LDVs are respon- technologies with deep charging, self-healing and high storage
sible for half of total USA’s petroleum consumption and 17% GHG capacities are extensively reported in the literature [163].
emissions. The study was aimed at a reduction of 80% GHG Plants, animals and internal combustion engines have efficien-
emissions by 50% petroleum consumption reduced by 2050 cies of 2–3, 25 and 33%. The conventional power plants hardly
[159]. Battery Electric Vehicles (BEV), Hybrid Electric Vehicles 25–30% efficient. We waste 34 TW energy to extract 17TW which
(HEV), Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs), Compressed Natural we consume in one year. We obtain hardly 1 J out of 1000 J light
Gas Electric Vehicles (CNGVs), plug-in hybrid electric vehicles energy. New technologies can help increase conversion efficiency.
(PHEV) and Plug-in Electric Vehicles (PEV) are incorporated in A watt saved is better than the watt generated. Power saved (Nega-
future energy mix fleet. Higher future costs ($2000–$3000) of watts) by replacing incandescent bulbs with efficient compact flu-
hydrogen, bio-fuels and electric vehicles might be a limiting factor orescent (CFL) or LED lamps is a net enhancement of generation
as compared to current petroleum based vehicles ($530). Fossil capacity. CFL, LED and other fluorescent lights definitely save elec-
fuels produce 30–31 Gt of CO2 out of which half comes from coal tricity to produce the same quantity of light flux (Lumens) yet
power plants [160]. Shifting of the transport sector on renewable these nonlinear energy saving lamps do inject a huge voltage and
energy and bio-fuels reduces a huge amount of CO2 emissions. Zero current harmonics in power systems. High voltage and current dis-
energy building (ZEV), Plug-in electric vehicles (PEV) and zero tortions (THDs) increase reactive power demand to force utilities
emission vehicles (ZEV) are the lexis nexus today. This is the first to increase generation that compromises a huge proportion of sav-
global scale project undertaken by human society. Automobile ing with the additional nuisance of harmonics which may need
manufacturers face huge challenges and barriers in the transition more filters to get rid of them partly. Forgetting the reactive power
from gasoline vehicles to electric vehicles. Electric vehicle charging losses and poor power quality, the artificial lights also load eyes
requires 12–30A current at a 240 V voltage level that causes prob- unevenly due to their selective spectral emissions as shown in
lems to utilities regarding load peaking and to car owners in terms Fig. 24.
of waiting times. Fast DC charging option sounds excellent, but Efficient fluorescent lights are climate friendly yet not environ-
44 kW (CHAdeMO) chargers are expensive. Experts have been eval- ment friendly due to mercury pollution. A comparative of lighting
uating wireless charging option along the track or on pump station, sources had pointed out major anomalies in the literature [164].
but, this technology is yet not well developed [161]. Electric vehi- Solar home lighting is another avenue to save electricity spent on
cles due to noise-free drive cause relatively more accidents in pop- all types of electric lamps. Fiber optic solar lighting can collect sun-
ulated city areas. Home charging by roof mounted solar panels is a light to pipe it down to 15–20 m away interior rooms [165]. Sun-
nice idea as utility supply may become overloaded in residential light collecting dishes and fiber optic luminaries is available in
areas. Hourly demand peaks in the afternoons. PEV market is the market to save lighting expenses in ZEBs day time. Long life
restricted to 83.2% rental companies, 12.7% commercial and 4.1% phosphors materials based lamps and glowing plants could be
government sales. Tax collections show 67.6% gasoline and 24.9% future technologies.
diesel cars in the market. Drivers in Washington State paid $478 Industry, agriculture, transportation and consumer electronics
for Sedan (24mpg), $371 for hybrid (40mpg) and $210 for BEV. sectors have energy conservation potentials of 27, 30, 20 and 33%
Charging infrastructure for PEV is challenging. Government sup- respectively. Home energy management technologies have a
port intercity, intercity, and interstate fast DC charging facilities. potential of 50% energy conservation by shifting heating and cool-
Owners can hardly afford 240 V, 12 or 30A charging infrastruc- ing loads to solar wind energy sources. Transport sector may be
tures. Fast DC chargers cost $109,500–$122,000 which owners can- shifted to solar and animal driven gears common in Asian countries
not afford. All electric ranges of BEV (2014Tesla Model S) and PHEV [23]. An ox or donkey-driven gear coupled DC generator can charge
(2014 Toyota Prius) are 265 and 540 miles [88] (NAP, 2015). PEV battery much faster and cheaper than expensive solar cells.
Accumulative sale of PEV in 2014 was 140,000 in 2014 which Animal life is more than useful life of solar cells. Pharaohs and
was 2.3 times more than HEV. PEV needs an 85kWh capacity bat- Romans used human and animal driven rail type tracks to trans-
tery that is one week electricity consumption of an average home. port stones for building pyramids in thousand years earlier. Human
How to put all that energy into the car in equivalent petrol filling
time is the real challenge. PEV, BEV, and PEV car models with bat-
tery and all electric ranges (AER) are shown in Table 5.
Nissan Leaf 44 kW battery needs 30 min to charge to 80% on DC
Fast supply. Japan has installed 2129 DC Fast chargers compared to
1327 in the EU and 700 in the USA. Batteries mass densities vary
from 40 to 200 Wh/kg, and volume energy densities vary from 50
to 400 Wh/L. Lithium batteries (LiB) have high energy and volume
densities compared to Lead Acid batteries having the least. Ni-Cd,
Ni-Zn, and NiMH batteries fall in between, with Ni-Zn in the
Table 5
PEV battery capacities and all electric ranges [162].
Vehicles Battery (kWh) AER (Miles) Charging

2014 Tesla Model S 85 265 DC Fast
2014 Nissan Leaf 24 (21) 84 DC Fast
2014 Ford Focus E 23 76 DC FASt
2014 Chevrolet Volt 16.5 (11) 38 240 V/30A
Fig. 24. Spectral emission comparison of daylight, LED, bulb and fluorescent lights
2014 Toyota Prius 4.4 (3.2) 11 220 V/12A
(Courtesy of John Herrman Popular Mechanics).
and animal muscle driven mechanical devices are perfectly sus- 2020. Sunfire Company has converted CO2 into blue crude which is
tainable energy systems [166]. PHEV and PEV industry in develop- a wonderful fuel with lower emissions [168]. Conversion of CO2
ing countries may employ animal powered generators instead of into fuels and value added products is a step toward celestial oil
expensive fast DC chargers changing utility peak consumption wells which theoretically do not increase net atmospheric CO2
hours. concentrations.
Energy conservation policy comprises technical measures, Energy efficiency is not any distinct profession every member of
structural modifications, and change of social behaviors. The first society can contribute to energy efficiency in all professions. Lawr-
part is the responsibility of government, the second partial duty ence Berkeley National Laboratory has shown an energy efficiency
of departments and third party collective responsibility of media role to everyone in his/her own profession. Engineers can design
and civil society. Last part may be done better by introducing efficient products, economists can point out niche opportunities,
energy saving insight in students at schools. The energy costs of analysts can assess life cycles, business sector can finance energy
transport may be minimized using the appropriate mode of trans- research, layers can facilitate licensing and intellectual rights,
port. Passenger-miles per gallon of oil by airplane is much lower architects, go for ZEB designs, energy auditors point out the surplus
than by bus or rail, which is generally perceived other way around. energy use, users can upgrade equipment, policy makers can make
Similarly, goods may be transported far more economically by air- eco friendly laws, children can learn and force parents to reduce
plane than by rail or ship. A comparison of people and goods trans- energy use. As a member of the community, citizen and consumer
port over a longer distance is shown in Table 6. use energy efficient technologies, respect frugality and discourage
China has coal potential in the north and hydropower potential heavy spending on fanfare. Energy saving can be viewed as an indi-
in the south west. Chinese use UHV AC and DC lines to transport vidual’s act of goodness toward the global village. A dripping valve
power instead of coal transport for high efficiency of transmission in home wastes three to four tubs of clean water which requires 1–
lines. PEPCO has hydropower potential in the north and thermal 2 kWh energy to pump it back into the tank. It saves money to
power potential in the southwest. PEPCO generates hydropower home owners and supports global efforts to increase energy effi-
in the north and transports to south over 1500 km distance ciency. Energy efficiency is the cheapest way to overcome the cli-
through four 500 kV EHV lines in summer and vice versa in the mate change threat.
winter. Balancing the generation season wise can save huge trans-
mission losses. If the EHV AC lines are converted into HVDC lines, it
can save lots of energy as DC lines win over AC lines when the dis- 9. Smart energy cloud (SEC)
tance exceeds 500 km. PEPCO is already planning to construct new
HVDC lines yet could be better to convert the existing EHV lines The power sector is undergoing a steady transformation from
into HVDC lines. EHV lines can be used for composite AC and DC the centralized fossil fuels, nuclear and hydropower generation
transmission by injecting DC currents through neutral of AC lines based architecture to a decentralized electric grid consisting of tra-
so as the sum of AC and DC voltages remains within a tolerance ditional and distributed energy resources (DER). Utility deregula-
of peak EHV insulation level. Comparison of fuel gases and liquids tion practices, distributed generation (DG) and global regulations
by pipelines and their electricity by transmission line is another on carbon emissions force utilities to be part of the global energy
avenue to save transport energy. Major barriers to energy conser- cloud. Renewable energy, energy efficiency, energy storage,
vation are lack of policies and public behaviors [117]. demand response (DR), advanced software and hardware enabling
White rooftop building fitted with photovoltaic and geothermal flexible control and interoperability of heterogeneous grid ele-
facilities can transform the ordinary buildings into green buildings. ments are all integral components of developing energy cloud.
A zero energy building (ZEB) may use intelligent windows to con- The incumbent grid has centralized controlled, DG has decentral-
trol heat flux escape in winter and block heat wave entrance in ized control, and energy cloud would have both management
summer. Replacing the incandescent lamps with LEDs and CFLs options to its many to many networks nature [117]. Generation
or old inefficient washing machines, freezers, TV, air conditioners, would depend on future weathers so forecasting skills will become
dishwashers, furnace fans and water heaters is expensive but saves more complex. Micro-power and virtual power plants (VPP) are the
money at the end of the day. According to Lawrence Berkeley workhorses behind an energy cloud which sits on the confluence of
National laboratory report, annual kWh per refrigerator declines generation, energy storage, DG, buildings, and infrastructure. Deep
70% at a rate of 4% per year. Average energy use per unit was penetrated software and hardware can enhance DR opportunities.
1800 in 1973 which declined to 400 in 2001. The USA has a saving European utilities have no power generation capacity problem yet
potential of 567TWh in the residential sector. In the non-transport due to DG produce conventional power fraction of the total capac-
sector, the US efficiency potential is the reduction of energy con- ity. Top twenty European utilities face more than $500 billion
sumption by 23% by 2020, yet it would require an investment of reduction in market capitalization due to widespread DG. Transi-
$520 billion to eliminate $1.2 trillion wasted. EPRI estimates the tion to the smart grid will replace 320GW centralized fossil fuels
economic potential of 473TWh while McKinsey assumes power plants with DG from 2014 to 2023. Utilities with aging
1080TWh in 2020, though these both reports concerning US EIA infrastructures fear death spiral due to the disruptive business nat-
report 2009 do differ on energy efficiency benefits yet both opti- ure of DG. Innovations are disruptive in nature as digital cameras
mistic (McKinsey, 2009). European energy efficiency directive tar- and color printers closed traditional photography and film indus-
gets 1474Mtoe of primary energy and 1078Mtoe of final energy by try. Internal combustion engines replaced steam engines, and elec-
tric vehicles are replacing automobiles. Wind and water watts
(WWW) are taking the place of fossil fuel plants. Solar and wind
Table 6
People and goods transport expenses [167].
power installed capacities have reached 150 and 375 GW world-
wide. The solar PV market is approaching $134 billion by 20202.
Passengers transport Goods transport Large wind turbine farms produce in tens of MWs, but small and
Mode Persons-miles/Gallon Mode Tons-miles/Gallon medium wind turbines (SMWT) produced 154.9 MW in 2014 and
Bus 125 Ship 250 are forecast to deliver 587.7MS by 2023. Bidirectional energy flow
Rail 50 Rail 200 will change one way flow ecosystem. The smart grid is a status quo,
Truck 32 Truck 56 and the revolutionary quandary as incumbent grid and utilities
Airplane 14 Airplane 3.7
face the risk of obsolescence and extinction. Digital and wireless
power innovations are certainly disruptive for the incumbent grid. power pilferages. Everybody prefers his/her own grid to use and
The concept of liquid hydrogen and AC/DC electricity power can sell the surplus power. Concepts of zero energy building (ZEB), res-
invoke a new revolution worldwide. idential generation and storage (RGS), and building energy man-
The traditional grid system consists of a hub-and-spoke archi- agement systems (BEM) have gained widespread acceptance
tecture from 1880s to 2000s. Computer systems tagged on the [170]. ZEB market revenue has been just $629.3 million in 2014
same edifice using mainframe and terminals in the 1960s. Informa- which is forecast by Navigant Researchers to rise to $1.6 trillion
tion and communication technology (ICT) revolution facilitated by 2035 at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 44.5%. Ven-
grid and cloud computing capabilities which Computer and com- dor’s RGS revenue was $54.7 billion in 2013 that is likely to reach
munication experts proposed to apply to the aging power system $71.6 billion by 2023. BEMs revenue is $2.4 billion today, which is
[169]. It is assumed the DR can mediate DR akin to grid and cloud forecast to approach $1.8 billion in 2024. Dynamic volt/var control
computing. Utility customers will act as consumers as well as architectures (DVCA), volt/var control (VVC or WC) devices and
power producers. A consumer may invest to store surplus power power factor correction (PFC) systems are integral parts of the
during off-peak hours at lower rates and sell it back to the utility smart grid. Global DVCA revenue was $734.1 million in 2014,
during peak hours at higher rates. It is the implementation of free which is likely to grow to $2.9 billion by 2023. Hardware and soft-
market belief in the power sector, which is not possible without ware based distributed management systems (DMS) business will
restructuring existing grid architecture. The power system is an exceed $935 million by 2020 [171]. Microgrid enabling technolo-
energy network, and smart grid is a network of networks. Smart gies (MET) like smart inverters, interface, soft start and distributed
grid vision starts with the rollout of smart meters followed by generation vendor’s revenue was $1.8 billion in 2014 which is pre-
replacement of most grid components from relays to the SCADA dicted by Navigant Research to reach $9.6 billion by 2023. Virtual
system. Power pilferages led to the replacement of electromagnetic power plants provide synergies shares in grid systems. VPPs mar-
energy meters with electronic meters in the 1970s and digital ket was $1.1 billion in 2014 which is hoped to rise to $5.3 billion
meters in 1980s. The smart meter would be the fourth meter in by 2023. Combined heat and power (CHP) systems exhibit a higher
133 years utility history. Smart meter penetration has reached coefficient of performance compared to separate heat and power
50% in the USA by 2015 and is expected to reach 70% by 2020 [55]. networks. Technologies and products driving CHP have been in
Smart meters penetration in Europe and the Asia Pacific has the market for one decade which is now gaining momentum due
reached 23 and 34% and is expected to reach to 58 and 45% by to multiple companies and higher demands. The current world-
2023. Annual smart meters revenue was $4.4 billion in 2013 which wide installed capacity of CHP systems is 32.7 GW in 2015 which
is expected to rise to $6.6 billion by 2023. Prepaid, AMR and AMI is likely to increase to 74.4 GW in 2024 [172].
meters are fast replacing the electromechanical and electronic Smart meters are replacing gas, water, and electricity meters.
meter. Prepaid meters annual revenue was $31.7 million in 2014 Mechanical gas and water meters never needed a power supply
which is forecast to rise to $85.2 million by 2024. Smart meters which smart gas and water meters need to enable its suave func-
home (HAN) and neighborhood area networks (NAN) override tions. Analog meters used to record electric energy consumptions
power pilferages. Smart meter success with electric utilities pro- greater than their 1 W disc inertia. The smart meters need more
vokes gas and water utilities to go for smart meters. Smart grid energy to enable their debonair functions like recording kWh,
vision would require a complete change of utility attitudes to con- kVARh, IP, VP, P, f, PF, PQ features, maximum demand, the load
sumer behaviors. Mechanical relays have pervasively been protect- on/off, outage/restore timings and remote disconnection facility
ing power transmission and distribution from 1880s to 1960s. [173]. A smart electric energy meter disconnects supply when the
Solid state relays since the 1960s replaced and digital relays since line voltage drops below 70%, and the current falls below 5% of
1970s replaced 50–60% of the mechanical relays worldwide. Smart nominal Ina current. Utility supply is supposed to remain within
grid compatible relays are called advanced protective relays ±10% of rated value which is usually -15 to 20% in populated areas.
(ADVPR). Advanced integrated digital protection systems are being Smart meter, for instance, PCR 423, records energy consumption at
sold as fully integrated systems, yet compatible with different a rate of 400 pulses per kWh rate, which means one pul-
make equipment. Integrated systems might have distributed fea- se/0.0025kWh. If energy consumption current is <0.2 mA the meter
tures built in circuit breakers which would have to be changed or would not respond. It is a good resolution, but energy resolution of
upgraded. Information technology (IT) software and hardware most smart meters are 100 (ME 372), 400 (PCR 423) and 800 (AMI
used to transform existing grids into smart grid system operation 230) pulses/kWh. A 100 pulses/kWh meter has an energy resolution
include AMI, DA, IVVC, CVR, MDM, CIS, SCADA, EMS, DMS, OMS, of 1 pulse per 0.1kWh, which corresponds to the minimum detect-
AMS, MWMS, DRMS, DERMs, ZigBee and Zeb which had market able current of 7.6 mA [174]. A smart meter like ME 423 would
revenue of $8.5 billion in 2013 that is forecast to rise to $20 billion inflict 58.52 MW undetectable losses for 35 million connections.
by 2022. The smart grid primary target is fault location, isolation, Smart meters have standard 1.5–3 W metering losses that amount
service restoration (FLISR) by integration of software, hardware, to minimum 52.5 to maximum 105 MW for 35 million connections.
and telecommunication in existing grid. FLISR revenue was $2.4 Metering losses of smart meters are collectively 110 to 162 MW
billion in 2014 which is forecast by Navigant Researchers to reach which were only 35 MW for standard 1 W analog meters. Common
$5.4 billion by 2023. Distribution management system (DMS) deals smart meters claim <0.2 VA current and <1.5 W (6VA) voltage cir-
with DER, RGS and BS networks, which are the heart of the smart cuits metering losses. In Europe, smart meters record energy under
grid vision. Currently, DMS is based on the centralized control EN 62053-22 (0.5 class for active powers) and EN 62053-23 (2 class
which would have to be transformed into a distributed configura- for reactive powers) with one pulse per kWh and kVARh resolu-
tion to liberalize DER under net metering and feed-in-tariff tions. Three phase smart meters, CRSIM ME 372 (UK), have per
schemes [169]. phase burdens of <0.5VA (class 2) for current and <2 W (10VA)
Utilities grapple with complex change over challenges. Navi- {class 2 or 3} for voltage circuits. Typical 10VA burden equals 2 W
gant Research estimates global relays revenue is in the range of at 85° power factor angle which may become 30 to 40° by installing
$5.5 billion in 2015 which is likely to reach $9.8 billion by 2023. capacitors beyond the point of common coupling capacity loads.
Relay replacement trend in the Pacific region is higher than Europe Depending upon power factor the metering loss may increase from
and America. Accumulative relays revenue from 2015 to 2023 is of claimed 2 W to 4 W [174]. Metering losses of some smart meters
the order of $73.5 billion (McCray, 2015). The rapid rise in energy are suspected to be 11 to 22 W. Smart meters use RF band at 2.4
prices has forced consumers to prod the way they pay the cost of GHz for radio wave communication (IEC 802.15.4) or power line
carrier (PLC) both of which consume power. Smart metering loss tial to scrub air to clean the environment. Human society has yet
increases many times during communication. If communication not completed solid and liquid to gas phase fuels transition, and
radio is powered from the downstream side, then it is charged to renewable energy transition overwhelmed the fuel phase transi-
customers. Consumers pay for utility temper alarm and disconnect tion. Continued exploration, research and product development,
facilities too. Consumers have nothing to do with smart meter PQ innovative improvements and their integration into existing
analysis signatures and two way communication facilities. energy infrastructures is good approach rather than waiting for
Metering and pilferage losses are charged to docile consumers to the lightning to strike. Climate change and oil depletion scenarios
pile up utility profits. Selling local products to own people at inter- drive the energy transition process. More than 7.5 billion people,
national rates to show company profits is a mandate to nowhere bigger than $103 trillion global GDP relies on annual consumption
[175]. of 13.5GTOE fossil fuels giving off about 40GtCO2 emissions [176].
Population, economy, energy and GHG emissions are rapidly
10. Conclusions increasing at annual growth rates of 2, 3, 2.1 and 2.3% respectively.
Energy transition from fossil fuels (currently 80%) to renewable
Human societies have been changing the phase and forms of energy sources (currently 20%) is the first global scale challenge
energy sources. Ancient people, domesticated animals to increase to human wisdom. Nature uses eight photons to fix one CO2 mole-
human power. Technological advances inspire society for energy cule and technologies have hardly 33–50% efficiencies. Rampant
transition. Stone Age did not end for the shortage of stones; it rise in population and profits may require nuclear fusion, artificial
ended as stones were no more needed. Locomotives and Edison’s photosynthesis and innovative energy technologies to sustain food
bulb still do their jobs, rather do a better job than their earlier chains and economic growths. This paper has described the thrust
forms, people have found more economical solutions. The discov- behind the past molecules (molecules) to atoms (nuclear fission)
ery of fossil fuels accelerated economic and industrial expansions. and current molecules/atoms to renewable energy (solar, wind
Climate change forced people for renewable energy transition at and wave). The future energy transition may take the form of
the start now clean solar and wind energies are cheaper than dirty nuclear fusion and artificial photosynthesis.
fossil fuels. The coal and oil industries are being ignored by divest-
ments in renewable energy solutions. Natural gas is still cost com- 11. Future work
petitive with solar and wind power, therefore, heavy investments
are being made in shale gas discoveries. Crude and gas fired street The agricultural revolution ended poverty, industrial revolution
lighting systems have changed to the electricityand future trend increased productivity, digital revolution increased awareness, and
are towards glowing plants. Old hard recording discs were replaced artificial intelligence revolution opened doors of the knowledge
by flexiblemagnetic strip cassettes three decades ago, which were based economy. Lexus nexus is quantum computing, self-
replaced byflexible CDs and high density data storage materials. learning machines, big data science, smart grid, science parks, bio
Every invention has advantages as well as disadvantages, Edison’s wind and bio solar plants. 5G offers infinite bandwidth and infinite
bulb is still better than expensive LED lights due to a continuous innovation potential. Artificial intelligence provides knowledge
spectrum. To engineer a change the industry offers alternatives, economy and infinite employment opportunities. Today poor is
which save money and increase performance. The interest driven defined to be a person poor in knowledge. The population is
economic and technical transitions have been bringing changes resource, which should not be a burden. Microsoft, Ali Baba, and
in human societies. Renewable energy resources will replace most Social Media Engines are examples of successful entrepreneurs
of the fossil fuels to reduce reliance on depleting energy sources, who were not IT experts, yet used IT to lead the world. Steam engi-
and it would require another transition from nuclear fission to nes kick started an industrial revolution, and internal combustion
nuclear fusion to fulfill future energy demands. Survival of global engine increased productivity. Electric machines multiplied manu-
society depends on success in nuclear fusion plants, artificial pho- facturing capacity and started automatic systems. Digital revolu-
tosynthesis and CO2 to fuels conversion technologies. Carbon cap- tion decreased distances, and artificial Intelligence revolution is
ture and sequestration technologies inspire scientists to capture opening doors of the knowledge based economy. A vision of future
CO2 from air and power plants to convert it into fuels and value sustainable energy transition to maximum renewable and mini-
added products. Zero emission coal technologies have great poten- mum fossil fuels is shown in Fig. 25.
Fig. 25. A vision of future sustainable energy transition.

The industrial revolution started with fossil fuels, and Japan 2%. Give people free internet service to learn and excel in education
started an electronic revolution to strengthen the economy. Now and business. Go to 5G and let the IoT roll out to create innovative
past is immaterial, today is obsolete, and future is changing fast smart brains.
every moment. Bricks and mortars are less important than science
cities, big data and fusion energy. Labs are shifting from buildings
onto chips and brains. 3D printers can manufacture almost every- References
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Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 22 (2019) 185–214

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Engineering Science and Technology,

Energy transition from molecules to atoms and photons

1. Introduction than an internal combustion engine. We waste 60%–70%of bio-

Fig. 1. Energy related intuitions, discoveries and inventions.

Fig. 2. History of power scale (in kW) [28].

Fig. 3. Great energy transition from fire to the wire.

Fig. 4. Global primary energy and electricity supply systems [54].

Urban energy transition can help farmers rely on solar pumps,

Table 1 joules, but it converts humidity into fresh water, which is an

Fig. 6. Levelized costs of renewable energies [62].

Fig. 7. Molecules of diesel, petrol and methane gases [65].

Fig. 8. Global picture of nuclear power policies [72].

known Z-pinch principle, where the fast discharge of capacitors

Conventional electrolysis needs power and photochemical elec-

Fig. 13. Emission of photons from excited atoms [111].

Fig. 14. NREL solar cells efficiency histogram [114].

power techniques. Solar insolation available to people in most parts

Types Nuclear Coal Gas Wind Hydro PV

Fig. 17. Properties of common synthetic and natural refrigerants.

Fig. 19. Global Wind Power Capacity [133].

Fig. 23. Typical efficiencies of natural and man-made machines.

Vehicles Battery (kWh) AER (Miles) Charging

Fig. 25. A vision of future sustainable energy transition.

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