Learning Outcome:: Example 2
Learning Outcome:: Example 2
Learning Outcome:: Example 2
By differentiating and integrating a convergent power series of a function, we can find the
Maclaurin series for other functions.
Example 1:
1
Write the Maclaurin series for . By using differentiation, find the series expansion for
1−𝑥
1
.
(1−𝑥)2
Solution:
Let f(x) = (1 – x)-1
f(0) = (1 – 0)-1 = 1
1
f’(x) = -1( 1- x)-2(-1) → f’(0) = (1−0)2 = 1
2
f’’(x) = -2(1 – x)-3 (-1) → f’(0) = (1−0)3 = 2
6
f’’’(x) = (-3)(2)(1 – x)-4 (-1) → f’’’(0) = (1−0)4 = 6
1 2 6
=1+𝑥+ 𝑥 2 + 3! 𝑥 3 + ⋯
1−𝑥 2!
= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + …
= ∑∞𝑛=0 𝑥
𝑛
𝑑 1 𝑑
( )= (1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 + ⋯ )
𝑑𝑥 1 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1
= 1 + 2x + 3x2 + …
(1−𝑥)2
Example 2:
Write down the Maclaurin series of ln (1 + x) with interval of convergence (-1, 1]. Find the
1
power series of the function 1+𝑥 by differentiation.
Solution:
1 1 1
ln (1 + x) = x – 2 𝑥 2 + 3 𝑥 3 − 4 𝑥 4 + …, -1< x ≤ 1
𝑑 𝑑 1 1 1
[ln(1 + 𝑥)] = (𝑥 – 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 4 + ⋯ )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 3 4
1
= 1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥2 − 𝑥3 + ⋯
1+𝑥
Example 3:
Find the power series of cos x by using differentiation method.
Solution:
𝑑
We know that 𝑑𝑥 (sin 𝑥) = cos 𝑥
1 1
sin x = x - 3! 𝑥 3 + 5! 𝑥 5 − ⋯
𝑑 𝑑 1 1
(sin 𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 5 − ⋯ )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 3! 5!
1 1
cos x = 1 – 2 𝑥 2 + 24 𝑥 4 − ⋯
Example 4:
𝑥 1
Using the result of ∫0 1+𝑡
𝑑𝑡 = ln(1 + 𝑥), find the power series of ln (1 + x) up to the term in
4
x.
Solution:
𝑥 1
ln (1 + x) = ∫0 𝑑𝑡
1+𝑡
𝑥
= ∫0 (1 + 𝑡)−1 𝑑𝑡
𝑥 (−1)(−2) (−1)(−2)(−3) 3
= ∫0 [1 + (−1)𝑡 + (𝑡 2 ) + 𝑡 + ⋯ ]𝑑𝑡
2! 3!
𝑥
= ∫0 1 − 𝑡 + 𝑡 2 − 𝑡 3 + ⋯ 𝑑𝑡
𝑡2 𝑡3 𝑡4 𝑥
= [t - + − + ⋯]
2 3 4 0
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
= (x - + − + ⋯ ) − (0)
2 3 4
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
=x- + − +…
2 3 4
𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑3 𝑦 𝑑4 𝑦
By using repeated differentiation and obtaining value of y, 𝑑𝑥 , 𝑑𝑥 2 , 𝑑𝑥 3 , 𝑑𝑥 4 when x = 0, we
can deduce the expansion of y in ascending power of x.
Example 1:
𝑑2 𝑦
Given y = (1 + sin x)ex , show that = (1 + 2 cos 𝑥) 𝑒 𝑥 . Hence, determine the first three
𝑑𝑥 2
terms of expansion of (1 + sin x)ex.
Solution:
y = (1 + sin x)ex
𝑑𝑦
= (1 + sin x) ex + ex ( cos x) = ex (1 + sin x + cos x)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑2 𝑦
= ex (cos x – sin x) + ( 1 + sin x + cos x)ex
𝑑𝑥 2
Example 2:
If f(x) = ecos x, show that f’’(x) + sin x f’(x) + f(x) cos x = 0. If x is small such that the terms in
1 1
x5 and higher powers of x can be neglected, show that ecos x = e(1 - 2 𝑥 2 + 6 𝑥 4 ).
Solution:
Example 3:
If y = tan -1 x, show that
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
+ 2𝑥(𝑑𝑥 )2 =0 and 𝑑𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 + 2(𝑑𝑥 )2 = 0
𝑑𝑥 2
Using Maclaurin Theorem, express tan -1 x as a series of ascending powers of x up to the term
in x3.
Solution:
We can use the standard power series to find the approximation for the value of an integral
provided the values of x in the range from the lower limit to the upper limit must be small so
that the higher powers can be neglected.
Example 1:
By using the first four terms of the expansion of integrand, estimate the values of the integral
0.02
∫0 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥, giving your answer correct to 4 significant figures.
Solution:
𝑥2 𝑥3
x𝑒 𝑥 = x(1+ x + + + ⋯)
2! 3!
𝑥3 𝑥4
= x + x2 + + +⋯
2 6
0.02 0.02
𝑥
𝑥3 𝑥4
2
∫ 𝑥𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 + 𝑥 + + + ⋯ 𝑑𝑥
0 0 2 6
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5
=[2 + + + 30 + ⋯ ]0.02
0
3 8
= 0.0002027 (4 s.f)
Example 2:
By using the standard series of cos x, state the Maclaurin series for cos √𝑥 up to the term in
0.5
x3. Hence, estimate the value of ∫0.1 cos √𝑥 dx correct to three decimal places.
Solution:
Learning Outcome:
Use series expansions to find the limit of a function.
The expansion of standard series can be used to find the limit of a function.
Example 1:
Solve the following by using the expansion of standard series.
ln(1+𝑥) 1−cos 𝑥
(a) lim (b) lim 𝑥(𝑒 𝑥 −1).
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0
Solution:
ln(1+𝑥) 1 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
(a) lim =lim (𝑥 − + − +⋯)
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥 2 3 4
𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥3
= lim (1 − 2 + − +⋯) Divide each term with x
𝑥→0 3 4
=1–0+0–0
=1
(b)