3.

IONIC EQUILIBRIA

Can you recall ? The weak electrolytes dissociate only

• What is chemical equilibrium ? partially in dilute aqueous solutions. An
equilibrium thus can be established between
• What are electrolytes ?
the ions and nonionized molecules. The
3.1 Introduction : The equilibrium between ionization reaction therein is represented
ions and unionized molecules in solution is as double arrow( ) between the ions and
called ionic equilibrium. The principles of nonionized molecule.
chemical equilibrium we studied in standard
XI will be applied to ionic equilibria. In this Use your brain power
chapter with the help of these principles Which of the following is a
we determine equilibrium constants and strong electrolyte ?
concentrations of ions and unionized species. HF, AgCl, CuSO4, CH3COONH4,
In particular examine the following ionic H3PO4.
equilibria :
• H⊕ and OH ions and unionized water 3.2.3 Degree of dissociation (∝) : The degree
molecules. of dissociation of an electrolyte is defined
as a fraction of total number of moles of the
• Ionization of weak acids and weak bases.
electrolyte that dissociates into its ions when
• Reactions between ions of salt and ions of the equilibrium is attained. It is denoted by
water. symbol ∝ and given by
• Solid salt and its ions in water. number of moles dissociated
∝= (3.1)
3.2 Types of electrolyte : The substances total number of moles
which give rise to ions when dissolved in water Percent dissociation = ∝ × 100 (3.2)
are electrolytes. The non electrolytes are those If 'c' is the molar concentration of an
which do not ionize and exist as molecules in electrolyte the equilibrium concentration of
aqueous solutions. cation or anion is (∝ × c) mol dm-3.
The electrolytes are classified into strong 3.3 Acids and Bases : Acids and bases are
and weak electrolytes. This classification is familiar chemical compounds. Acetic acid
based on their extent of ionisation in dilute is found in vinegar, citric acid in lemons,
aqueous solutions. magnesium hydroxide in antacids, ammonia
3.2.1 Strong electrolyte : The electrolytes in household cleaning products. The tartaric
ionizing completely or almost completely are acid is present in tamarind paste. These are
strong electrolytes. For example : strong acids, some acids and bases we come across in
strong bases and salts. everyday life.
3.2.2 Weak electrolyte : The electrolytes
which dissociate to a smaller extent in aqueous
solution are weak electrolytes. Weak acids
and weak bases belong to this class.

47
3.3.1 Arrhenius theory of acids and bases Base : Base is a substance that accepts a
According to this theory acids and bases are proton (H⊕) from another substance.
defined as follows : For example :
Acid : Acid is a substance which contains HCl + NH3 NH4⊕ + Cl
hydrogen and gives rise to H⊕ ions in aqueous Acid1 Base2 Acid2 Base1
solution. For example :
In the above reaction HCl and NH4⊕ are
water ⊕
HCl (aq) H (aq) + Cl (aq) proton donors and act as acids. The NH3 and
water
CH3COOH(aq) CH3COO (aq)+ H⊕(aq) Cl are proton acceptors and act as bases.
Further it follows that the products of the
Arrhenius described H⊕ ions in water as
Bronsted-Lowry acid-base reactions are acids
bare ions; they hydrate in aqueous solutions
bases.
and thus represented as hydronium ions H3O⊕.
We herewith conveniently represent them as The base produced by accepting the
H⊕. proton from an acid is the conjugate base of
that acid. Likewise the acid produced when a
base accepts a proton is called the conjugate
Do you know ? acid of that base. A pair of an acid and a
Hydrochloric acid, HCl base differing by a proton is said to be a
present in the gastric juice is conjugate acid-base pair.
secreted by our stomach and is essential
for digestion of food. HCl(aq) + H2O(l) H3O⊕ (aq) + Cl (aq)
Acid1 Base2 Acid2 Base1
conjugate acid-base pair2
Base : Base is a substance that contains OH
conjugate acid-base pair1
group and produces hydroxide ions (OH )
ions in aqueous solution. For example, 3.3.3 Lewis theory : A more generalized acid-
NaOH (aq) Na⊕(aq) + OH (aq) base concept was put forward by G.N. Lewis
in 1923. According to this theory acids and
NH4OH(aq) NH4⊕(aq) + OH (aq)
bases are defined as follows.
Arrhenius theory accounts for properties
Acid : Any species that accepts a share in an
of different acids and bases and is applicable
electron pair is called Lewis acid.
only to aqueous solutions. It does not account
for the basicity of NH3 and Na2CO3 which do Base : Any species that donates a share in an
not have OH group. electron pair is called Lewis base.
3.3.2 Bronsted - Lowry theory : J. N. For example :
Bronsted and T. M. Lowry (1923) proposed H H ⊕

a more general theory known as the Bronsted- ⊕

H + N-H H←N-H
Lowry proton transfer theory. According to H H
this theory acids and bases are defined as (acid) (base)
follows.
Acid : Acid is a substance that donates a F H F H
proton (H⊕) to another substance. F-B+ N-H F-B←N-H
F H F H
(acid) (base)

48
 3.4.1 Dissociation constant of weak acids
Use your brain power and weak bases : The dissociation of a weak
• All Bronsted bases are also acid HA in water is expressed as
Lewis bases, but all Bronsted
HA(aq) H⊕(aq) + A (aq)
acids are not Lewis acids. Explain.
The equilibrium constant called acid-
dissociation constant for this equilibrium is :
Amphoteric nature of water : Water has
the ability to act as an acid as well as a base. [H⊕][A ]
Ka = (3.3)
Such behaviour is known as amphoteric nature [HA]
of water. For example : Similarly the dissociation of weak base
H2O(l) + NH3(aq) OH (aq) + NH4⊕(aq) BOH in water is represented as :

Acid
BOH(aq) B⊕(aq) + OH (aq)

H2O(l) + HCl(aq) H3O⊕(aq) + Cl (aq) The equilibrium constant called base-

dissociation constant for this equilibrium is,
Base
[B⊕][OH ]
H2O acts as an acid towards NH3 and as a base Kb = (3.4)
[BOH]
towards HCl. Therefore H2O is amphoteric.
Thus, the dissociation constant of a
3.4 Ionisation of acids and bases weak acid or a weak base is defined as
Acids and bases are classified as strong acids the equilibrium constant for dissociation
and strong bases, weak acids and weak bases equilibrium of weak acid or weak base,
on the basis of their extent of dissociation. respectively.
Strong acids and bases are almost completely 3.4.2 Ostwald's dilution law : Arrhenius
dissociated in water. For example : concept of acids and bases was expressed
HCl (aq) H⊕(aq) + Cl (aq) quantitatively by F. W. Ostwald in the form of
the dilution law in 1888.
NaOH (aq) Na⊕(aq) + OH (aq)
a. Weak acids : Consider an equilibrium of
Typical strong acids are HCl, HNO3,
weak acid HA that exists in solution partly as
H2SO4, HBr and HI while typical strong bases
the undissociated species HA and partly H⊕
may include NaOH and KOH.
and A ions. Then
Weak acids and weak bases are partially
HA(aq) H⊕(aq) + A (aq)
dissociated in water. The solution of a weak
acid or a weak base contains undissociated The acid dissociation constant is given by
molecules along with a small number of ions Eq. (3.3)
at equilibrium. For example : [H⊕][A ]
Ka =
CH3COOH(aq) CH3COO (aq) + H⊕(aq) [HA]

NH4 OH(aq) NH4⊕(aq) + OH (aq) Suppose 1 mol of acid HA is initially

present in volume V dm3 of the solution. At
Note that HCOOH, HF, H2S are examples equilibrium the fraction dissociated would
of weak acids while Fe(OH)3, Cu(OH)2 are be ∝, where ∝ is degree of dissociation of
examples of weak bases. the acid. The fraction of an acid that remains
undissociated would be (1 - ∝).

49
 HA(aq) H⊕(aq) + A (aq) BOH(aq) B⊕(aq) +OH (aq)
Amount (1-∝) ∝ ∝ Amount (1-∝) ∝ ∝
present at present at
equilibrium/ equilibrium
mol concentration 1- ∝ ∝ ∝
concentration 1- ∝ ∝ ∝ at equilibrium V V V
at V V V
equilibrium/ A equilibrium,
mol dm-3
[BOH] = 1- ∝ mol dm-3,
Thus, at equilibrium [HA] = 1- ∝ , mol dm-3,
V
V [B⊕] = [OH ] = ∝ mol dm-3.
[H⊕] = [A ] = ∝ mol dm-3. V
V Substitution of these concentrations in Eq.
Substituting these in Eq. (3.3) (3.4), gives
(∝/V) (∝/V) ∝2
Ka = = (1- ∝)V (3.5) (∝/V) (∝/V) ∝2
(1- ∝)/V Kb = = (3.9)
(1- ∝)/V (1- ∝)V
If c is the initial concentration of an acid
in mol dm-3 and V is the volume in dm3 mol-1 Similar arguments in the case of weak
then c = 1/V. Replacing 1/V in Eq. (3.5) by c acid, led to
we get ∝2 c
Kb = (3.10)
(1- ∝)
Ka = ∝ c
2
(3.6) Kb
1- ∝ ∝ = Kb.V , ∝ = (3.11)
c
For the weak acid HA, ∝ is very small,
The degree of dissociation of a weak
or (1 - ∝) ≅ 1. With this Eq. (3.5) and (3.6)
base is inversely proportional to square root of
reduce.
its concentration and is directly proportional
Ka = ∝2/V and Ka = ∝2c (3.7) to square root of volume of the solution
Ka containing 1 mol of weak base.
∝= or ∝ = Ka.V (3.8)
c
Problem 3.1 : A weak monobasic acid
The Eq. (3.8) implies that the degree
is 0.05% dissociated in 0.02 M solution.
of dissociation of a weak acid is inversely
Calculate dissociation constant of the acid.
proportional to the square root of its
Solution : The dissociation constant of acid
concentration or directly proportional to
is given by Ka = ∝2 c. Here,
the square root of volume of the solution
containing 1 mol of the weak acid. percent dissociation
∝=
100
b. Weak base : Consider 1 mol of weak base 0.05
= = 5 × 10-4
BOH dissolved in V dm3 of solution. The base 100
dissociates partially as c = 0.02 M = 2 × 10-2 M
BOH (aq) B⊕(aq) + OH (aq) Hence Ka = (5 × 10-4)2 × 2 × 10-2
The base dissociation constant is = 25 × 10-8 × 2 × 10-2
[B⊕][OH ]
Kb = = 50 × 10-10 = 5 × 10-9
[BOH]
Let the fraction dissociated at equilibrium
is ∝ and that remains undissociated is (1 - ∝).
50
 3.5 Autoionization of water : Pure water
Problem 3.2 : The dissociation constant of
ionizes to a very small extent. The ionization
NH4OH is 1.8 × 10-5. Calculate its degree
equilibrium of water is represented as,
of dissociation in 0.01 M solution.
Solution : The degree of dissociation is H2O (l) + H2O (l) H3O⊕(aq) + OH (aq)
given by ∝ = Kb/c . Here, The equilibrium constant (K) for the
Kb = 1.8 × 10-5; c = 0.01 = 1 × 10-2 M ionization of water is given by
1.8 × 10-5 = 1.8 × 10-3 [H O⊕][OH ]
Hence, ∝ = K= 3 (3.12)
1 × 10-2 [H2O(l)]2
= 18 × 10-4 = 4.242 × 10-2 = 0.04242 or K[H2O]2 = [H3O⊕][OH ] (3.13)
A majority of H2O molecules are
Problem 3.3 : A weak monobasic acid is
undissociated, consequently concentration of
12% dissociated in 0.05 M solution. What
water [H2O] can be treated as constant. Then
is percent dissociation in 0.15 M solution.
Solution : If ∝1 and ∝2 are the values of [H2O]2 = K'. Substituting this in Eq. (3.13)
degree of dissociation at two different we get,
concentrations c1 and c2 respectively, then K×K' = [H3O⊕][OH ] (3.14)
Ka = ∝12c1 = ∝22c2 Therefore ∝12c1 = ∝22c2 Kw = [H3O⊕][OH ]
12
∝1 = c = 0.05 M, c2 = 0.15 M, where Kw = KK' is called ionic product of
100 1
∝2 = ? water. The product of molar concentrations of
hydronium (or hydrogen) ions and hydroxyl
Substituting of these values in the equation ions at equilibrium in pure water at the given
gives temperature is called ionic product of water.
(0.12)2 × 0.05 = ∝22 × 0.15 In pure water H3O⊕ ion concentration
(12)2 × 0.05 always equals the concentration of OH ion.
∝22 = 0.15 = 0.0048
Thus at 298 K this concentration is found to be
Hence ∝2 = 0.0693 % 1.0 × 10-7 mol/L.
∴ percent dissociation = 6.93 %
Kw = (1.0 × 10-7) (1.0 × 10-7)
Problem 3.4 : Calculate [H3O⊕] in Kw = 1.0 × 10-14 (3.15)
0.1 mol dm3 solution of acetic acid.
Internet my friend
Given : Ka [CH3COOH] = 1.8 × 10-5
Find out the values of ionic
Solution : Let ∝1 be the degree of product Kw of water at various
dissociation. Concentrations of various temperatures.
species involved at equilibrium are as
follows. 273 K, 283K, 293K, 303K, 313K, 323 K

CH3COOH + H2O CH3COO + H3O⊕ 3.6 pH Scale : Instead of writing concentration

(1- ∝)c ∝c ∝c of H3O⊕ ions in mol dm-3, sometimes it is
Ka 1.8 × 10-5 convenient to express it on the logarithmic
∝= = 0.1 scale. This is known as pH scale.
c
= 1.34 × 10-2 Sorensen in 1909 defined the pH of a
[H3O ] = ∝ × c = 1.34 × 10 × 0.1
⊕ -2 solution as the negative logarithm to the base
10, of the concentration of H⊕ ions in solution
= 1.34 × 10-3 mol/L
in mol dm-3. Expressed mathematically as
51
pH = - log10[H⊕]
Problem 3.5 : Calculate pH and pOH of
Similarly pOH of a solution can be 0.01 M HCl solution.
defined as the negative logarithm to the base
Solution : HCl is a strong acid. It dissociates
10, of the molar concentration of OH ions in
almost completely in water as
solution.
HCl (aq) + H2O(l) H3O⊕(aq) + Cl
Thus, pOH = -log10[OH ] (3.16)
(aq)
3.6.1 Relationship between pH and pOH
Hence, [H3O⊕] = c = 0.01M = 1 × 10-2 M
The ionic product of water is
pH = -log10[H3O+] = -log10[1 × 10-2] = 2
⊕
Kw = [H3O ][OH ]
We know that pH + pOH = 14
Now, Kw = 1 × 10-14 at 298 K and thus
∴ pOH = 14 - pH = 14 - 2 = 12
[H3O⊕][OH ] = 1.0 × 10-14
Taking logarithm of both the sides, we write Problem 3.6 : pH of a solution is 3.12.
Calculate the concentration of H3O⊕ ion.
log10[H3O⊕] + log10[OH ] = -14
Solution : pH is given by
-log10[H3O⊕] + {- log10[OH ]} = 14
pH = -log10[H3O⊕]
From Eq. (3.16) and (3.17)
log10[H3O⊕] = -pH
pH + pOH = 14 (3.18)
= - 3.12
3.6.2 Acidity, basicity and neutrality of
aqueous solutions = - 3 - 0.12 + 1 - 1
1. Neutral solution : For pure water or any = (- 3 - 1) + 1 - 0.12
aqueous neutral solution at 298 K = - 4 + 0.88 = 4.88
[H3O⊕] = [OH ] = 1.0 × 10-7 M Thus [H3O⊕] = antilog [4.88]
Hence,pH = -log10[H⊕] = -log10[1 × 10-7] = 7 = 7.586 × 10-4 M
2. Acidic solution : In acidic solution, there is
excess of H3O⊕ ions, or [H3O⊕] > [OH ] Hence, Problem 3.7 : A weak monobasic acid is
[H3O⊕] > 1 × 10-7 and pH < 7 0.04 % dissociated in 0.025M solution.
3. Basic solution : In basic solution, the excess What is pH of the solution ?
of OH ions are present that is [H3O⊕] < [OH ] Solution : A weak monobasic acid HA
or [H3O⊕] < 1.0 × 10-7 with pH > 7. dissociates as :
HA + H2O(l) H3O⊕(aq) + A (aq)
Percent dissociation = ∝ × 100
percent dissociation
or ∝ =
100

= 0.04 = 4 × 10-4
Fig. 3.1 : pH scale 100
Now [H3O⊕] = ∝ × c
= 4 × 10-4 × 0.025 M = 10-5 M
∴ pH = -log10[H3O⊕] = -log10[10-5] = 5

52
 3.7 Hydrolysis of salts
Use your brain power
3.7.1 Types of salts
• Suppose that pH of monobasic These are of four types
and dibasic acid is the same. Does
I. Salts derived from strong acid and
this mean that the molar concentrations
strong base. For example : NaCl,
of both acids are identical ?
Na2SO4, NaNO3, KCl, KNO3.
• How pH of pure water vary with
II. Salts derived from strong acids and
temperature ? Explain.
weak bases. For example : NH4Cl,
CuSO4, NH4NO3, CuCl2.
Problem 3.8 : The pH of monoacidic
weak base is 11.2. Calculate its percent III. Salts derived from weak acids and
dissociation in 0.02 M solution. strong bases. For example : CH3COONa,
KCN, Na2CO3.
Solution : pOH of the solution is given as :
IV. Salts derived from weak acids and weak
pOH = 14 - pH = 14 - 11.2 = 2.8 bases. For example : CH3COONH4,
pOH = -log10[OH ] NH4CN.
log10[OH ] = - pOH 3.7.2 Concept of hydrolysis : When a salt is
dissociated in water, it dissociates completely
= - 2.8 = - 2 - 0.8 - 1 + 1
into its constituent ions. The solvent water
= - 3 + 0.2 = 3.2 dissociates slightly as,
[OH ] = antilog 3.2 = 1.585 × 10-3 mol/dm3 H2O (l) + H2O (l) H3O⊕(aq) + OH (aq)
For monoacidic base, Pure water is neutral and [H3O⊕] = [OH ].
BOH (aq) B⊕(aq) + OH (aq) If the ions of the salt do not interact with water,
the hydronium and hydroxyl ion concentrations
[OH ] = ∝c
remain equal and the solution is neutral. When
[OH ] 1.585 × 10-3 one or more of the salt ions react with water, the
∝= = 0.02 = 0.07925
c equality of concentrations of H3O⊕ and OH
ions is disturbed. The solution, does not remain
Percent dissociation = ∝ × 100
neutral and becomes acidic or basic depending
= 0.07925 × 100 on the type of the salt. Such a reaction between
= 7.925 % the ions of salt and the ions of water is called
hydrolysis of salt. Hydrolysis of salt is defined
Do you know ? as the reaction in which cations or anions or
both ions of a salt react with ions of water to
• pH is crucial for digestion of produce acidity or alkalinity (or sometimes
food and other biochemical even neutrality).
reactions in our body.
3.7.3 Salts of strong acids and strong bases
• pH of gastric juice is about 2.
NaCl is a salt of strong acid HCl and a
• pH of blood is maintained within range strong base NaOH. When it is dissolved in
7.36 to 7.42. water, it dissociates completely into its ions.
• Enzymes function effectively only at NaCl (aq) Na⊕(aq) + Cl (aq)
a certain pH. For example trypsin acts
The ions Na⊕ and Cl have no tendency to
best for alkaline pH.
react with water. This is because the possible
products, NaOH and HCl of such reactions are
53
strong electrolytes and dissociate completely CH3COONa(aq) CH3COO (aq) +
in aqueous solutions. Na⊕(aq)
In other words, Water dissociates slightly as,
Na⊕(aq) + Cl (aq) + H2O HCl(aq) +NaOH (aq)
(strong acid) (strong base) H2O (l) + H2O (l) H3O⊕(aq) + OH (aq)
[Possible products]
Solution of CH3COONa contains Na⊕,
⊕
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) + H2O H3O (aq) + H3O , CH3COO , OH . The Na⊕ ions of salt
⊕

Cl (aq)+Na⊕(aq)+OH (aq) have no tendency to react with OH ions of

Thus the reactants and the products are the water since the possible product of the reaction
same. This implies that neither the cation nor is NaOH, a strong electrolyte.
anion of the salt reacts with water or there is
On the other hand the reaction of
no hydrolysis. Equality H3O⊕ = OH produced
CH3COO ions of salt with the H3O⊕ ions from
by ionization of water is not disturbed and
water produces unionized CH3COOH.
solution is neutral. It may be concluded that
salt of strong acid and strong base does not CH3COO (aq) + H2O (l) CH3COOH(aq)
undergo hydrolysis. + OH (aq)
3.7.4 Salts of strong acids and weak bases : Thus, the hydrolytic equilibrium for
CH3COONa is,
CuSO4 is salt of strong acid H2SO4 and
weak base Cu(OH)2. When CuSO4 is dissolved CH3COONa(aq) + H2O (l) CH3COOH(aq)
⊕
in water, it dissociates completely as, + Na (aq) + OH (aq)
CuSO4 (aq) Cu2⊕(aq) + SO42 (aq) As a result of excess OH ions produced
the solution becomes basic. The solution of
SO42 ions of salt have no tendency to
CH3COONa is therefore basic.
react with water because the possible product
H2SO4 is strong electrolyte. The reaction of Can you tell ?
Cu2⊕ ions with OH ions form unionized Why an aqueous solution
Cu(OH)2. The hydrolytic equilibrium for of NH4Cl is acidic while that of
CuSO4 is then written as, HCOOK basic ?
Cu2⊕(aq)+4H2O(l) Cu(OH)2(aq)+2H3O⊕(aq)
Due to the presence of excess of H3O⊕ Remember...
ions, the resulting solution of CuSO4 becomes As a general rule the solutions
acidic and turns blue litmus red. of salts of strong acids and strong
Formation of sparingly soluble Cu(OH)2 bases are neutral, the solutions of salts of
by hydrolysis makes the aqueous solution of strong acids and weak bases are acidic
CuSO4 turbid. If H2SO4, that is H3O⊕ ions and the solutions of salts of strong bases
are added, the hydrolytic equilibrium shifts and weak acids are basic.
to the left. A turbidity of Cu(OH)2 dissolves
3.7.6 Salts of weak acids and weak bases:
to give a clear solution. To get clear solution
When salt BA of weak acid HA and weak
of CuSO4, the addition of H2SO4 would be
base BOH is dissolved in water, it dissociates
required.
completely as
3.7.5 Salts of weak acids and strong bases
BA(aq) B⊕(aq) + A (aq)
CH3COONa is a salt of weak acid The hydrolysis reaction involves the
CH3COOH and strong base NaOH, when interaction of both the ions of the salt with
dissolved in water, it dissociates completely. water,
54
B⊕(aq) + A (aq) +H2O BOH + HA The base NH4OH is stronger than the acid
HCN. The ions of the salt react with water as,
(weak base) (weak acid)

The solution may turn out acidic, basic

or neutral depending on the relative strength NH4⊕(aq) + H2O(l) NH4OH(aq)+H3O⊕ (aq)
of weak base and weak acid formed in the (3.21)
hydrolysis.
CN (aq) + H2O(l) HCN(aq) + OH (aq)
i. if, Ka > Kb, the solution will be acidic.
(3.22)
ii. if, Ka < Kb, the solution will be basic.
The CN ions hydrolyse to a greater extent
iii. if, Ka = Kb, the solution will be neutral. than NH4⊕ ions, The reaction (3.22) produces
i. Salt of weak acid and weak base for which more OH ions than the H3O⊕ ions produced
Ka > Kb. in reaction (3.21). The solution of NH4CN is,
basic and turns red litmus blue.
NH4F is a salt of weak acid HF (Ka =
7.2 × 10-4) and weak base NH4OH (Kb = 1.8 iii. Salt of weak acid and weak base for
× 10-5). Here, Ka is greater than Kb. The salt which Ka = Kb.
hydrolyses as CH3COONH4 is a salt of weak acid, CH3COOH
⊕
NH4 (aq)+F (aq)+H2O NH4OH(aq)+HF(aq) (Ka = 1.8 × 10-5) and weak base, NH4OH (Kb =
(weak base) (weak acid) 1.8 × 10-5).

The acid HF is slightly stronger than base When the salt CH3COONH4 is dissolved in
NH4OH. The two ions react with water as water, it undergoes hydrolysis :

NH4⊕(aq)+2H2O(l) NH4OH(aq)+H3O⊕(aq) CH3COO (aq) + NH4⊕(aq) +H2O(l)

(3.19) CH3COOH(aq) + NH4OH (aq)

F (aq) + H2O(l) HF(aq) + OH (aq) (weak acid) (weak base)

(3.20) The ions of the salt react with water as

The NH4⊕ ions hydrolyse to a slightly i. CH3COO (aq) + H2O(l) CH3COOH(aq)

greater extent than the F ions. That means + OH (aq)
the reaction produces more H3O⊕ ions than the ii. NH4⊕(aq)+2H2O(l) NH4OH(aq)+H3O⊕(aq)
OH ions produced in reaction (3.20). In other
As Ka = Kb, the relative strength of acid and
words, NH4⊕ ions are slightly stronger as acid
base produced in hydrolysis is the same.
than F ions as base. The solution of NH4F is
Therefore, the solution is neutral. Hydrolysis
thus only slightly acidic and turns blue litmus
of NH4⊕ produces as many H3O⊕ ions as that
red.
of CH3COO produces OH ions.
ii. Salt of weak acid and weak base for which
3.8 Buffer solutions : Buffer solution is
Ka < Kb : NH4CN is the salt of weak acid HCN
defined as a solution which resists drastic
(Ka = 4.0 × 10-10) and weak base NH4OH (Kb =
changes in pH when a small amount of strong
1.8 × 10-5) showing that Ka < Kb. When NH4CN
acid or strong base or water is added to it.
is dissolved in water, it hydrolyses as
NH4⊕(aq) + CN (aq) + H2O(l)
NH4OH(aq) + HCN(aq)
(weak base) (weak acid)

55
 CH3COONa(aq) CH3COO (aq) + Na⊕(aq)
Can you think ?
Home made jams and gellies On the other hand since the acetic acid is a
without any added chemical weak acid, the concentration of undissociated
preservative additives spoil in a few CH3COOH molecules is usually high. If a
days whereas commercial jams and jellies strong acid is added to this solution the added
have a long shelf life. Explain. What role H⊕ ions will be consumed by the conjugate
does added sodium benzoate play? base CH3COO present in large concentration.
Similarly, if small amount of base is added,
3.8.1 Types of buffer solutions the added OH ions will be neutralized by the
large concentration of acetic acid as shown in
There are two types of buffer solutions.
the following reactions :
Acidic buffer used to maintain an acidic pH,
while basic buffer maintains alkaline pH. CH3COO (aq) + H⊕(aq) CH3COOH(aq)
(large concentraion) (added acid)
a. Acidic buffer solution : A solution
CH3COOH(aq) +OH (aq) CH3COO (aq)
containing a weak acid and its salts with
(large concentraion) (added acid) + H2O(l)
strong base is called an acidic buffer solution.
The acid or base added thus can not change
For example : A solution containing weak
the [H⊕] or [OH ] concentrations and, pH of
acid such as CH3COOH and its salt such as
the buffer remains unchanged. Dilution does
CH3COONa is an acidic buffer solution.
not have any effect on pH of buffer. This is
pH of acidic buffer is given by the equation because the concentration ratio term in Eq.
[salt] (3.23) and Eq. (3.25 ) remains the same. The
pH = pKa + log10 (3.23)
[acid] dilution does not change this ratio.
where pKa = - log10Ka (3.24) 3.8.3 Properties of buffer solution
and Ka is the dissociation constant of the acid. The pH of a buffer solution does not
change appereciably
b. Basic buffer solution : A solution
containing a weak base and its salt with i. by addition of small amount of either
strong acid is the basic buffer solution. strong acid or strong base, ii. on dilution or iii.
when it is kept for long time.
For example : A solution containing a
weak base such as NH4OH and its salt such as Can you tell ?
NH4Cl is a basic buffer solution.
It is enough to add a few mL
The pOH of basic buffer is given by, of a buffer solution to maintain its
[salt] pH. Which property of buffer is used here?
pOH = pKb + log10 (3.25)
[base]
where pKb = - log10Kb (3.26)and 3.8.4 Applications of buffer solution
Kb is the dissociation constant for the base.
Equations (3.26) and (3.25) are known to Buffer solution finds extensive
Henderson Hasselbalch equation. applications in a variety of fields. Some of its
applications are given.
3.8.2 Buffer action : Let us consider
sodium acetate - acetic acid buffer. Here i. In biochemical system : pH of blood in
sodium acetate is a strong electrolyte which our body is maintained at 7.36 - 7.42 due to
dissociates completely in water producing (HCO3 + H2CO3) buffer. A mere change of 0.2
large concentration of CH3COO as follows : pH units can cause death. The saline solution
used for intravenous injection must contain

56
buffer system to maintain the proper pH of the
Problem 3.10 : Calculate the pH of buffer
blood.
solution composed of 0.1 M weak base
ii. Agriculture : The soils get buffered BOH and 0.2 M of its salt BA. [Kb = 1.8×
due to presence of salts such as carbonate, 10-5 for the weak base]
bicarbonate, phosphates and organic acids. Solution : pOH of basic buffer is given by
The choice of fertilizers depends upon pH of Henderson-Hasselbalch equation
soil. pOH = pKb + log10 [salt]
[base]
iii. Industry : Buffers play an important role
in paper, dye, ink, paint and drug industries. ∴ pKb = - log10Kb
= - log10 (1.8 × 10-5) = 5 - log10 1.8
iv. Medicine : Penicillin preparations are
= 5 - 0.2553 = 4.7447
stabilized by addition of sodium citrate as
buffer. When citric acid is added to milk of [salt] = 0.02 M, [acid] = 0.1M
magnesia (Mg(OH)2), magnesium citrate is Substitution of these in the above equation
formed, which is a buffer. gives
pOH = 4.7447 + log 0.02 = 4.7447 + log 2
v. Analytical chemistry : In qualitative 0.1
= 4.7447 + 0.3010 = 5.0457
analysis, a pH of 8 to 10 is required for
precipitation of cations IIIA group. It is pH = 14 - pOH = 14 - 5.0457
maintained with the use of (NH4OH + NH4Cl) = 13.9543 ≈ 13.95
buffer.
3.9 Solubility product
Problem 3.9 : Calculate the pH of buffer Can you recall ?
solution containing 0.05 mol NaF per litre • What is solubility of a
and 0.015 mol HF per litre. [Ka = 7.2 × 10-4 compound ?
for HF] • What is saturated solution ?
Solution : The pH of acidic buffer is given • What is meant by the sparingly soluble
by Henderson-Hasselbalch equation salt ?
pH = pKa + log10 [salt]
[acid]
Do you know ?
∴ pKa = - log10Ka = - log10 7.2 × 10-4
The process of dissolution
= 4 - log10 7.2 = 4 - 0.8573 = 3.1427 and precipitation of sparingly
[salt] = 0.05 M, [acid] = 0.015M soluble ionic compounds are of important
in our everyday life, industry and medicine.
Substitution in the above equation gives
Kidney stone is developed due to the
pH = 3.1427 + log10 0.05 precipitation of insoluble calcium oxalate,
0.015
CaC2O4. The process of tooth decay occurs
= 3.1427 + log 3.33 due to dissolution of enamel composed of
hydroxyapatite, Ca5(PO4)3OH in acidic
= 3.1427 + 0.5224 = 3.6651 ≈ 3.67 medium.

3.9.1 Solubility equilibria : Hereafter we

confine our attention to sparingly soluble
compounds that is, compounds those dissolve
only slightly in water.

57
 Suppose some powdered sparingly Consider following examples.
soluble salt such as AgCl is put into water and i. BaSO4(s) Ba2⊕ (aq) + SO42 (aq)
stirred vigorously. A very small amount of
AgCl dissolves in water to form its saturated Ksp = [Ba2⊕][SO42 ]
solution. Most of the salt remains undissolved. ii. CaF2 (s) Ca2⊕ (aq) + 2F (aq)
Thus, solid AgCl is in contact with its saturated
Ksp = [Ca2⊕][F ]2
solution. AgCl is a strong electrolyte. Hence
the quantity of AgCl that dissolves in water iii. Bi2S3 (s) 2Bi3⊕ (aq) + 3S2 (aq)
dissociates completely into its constituent Ksp = [Bi3⊕]2[S2 ]3
ions, Ag⊕ and Cl . A dynamic equilibrium
iv. Ca3(PO4)2 (s) 3Ca2⊕ (aq) + 2PO43 (aq)
exists between undissolved solid AgCl and the
dissolved ions, Ag⊕ and Cl , in the saturated Ksp = [Ca2⊕]3[PO43 ]2
solution. This equilibrium, called solubility 3.9.2 Relationship between solubility
equilibrium, is represented as : and solubility product : The solubility of
AgCl(s) Ag⊕(aq) + Cl (aq) a compound is the amount in grams that
dissolves per unit volume (which may be 100
The expression for its equilibrium constant is :
mL or 1L of its saturated solution).
[Ag⊕][Cl ]
K= [AgCl] (3.27) Molar solubility : The number of moles
of a compound that dissolve to give one
The concentration of undissolved solid
litre of saturated solution is called its molar
AgCl is constant we may write
solubility.
[AgCl] = constant = K' solubility in g/L
molar solubility (mol/L) = molar mass in g/mol
Substituting in Eq. (3.27) we write
[Ag⊕][Cl ]
K= K' Consider once again the solubility
K × K' = [Ag⊕][Cl ] equilibrium for BxAy,

The product of K × K' is another constant BxAy(s) xBy⊕ (aq) + yAx (aq)
and is called solubility product, that is the The solubility product is given by Eq.
product of concentrations of ions in a saturated (3.28) :
solution. It is denoted by Ksp.
Ksp = [By⊕]x[Ax ]y
Ksp = [Ag⊕][Cl ]
If S is the molar solubility of the
For the general salt solubility equilibrium compound, the equilibrium concentrations of
BxAy(s) xBy⊕ (aq) + yAx (aq) the ions in the saturated solution will be

The solubility product is [By⊕] = xS mol/L

Ksp = [By⊕]x[Ax ]y (3.28) [Ax ] = xS mol/L

Thus, in the saturated solution From Eq. (3.28)

of sparingly soluble salt the product Ksp = [xS]x[yS]y = xxyySx+y (3.29)
of equilibrium concentrations of the
For example :
constituent ions raised to the power equal
to their respective coefficients in the i. For AgBr,
balanced equilibrium expression at a given AgBr(s) Ag⊕ (aq) + Br (aq)
temperature is called solubility product. Here, x = 1, y = 1

58
 ∴ Ksp = S × S = S2
0.3
ii. For PbI2, [C2O42-] = 2 M = 0.15 mol/L

PbI2(s) Pb2⊕ (aq) + 2I (aq) These ions would react to form sparingly
x = 1, y = 2 soluble salt MgC2O4 in accordance with
Therefore, Ksp = (1)1(2)2S1+2 = 4S3 reaction

iii. Al(OH)3, Mg2⊕ (aq) + C2O42 (aq) MgC2O4 (s)

Al(OH)3(s) Al3⊕ (aq) + 3OH (aq) Ionic product in the solution is given by
x = 1, y = 3
[Mg2+][C2O42-(aq)] = 0.05 × 0.15
Ksp = (1)1(3)3S1+3 = 27S4
= 0.0075 = 7.5 × 10-3

Use your brain power the Ksp value for MgC2O4 at 293 K is
8.56 × 10-5. As ionic product is greater than
What is the relationship
Ksp precipitation will take place.
between molar solubility and
solubility product for salts given below
Problem 3.12 : The solubility product of
i. Ag2CrO4 ii. Ca3(PO4)2 iii. Cr(OH)3. AgBr is 5.2 × 10-13. Calculate its solubility
in mol dm-3 and g dm-3(Molar mass of AgBr
3.9.3 Condition of precipitation : Ionic = 187.8 g mol-1)
product (IP) of an electrolyte is defined in the
same way as solubility product (Ksp). The only Solution : The solubility equilibrium of
difference is that the ionic product expression AgBr is :
contains concentration of ions under any AgBr(s) Ag⊕(aq) + Br (aq)
condition whereas expression of Ksp contains x = 1, y = 1
only equilibrium concentrations. If,
Ksp = [Ag⊕][Br ] = S2
a. IP = Ksp ; the solution is saturated and
solubility equilibrium exists. S = Ksp = 5.2 × 10-13

b. IP > Ksp ; the solution is supersaturated = 7.2 × 10-7 mol dm-3

and hence precipitation of the compound will The solubility in g dm-3 = molar solubility
occur. in mol dm-3 × molar mass g mol-1
c. If IP < Ksp, the solution is unsaturated and S = 7.2 × 10-7 mol dm-3 × 187.8 g mol-1
precipitation will not occur.
= 1.35 × 10-4 g dm-3
Problem 3.11 : A solution is prepared by
Problem 3.13 : If 20.0 cm3 of 0.050 M
mixing equal volumes of 0.1M MgCl2 and
Ba(NO3)2 are mixed with 20.0 cm3 of 0.020
0.3M Na2C2O4 at 293 K. Would MgC2O4
M NaF, will BaF2 precipitate ? Ksp of BaF2
precipitate out ? Ksp of MgC2O4 at 293 K is
is 1.7 × 10-6 at 298 K.
8.56 × 10-5.
Solution : Final volume of solution is
Solution : When solution is prepared by
mixing equal volumes, volume gets doubled 20 + 20 = 40 cm3,
and hence effective concentration of ions 0.050 × 20
would be half of initial concentration, [Ba(NO3)2] = 40 = 0.025 M
0.1 0.020 × 20
[Mg2+] = 2 = 0.05 mol/L [NaF] = = 0.010M
40

59
 Therefore [Ba2⊕] = 0.025 M and The common ion effect states that the
ionisation of a weak electrolyte is supressed
[F ] = 0.010M in presence of a strong electrolyte containing
Hence ionic product of BaF2 is an ion common to the weak electrolyte.
IP = [Ba2⊕][F ]2 Remember...
= 0.025 × (0.01)2 Common ion effect is a special
= 2.5 × 10-6 case of Le-Chatelier's principle in
which the stress applied to an equilibrium
Ksp (BaF2) = 1.7 × 10-6 Thus, Ksp < IP system is an increase in the concentration
Ionic product in the solution is greater than of one of the product (ions). The effect
Ksp. Hence BaF2 will precipitate from the of this stress is reduced by shifting the
solution. equilibrium to the reactant side.
3.10 Common ion effect :
Can you tell ?
Can you recall ? How does the ionization of
Which reagents are used to NH4OH suppressed by addition of
precipitate (i) group II, (ii) group III NH4Cl to the solution of NH4OH ?
B, (iii) group III A of basic radicals/ 3.10.1 Common ion effect and solubility
cations ?
Consider a solution of weak acid Do you know ?
CH3COOH and its soluble ionic salt The hardness of water is due to
CH3COONa. presence of Ca2⊕ ions. It is surprising
to know that Ca2⊕ ions can be removed by
CH3COOH is weak acid, dissociates only
adding more Ca2⊕ ions in the form of lime
slightly in solution
Ca(OH)2, to the hard water. The OH ions
CH3COOH CH3COO (aq) + H⊕ (aq) of lime react with HCO3 ions present in the
CH3COONa being a strong electrolyte hard water to form CO32 ions.
dissociates almost completely in solution. OH (aq) + HCO3 (aq)
CH3COONa(aq) CH3COO + Na⊕ CO32 (aq) + H2O(l)
Both the acid and the salt produce Solubility product of CaCO3 is very low
CH3COO ions in solution. CH3COONa (Ksp = 4.5 × 10-9). Addition of lime makes
dissociates completely. Therefore it provides IP >>Ksp which results in the precipitation
high concentration of CH3COO ions. of CaCO3 and thereby removal of hardness.
According to Le-Chatelier principle, the
addition of CH3COO from CH3COONa to The presence of a common ion also
the solution of CH3COOH, shifts equilibrium affects the solubility of a sparingly soluble
of dissociation of CH3COOH to left. Thus salt. Consider, the solubility equilibrium of
reverse reaction is favoured in which AgCl,
CH3COO combines with H⊕ to form unionised AgCl(s) Ag⊕(aq) + Cl (aq)
CH3COOH. Hence dissociation of CH3COOH
The solubility product of AgCl is
is supressed due to presence of CH3COONa
containing a common CH3COO ion. Ksp = [Ag⊕][Cl ]

60
 Suppose AgNO3 is added to the saturated to Le-chatelier's principle the addition of Ag⊕
solution of AgCl. The salt AgNO3 being a ions from AgNO3 to the solution of AgCl shifts
strong electrolyte dissociates completely in the the solubility equilibrium of AgCl from right
solution. to left. The reverse reaction in which AgCl
AgNO3(aq) Ag⊕ (aq) + NO3 (aq) precipitates, is favoured until the solubility
equilibrium is re-established. The value of
The dissociation of AgCl and AgNO3 Ksp however, remains the same since it is
produce a common Ag⊕ ion. The concentration an equilibrium constant. The solubility of a
of Ag⊕ ion in the solution increases owing to sparingly soluble compound, thus decreases
complete dissociation of AgNO3. According with the presence of a common ion in solution.

Exercises
1. Choose the most correct answer : vi. The conjugate base of [Zn(H2O)4]2⊕ is
i. The pH of 10-8 M of HCl is a. [Zn(H2O)4]2 NH3
a. 8 b. 7 b. [Zn(H2O)3]2
c. less than 7 d. greater than 7 c. [Zn(H2O)3OH]⊕
ii. Which of the following solution will d. [Zn(H2O)H]3⊕
have pH value equal to 1.0 ? vii. For pH > 7 the hydronium ion
a. 50 mL of 0.1M HCl + 50mL of 0.1M concentration would be
NaOH a. 10-7M b. < 10-7M
b. 60 mL of 0.1M HCl + 40mL of c. > 10-7M d. ≥ 10-7M
0.1M NaOH 2. Answer the following in one sentence :
c. 20 mL of 0.1M HCl + 80mL of i. Why cations are Lewis acids ?
0.1M NaOH ii. Why is KCl solution neutral to
d. 75 mL of 0.2M HCl + 25mLof 0.2M litmus?
NaOH iii. How are basic buffer solutions
iii. Which of the following is a buffer prepared?
solution ? iv. Dissociation constant of acetic
a. CH3COONa + NaCl in water acid is 1.8 × 10-5. Calculate percent
dissociation of acetic acid in 0.01 M
b. CH3COOH + HCl in water
solution.
c. CH3COOH+CH3COONa in water
v. Write one property of a buffer
d. HCl + NH4Cl in water solution.
iv. The solubility product of a sparingly vi. The pH of a solution is 6.06. Calculate
soluble salt AX is 5.2×10-13. Its its H⊕ ion concentration.
solubility in mol dm-3 is vii. Calculate the pH of 0.01 M sulphuric
a. 7.2 × 10-7 b. 1.35 × 10-4 acid.
c. 7.2 × 10-8 d. 13.5 × 10-8 viii. The dissociation of H2S is suppressed
v. Blood in human body is highly buffered in the presence of HCl. Name the
at pH of phenomenon.
a. 7.4 b. 7.0 ix. Why is it necessary to add H2SO4
c. 6.9 d. 8.1 while preparing the solution of
CuSO4?
61
 x. Classify the following buffers into iv. Dissociation of HCN is suppressed
different types : by the addition of HCl. Explain.
a. CH3COOH + CH3COONa vi. Derive the relationship between
b. NH4OH + NH4Cl degree of dissociation and
c. Sodium benzoate + benzoic acid dissociation constant in weak
electrolytes.
d. Cu(OH)2 + CuCl2
vii. Sulfides of cation of group II are
3. Answer the following in brief :
precipitated in acidic solution (H2S
i. What are acids and bases according + HCl) whereas sulfides of cations
to Arrhenius theory ? of group IIIB are precipitated
ii. What is meant by conjugate acid- in ammoniacal solution of H2S.
base pair? Comment on the relative values of
iii. Label the conjugate acid-base pair in solubility product of sulfides of these.
the following reactions viii. Solubility of a sparingly soluble salt
a. HCl + H2O H3O⊕ + Cl get affected in presence of a soluble
b. CO32 + H2O OH + HCO3 salt having one common ion. Explain.
iv. Write a reaction in which water acts ix. The pH of rain water collected in a
as a base. certain region of Maharashtra on
particular day was 5.1. Calculate
v. Ammonia serves as a Lewis base
the H⊕ ion concentration of the rain
whereas AlCl3 is Lewis acid. Explain.
water and its percent dissociation.
vi. Acetic acid is 5% ionised in its
x. Explain the relation between ionic
decimolar solution. Calculate the
product and solubility product to
dissociation constant of acid
predict whether a precipitate will
(Ans : 2.63 × 10-4) form when two solutions are mixed?
vii. Derive the relation pH + pOH = 14.
viii. Aqueous solution of sodium Activity :
carbonate is alkaline whereas
aqueous solution of ammonium Take two test tubes and label them
chloride is acidic. Explain. as A and B. Add Zinc filings in both
the test tubes. In the test tube labelled A
ix. pH of a weak monobasic acid is 3.2
add 5 mL of 1M HCl and in test B 5 mL
in its 0.02 M solution. Calculate its
of acetic acid. Keep the test tubes on the
dissociation constant.
stand. Note down your observations.
x. In NaOH solution [OH ] is 2.87 ×
a. Do you see any effervescence coming
10-4. Calculate the pH of solution.
from the two test tubes ?
4. Answer the following :
b. Which gas is evolved ?
i. Define degree of dissociation.
c. How do you identify the gas ?
Derive Ostwald's dilution law for the
CH3COOH. d. What is the relative rate at which the
gas is evolved in the two test tubes
ii. Define pH and pOH. Derive
relationship between pH and pOH. e. Based on your observations comment
on the strength of acids used.
iii. What is meant by hydrolysis ? A
solution of CH3COONH4 is neutral.
why ?

62