Emerald Open Research Emerald Open Research 2020, 2:15 Last updated: 20 APR 2020

OPINION ARTICLE
COVID-19 and employees’ mental health: stressors, moderators
and agenda for organizational actions [version 1; peer review:
awaiting peer review]
Salima Hamouche
Faculty of Management, Canadian University Dubai, Dubai, United Arab Emirates

First published: 20 Apr 2020, 2:15 ( Open Peer Review

v1 https://doi.org/10.35241/emeraldopenres.13550.1)
Latest published: 20 Apr 2020, 2:15 ( Reviewer Status  AWAITING PEER REVIEW
https://doi.org/10.35241/emeraldopenres.13550.1)
Any reports and responses or comments on the
Abstract
article can be found at the end of the article.
Background: This paper examines the impact of coronavirus COVID-19
outbreak on employees’ mental health, specifically psychological distress
and depression. It aims at identifying the main stressors during and
post COVID-19, examining the main moderating factors which may mitigate
or aggravate the impact of COVID-19 on employees’ mental health and
finally to suggest recommendations from a human resource management
perspective to mitigate COVID-19’s impact on employees’ mental health.
Methods: This paper is a literature review. The search for articles was
made in Google scholar, Web of Science and Semantic scholar. We used a
combination of terms related to coronavirus OR COVID-19, workplace and
mental health. Due to the paucity of studies on the COVID-19 impact on
employees’ mental health, we had to draw on studies on recent epidemics.
Results: The identified literature reports a negative impact of COVID-19 on
individual’s mental health. Stressors include perception of safety, threat and
risk of contagion, infobesity versus the unknown, quarantine and
confinement, stigma and social exclusion as well as financial loss and job
insecurity. Furthermore, three dimensions of moderating factors have been
identified: organizational, institutional and individual factors. In addition, a
list of recommendations has been presented to mitigate the impact of
COVID-19 on the employee’s mental health, during and after the outbreak,
from a human resource management perspective.
Conclusions: Coronavirus is new and is in a rapid progress while writing
this paper. Most of current research are biomedical focusing on individuals’
physical health. In this context, mental health issues seem overlooked. This
paper helps to broaden the scope of research on workplace mental health,
by examining the impact of a complex new pandemic: COVID-19 on
employees’ mental health, from social sciences perceptive, mobilizing
psychology and human resource management.

Keywords
Coronavirus, COVID-19, Mental health, Stress, Workplace, Depression,
Psychological distress, Human resource management

 
Page 1 of 11
Emerald Open Research Emerald Open Research 2020, 2:15 Last updated: 20 APR 2020

Corresponding author: Salima Hamouche (salima.hamouche@cud.ac.ae)
Author roles: Hamouche S: Conceptualization, Formal Analysis, Funding Acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project Administration,
Resources, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing
Competing interests: No competing interests were disclosed.
Grant information: The author(s) declared that no grants were involved in supporting this work.
Copyright: © 2020 Hamouche S. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which
permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
How to cite this article: Hamouche S. COVID-19 and employees’ mental health: stressors, moderators and agenda for organizational
actions [version 1; peer review: awaiting peer review] Emerald Open Research 2020, 2:15 (https://doi.org/10.35241/emeraldopenres.13550.1
)
First published: 20 Apr 2020, 2:15 (https://doi.org/10.35241/emeraldopenres.13550.1) 

 
Page 2 of 11
 Emerald Open Research 2020, 2:15 Last updated: 20 APR 2020

Introduction example is the tragically apparent suicide of a 37-year-old

On March 11, 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) government worker, in Japan, who was responsible for looking
declared coronavirus (CODIV-19) a pandemic. Which means a after isolated returnees from Wuhan (China) (The Japan Times,
global disease outbreak threatening the whole planet. 2020). In China, COVID-19 outbreak has led to tremendous
psychological problems that have created an emerging serious
CODIV-19 is an infectious disease caused by coronavirus. challenge for mental health services in China (Li et al., 2020)
‘Coronaviruses (CoV) are a large family of viruses that cause
illness ranging from the common cold to more severe diseases| Indeed, it seems that during a pandemic outbreak, especially
such as Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS-CoV) and in the case of an unknown new virus, individuals’ mental health
Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS-CoV). A novel coro- issues can sometimes be largely overlooked. The objectives of the
navirus (nCoV) is a new strain that has not been previously present paper were twofold. First, to examine COVID-19 impact
identified in humans.’ (WHO, 2020a). They are transmitted on employees’ mental health in organizations. Secondarily, to
between animals and humans. They include fever, dry cough, evaluate the main organizational interventions, from human
shortness of breath and breathing difficulties, tiredness with resource management perspective, which may mitigate this
possible symptoms of aches and pains, nasal congestion, runny impact. As we write this paper, the coronavirus is spreading so
nose, sore throat or diarrhea (WHO, 2020a) fast. Considering its novelty, studies, which have investigated its
impact on individuals’ mental health, are sparse. In addition,
Coronavirus is a new virus which has been discovered with its there are few studies that have examined this epidemiological
outbreak in Wuhan, China, in December 2019. Now, it has catastrophe from a managerial perspective.
spread at a lightning speed to affect several countries. According
to WHO (2020b), on March 31, 2020, this virus has reached Methods
202 countries, areas or territories with 693,224 confirmed cases Based on the classification of Grant & Booth (2009), the method
and 33,391 deaths. used in this paper is a general literature review, which provides
an examination of the recent and current literature and covers
Many countries have demonstrated leadership by implementing different subjects in varying levels of completeness and
emergency measures to prevent the infection spreading. In comprehensiveness. The subject covered in this paper is
this context, schools and university, kindergartens, cinemas, coronavirus COVID-19 that the whole world is facing while we
museums, restaurants have been closed, public gatherings and are writing it. We examine specifically its impact on employees’
events have been cancelled, people quarantined, travel restric- mental health, including the stressors, we explore the moderating
tions, close borders and cancelled flights from and to countries factors as well as the possible avenues of organizational actions
with a high level of contamination (e.g. China, Italy, France, to mitigate the effects of COVID-19 on the employee’s mental
Spain, US, Canada…) health. The narrative form is the main characteristic of this
type of review (Grant & Booth, 2009) that we have adopted
Besides the negative impact on the individual, a pandemic can in this paper.
lead to sharp shocks to the worldwide economies and
societies (MacIntyrea, 2020; Shigemura et al., 2020). According We searched for articles in Google scholar, Web of Science
to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Develop- and semantic scholar using a combination of terms related to
ment’s (OECD) latest Interim Economic Outlook (2020), ‘the coronavirus OR COVID-19 and workplace; COVID-19 and
coronavirus Covid-19 presents the global economy with its employees’ mental health; COVID-19 and psychological distress;
greatest danger since the financial crisis’. ‘Even in the best-case COVID-19 and depression, workplaces’ strategy and COVID-19.
scenario of limited outbreaks in countries outside China, a sharp Articles were chosen according to their relevance to our research
slowdown in world growth is expected in the first half of 2020 topic. We searched for articles that provided information about
as supply chains and commodities are hit, tourism drops and COVID-19’s impact on employees’ mental health, we focused
confidence falters. Global economic growth is seen falling to on those published between December 2019 and March 2020.
2.4% for the whole year, compared to an already weak 2.9% in Biomedical articles were not selected. Our objective was to
2019’ (OECD, 2020). This situation can have a negative impact on analyse articles which help to create a bridge between
business sustainability and individual employment. In fact, this epidemiology, psychology and human resource management.
has triggered furloughs and layoffs (World Economic Forum, Due to the paucity of studies on the COVID-19’s impact on
2020). Employees, in this case, need to take care of themselves, employees’ mental health, we had to draw on studies on recent
of their families and to try to maintain their job position. What epidemics like SARS (Severe acute respiratory syndrome) and
about their mental health in this context? Ebola. We searched, in this case, for articles that link these
epidemics to mental health. All the reviewed articles are
Faced with this epidemiological catastrophe, individuals have included in this paper and listed in the references.
presented anxiety-related behaviours, translated into a significant
shortage of sanitizers, medical masks (Shigemura et al., 2020) Literature review
and toilet paper (Corkery & Maheshwari, 2020). Which suggests COVID-19, the workplace and employees’ mental health
that the coronavirus is not only a physical health’s risk, but it We examine in this paper two mental health outcomes:
also weighs heavily on the mental health of individuals. The best psychological distress and major depression that can result

Page 3 of 11
 Emerald Open Research 2020, 2:15 Last updated: 20 APR 2020

from a pandemic or an epidemic outbreak (Chiu et al., 2020; Shultz et al., 2015). For example, during Ebola, there were some
Lai et al., 2020; Perlis, 2020; Wu et al., 2005; Xiang et al., 2020). cases of fearful symptomatic patients’ escape from treatment
Psychological distress is largely used as an indicator of mental centres, concealing sick relatives at home (Chan, 2014; Shultz
health (Drapeau et al., 2011). It refers to a state of individual’s et al., 2015). Feeling unsafe and vulnerable to pandemics
emotional suffering, accompanied by symptoms of depression are, according to some authors, predictors of poor mental health
(e.g. sadness and loss of interest) and anxiety (e.g. restless- (Brooks et al., 2018).
ness) (Drapeau et al., 2011; Mirowsky & Ross, 2003; Payton,
2009) and somatic symptoms like insomnia (Drapeau et al., Infobesity versus the unknown. During pandemic outbreak,
2011; Marchand, 2004). Psychological distress is related to a set individuals face an infobesity or an information overload. They
of psychophysiological and behavioural symptoms that are dis- become overwhelmed by the known lethality of the infec-
tributed over a continuum of time (Marchand, 2004). While tion as well as the intensity of media coverage of this pandemic
depression is psychiatric mood disorder, characterized by per- outbreak, which exacerbates their perception of danger (Bai
sistent reduced mood and interest (Bonde, 2008), persistent et al., 2004; Garfin et al., 2020; Shigemura et al., 2020),
feelings of sadness, negative emotions and difficulty to cope increases their anxiety (Shigemura et al., 2020) and under-
with everyday responsibilities (Cummins et al., 2015). If not mines their mental health. In this case, misinformation spreads
identified psychological distress may lead to major depression faster than COVID-19.
(Marchand, 2004). While depression may lead to severe con-
sequences like suicide (Beck & Alford, 2009; Cummins et al., Social media is one of the main channels providing updated
2015). information regarding COVID-19 (Bao et al., 2020; Gao
et al., 2020). Although it could play an important role in
Psychological distress and depression are the results of an intense facilitating the communication of individuals who are quaran-
or a continuous stress which has not been managed, mainly due to tined with their relatives who are far away (Brooks et al., 2020),
the individual’s difficulty to cope with stressful life events social media is not always a trusted source of information for
(Cummins et al., 2015; Drapeau et al., 2011; Marchand, 2004). updates about the pandemic (Gao et al., 2020). In fact, it may
The current pandemic is a source of intense stress for the whole spread rumours or false information leading to misinformation
world population. overload (Bontcheva et al., 2013; Roth & Brönnimann, 2013),
which stokes unfounded fears among many individuals. The
The COVID-19 pandemic can be related to many stressors that study of Gao et al. (2020) showed that there was a high
may drain employees’ mental health, during and after this pan- prevalence of mental health problems (depression and anxiety
demic. In this section, we have made the distinction between the or a combination of both) which was positively associated with
stressors during the coronavirus pandemic and those that can frequent social media exposure during the COVID-19 outbreak
evolve after this pandemic. The distress that an individual feels in Wuhan, China.
is not the problem. It is rather the consequence of the prob-
lem (Mirowsky & Ross, 2003). Therefore, it is important to Furthermore, news coverage of a pandemic outbreak may
understand the problem in order to be able to identify solutions contain an amount of conflicting information which can shake
which will help employees and organizations to reduce the risk an individual’s trust (McCauley et al., 2013), creates confusion,
of mental health issues. This is the main objective of this article. uncertainty and increases the level of stress felt by the individ-
ual and his incapacity to cope with the intensity of the current
Stressors during the coronavirus pandemic situation. Moreover, the lack of clear information about the dif-
The main stressors during a pandemic are the 1) perception of ferent levels of risks may lead individuals to imagine the worst,
safety, threat and risk of contagion (Brooks et al., 2020; Xiang which exacerbates their anxiety (Desclaux et al., 2017). In fact,
et al., 2020) ; 2) Infobesity and the Unknown (Gao et al., 2020; insufficient clear information about the pandemic and clear
Garfin et al., 2020) 3) quarantaine and confinement (Brooks explanation about the necessity of quarantine have been
et al., 2020; Qiu et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020), 4) stigma identified as important sources of stress for individuals during
and social exclusion (Brooks et al., 2020; Xiang et al., 2020) the pandemic (Brooks et al., 2020).
and 5) financial loss and job insecurity (Brooks et al., 2020;
Zhou et al., 2020). Quarantine and confinement. Quarantine refers to separating
individuals (or communities) who have potentially been
Perception of safety, threat and risk of contagion. During exposed to an infectious disease from the rest of the community
pandemic, fear and panic set in. In fact, individuals’ anxiety may (Hawryluck et al., 2004; Parmet & Sinha, 2020). It also refers to
increase following the first death and an increased media reporting the reduction of movement of individuals who have potentially
related to the number of new cases (Rubin & Wessely, 2020). In been exposed to an infectious disease (Brooks et al., 2020).
this case, individuals are afraid about their own health and the COVID-19 is an infectious disease, as it spreads around the
health of the members of their family (Bai et al., 2004; Brooks world, governments like China, Italy and many other countries
et al., 2020; Xiang et al., 2020). The outbreak of COVID-19 have adopted draconian measures, such as imposing quarantines
itself and the control measures taken may lead to widespread fear and travel bans, on an unexpected and unprecedented scale
and panic (Zhang et al., 2020a). Fear behaviours can propel the (Parmet & Sinha, 2020; MacIntyrea, 2020). Although quaran-
virus transmission and spread in pandemic areas (Chan, 2014; tines are generally established for the public good, they may result

Page 4 of 11
 Emerald Open Research 2020, 2:15 Last updated: 20 APR 2020

in a heavy psychological, emotional and financial burden for that will substantially decrease the level of employment
individuals (Hawryluck et al., 2004). In fact, individuals (Page et al., 2006). This situation will have a negative impact
quarantined might experience boredom, anger and loneliness on the individuals’ financial capacity due to the loss of income
(Xiang et al., 2020). Some studies pointed out that quarantine (Zhou et al., 2020). Financial loss can also be an issue for indi-
during a pandemic, like COVID-19, is associated with poorer viduals who are quarantined, since they are not able to work or
mental health (Brooks et al., 2020, Rubin & Wessely, 2020), to maintain their professional activities, often without the prior
with high prevalence of symptoms of psychological distress and ability to plan for this eventuality long-term, with potential
disorder (Wang et al., 2020). This association can be worse long-lasting effects (Brooks et al., 2020). The study of Zhang
due to the duration of the quarantine (Brooks et al., 2020). et al. (2020b) showed that individuals who stopped working
Furthermore, the study of Bai et al. (2004) on health care due to Covid-19 outbreak reported worse health and distress.
workers showed that quarantined employees were significantly Likewise, the study of Mihashi et al. (2009) showed, in the
more likely to report exhaustion, anxiety when dealing with case of SARS infection, that income reduction highly predicts
febrile patients, insomnia, irritability, low levels of work per- psychological disorder with odds of 25.0. In addition, some
formance and poor concentration. Brooks et al. (2020) suggested authors identify inadequate insurance and compensation as one
that there can be long-term negative psychological outcomes of of the risk factors for poor mental health (Tam et al., 2004).
quarantine experiences; not only for the individuals quaran-
tined, but also for the health care system administrating the Furthermore, the impact of the pandemic outbreak on
quarantine, as well as the politicians and public health officials businesses would significantly increase an individual’s feeling of
mandating it. job insecurity, which can have a negative impact on the mental
health of employees who are affected by the organizational
Stigma and social exclusion. Stigma is one of the common reforms of closure and reduction of working hours during
social consequences of a pandemic (Xiang et al., 2020). Being COVID-19. The negative effect of job insecurity has been widely
afraid of the risk of a potentially lethal contagious disease, documented in literature on mental health in the workplace
people develop a form of stereotyping toward individuals (Strazdins et al., 2004; Virtanen et al., 2002).
associated with the epicentre of the disease, by avoiding them,
blaming new disease outbreaks on them (Desclaux et al., 2017; Stressors post Coronavirus
Kinsman, 2012; Koh, 2020; McCauley et al., 2013; Shigemura Studies suggest that some stressors that have evolved during
et al., 2020; Shultz et al., 2015; Xiang et al., 2020) and spreading pandemic outbreaks have long-lasting effects (Brooks et al., 2020).
misleading rumours about them on social media (Depoux et al., Which means that they remain even after the disappearance of
2020). Furthermore, stigma and social exclusion can be directed this pandemic. At the time of writing this paper, COVID-19
towards confirmed patients, survivors and their relations (Zhang is still present. Thus, it is not possible to accurately identify its
et al., 2020a), and individuals who have been quarantined or effects on individuals’ mental health after its disappearance.
who have been in contact with those who have been quarantined However, if we build on recent literature related to COVID-19,
(Bai et al., 2004; Brooks et al., 2020). Rejection, isolation, and literature related to previous pandemics and epidemics such as
discrimination are associated with poor psychological outcomes SARS, some predictions can be made concerning the poten-
(Brooks et al., 2018). tial stressors post COVID-19 which may have a negative impact
on employees’ mental health. In this case, besides posttraumatic
Health workers are not spared from this stigma. In fact, they stress disorder related to the recovery from a life threatening
can even feel more stigmatization than the general public physical illness (Wu et al., 2005), it seems that stigma, finan-
(Brooks et al., 2018). The study of Bai et al. (2004) showed that cial loss and job insecurity may have a long-lasting effect after
health care workers were more likely to feel stigmatized and COVID-19.
rejected in their neighbourhood because of their work at
the hospital. This stigmatization may lead to a high level of It appears, according to the study of Siu (2008), that stigma
psychological distress and depression (Kinsman, 2012; Zhang persists in the post SARS era. The author argued that SARS
et al., 2020a). They may suffer from it in extreme ways, for victims were still experiencing stigmatization up to four
example during the Ebola outbreak there were cases neighbours years after the SARS outbreak, which maintained their social
throw stones at healthcare workers and chase them from their isolation, increased their level of stress and worsened their
houses (Guimard et al., 1999). According to some authors, pro- mental health. The participants of this study have reported that
viding accurate and timely information about the disease may they have encountered stigmatization and isolation in their
minimize stigmatization of health care workers (Bai et al., 2004). workplace after SARS, from their colleagues and even from their
employers.
Financial loss and job insecurity. Pandemics lead to business
disruption. The outbreak of a pandemic causes the closure of Furthermore, financial loss and job insecurity may be considered
schools and workplaces (Ferguson et al., 2006), as well as the as long-lasting stressors related to COVID-19. In fact, COVID-19
shortening of working hours (Tyko, 2020) as measures to mitigate has led to business disruption of some companies that will need
the severity and spread of the disease. As businesses cannot time to recover from the financial consequences of this pandemic.
operate at their previous capacity, most of them close, which This may create a spillover effect on the employment market
will lead to a wide spread of staff lay-offs and redundancies with a potential long-lasting negative impact on employees’

Page 5 of 11
 Emerald Open Research 2020, 2:15 Last updated: 20 APR 2020

finances which may lead to a negative impact on their mental Teleworking. In order to control the risk of CODIV-19’s spread
health. Indeed, it appears that those disasters that result in major , many employees in different countries were required to stay at
financial issues for individuals are associated with high levels of home away from their workplace, triggering teleworking practices.
severe and persistent psychological effects (Norris et al., 2002).
Teleworking is the best solution to maintain the company’s
Moderators: what are the mitigating or aggravating operations while ensuring the health and safety of employ-
factors of COVID-19’s effects on employees’ mental ees during a pandemic, and to secure an income for the quaran-
health tined employees (Greer & Payne, 2014). However, it can lead to
Three main dimensions of moderating factors that may mitigate a negative impact on employees’ mental health, mainly because
or aggravate COVID’s impact on employees’ mental health are it increases social isolation (Gajendran & Harrison, 2007;
examined in this paper: organizational factors, institutional factors Henke et al., 2016; Tavares, 2017), which is associated with a
and individual factors. high risk of psychological distress and depression. In fact, being
away from his workplace and colleagues, an employee can feel
Organizational factors isolated. Furthermore, teleworking can cause employees to
Organizational factors are related to occupational role, occupa- work more hours because the boundaries between private and
tional safety and health management as well as teleworking. professional life are not clear (Gajendran & Harrison, 2007; Henke
et al., 2016; Tavares, 2017). In addition, the level of stress may
Occupational role. The exposure to the pandemic vary based on increase with the presence of children at home since schools are
the working environment and the employee’s occupational closed.
role (Bai et al., 2004; Brooks et al., 2018). Therefore, its impact
on employees’ mental health is supposed to vary as well. In this Institutional factors
context, besides their work overload (Maunder, 2004), health care In this paper institutional factors refer to the governmental
employees have a very high exposure to the virus since they are programs that aim to support employees financially and
in constant contact with the general public, which makes their psychologically during and after the pandemic.
occupation high risk in terms of mental health, especially during
a pandemic (Bai et al., 2004; Chen et al., 2005; Huang & Governmental programs, mainly financial security programs,
Zhao, 2020; Huang et al., 2020; Ho et al., 2020; Koh, 2020; help to reduce the incidence of psychological disorder during
Maunder et al., 2006; Maunder, 2004; Wu et al., 2009; Xiang pandemics (Mihashi et al., 2009). They are important factors to
et al., 2020; Zhu et al., 2020). During the COVID-19 in China, take into consideration in future strategies for mass isolation
the vice minister at the National Health Commission announced during pandemics (Mihashi et al., 2009). For example, countries
on February 14, 2020, that six health workers have died from the that have a high level of COVID-19 infection such as France,
new coronavirus and more than 1,700 have been infected (CNA, Spain and the UK have implemented emergency pack-
2020). Maunder (2004) pointed out that being a nurse, hav- ages that include direct payouts to employees; loans and
ing contact with SARS and having children is associated with a guarantees for companies to mitigate the economic impact of the
high level of psychological distress. pandemic (Mallet & Dombey, 2020), which will help individuals
to maintain an income during the pandemic.
Occupational safety and health management. Employers
have the responsibility to protect their employees and to ensure Furthermore, the presence of an effective mental health
a workplace free from hazards that may physically harm them system can mitigate the consequences of COVID-19 on
or cause their death. The current situation caused by COVID-19 individuals’ mental health (Qiu et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2020a;
is challenging for organizations all over the world. In this con- Zhou et al., 2020). Shultz et al. (2015) argue that the absence of
text, managers should work closely with human resource mental health and psychosocial support systems, paired with an
practitioners and health institutions in order to develop a safety absence of well-trained mental health professionals, have increased
and health plan which will prevent the risk of contagion and the risks of psychological distress during Ebola. Prioritization
coronavirus spread within the organization. Organization’s of investment like the Pandemic Emergency Financing Facility
policies play an important role in this context in minimizing launched by the World Bank Group aids the development of
the spread of the virus. For this purpose, they need to follow sustainable health systems (Bitanihirwe, 2016). In fact, during
the guidelines of health officials, of their country’s government and immediately after the pandemic outbreak, psychosocial
and of the World Health Organization (Benson & Dix, 2009). support is crucial for quarantined people and health workers
They need to educate and train their employees about preven- (Zhang et al., 2020a). During the COVID-19 outbreak in China
tion behaviours and to provide the required protection material mental health services have been provided using various channels
for those who need to be present in the workplace (e.g. Masks, like hotlines, online consultations, online courses (Gao et al., 2020;
Sanitizers, social distancing…). They also need to post Liu et al., 2020) and telemental health services (Zhou et al., 2020).
prevention guidelines (e.g. wash hands, avoid touching eyes,
nose and mouth) (Ramesh et al., 2020), and to allow telework According to Xiang et al. (2020), mental health care for patients
if possible (Benson & Dix, 2009). Having clear preventive and health workers affected by COVID-19 has been under-
measures in the workplace will build trust which will help addressed. The authors argued that although emergency psycho-
to reduce employees’ level of stress. They will feel protected logical crisis interventions based on the SARS outbreak has been
and supported by their employer (Brooks et al., 2018). launched on January 26, 2020, in China, to provide psychological

Page 6 of 11
 Emerald Open Research 2020, 2:15 Last updated: 20 APR 2020

support during COVID-19, most health professionals working in Suggestions and recommendations: What can
isolation units and hospitals have not received training in how to be done from a human resource management
provide mental health care. Xiang et al. (2020) suggest an urgent perspective to mitigate the outcomes of COVID-19
development of timely mental health care, based on the creation on employees’ mental health during and after the
of multidisciplinary mental health teams established by health pandemic outbreak
officials; provide a clear communication with a regular update Based on the identified stressors which may explain the potential
about COVID-19 and the set-up of secure services to offer negative effects of COVID-19 outbreak on employees’ mental
psychological counselling using electronic devices and appli- health and moderating factors that may mitigate or aggravate
cations (e.g. Smartphones and WeChat); and regular screen- these effects, we have developed a list of considerations and
ing for depression, anxiety and suicidal tendencies should be recommendations for workplaces, mainly for managers and
performed for COVID-19 patients as well as health work- for human resource management practitioners. It appears that
ers. In this context, public health officials should develop a mitigation measures are needed during and after a pandemic in
nationwide strategic planning for psychological first aid order to reduce its potential negative effects on an individual’s
through telemedicine (Qiu et al., 2020) and provide effectively mental health (Brooks et al., 2020). In this context, we
clear messages that will help individuals to have an accurate suggest that organizations should develop a short- and long-term
understanding of the situation (Brooks et al., 2020) . organizational plan, based on the following recommendations:

Individual factors Optimize communication and transparency

In this paper, individual factors encompass sociodemographic Managers in collaboration with human resource management
factors (gender, age and education), the history of the individual’s professionals need to develop a communication plan, which
mental illness, and the perception of physical health vulnerability. clearly presents the decisions related to the business continuity
plan of the organization during the pandemic (Smith et al., 2007).
There are no specific studies which investigate this moderating Furthermore, managers should maintain continuous communi-
role of these factors in the relationship between COVID-19 cation with their employees whether they are physically present
outbreak and employees’ mental health. However, it is possible or not in the workplace (Greer & Payne, 2014). Moreover,
to make some predictions based on workplace mental health’s employers should involve employees in the preparation of the
literature. In fact, research has shown that women are more prone post pandemic business plan, which will reduce employees’ level
to depression than men (Bonde, 2008; Read & Gorman, 2011) of stress, foster positive attitude and reinforce team cohesion. In
and they have greater psychological vulnerability to stress, which fact, decision latitude has been largely documented as a buffer
suggest that they may react more intensely to stress compared to of the stressors that may undermine employees’ mental
men, in the case of a pandemic (Brug et al., 2004; Zhu et al., 2020). health (Karasek, 1979).
In addition, the study of Braunack-Mayer et al. (2013) showed
that pregnant women, and those with young children, are more Communication is also crucial following the pandemic, in order
concerned about becoming infected or transmitting the virus to to reduce employees’ uncertainty and their level of stress. In this
others; which may suggest that they might be more stressed context, a communication plan should be developed in order to
than men and other women who are not in the same situation. provide clear information to employees about what will happen
Conversely, one study showed that being a male was a predictive after COVID-19, what are the main actions that will be taken to
factor for the onset of psychological disorders during SARS resume organizational operations, and the potential impact of
(Mihashi et al., 2009). Furthermore, it appears that older these actions on employees’ work. Indeed, providing clear and
adults are more likely to be at high risk of mental health issues, transparent information about the organization’s future plans may
mainly because of the high rate of mortality among them during reduce the fear of the unknown.
COVID-19 (Yang et al., 2020), which make them vulnerable
physically and psychologically. Generally, they are lonely with Prevention of stigma
little social support (no children or their children have left Stigmatization can be minimized by providing accurate and
home) (Yang et al., 2020), and they have limited access to the timely COVID-19 information (Bai et al., 2004) and training
online mental health services due to the lack of technologi- (Brooks et al., 2020) to employees and managers during and
cal skills, which might significatively undermine their mental after the pandemic outbreak. Furthermore, organizations should
health (Yang et al., 2020). Moreover, education is supposed to have develop or reinforce workplace policies that address stigma
a buffer effect because more educated people have better cogni- prevention. For example, the development of a zero-tolerance
tive skills which may help them to cope with the consequence of policy (anti-discrimination) (Stewart, 2018) is a valuable tool
any disability (Brug et al., 2004; Drapeau et al., 2011; Mihashi to protect employees, prevent stigma, and enhance health and
et al., 2009) In addition, a history of mental illness is a risk factor wellbeing in the workplace.
during pandemics (Brooks et al., 2020). An individual’s percep-
tion of their physical health, if poor, is also associated with higher Training
stress and psychological morbidity (Tam et al., 2004) It is also Training is also essential during and after the pandemic. It is
the case if they have a history of chronic illnesses (Wang considered as a protective factor against mental health issues
et al., 2020). (Brooks et al., 2018). It helps to educate employees about the

Page 7 of 11
 Emerald Open Research 2020, 2:15 Last updated: 20 APR 2020

necessary behaviours and their importance in the prevention Development of return-to-work plan
of viral spread. General education about COVID-19 and the Employers should also develop a return-to-work plan for
reasons for quarantine can reduce stigmatization (Brooks et al., employees who have been quarantined or was in a
2020) in the workplace. Training also needs to involve manag- teleworking mode, during COVID-19. This type of plan may
ers. COVID-19 is an unexpected crisis, managers need to be reduce the employees’ level of stress and the risk of men-
coached and trained on how to properly manage it, which may tal health issues. In this case, the employer should discuss
reduce their level of stress. They also need to be trained on expectations and the company’s future plans with the employee
how they should manage virtual teams, considering the con- prior to his return to work. Work accommodations and a grad-
text of teleworking, in order to be able to support their team ual return-to-work can be considered, in this context (Durand
members. Co-development programs should be implemented et al., 2014), if needed by the employee who has been quar-
in this context, to develop employees and managers’ abilities antined or has suffered from a mental health issue during the
to cope with the COVID-19 impact on the workplace. pandemic.

Management of teleworking and prevention of social Contribution of the present paper

isolation The present paper is a literature review which examines the
In order to prevent the negative outcomes of teleworking on impact of coronavirus COVID-19 on employees’ mental health,
employees’ mental health during COVID-19, organizations mainly psychological distress and depression. It presents a
should develop proper strategies to support employees during review of the main stressors during and post pandemic, as well
organizational changes. The study of Greer & Payne (2014) put as the potential moderating factors in the relationship between
forward some strategies identified by teleworkers, that may help COVID-19 and employees mental health. Three dimensions of
to overcome the challenges of teleworking. These strategies moderators have been reviewed: organizational, institutional and
encompass continuous communication with co-workers and individual dimensions. The goal of this paper is to enrich the
supervisors, during teleworking, about expectations, work progress understanding of COVID-19’s impact on employees’ mental
and availability. As well as providing flexibility to the employee health, and to suggest avenues for organizational actions from
to organize his work schedule and priorities. Moreover, good a human resource management perspective, during and post
technological equipments should be provided to employees, in COVID-19 in order to mitigate its effects. Very few articles
order to facilitate their work and interaction with their supervi- have examined COVID-19 from psychological and managerial
sor and co-workers, and reduce their level of stress. Teleworkers perspectives. This paper helps to broaden the scope of research
also need to be trained on the utilization of technology to on workplace mental health, and to provide some insights for
facilitate their work and communication while they are managers and human resource management practitioners.
away from their workplace, which will reduce their level of
stress (Greer & Payne, 2014). Practical implications for organizations
COVID-19 crisis is unprecedented in terms of infectiousness,
Social support how quickly the illness spread to different countries, impacting
Social support at work is largely documented in the literature the world’s economy. Companies are not all equipped to cope
as a protective factor against workplace mental health issues with this pandemic, in terms of information, resources and com-
(Karasek & Theorell, 1990). The development and implementa- petencies. Managers and human resource practitioners need to
tion of mental health support and services are crucial to prevent find ingenious solutions to maintain operations while ensuring
mental health outcomes of COVID-19 (Xiang et al., 2020; Xiao the protection of their employees. This paper provides valuable
et al., 2020). Some studies pointed out that inadequate psycho- information that helps organizations to understand the main stres-
logical support from the employer represents a risk factor for poor sors during COVID-19 and those potentially to be present after
mental health (Brooks et al., 2018; Tam et al., 2004). The study COVID-19. It also provides information about the main
of Wu et al. (2005) showed that mobilization of resources for moderating factors that may mitigate or aggravate the impact of
emotional support may enhance resilience of SARS survivors. the COVID-19 on employees’ mental health. The recommen-
In order to mitigate the potential negative impact of quarantine, dations presented in this paper should help the managers and
social isolation, fear of contagion and uncertainty on employ- human resource practitioners to develop an intervention plan for
ees, managers should foster a supportive environment in the the period during and after COVID-19, to maintain an efficient
workplace (Brooks et al., 2018). In this context, social and rapid continuous communication with their employees
support programs need to be developed during and after including managers and to maintain partnership of manag-
COVID-19, by maintaining continuous communication with ers, human resource practitioners, health and government’s
employees (Greer & Payne, 2014), for example by organizing officials.
regular virtual team meetings. Employee assistance should also
be provided in this situation (Benson & Dix, 2009), it can be Conclusion and future research
through employee assistance programs which should be offered The novelty of the COVID-19 and its potential negative impact
for managers and non-managers. Indeed, although managers on employees’ mental health urge this type of review. The main
are those who enable organizations to recover from a major goal of this paper is to provide the necessary information to
crisis (Wooten & James, 2008), they are not immune from prevent or mitigate the negative impact of COVID-19 on
mental health problems, they also need support from their team employees’ mental health. We consider that the quality of
members (Hamouche, 2019), by maintaining continuous contact the literature reviewed in this paper helps to achieve this
with them. goal.

Page 8 of 11
 Emerald Open Research 2020, 2:15 Last updated: 20 APR 2020

The contribution of the literature review should be, however, help to identity the real stressors post COVID-19 and to confirm
considered in light of certain limitations. First, the potential for the presence of a causal relationship. Future research needs to
the selection of the articles to be subjective. However, the data- be performed in this case to explore this relationship. Moreover,
bases used (Google scholar, web of science and semantic scholar) future research may explore other stress factors or moderating
provide the most cited articles. Furthermore, the informative factors that are not explored in this paper, like the history
character of this paper and its main objective to provide useful of the physical health of the individual, marital status,
information for employees and organizations do not require a organization size. Finally, most of the articles highlight the
systematic review of the literature. Therefore, this article is vulnerability of health care workers’ mental health during
contributing with a well-condensed and a well-structured paper and after the pandemic. Future research may explore specifi-
based on information obtained from a large literature review of cally the impact of COVID-19 on health workers mental health.
the impact of COVID-19 or other pandemics on employees’ It may cover, in this case, other mental health outcomes like
mental health. This literature review can be useful for the burnout.
development of a conceptual model that can be tested empiri-
cally in future research to determine the association between the Data availability
identified stressors and employee’s mental health during or post Underlying data
COVID-19 outbreak. Second, the studies related to COVID-19 All data underlying the results are available as part of the article
were conducted while the pandemic is still going, which does not and no additional source data are required

References

Bai Y, Lin CC, Lin CY, et al.: Survey of stress reactions among health care CNA: China says 6 health workers died from coronavirus, 1,716 infected
workers involved with the SARS outbreak. Psychiatr Serv. 2004; 55(9): [Online]. Asia: Channel News Asia. 2020; [Accessed March 20, 2020].
1055–1057. Reference Source
PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Corkery M, Maheshwari S: Is There Really a Toilet Paper Shortage? New York:
Bao Y, Sun Y, Meng S, et al.: 2019-nCoV epidemic: address mental health care The New York Times. 2020; [Accessed March 16, 2020].
to empower society. Lancet. 2020; 395(10224): e37–e38. Reference Source
PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Cummins N, Scherer S, Krajewski J, et al.: A review of depression and suicide
Beck AT, Alford BA: Depression: Causes and treatment. University of risk assessment using speech analysis. Speech Commun. 2015; 71: 10–49.
Pennsylvania Press. 2009; 405. Publisher Full Text
Publisher Full Text Depoux A, Martin S, Karafillakis E, et al.: The pandemic of social media panic
Benson DW, Dix KS: Pandemic preparations for the workplace. Colorado travels faster than the COVID-19 outbreak. J Travel Med. 2020; pii: taaa031.
Lawyer. 2009; 38: 49. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text
Reference Source Desclaux A, Badji D, Ndione AG, et al.: Accepted monitoring or endured
Bitanihirwe BK: Monitoring and managing mental health in the wake of Ebola. quarantine? Ebola contacts’ perceptions in Senegal. Soc Sci Med. 2017; 178:
Commentary. Ann Ist Super Sanita. 2016; 52(3): 320–322. 38–45.
PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
Bonde JP: Psychosocial factors at work and risk of depression: a systematic Drapeau A, Marchand A, Beaulieu-Prévost D: Epidemiology of psychological
review of the epidemiological evidence. Occup Environ Med. 2008; 65(7): 438–445. distress. Croatia, In Tech. 2011.
PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Publisher Full Text
Bontcheva K, Gorrell G, Wessels B: Social media and information overload: M, Coutu MF, et al.: A review of best work-absence
Durand MJ, Corbiére��������������
����������������������
Survey results. arXiv preprint arXiv:1306.0813. 2013. management and return-to-work practices for workers with musculoskeletal or
Reference Source common mental disorders. Work. 2014; 48(4): 579–589.
Braunack-Mayer A, Tooher R, Collins JE, et al.: Understanding the school PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
community’s response to school closures during the H1N1 2009 influenza Ferguson NM, Cummings DA, Fraser C, et al.: Strategies for mitigating an
pandemic. BMC public health. 2013; 13(1): 344. influenza pandemic. Nature. 2006; 442(7101): 448–52.
Publisher Full Text PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text
Brooks SK, Dunn R, Amlôt R, et al.: A Systematic, Thematic Review of Social and Gajendran RS, Harrison DA: The good, the bad, and the unknown about
Occupational Factors Associated With Psychological Outcomes in Healthcare telecommuting: meta-analysis of psychological mediators and individual
Employees During an Infectious Disease Outbreak. J Occup Environ Med. 2018; consequences. J Appl Psychol. 2007; 92(6): 1524.
60(3): 248–257. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Gao J, Zheng P, Jia Y, et al.: Mental Health Problems and Social Media
Brooks SK, Webster RK, Smith LE, et al.: The psychological impact of Exposure During COVID-19 Outbreak. Available at SSRN 3541120. 2020.
quarantine and how to reduce it: rapid review of the evidence. Lancet. 2020; Publisher Full Text
395(10227): 912–920. Garfin DR, Silver RC, Holman EA: The novel coronavirus (COVID-2019)
Publisher Full Text outbreak: Amplification of public health consequences by media exposure.
Brug J, Aro AR, Oenema A, et al.: SARS risk perception, knowledge, Health Psychol. 2020.
precautions, and information sources, the Netherlands. Emerg Infect Dis. 2004; PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
10(8): 1486–9. Grant MJ, Booth A: A typology of reviews: an analysis of 14 review types and
PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text associated methodologies. Health Info Libr J. 2009; 26(2): 91–108.
Chan M: Ebola virus disease in West Africa--no early end to the outbreak. N PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
Engl J Med. 2014; 371(13): 1183–1185. Greer TW, Payne SC: Overcoming telework challenges: Outcomes of
PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text successful telework strategies. The Psychologist-Manager Journal. 2014; 17(2):
Chen CS, Wu HY, Yang P, et al.: Psychological distress of nurses in Taiwan 87.
who worked during the outbreak of SARS. Psychiatr Serv. 2005; 56(1): 76–9. Publisher Full Text
PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Guimard Y, Bwaka MA, Colebunders R, et al.: Organization of patient care during
Chiu M, Amartey A, Wang X, et al.: Trends in objectively measured and the Ebola hemorrhagic fever epidemic in Kikwit, Democratic Republic of the
perceived mental health and use of mental health services: a population- Congo, 1995. J Infect Dis. 1999; 179(Suppl 1): S268–S273.
based study in Ontario, 2002–2014. CMAJ. 2020; 192(13): E329–E337. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
Publisher Full Text Hamouche S: Santé mentale des cadres: travail, identité et pratiques de

Page 9 of 11
 Emerald Open Research 2020, 2:15 Last updated: 20 APR 2020

gestion des ressources humaines. 2019. Parmet WE, Sinha MS: Covid-19 - The Law and Limits of Quarantine.
Reference Source N Engl J Med. 2020; 382(15): e28.
Hawryluck L, Gold WL, Robinson S, et al.: SARS control and psychological PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
effects of quarantine, Toronto, Canada. Emerg Infect Dis. 2004; 10(7): Payton AR: Mental Health, Mental Illness, and Psychological Distress: Same
1206–1212. Continuum or Distinct Phenomena? J Health Soc Behav. 2009; 50(2): 213–227.
PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
Henke RM, Benevent R, Schulte P, et al.: The Effects of Telecommuting Intensity Perlis RH: Exercising Heart and Head in Managing Coronavirus Disease 2019
on Employee Health. Am J Health Promot. 2016; 30(8): 604–612. in Wuhan. JAMA Netw Open. 2020; 3(3): e204006–e204006.
PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
Ho C, Chee CY, Ho RC: Mental Health Strategies to Combat the Psychological Qiu J, Shen B, Zhao M, et al.: A nationwide survey of psychological distress
Impact of COVID-19 Beyond Paranoia and Panic. Ann Acad Med Singapore. among Chinese people in the COVID-19 epidemic: implications and policy
2020; 49(1): 1–3. recommendations. Gen Psychiatr. 2020; 33(2): e100213.
PubMed Abstract PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text
Huang JZ, Han MF, Luo TD, et al.: Mental health survey of 230 medical staff in Ramesh N, Siddaiah A, Joseph B: Tackling corona virus disease 2019 (COVID
a tertiary infectious disease hospital for COVID-19. Zhonghua Lao Dong Wei 19) in workplaces. Indian J Occup Environ Med. 2020; 24(1): 16–18.
Sheng Zhi Ye Bing Za Zhi. 2020; 38(0): E001. Publisher Full Text
PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Read JNG, Gorman BK: Gender and health revisited. In: Bernice AP, Jack KM,
Huang Y, Zhao N: Generalized anxiety disorder, depressive symptoms and Jane DM, et al. Handbook of the sociology of health, illness, and healing. Springer.
sleep quality during COVID-19 epidemic in China: a web-based cross-sectional 2011; 411–429.
survey. medRxiv. 2020. Reference Source
Publisher Full Text Roth F, Brönnimann G: Using the Internet for Public Risk Communication. Risk
Karasek RA: Job demands, job decision latitude, and mental strain: and Resilience Reports. 2013.
Implications for job redesign. Adm Sci Q. 1979; 24(2): 285–308. Reference Source
Publisher Full Text Rubin GJ, Wessely S: The psychological effects of quarantining a city. BMJ.
Karasek R, Theorell T: Healthy work: stress, productivity, and the reconstruction of 2020; 368: m313.
working life. New York, Basic Books. 1990; 66(4): 525–526. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
Publisher Full Text Shigemura J, Ursano RJ, Morganstein JC, et al.: Public responses to the novel
Kinsman J: “A time of fear”: local, national, and international responses to a 2019 coronavirus (2019-nCoV) in Japan: mental health consequences and
large Ebola outbreak in Uganda. Global Health. 2012; 8: 15. target populations. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2020; 74(4): 281–282.
PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
Koh D: Occupational risks for COVID-19 infection. Occup Med (Lond). 2020; Shultz JM, Baingana F, Neria Y: The 2014 Ebola outbreak and mental health:
70(1): 3–5. current status and recommended response. JAMA. 2015; 313(6): 567–568.
PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
Lai J, Ma S, Wang Y, et al.: Factors Associated With Mental Health Outcomes Siu JY: The SARS-Associated Stigma of SARS Victims in the Post-SARS Era of
Among Health Care Workers Exposed to Coronavirus Disease 2019. JAMA Hong Kong. Qual Health Res. 2008; 18(6): 729–738.
Netw Open. 2020; 3(3): e203976–e203976. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Smith PW, Hansen K, Spanbauer L, et al.: Pandemic influenza preparedness:
Li W, Yang Y, Liu ZH, et al.: Progression of Mental Health Services during the a survey of businesses. J Craniovertebr Junction Spine. 2007; 35(7): 484–485.
COVID-19 Outbreak in China. Int J Biol Sci. 2020; 16(10): 1732–1738. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Stewart K: Five Human Resources Trends and Best Practices. The Journal of
Liu S, Yang L, Zhang C, et al.: Online mental health services in China during the Medical Practice Management: MPM. 2018; 34: 196–198.
COVID-19 outbreak. Lancet Psychiatry. 2020; 7(4): e17–e18. Reference Source
Publisher Full Text Strazdins L, D'souza RM, Lim LL, et al.: Job strain, job insecurity, and health:
Macintyrea CR: On a knife’s edge of a COVID-19 pandemic: is containment still rethinking the relationship. J Occup Health Psychol. 2004; 9(4): 296–305.
possible? Public Health Res Pract. 2020; 30. Publisher Full Text
Publisher Full Text Tam CW, Pang EP, Lam LC, et al.: Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)
Mallet V, Dombey D: France, Spain and UK unleash rescue packages to help in Hong Kong in 2003: stress and psychological impact among frontline
companies. UK : Financial Times 2020; [Accessed March 20 2020]. healthcare workers. Psychol Med. 2004; 34(7): 1197–1204.
Reference Source PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
Marchand A: Travail et santé mentale: Une perspective multiniveaux des Tavares AI: Telework and health effects review. Int J Healthc. 2017; 3(2): 30.
déterminants de la détresse psychologique. Thèse de doctorat, Université de Publisher Full Text
Montréal. 2004. The Japan Times: Japanese official looking after Wuhan returnees found dead.
Reference Source [Online]. Japan: The Japan times. 2020; [Accessed March 14, 2020].
Maunder R: The experience of the 2003 SARS outbreak as a traumatic stress Reference Source
among frontline healthcare workers in Toronto: lessons learned. Philos Trans R Tyko K: Coronavirus has led many stores to close. Why GameStop, Bed Bath
Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2004; 359(1447): 1117–1125. & Beyond, Lowe’s, CVS, others are still open [Online]. USA: USA TODAY. 2020;
PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text [Accessed March 21 2020].
Maunder RG, Lancee WJ, Balderson KE, et al.: Long-term psychological and Reference Source
occupational effects of providing hospital healthcare during SARS outbreak. Virtanen P, Vahtera J, Kivimäki M, et al.: Employment security and health.
Emerg Infect Dis. 2006; 12(12): 1924–32. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2002; 56(8): 569–574.
PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text
Mccauley M, Minsky S, Viswanath K: The H1N1 pandemic: media frames, Wang C, Horby PW, Hayden FG, et al.: A novel coronavirus outbreak of global
stigmatization and coping. BMC Public Health. 2013; 13: 1116. health concern. Lancet. 2020; 395(10223): 470–473.
PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
Mihashi M, Otsubo Y, Yinjuan X, et al.: Predictive factors of psychological WHO: Coronavirus. [Online]. Geneva. 2020a; [Accessed March 16, 2020].
disorder development during recovery following SARS outbreak. Health Reference Source
Psychol. 2009; 28(1): 91–100.
WHO: Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) Situation Dashboard. [Online]. Geneva:
PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
World Health Organization. 2020b; [Accessed March 31 2020].
Mirowsky J, Ross CE: Social causes of psychological distress. New York, Reference Source
Transaction Publishers. 2003;
Wooten LP, James EH: Linking crisis management and leadership
Reference Source
competencies: The role of human resource development. Adv Dev Hum Resour.
Norris FH, Friedman MJ, Watson PJ, et al.: 60,000 disaster victims speak: Part 2008; 10: 352–379.
I. An empirical review of the empirical literature, 1981-2001. Psychiatry. 2002; Reference Source
65(3): 207–239.
WORLD ECONOMIC FORUM: COVID-19’s Workforce Impact. [Online]. Geneva:
PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
World Economic Forum, Strategic intelligence. 2020; [Accessed March 16, 2020].
OECD: Global economy faces gravest threat since the crisis as coronavirus Reference Source
spreads. 2020; [Accessed March, 16 2020].
Wu KK, Chan SK, Ma TM: Posttraumatic stress after SARS. Emerg Infect Dis.
Reference Source
2005; 11(8): 1297–1300.
Page S, Yeoman I, Munro C, et al.: A case study of best practice—Visit PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text
Scotland’s prepared response to an influenza pandemic. Tourism Management.
Wu P, Fang Y, Guan Z, et al.: The psychological impact of the SARS epidemic
2006; 27(3): 361–393.
on hospital employees in China: exposure, risk perception, and altruistic
Publisher Full Text

Page 10 of 11
 Emerald Open Research 2020, 2:15 Last updated: 20 APR 2020

acceptance of risk. Can J Psychiatry. 2009; 54(5): 302–311. Zhang J, Wu W, Zhao X, et al.: Recommended psychological crisis intervention
PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text response to the 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia outbreak in China: a
Xiang YT, Yang Y, Li W, et al.: Timely mental health care for the 2019 novel model of West China Hospital. Precision Clinical Medicine. 2020a; 3(1): 3–8.
coronavirus outbreak is urgently needed. Lancet Psychiatry. 2020; 7(3): Publisher Full Text
228–229. Zhang SX, Wang Y, Rauch A, et al.: Health, distress, and life satisfaction of
PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text people one-month into COVID-19 outbreak in China. medRxiv. 2020b.
Xiao H, Zhang Y, Kong D, et al.: The Effects of Social Support on Sleep Quality Reference Source
of Medical Staff Treating Patients with Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Zhou X, Snoswell CL, Harding LE, et al.: The Role of Telehealth in Reducing the
in January and February 2020 in China. Med Sci Monit. 2020; 26: e923549. Mental Health Burden from COVID-19. Telemed J E Health. 2020.
PubMed Abstract | Free Full Text PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
Yang Y, Li W, Zhang Q, et al.: Mental health services for older adults in China Zhu Z, Xu S, Wang H, et al.: COVID-19 in Wuhan: Immediate Psychological
during the COVID-19 outbreak. Lancet Psychiatry. 2020; 7(4): e19. Impact on 5062 Health Workers. medRxiv. 2020.
PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Publisher Full Text

Page 11 of 11