Handbook of Language and Linguistics

An Introduction to the Study of Language

Oscar Molina Márquez, M. A.

Molina Márquez, Oscar
Handbook of Language and Linguistics. An Introduction to the Study of Language.
Medellin, Colombia
Copyright © 2011 - 2016
Typeface Medio 11pt
Medio 18pt
It includes bibliographical references
1. Language 2. Linguistics 3. Applied Linguistics
All rights reserved
Paperback
ISBN 978-958-44-8966-1
 CONTENTS
Page

Preface 5
Introduction 7
Part 1: The Foundations of Language 9
Chapter 1: Language 11
Chapter 2: Language Change 37
Chapter 3: Speech and Writing 49
Chapter 4: Communication 57
Part 2: The World of Linguistics 63
Chapter 5: Linguistics 65
Chapter 6: Grammar and Syntax 79
Chapter 7: Phonology and Phonetics 91
Part 3: Language in the Brain and the Mind 105
Chapter 8: Neurolinguistics and Psycholinguistics 107
Chapter 9: First Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning 117
Chapter 10: Contrastive Analysis, Error Analysis, Interlanguage, Fossilization and
Language Transfer 127
Part 4: The Power of Words 135
Chapter 11: Morphology 137
Chapter 12: Semantics and Pragmatics 147
Part 5: Language as the Founding Element of Society 159
Chapter 13: Sociolinguistics, Language Varieties, and Ebonics 161
Chapter 14: Idioms, Slang, Sayings, Jargon, Clichés, and Collocation 171
Part 6: Discussing Discourse Analysis 177
Chapter 15: Discourse Analysis and Critical Discourse Analysis 179
Part 7: The Application of Language 187
Chapter 16: Applied Linguistics 189
Chapter 17: Monolingualism, Bilingualism, and Multilingualism 193
Chapter 18: Translation 203
References 211
 PREFACE

Language is present in every human activity. It has been said that what makes us human is language,
thought, and decision-making. This Handbook of Language and Linguistics: An Introduction to the
Study of Language is thought to fulfill the expectations of language teachers in the field of linguistics.
They will be able to approach the study of language from a much more scientific point of view, since
the theories presented here will provide them with some insights about how important these theories
are and how they can contribute to their everyday teaching.

Language is a system by which human beings relate, communicate, interact, and progress
collaboratively through the realization of meaningful tasks. Man makes use of language in order to
establish, to develop, to maintain, and to improve social relations with other people: family, friends,
peers, partners, or complete strangers. What distinguishes us from animals is the ability we have to
use speech as we know it.

On the other hand, language is made up of thoughts and ideas, needs, likes, wants and preferences,
which are the foundation for communication to take place. The purpose of language is to reach
understanding among people for a variety of reasons, such as survival and cooperation. It comes in a
variety of ways: natural, sign, and artificial, and it is used by men, animals, nature, and computers, as
well.

One of the most important goals of language is to favor communication among individuals who
share a common linguistic system, and they are linguistically and culturally proficient. Man cannot
remain indifferent to the role played by language in his or her life and in everything, he or she does.
If there were no language, there would not be communities, progress, and civilization.

Language teachers should be familiar with the theories and the principles underlying language in
order for their work to be fruitful and lasting in their EFL/ESL classroom or out of them. Teachers,
in essence, are considered as such, because of their faculty to understand, to process, to produce, and
to use language. In addition to this, they should bear in mind what their learners really need in order
for them to achieve communicative competence in the foreign or the second language.

Language teachers should be knowledgeable enough in areas relating to linguistics, which is the
foundation of language study, application, and use. Not only should they become familiar with
features dealing with methodology, but also with those that have to do with language, as such. The
more they gain some insights about the particularities of language and everything it involves; the
more aware they will become of their responsibility to deliver language lessons respectfully and
successfully.

Finally, language is present in our current conversations, in music, in literature, in newspapers, in

movies, on the radio, on T.V., or on the Internet; in any other possible means that people have to
interact by using it: spoken, written, sign, or any other feasible possible way we may think of.
Awareness and knowledge make part of what language means to humans.

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 Language is present in every endeavor that we embark on as we relate to others, and even to
ourselves. It gives us identity. Each particular social group has its very own cultural patterns, which
make them differ thanks to the existence of language and its circumstances.

Margarita María López Pinzón

M. A. in Language Teaching
Universidad de Caldas

6
 INTRODUCTION
Language cannot be predicted since other people’s thoughts cannot be anticipated.

The world around us is full of signs, which are provided by nature and, which are interpreted by man
via the use of language. Language, as speech, is the bridge by which man can establish relations,
cooperation, and understanding, in order to develop and to maintain links leading to survival.
Probably, speech originated because facial expressions and vocal movements gave rise to the need to
articulate calls, cries, groans, grunts, and shouts, triggered in the brain once it reached its maturity
and certain conditions could have been met (lungs, larynx, throat, jaws, teeth, tongue, palate), for this
to take place. Not only does language originate in the brain, but other mental, psychological,
physiological, and organic processes also take part because of, in, and within it. The study of
language, much better known as linguistics, comprises a wide variety of fields, such as phonology,
phonetics, semantics, syntax, neurolinguistics, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, pragmatics,
applied linguistics, and translation, among some others. Language teachers, in order to do their job
better, should have an approach to any of these disciplines in linguistics, so that they can become
aware of their influence on language teaching and language learning. Teachers must have an open
mind regarding the role played by linguistics in language teaching. Language learning is just not
related to grammar instruction or techniques designed to fulfill a purpose, rather it should go further
than that. Once you become familiar with the issues addressed here, you will be certain that your
pedagogical practice, didactics in language instruction, and language teaching methodologies
adopted, will make a difference in the manner how you deliver language instruction, from now on.

Is human language “instinctive”? If it were “instinct,” or even much better, “instinctive,” there would
not be such things called thought, imagination, and creativity. Animals, mammals, birds, and insects,
react to instincts, that is to say, they are instinctive, which means that there is no prior thinking,
imagination, or creativity involved as for the understanding, processing, production, retrieval of
language, as we know it today. It is important to define the concept instinctive before we can advance
with this discussion. Being instinctive is defined by the Oxford Dictionary as “based on instinct, not
thought or training.” However, we should reflect on this very fact, which is of paramount importance:
when being attacked, animals react as a manner of protection and survival, but there is no previous
thought involved, as a response or defense to such a behavior. That is why we say animal “instinct;”
the same is true for the criminal “instinct” of assassins. So, why do some people talk about
“instinctive” language? Human “instinct” is based on reactions and reflexes, not on logical thoughts.
It is not that languages differ from one another. It is people who do and make languages differ.

The human brain and the mind are about the same as for the processing and the understanding via the
use of speech or spoken language. It is not just language what makes us human beings, but the state
of development of the brain is what contributes to our understanding about who we are and what we
do. The brain is the same no matter the language someone acquires or learns. A child whose parents
speak Spanish, have him acquire it naturally. Then, his parents may also expose him to other
languages (Chinese, Hebrew, Polish, French, Italian, Hindi, Russian, etc.). He will grasp them easily
and effortlessly as he did with his native language.

7
 Language has to be delivered such as it is. Language is structured in order to fulfill a
communicative need, not just to arrange certain words in a string of sounds. The brain is ready to
absorb language as a sponge is. Speech is structured according to what people need to convey, which
is meaning. Meaning is organized. The organization of elements in speech may lead to ambiguous
interpretations. This ambiguity is analyzed based on interpretation, which depends on the context of
the situation and the speaker’s intention in the communicative event to convey his message across. If
language were to be “taught,” in formal settings. However, it is not the case. It is through language
exposure and language quality that someone acquires language naturally if the neurological
mechanisms and the psychological state let him do so. Attempt to teach a grammar of a language that
you make up and if there are no speakers of that language, then learners will not be able to acquire it
because of the lack of interaction for communication and acquisition to take place. So heads of
language departments, school coordinators, language teachers, course developers, and textbook
writers should start reflecting on the way they want other language teachers “to teach” the foreign
language. It is not just about teaching. It is about learning and it is a personal decision-making choice.
If there were no people, language could not be recreated itself. Language vanishes only if there are
no speakers of that language. People make language come into existence. As for the language “taught”
in the classroom, it has to be a reflection of how it is really used outside of it, in real-life interactions
and not necessarily, “the verb to be.” Language is used to devise plans, to think about the past, the
present, or the future, to analyze issues, to solve problems, to communicate needs, etc. When we listen
to others speak, our brain starts making connections with what we know about either language or the
topic being dealt with or both of them, sometimes.

We need to concentrate and try to establish relationships in our head as synapses establish
connections among themselves so that we can have a better understanding of what is inside and
outside of us. Our brains attempt to decipher other people’s emotions, needs, likes, fears, doubts,
wants, and hatred, as they express their ideas and make them visible as they come out through their
lungs, throats, and mouths via the spoken language or speech. Suprasegmentals come into play when
conversation takes place. Accent, intonation, rhythm, stress, and some other issues are related directly
to people’s emotions and interests. Language cannot be predicted since other people’s thoughts
cannot be anticipated. This is only possible when outsiders are aware of what others really mean when
they are quite sure of what they really want to convey. Most of the time, when one of those involved
in the communicative event does not meet the expectations, then misunderstandings will arise because
of presuppositions or lack of information as from what it was addressed in it. Speakers as hearers
need to be alert to both external and internal stimuli so that they their background knowledge on the
issues being dealt with, cannot lead to misunderstandings. It is difficult to speak a foreign language
naturally because you do not know what to expect from the other speaker(s). Some reasons for this
to happen include the topic, linguistic competence and linguistic performance, communicative
competence; internal factors (anxiety), external factors (noise), articulatory problems, few or no
opportunities for interaction, lack of knowledge of the context, cultural differences, and
misunderstandings and the like.

Oscar Molina Márquez

M. A. in TESOL
WVU

8
 PART 1
THE FOUNDATIONS OF LANGUAGE

Language is a process of free creation; its laws and

principles are fixed, but the manner in which the
principles of generation are used is free and infinitely
varied. Even the interpretation and use of words
involves a process of free creation.
Noam Chomsky

9
10
 Chapter 1
Language
Language is a living entity with its own identity.

The following quotation by Sapir means that since language takes place in a social setting, it is
embedded with cultural patterns and behaviors individuals are responsible for. Language cannot be
understood in isolation since people perform roles as they interact through it.

Language is primarily a cultural or social product and must be understood as such

Edward Sapir (1929)

Language is an inherent component of being. The foundations of language can be understood from
many different perspectives, from a specific to a general point of view, as it can be seen below:
 First, from the individuals and within them, the neurological or mental processes involved,
as well as the psychological factors, which intervene in its understanding, storage, retrieval,
and production.
 Second, they can be interpreted from the right functioning and maturity of the brain and the
physiological properties of the vocal tract.
 Third, the exposure a baby, a child, or an adult has with the language and the other speakers
within a certain community or society, in a given culture.
 Fourth, the opportunities people have to interact with others around or far from them is an
important element for a language and its culture to make part of them.
 Fifth, the frequency and the quality of interaction in the language, first, second, or foreign,
make a difference in how successful acquisition or learning will be and how long it will be
installed within the learners’ linguistic system.
 Sixth, language is based on people since they are the final users of both speech and writing.
If there were no a speech community, language would vanish and therefore, it would
disappear.

The Foundations of Language

• Neurological Processes.
• Right Functioning of the Brain.
• Exposure to Language.
• Opportunities for Interaction.
• Quality and Frequency of Interaction.
• Speech Community and Culture.

For the study of linguistics, there have been some linguists interested in it. Some names, which
stand out are Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Ockham, and Kierkegaard. However, in recent times, other
names also are worth mentioning: Saussure, Anthony, Austin, Bloomfield, Boas, Chomsky, Firth,

11
Fries, Grice, Halliday, Harris, Hocket, Jakobson, Jones, Lado, Peirce, Sapir, Searle, Selinker, Whorf,
Wittgenstein, etc.

Language is a reflection of the mind and the circumstances in which it is acquired; the
environment, the people, the culture, the beliefs, people’s attitudes and the like. Language must be
interpreted as a social phenomenon since people(s), who share a common linguistic code, attempt to
establish connections so that cultural understanding, based on cooperative principles, may favor the
relationship between a speaker and a hearer in order for communication to take place. The concept of
language involves a number of issues language teachers should focus their attention on and analyze
them how they affect one another: 1) Thought; 2) Production; 3) Understanding; 4) Communication;
5) Community; 6) Survival; 7) Culture and Civilization; and 8) Change. Language only makes sense
within society itself, since it is people(s), who make it pertinent for their social encounters and
commercial purposes. Man uses either speech or writing as two means used to share ideas, to express
feelings, or to establish relationships, which may help him to relate to other people.

According to historical accounts, man used speech first, and then writing systems appeared. It is
important to remark that not every single community has a writing system, but a spoken language,
and due to acculturation or globalization influences, some of the spoken languages have no speakers
of that language anymore because they have passed away, which has led to its extinction. Spoken
language, as oral tradition, helps people(s) to preserve culture as it is passed down from generation
to generation.

Ancestors’ oral tradition is a fundamental issue for the preservation of beliefs, ideas, customs,
traditions, and values, so that they could be learned by the new generations to come. Written language,
on the other hand, contributes to preserve culture. Future generations will be able to refer to the past
since they have written records of the achievements made in a given period of time and space. The
more someone reads, the better their writing will be and the more critical they will become. Language,
throughout history, has developed because of man’s mental processes, placing him as a superior
animal over the other creatures for the very faculty of possessing it. Language appeared as a need for
him to survive as communication processes evolved. Communication may be divided into four
categories:

Language is a system used by

Humans Animals Machines Nature

Language is a complex social phenomenon immersed into cultural patterns where individuals
express and keep their traditions alive, from generation to generation. Language is made up of a series
of fields, which contribute to its complexity and it should be understood as such. Language, being
one of the most fascinating aspects man has at his disposal, is the one that really makes him a rational
animal. Language, in all of its forms: speech, writing, computational or signal, is the responsible
element for man’s achievements on his way to civilization.
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 Linguistics and all of its fields deal with the study of language in relation to man, the inner, and
the external processes, involving its acquisition, learning, understanding, and production, as well as
the relationships, which derive from their exchange through language.

Communities of individuals who share a unique linguistic system are responsible for the survival
of their language. The knowledge of linguistic theories and principles is a fundamental issue language
teachers should have in their methodological and pedagogical repertoire. The application of those
theoretical principles is to be the foundations for language teachers to have a sound professional
practice in the EFL/ESL fields.

Natural environments, such as plains, mountains, desserts and the like have a direct influence on
language. In other words, depending on how advanced a social group is, in terms of technological
development, that would be the type of language that those people would have to use as for
communicative or survival purposes.

Language at the dawn of times

The following concerns may help you to become interested in developing a quite engaging project,
in language teaching instruction:

1. How did people(s) come to an agreement about how sentences were structured?
2. How could people(s) say and determine when sentences were structurally right?
3. How could people(s) say and determine, which structures were right and, which were not?
4. How did people(s) get to know what words and in which order they made enough sense?
5. How did they discover what types of words went together and meant really something?
6. How were sounds related to one another among diverse language speakers and then some
other phonemes came out of them?
7. If the vocal tract is the same in the human race, why then has existed a varied system of
phonemes among related or unrelated languages?
8. Was the creation of language or languages a result of creativity? If this is so, why do unrelated
languages share some linguistic features in terms of phonology, semantics, and syntax?
9. Was language a reflection of culture? Was culture a reflection of language? When language
just appeared, probably there was no previous culture, so how could the first idea be possible?
10. Did culture appear as language developed and turned out to be responsible for a linguistic
community immersed into a monolingual society?

Language shapes the way we think, and determines what we can think about.
Benjamin Lee Whorf (1964)

Whorf, as an anthropologist and a scientist, was interested in finding, describing, and

understanding the role culture plays in the conception of language. Language is not just its grammar,
but grammar is what people can do with it. The manner how the people conceive their reality
contributes to the development of their mental concepts and their ways of thinking.

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 The limits of my language mean the limits of my world.
Ludwig Wittgenstein (1922)

Following Wittgenstein there is an internal world within each one of us, which is acquired based
on our previous experiences, thoughts, ideas, and conceptions. In such a sense, the lack of language
aspects will interfere with the view we have about the world around us. These aspects refer to
semantics, syntax, or phonology, but some others may include sociolinguistics, pragmatics, and
discourse analysis, for instance. If someone is not capable of conveying what they want to say in their
own language, they will be limited to the interpretation of the world around them, since there will not
be a consensus and a link between certain concepts, to be used by others in the same manner, in the
real or abstract world.

Language
Language is the human faculty used to produce, to understand, and to convey meaning through
speech, writing, signs, or systems. Language is a general system, which is proper to humans, but it
differs in its structures: syntactic, phonologic, semantic, and morphologic since people make language
a system for human understanding, cooperation, and advancement of science and civilization.
Another key feature, which interferes with language production and understanding, is culture, not
every speaker of English, for instance, speaks the same way. Cultural elements and the vision of the
world interfere with the manner how people conceive the world around and beyond them. Language
is not just words. Language is influenced by the geography, the environment, the culture -proper or
foreign- and by political and economic policies, and other languages, which are spoken in the same
region, country, or abroad. In Europe, for example, the people can speak English, German, French,
Italian, Spanish, Greek, Dutch, thanks to their proximity.

Language is a structure, a functioning whole in which the different parts are determined by
one another.
Ferdinand de Saussure (1916)

Language

Human Faculty General System

A language
A language is any system of communication used by nature, animals, machines, or art. Music,
painting, sculpture, architecture, and design, are considered expressive languages to convey a
message, emotions, feelings, and all kinds of thoughts. Nature talks to us by means of the influence
of the four elements: fire, water, wind, and earth. Animals have their own language system of
communication: dances, movements, cries, barks, whistles, howls, screeches and the like. Machines
are used to translate texts into a target language. Music and art are the languages of the heart.

14
 Saussure (1916), a Swiss linguist, is considered the Father of Modern Linguistics and Semiotics.
He introduced new terms in linguistics: Langue and Parole. These two terms make up what we
understand by Langage in French, Language in English, Lingua in Portuguese, Lengua in Spanish,
Lingua in Italian, and Sprache in German. No matter what language people speak, they all have the
same mental and representational systems to encode and to decode it properly. Language is at the
heart of the human mind. Language becomes more complex as there are more synaptic relations in a
child’s brain, exposure to it,and opportunities for interaction.

Langue
Langage
Parole

Langage
Both Langue and Parole make up what Saussure (1916) considers Langage. It deals with the
mental and abstract representations comprising its systematic principles.

Langue
It refers to the linguistic knowledge of the system or linguistic competence (Chomsky, 1965). It is
the language system itself, which constitutes the grammar of the language in terms of semantics,
phonology, and syntax.

Parole
It refers to the actual use of that knowledge or linguistic performance (Chomsky, 1965). It is the
act of speaking, which takes place in a particular place and time, with very specific speakers.

Language
Aukrust (2011: 207) conceives language from a much broader viewpoint by referring to it as
follows:

Language is seen as part of the complex and dynamic processes of social membership, culture,
and identity.

Language is a living entity with its own identity. Identity has a strong connection with the culture
and the contexts in which it takes place since people conform to the rules approved of by the speakers
in a certain community. If knowledge comes from experience, how can you expect learners to be
productive in a foreign language if they have not been exposed to it before?

In the internalization process of language, there are at least three features, which make it as a
spoken system, among some others, which may exist. They are Concepts, Representation, and Words.
What is the logical sequence so that spoken language could be logical?

15
 Concepts

Words Representations

Our brain is capable of making concepts of our reality or beyond it, only if men have had the
chance to be in contact with it out there. As soon as those concepts reach our mind, then men have
the opportunity to reach a clear understanding of the concepts, as they need to call reality somehow.
Those concepts require names in order for people to have a referent of that reality, which once, it is
outside, it is internalized. Right after this, mental processes contribute to the development of an
abstract reality, which is cultured by individuals within the family, the community, and the society.
It is here where concepts become representations, which in turn, become concrete as they achieve the
status of a word.

Words

Concepts Representations

Human beings feel the need to name reality after a consensus has been reached. It is the starting
point in order to begin using, identifying, and spreading the words within the community or society.
As those words mean something, then people make up representations in their minds, being the prime
requirement for the development of concepts. These concepts, then, contribute to the increase of
related words, giving consequently a set of conceptual maps, which become the matrix to mental
development.

Representations

Words Concepts

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 Human beings have the capacity to represent their reality, the one around and beyond them. That
representation then turns out to be concepts. Those mental constructs require words in order to make
reality, external or internal, something concrete as, both the former and the latter can be uttered,
written, signed, or computerized.

People have their own identity as their conceptions of the world around them usually differ from
those of ours. Although one single world exists, there are many conceptions people may have about
it, depending on their experiences and expectations. You shape your thinking based on the language
you speak and on the manner, how you behave or interact with one another. The brain has developed
according to environmental factors.

Language has evolved based on the way people perceive their world. Did language develop
simultaneously in different settings and cultural contexts? Ethnicity has to do with language
development. Ethnicity interferes with how advanced a given language is in comparison to another
language variety.

By being able to speak and to understand a variety of languages or dialects, people have the ability
to perform well in them, but more than that, they must be knowledgeable and competent in the new
culture in which they have to use language for communication, interactions, or transactions. It is
through language that human beings can establish, develop, and maintain social relations and cultural
understanding.

Language, as a complex system, is studied and analyzed, based on a series of factors shared by the
individuals involved in the communication process. These factors are the goal or the purpose of the
communicative act, the topic, the medium, the age, and the gender of the speaker and the hearer, the
setting, the context, the degree of formality or informality, and the circumstances in which it takes
place.

Language, as a social phenomenon, accomplishes a great number of functions. Language is said

to be Interactional, Transactional, Expressive, and Descriptive. All human beings use language for a
series of reasons. However, much more importantly, they do so because language is considered a
complex phenomenon where individuals are forced to use it to solve problems, to come to an
agreement, to express love or hatred, among some other range of possibilities.

Functions of Language
Brown & Yule (1983: 2-3), refer to the functions of language as being both Transactional and
Interactional as follows:

We shall call the language which is used to convey ‘factual or propositional information’ primarily
transactional language. In primarily transactional language we assume what the speaker (or writer)
has primarily in mind is the efficient transference of information. Language used in such a situation is
primarily ‘message oriented’. It is important that the recipient gets the informative detail correct. Thus
if a policeman gives directions to a traveler, a doctor tells a nurse how to administer medicine to a
patient, a householder puts in an insurance claim, a shop assistant explains the relative merits of two

17
 types of knitting wool, or a scientist describes an experiment, in each case it matters that the speaker
should make what he says (or writes) clear.

The interactional view.

Whereas linguists, philosophers of language and psycholinguists have, in general, paid particular
attention to the use of language for the transmission of ‘factual or propositional information’,
sociologists and sociolinguists have been particularly concerned with the use of language to establish
and maintain social relationships.

Language is transactional
It is transactional because two or more people exchange ideas, data, information, or
communication, which both share in speech, writing, or sign language. Human beings use language
to describe the reality they live in, experience, or engage in.

Language is interactional
It is so in the sense that two or more individuals engage in interactions to achieve a common goal.
Both the speaker and the hearer should share a common linguistic system so that cooperation between
them may be successful, through the establishment and maintenance of social relations. Although
some languages differ systematically, there are certain similarities, which make them intelligible.

Language is expressive
The primary function of language is to express needs, fears, desires, likes, anguish, etc. From the
beginning of times, man has always wanted to express his immediate needs, through speech, pictures,
or hieroglyphs, being language his most precious resource to keep safe and to survive in the most
adverse conditions.

Language is descriptive
Man uses language as a device or a mechanism to describe his internal or external needs.
Procedures, processes, stages, for instance, are carried out thanks to language: spoken, written, signal,
or computational. Nature and emotions are described using literature, as in poetry, for example. What
people describe are the facts as they take place. Language is used to portrait reality as it occurs,
although language may be used to express both literary and art appreciation, where it tends to be
symbolic. Language is used to express thoughts, to let people relate to the world, to convey meaning,
to establish relationships, to maintain interactions, to develop culture, to create national identity, or
to achieve a common goal, etc. Language is used for people to make plans about their immediate
future, to play with language itself, or to refer to it. In addition, language helps us to express our
thoughts, needs, likes, doubts, preferences and the like. Thanks to language, people can establish,
develop, and maintain relations, which could help them to relate to the environment in which they
live. Language serves a series of purposes too. It is used to make up a great number of realities, absent
or present. Past, present, future, and even hypothetical situations can be expressed through language.

Features of Language
Hockett (1966), an American linguist, came out with 16 features, which are said to be common to
all languages. Below there are some of them:

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Vocal auditory channel
Spoken language is produced in the vocal tract.

Semanticity
Language conveys meaning in order to carry a message.

Arbitrariness
Words change from language to language and from culture to culture, but their concepts remain
the same in people’s minds.

Displacement
Language lets people talk about the past, the present, the future, hypothetical situations, as well as
here, there, and over there.

Productivity
Language serves people to describe, to produce, and to invent realities, if necessary.

Traditional transmission
Language is possible thanks to the interaction with and within social groups.

Learnability
People have the ability to learn any language system or code if they are exposed to it, if they find
it meaningful and useful, if they have the opportunity to use it for interactions or transactions, and if
they reach their purposes, through it.

Reflexivity
Language is used for its own reflection and analysis, which is called metalanguage.

It is not the language but the speaker that we want to understand.

Veda Upanishads

Jakobson’s functions of language

According to Jakobson (1960) language is made up of six factors: Context, Message, Addresser,
Addressee, Contact and Code and their corresponding functions: Referential, Poetic, Emotive,
Conative, Phatic, and Metalingual.
Factors
Context: It refers to the circumstances involved in the communication process.
Message: It deals with the content or idea of what wants to be conveyed.
Addresser: It is the originator or the source of the message.
Addressee: It is the recipient of the message.
Contact: It has to do with the channel.
Code: It is the system that has to be common for both participants: oral, written,
sign, or computational.
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Functions
Referential: It describes facts: “It’s snowing.”
Poetic: It refers to the use of metaphors: “Life is hard stuff, death is easy.”
Emotive: It expresses emotions: “It’s delicious, yummy, yummy, yummy.”
Conative: It refers to commands: “Listen up!”
Phatic: It is used to maintain social relationships: “Good morning, Professor
Gomez.”
Metalingual: It talks about language itself: “What do you mean by ‘prone?’”

Halliday’s functions of language

Halliday (1975) also distinguishes other language functions, which in all come to seven. Language
is Instrumental, Regulatory, Interactional, Personal, Heuristic, Imaginative and Representational.

Instrumental: Language is a tool of communication, interaction, and cooperation.

Regulatory: Language has to respond to social conventions.
Interactional: Language tends to be collaborative since it is held by people.
Personal: Language is used as a means to communicate with other people.
Heuristic: Language helps people to surprise about discoveries.
Imaginative: Language is the vehicle that people use to imagine and to create ideas.
Representational: Language is used to help man to represent realities.

Hymes’ SPEAKING Model

Hymes (1974) proposes the SPEAKING Model in which he introduces a broader approach to the
functions of language. Below is what SPEAKING refers to

Setting or scene: Location and situation.

Participants: Members involved.
Ends: Goals, objectives, and purposes.
Act sequence: Cohesion and coherence.
Key: Additional piece of information.
Instrumentalities: Means used to convey meaning.
Norms: Standards governing social interaction.
Genre: Type of speech or piece of text.

It is important to mention that language is made up of disciplines such as phonology, semantics,

syntax, and morphology, but also neurolinguistics, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics and the like.

The word phonology derives from Greek and it deals with speech sounds.
The word syntax derives from Greek and it deals with order or arrangement.
The word semantics derives from the Greek word sēmasí(a), which means meaning.
The word morphology, which comes from Greek, means form.

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The origin of language
There has always been a fascination about how the human language originated. Here are some
theories about its appearance. When humankind wonders about the origin of language, many
questions come into play; since no one knows for sure how it took place. The role of scientists,
neurologists, psychologists, philosophers, and linguists has been to trace back its origins and come
out with some possible theories, which could explain how it really developed, expanded, and made
feasible the appearance of other languages from a common ancestor, known as Protolanguage, but
unfortunately, they do not have an answer about the origin of language yet. The science interested in
the origin and the evolution of language is Glossogenetics. That is to say, it is believed that all spoken
languages derive from this Protolanguage and according to geographic, societal, and cultural
differences, other languages were created and spread throughout the world. However, the following
issues about the origin of language can be of interest:

1. How did language and languages originate?

2. Who was the modern man’s ancestor who first uttered a sound, made up a phrase and then
came out with a sentence?
3. What neurological, mental, and physiological processes provided him with the necessary
equipment to become an autonomous individual?

Based on biblical records (Genesis, 2: 19 New International Version), God provided Adam with
language when He said:

Now the LORD God had formed out of the ground all the beasts of the field and all the birds of the air.
He brought them to the man to see what he would name them; and whatever the man called each living
creature, that was its name.

According to the Bible (Genesis 11: 5-8, New International Version), the building of the Tower
of Babel led to the origin of languages. Man’s intent was the Tower to reach heaven, but God did not
let builders continue building it by having their tongues confused, so they could not understand each
other because they were forced to speak different languages:

5But the Lord came down to see the city and the tower that the men were building. 6The Lord said, “If
as one people speaking the same language they have begun to do this, then nothing they plan to do will
be impossible for them. 7Come, let us go down and confuse their language so they will not understand
each other.

8So the Lord scattered them from there over all the earth, and they stopped building the city. 9That is
why it was called Babelc—because there the Lord confused the language of the whole world. From there
the Lord scattered them over the face of the whole earth.

Reflections about language

Language as speech is considered a human phenomenon. Since language originated as a means
for men to communicate and to fulfill their needs, it makes sense within a larger body of individuals.
For language to make sense, it has to be embedded into a formal system of rules, which is made up
of logical sequences, meaning, and sounds, which convey a communicative purpose. It has to be

21
practical and pragmatic, with an intention in mind. Language is also a societal phenomenon because
it surpasses the border in which a reduced number of people interact, but in a broader sense, it serves
larger communities, which by having a common linguistic code, are able to intervene their reality
around and beyond them, influencing other people’s lives. Language is vivid thanks to man’s
participation within a particular society. Sociolinguistics is in charge of analyzing the kind of
language and the interactions held between men and women alike. Language is supposed to bring
people together in neighborhoods, communities, villages, towns, cities, or countries where people
have the possibility to pass down their knowledge, cultures, and civilization from their ancestors to
their new generations, in order for it to be preserved. Language is the means for the advancement of
technology, science, discoveries, the arts, and the humanities, to have them known to humankind. If
there were no language as we know it today, either speech or writing, for instance, future generations
would not be able to interpret the achievements of past generations, and they would have to devise a
very new linguistic system of communication.

The spread of languages

Based on Biblical accounts (Acts 2: 1-4, New International Version), during the feast of Pentecost,
languages were spread all over the earth, here is what it says:

1 When the day of Pentecost came, they were all together in one place. 2 Suddenly a sound like the
blowing of a violent wind came from heaven and filled the whole house where they were sitting. 3 They
saw what seemed to be tongues of fire that separated and came to rest on each of them. 4 All of them
were filled with the Holy Spirit and began to speak in other tongues as the Spirit enabled them.

Some world languages

Languages in the world differ in many regards. Not all of them have writing, but spoken systems.
Besides, not all of them have the same category of language, but that of dialect, that is why there are
pidgins and creoles. Here there is a list of some world languages: Arabic; Armenian; Basque; Bengali;
Chinese; Czech; Danish; Dutch; English; Filipino; Finnish; French; German; Greek; Guarani;
Hebrew; Hindu; Hungarian; Icelandic; Irish; Italian; Japanese; Korean; Latin; Mandarin Chinese;
Norwegian; Polish; Portuguese; Quechua; Russian; etc. The most spoken languages, according to the
number of native speakers, in the world are Mandarin Chinese, English, and Spanish. No language is
more difficult than any other language. This is true for children, who have that special device to grasp
or to acquire language naturally. However, adults have a hard time when they attempt to learn it, since
they have to deal with conscious processes, which could help them to attain it.

As it was pointed out earlier, it is supposed that all languages come from a common linguistic
trunk, which is called Protolanguage. Throughout time, people(s) have caused languages to differ
thanks to a number of reasons, especially political and economic ones, where dominating cultures
impose theirs over others, through invasions, wars by taking over territories, and by making them
their own. It is true that no language is to outlive others forever. Languages change as people(s) and
their cultures do, too. As languages change and vary in their internal structures, other languages are
born, and some others disappear. Man is always on the move and as he moves, he establishes in new
settlements, so probably new languages may be born as a need for them to communicate in order to
survive, as a linguistic community.

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Why is it difficult to speak a foreign language as a native speaker?

As a matter of introduction.
A foreign or a second language should be learned as a matter of personal preference and not just
as an entrance requirement or a graduation exit requirement. Below there are some reasons that make
non-native speakers speak a foreign language as native speakers do. Among the hardest aspects for a
non-native speaker to grasp are a) accent; b) intonation; c) pitch; d) pronunciation; e) rhythm; f) stress;
f) tone, of the new language. All of these features is what linguists call Suprasegmentals. In order for
people to be able to understand a spoken language, all the features above are a requirement, but other
than that, the active exposure, the quantity, and the quality of interaction between speakers and hearers
within a linguistic and cultural community are vital. Behind every kind of communication, there is a
purpose for it. When children are around other children and adults who are native speakers of a
language, they are constantly in contact with it. According to a number of circumstances, families
and communities have a particular way of speaking and share common features in their speech.
Especially when talking on the phone, people tend to confuse those who are wanted on it. This
happens because since they spend their time together, they tend to follow the same patterns as they
interact. Since non-native speakers do not have the opportunity of being immersed into the new
language, it is difficult for them to catch the intricacies of those features involved in speech patterns.
The ideal thing to do is that once non-native speakers are somehow proficient in the foreign language,
they can be exposed to a wide variety of dialects of that language, in natural environments. Foreign
language learners of any language have a hard time understanding to what native speakers tell them.
Some of these reasons are as follow: Non-native speakers have to internalize in their brains and minds
every single aspect dealing with what makes up language (phonology, semantics, syntax,
morphology, etc.), idiomatic expressions, and culture, the language skills (listening comprehension,
speaking, reading comprehension, and writing). Both native and non-native language teachers have
to bear in mind what their learners have to go through as they attempt to learn a “foreign” language.

There is no raw material from which the foreign language can start developing.
How to think in a foreign language when there is no any background experience as for sounds,
images, meanings, applications, and needs in the foreign language. A quite simple question can be
asked: Could you ask me the simplest greeting or question in Arabic, Chinese, or German if you have
not ever heard any phoneme in those languages, which you may have an idea of what is being said,
asked, or expressed? A prime requirement for this to take place is to be immersed into the language
and the culture where it is naturally acquired. Immersion contributes to language acquisition. A
concern also springs from this analysis, how can you ask your learners perform tasks as to prepare an
academic article and then to give a presentation to their partners in a language, which they do not
either understand or are not well or sufficiently prepared to do it successfully. The only choice they
have is to translate it with the help of a translating machine on the Internet or to ask someone else to
do it for them, a language teacher in Arabic, Chinese, or German, for example. When it comes to
‘teaching’ English, most teachers, either empirical or those who hold a diploma, which testifies their
preparedness, are not aware of what to think, to write, and to speak English when the conditions,
whatever they could be, are not fully met. Language does not come into a vacuum, but it comes into
existence when it is embedded into culture and culture is expressed through it. Language cannot be
isolated from culture because they back up each other.

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Let me ask you this question, how can anyone express the slightest idea when there is no previous
experience in their brain as for a foreign language?
Being exposed to language really matters in the sense that quality of interaction and quantity of
interaction play an important role in everyday encounters and cultural practices. However, after such
an exposure, opportunities for interaction must be coupled with the former; otherwise, language
acquisition could not ever be possible. Being in situ, that is to say, the place where the native language
takes place and where cultural exchanges develop, depend on the purpose of the communicative event
and the roles played by those involved in it: parents, siblings and caretakers are the ‘active’ providers
of the raw language, while children under two are the ‘active’ receivers of that language.

The former are expected to initiate the interaction or to satisfy the latter communicative,
existential, and survival needs. Besides, the latter can be the initiators of the speech event when they
want to establish communication with those under their care and protection. Communication is a two-
way process in which meaning is negotiated, followed, supported, and complemented based on body
language, and cultural practices. In the foreign language classroom, some pedagogical procedures,
teaching and learning practices are to suit language learners’ needs rather than the compliance of a
given syllabus, which most of the time, does not meet what language learners really want in order to
satisfy their communicative needs.

Foreign language learners do not see eye to eye when the linguistic and cultural conditions are
not met in the household, in the school, in the community, as it happens with native speakers.
Speakers do not have the chance to negotiate meaning since there is nothing to negotiate,
interaction cannot be made possible. In the event that their parents speak different languages from
that spoken in the community, learners will be exposed to the languages and cultures that their parents
already speak as being their native languages, alongside with their cultures. Language is not mere
structure, but intention in the communicative event. When there is little authentic input, the foreign
language is poorly structured because it does not match the one used by native speakers as it usually
happens in their everyday interactions. Learners are unable to figure out and to decipher when they
are given a fixed grammatical rule as if always worked out for every single idea to be expressed in
the foreign language, but it is not the case. They find it difficult to know what goes in-the-blanks, as
it is aimed at the formula provided. Language is not the same as mathematics. While mathematics is
used to solve problems, language is used to convey meaning. Although mathematics conveys meaning
and language solves problems, as well.

Although language has a given standard, not every thought matches the formula, being the case
of, for example, S + V + O, which is equivalent to say, Subject + Verb + Object. Not only are learners
unable to say for every possible blank since there is nothing meaningful to utter or to write down.
What really counts is to provide learners with meaningful comprehensible input, coming from reading
material, as Krashen (1982) suggests. Language teachers’ task is to provide learners with the
mechanisms supporting their learning based on real communicative needs, which will develop as their
internal and external motivation allow them to do so. In language acquisition, children do not receive
any previous experience on how to structure the language from their parents, caregivers, or those who
are around them. What children do is to decipher how the language is structured based on the culture
in which it takes place and the circumstances in which they are immersed.

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Willingness to learn the foreign language must spring from within the learner and not to be
imposed from the outside.
It is intrinsic motivation that counts, but also supported by extrinsic motivation. When learners
come to understand the importance of having a foreign language as a plus, they should usually think
of the benefits derived from it. Some of them feel the need of learning it to pursue graduate studies.
Some others do it to get a better-paid job. Still some others are willing to be a part of its culture so
that they can be integrated into it and not just for professional purposes. When there exists this kind
of empathy, learners take a look at a series of possibilities and chances derived from their choice.
Good status, globalization issues, practical purposes, are probable the ones on top of the list. Some
other reasons may also be added to the list, these are the ones, which really satisfy their very personal
objectives. Unfortunately, things are not the same as they are expected by learners. They are imposed,
instead. They are to learn a foreign language, which does not match their ideology, making it even
more difficult for them to learn it. However, since it is the language adopted by the institution, there
is nothing they can do about it.

The articulatory or contact points in the mouth does not match those of the target language.
In this sense, adult learners have a hard time trying to get rid of a “certain” kind of accent, which
betrays the speaker by telling where he is coming from. It is not a sin, but it is not well seen when
you do not speak it as a native speaker. When this is the situation, the speaker is better accepted into
the community because native speakers consider that there is a kind of respect toward the language
and the culture. Some native speakers of French, for example, tend to be not very collaborative when
it comes to understanding foreigners who do not do it well and continue making mistakes in their
language.

On the other hand, some other native speakers of Spanish, let us say, from Latin American, do
worry about the processes foreign speakers go through in their attempt to express an idea in Spanish
and they do help them to solve the problem. All of the above is common practice, in the first place,
because their facial muscles are not accustomed to making the movements as in the case of native
speakers. The former rarely speak the foreign language. The latter do it on a daily basis. Then, it can
be concluded that native speakers do speak it effortlessly, while the second ones, have to make
conscious choices when it comes to deciphering phonemes, vocabulary words, level of formality,
which help them to fulfill their communicative and cultural purposes, within particular settings and
contexts. Accent differences lead to language varieties known as dialects. These differences also play
a role, which make it difficult understand people since their speech may deviate from the original or
standard, somehow.

The quality and quantity of vowel sounds is different from those of their native language.
If articulation of speech sounds also differs from speaker to speaker within the same language, it
is even more extreme the case of non-native speakers to try to understand phonemes and strings of
ideas that they have never been exposed to before.

They have to undergo prior training so that articulation can mock that of native speakers. It is
through permanent and constant repetition that an acceptable kind of pronunciation can match that of
the general standard. Watching oneself in the mirror is one of the most suggested practices. Listening

25
to all kind of audiovisual material is advisable, and do it as much as possible, even though they happen
to understand little or nothing, at all. Singing songs contributes to grasp the intonation, tone, pitch,
rhythm, and stress, much more naturally.

Children of any language can do this effortlessly. They do not need to be told, which articulators
are used or if a given phoneme has a particular kind of pronunciation so that misunderstandings can
be avoided. The very fact of someone being immersed into the setting and context makes it easy for
native speakers to tell the difference in meaning, which for non-native speakers seems to be a hard
endeavor.

When in a language, let us say Spanish, there are not marked differences in terms of quality and
quantity, it is difficult for them to tell the difference when there really are in languages like English,
for example. So much work and training are involved here.

The pace with which the brain thinks in a foreign language is kind of time consuming.
The brain in constantly bombarded with thoughts, images, and ideas, which come and go with the
impetus of an arrow. Thinking is a hard endeavor. Imagine how difficult it is for you even in your
own language. Sometimes, it is even difficult to decide which word, phrase, sentence, or expression
to use in order to structure an idea, to express a need, or to convey a message. How many times it is
tough to organize an idea, in either writing or speaking. When it comes to a foreign or a second
language, whatever the case may be, it is even harder to do. Therefore, it is far more difficult to
achieve in a foreign language. Some language teachers, for example, take for granted that the very
fact that a foreign or a second language is spoken much more often than any other, they consider the
very fact of learning how to speak and write it, something quite easy, which is not always the case.

You could ask them, for instance, to tell you how to say, express, connect ideas, and convey
meaning, just by asking them something quite simple like: How do you say ´good morning’ in
Turkish?; How do you greet someone in Hindu?; How do you say ‘you are right’ in Russian. And I
bet you that they have not been trained to do so, neither have I. Learning does not take place overnight
just by simply providing learners with grammatical structures and expecting them to come out with
social expressions to which they have never been exposed to. You could ask them to write a paragraph
and to deliver it orally when they lack the conditions to do it properly.

If the brain lacks concepts and ideas, expressed in words, how can you expect that learners can
say something if there is not sufficient input on what to be said, conveyed, wanted, needed, or asked.

“Teaching” a foreign language does not necessarily imply that learners are ready to learn it
whatever it takes, just for the sole fact of pleasing those who are in command of demanding a series
of entrance or exit requirements. “Learning” a language, when the necessary and ideal conditions are
not met, becomes only a mere attempt since learners lack realistic opportunities, which make them
incorporate it within their existing linguistic repertoire(s).

How can you, they, their learners, and even me or anyone else achieve such a challenge when they
have not been exposed sufficiently to the language for them to carry out a task successfully. Nothing

26
can be productive if there is nothing in the brain to support that productivity and creativity. A simple
and basic task is to ask them to think in a foreign or a second language to which they have not been
exposed to before or they have not had the need to speak it. How could language learners be able to
please and to reach their teachers’ expectations? Unfortunately, most of the time, some language
teachers take for granted that learning to speak English is a matter of memorizing structural rules as
if it were mathematics, calculus, chemistry, or physics, which of course, is not the case. Speaking it
goes beyond that. Language learning is meaningful, and as such, its ultimate goal is to equip learners
with what they want and need to mean.

In a community, people come and go. Pedestrians, by-standers, foreigners, complete strangers,
acquaintances, friends, colleges, co-workers, among some others, may approach us. Social
interactions develop and language does, too. It is here where language has to be used, not just in the
language classroom. It should be taken outside of it and be used in many more realistic contexts such
as a cafeteria, a restaurant, a library, a bookstore, and down the halls, of course.

We are unaware of what language structures are going to be used by those we approach or those
who approach us. The grammar taught in the language classroom, which commonly follows a
deductive approach, usually leads nowhere if there is not a purpose to be fulfilled. Grammar cannot
be planned as if it were a formula since not everybody speaks alike, that is why there are speech
variations.

Thinking in a foreign language is a time-consuming process both for understanding and for
producing it.
Language teachers need to do it well because this is their job. Learners, on the other hand, have to
do what it is in their hands to learn something, which they do not like, they are not good at, or is
imposed from above. Even, if these were the sole justifications for not learning a foreign language,
language teachers should accommodate their ‘teaching’ to their learners’ ‘learning’ styles. One of the
hardest aspects is to train the brain to understand what speakers say and really want to convey in a
native language, foreign language, or second language. The counterpart, that is to say, hearers become
speakers as they also contribute to keep a conversation going. Both speakers and hearers exchange
roles as they exchange ideas. That is the purpose of language, to promote understanding, service, and
cooperation. The fact of understanding speakers, hearers, and audiences, either interested or
uninterested, implies a series of factors:

 Speakers’ view of the culture.

 Kind of communicative event.
 Setting of the communicative act.
 Age of participants involved in it.
 Contexts and settings of the interactions held.
 Prior knowledge of what is being talked about.
 Real involvement in the utterances held and interactions.
 Sufficient background knowledge of the L2 culture he is involved.
 Permanent interaction held between non-native and native speakers.
 Exposure to language varieties so that L2 understanding is possible.

27
 Language is not only grammar. It has to involve and to comprise more than that. Language is a
way of thinking. This thinking is influenced by culture. This culture, then, structures the way the
speaker or the hearer conceives their world and their very own circumstances. They both bring with
them their very particular background knowledge. It was built thanks to cultural exchanges, which
have been shaped, reshaped, and de-shaped throughout their social interactions in their corresponding
settings and contexts, either alike or different. Being able to think in a foreign language is a matter of
time and mastery. Learners’ abilities, capabilities, and skills, as well as willingness and desire to learn
the foreign language, need to be respected.

Thinking in a non-native language takes time since cultural ideology and practices are alien to
those who were neither born nor raised in first-hand settings and contexts as native speakers are or
did. If it were this simple, there were not significant differences among dialects, which make up a
given language: Latin American Spanish and Peninsular Spanish; American English, Canadian
English, British English, Australian English; Canadian French, Haitian French, and French.

Although people may speak a common language, as native speakers may, there still will exist
different manners to express an idea, such as idioms, which do not necessarily reflect what they really
mean, just with the words used, but what they really imply. Even within the very same country, there
are differences on how to express an idea, using idioms. This issue is one of the most difficult ones
to grasp in any language. Idioms spring as a result of cultural practices. In other words, they come
from the way people view their world and their circumstances. Non-native speakers find it difficult
to express what L2 native speakers mean.

The conception of the world around the foreign language speaker does not guarantee much.
Language learners come from a variety of cultural backgrounds. Their worldviews are not always
the same. Learners, as people who belong to different lifestyles, may or may not see eye to eye, as
many other cultures may. Not only should culture reflect learners’ views about the world, but also
their standpoints about the foreign language learned. Even, among languages, there exists a kind of
status and preference for their learning or not. It is likely that they could think that theirs is much
better than any other language, and other learners should learn theirs, instead. When it comes to
foreign language learners, they tend to have a quite different perspective as for their world conception.
Foreign language learners do have much to lose if they do not change their mind regarding the
contribution made by the learning of a foreign language. It does not mean that they need to make any
kind of sacrifice by favoring the new foreign language and culture and forget theirs. In the sense that
they conceive the world differently, benefits will outweigh the damages.

Political and economic reasons for learning a language or not should not be the two only criteria
taken into account to achieve such a purpose. Culture in society should not be compared with political
and economic practices of a minority group since they do not correspond to the whole majority.
However, language needs to be more than that. Language is a part of a larger structure. People use
that language for a great number of purposes. In other words, language preference cannot be a matter
of political and economic practices, which make learners, learn it or put it aside and choose a different
one, which actually enjoys international recognition, status, and reputation.

28
 The natural environment of the L2 learner does not meet the natural environment in which it is
actually used: spoken, written, signal, or computational. It cannot be expected that language learners
come out with meaningful chunks of language if the conception of the world does not let them
conceive other worlds, which are both foreign and alien to them. People’s conceptions, beliefs,
practices, and behaviors make them unique.

There is little or no feedback by native speakers to foreign language learners when the foreign
language is spoken.
In the event that there is scarce contact with the language and its native speakers, it is harder for
non-native speakers. That is to say foreign language learners, to get permanent and primary feedback
from native speakers since their parents, family, friends, partners, and the community, where they
live in do not or cannot use it as a means of everyday communication and interaction. The classroom
should not be considered the center where the foreign language springs. Besides, language learning
cannot be teacher-centered, but learner-centered, instead. Learners are expected to do their learning.
Teachers, on the other hand, are expected to provide learners with language learning resources and
some tips on how to proceed and to explore them so that learning becomes lasting and meaningful.
Meaningful learning takes place only when language is used on a daily basis. There is a purpose
behind it for learners to learn it willingly: a) to satisfy their communicative needs; b) to pursue
graduate studies; c) to do business; d) to live and to work in a foreign country; e) to be an active
member and participant in the foreign culture. Language learners devote their time, interest, and effort
in achieving their goals. How can this be possible? Well, the answer is quite simple: just by creating
the real needs in the communicative event where the language fulfills its purposes. When learners are
not surrounded by native speakers, it is necessary to create, to promote, to develop, to improve, and
to maintain those suitable conditions. The one million dollar question is how to achieve it? A series
of concerns, among some others, have to be taken into account:

 How often is the learner exposed to L2 varieties?

 How necessary is it for him to use the L2 on a daily basis?
 How feasible is it for him to be part of a linguistic community in which it is often used for
communicative purposes?
 What strategies should be applied so that the L2 can be “successfully” learned?
 What are the roles played by both English language teachers and learners?

Learners are provided with little linguistic and cultural input and error correction hardly ever
or scarcely happens.
Unqualified English language teachers, not just because they are not well prepared as such, but
also because many of them belong to other academic areas. In other words, it happens that teachers,
who are supposed to be “teaching” mathematics, religion, physics, chemistry, or physical education,
are assigned to be “teaching” English because there is no anyone else available to “teach” it. Just to
wrap this idea up, let me say that unfortunately, both quantity and quality of interaction are limited
or scarce, which becomes a drawback for language learners to show their progress in the achievement
of their very particular goals and objectives. One of the best ways, is to let learners monitor
themselves and self-correct, just when the teacher knows for sure that they can identify and correct
their errors.

29
The little contact time the non-native language speaker has with the foreign or the second
language and its speakers.
Insufficient contact time because of geographical or even mental barriers impedes foreign
language learners to grasp it. Maybe there could be somehow a kind of contact in the language
classroom, but it does not resemble the one used and spoken outside of it. The reason for this
phenomenon is that there is not a genuine language community, which really contributes to its
learning. Then, there exists a big gap between that which is taught and that which is practical to be
used in everyday interactions. The lack of materials has a negative role to play when it comes to
quality of time. That is to say that learners do not have a series of suitable learning resources, and in
some cases, it partially or completely differs from the real language varieties used in a given
geographical location. Since language changes over a period of time, especially idiomatic
expressions, it is difficult for non-native speakers to try to understand and to make themselves
understood with their limited language and cultural knowledge. Another drawback has to do with the
inappropriate use of resources. Although they could be available at a given school, teachers lack the
necessary training and knowledge to use them accordingly. On the other hand, it usually happens that
if they have laptops, tablets, or IPods, they lack Internet access, Wi-Fi connectivity, or in extreme
cases, electricity shortage, especially in isolated rural areas. In this situation, qualified English
language teachers are expected to overcome the problem by designing language-learning resources,
which can simulate the language used by native speakers.

The real communicative needs to express ideas in a foreign language are quite unusual or
scarce.
There are not sufficient native speakers where the language is taught as a foreign one. In other
words, it means that non-native speakers find it hard to interact with them. This leads to the fact that
the language to be “taught” has to be similar to the one used and spoken in natural contexts and
settings. There cannot be a divorce between the classroom language and that of the street and
everyday life language. The real communicative need springs from the fact that what learners want
to convey has to be as natural as the one expressed by native speakers. English language learners are
able to reach that point when they can think of an idea in the foreign language. It is a hard endeavor
when you just see as a language teacher that all that your language learners can say is a series of
isolated vocabulary words when you expect them to start structuring in a language for which they are
not prepared at all yet. It is important to stress that in natural settings, the knowledge of vocabulary
and idiomatic expressions is acquired naturally and effortlessly. Speakers learn them to satisfy a
communicative and cultural need. On the other hand, in artificial settings, the learning of vocabulary
words and idiomatic expressions requires a lot of effort since language learners need a lot of
concentration and long-term memory so that they can be used properly and purposefully. It can be
said the knowledge and understanding of vocabulary words and idiomatic expressions is culturally
based. In other words, within geographic boundaries, concepts have a diversity of words, which
convey a wide range of meanings. That is to say, not every native speaker uses or understands every
single word when it is heard or read since cultural differences come into play. This phenomenon could
be particular to one of the following factors: the geomorphology of the landscape (mountains, plains,
beaches, desert, and jungle); the speakers’ social class (high, middle, or low); the speakers’
educational background and training; the jargon used by professionals in their academic fields; their
purchasing power to buy goods and to obtain services and the like.

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Foreign language learners do not consider themselves as real native speakers because they lack
the cultural background of native speakers.
It is a quite difficult endeavor to be able to grasp the intricacies of the foreign culture as for
everyday expressions and humor, in the whole sense of the word. One thing is to be able to attempt
to speak a foreign language, but what it is even harder to achieve is to internalize the L2 culture if
they are unwilling to do so or they have not had the sufficient time to incorporate it within their L1
culture. Considering oneself as a native speaker of an L2 implies more than the very fact of speaking
a language, but to be able to engage in everyday conversations and encounters with native speakers
outside the four school walls, which interfere with grasping the intricacies of the L2 culture(s) and
linguistic varieties.

Establishing a balance between learning and teaching.

Times have changed. What we do not know if this change has been for better or worse. In the
fields of language learning and teaching, the change has been for the better. That is what we really
hope. Language teachers need to step aside or step down so that learners can have an active role to
play when it comes to learning. Those changes must come from the teachers’ innermost part. A
teacher’s job other than teaching is to let learners learn by guiding them in their attempt to achieve
their learners’ goals.

Thanks to the aforementioned issues, language teachers should balance learning and teaching. In
other words, they are to provide learners with the necessary tools and resources for them to learn on
their own. Rather than teaching the structure of the language, the idea is not to teach it the way it is
traditionally done. Based on what learners need to say, the teacher should be there for them. Language
learning is something unpredictable and unplanned. It cannot be taught according to the methodology
used or applied as it is commonly done. Not every learner has the same interest or goals in learning
what they are “taught.” There should be a balance between what you know as a language teacher and
the purpose for your learners to be there. Teaching should respond and co-respond to learning. In
other words, since learning is an internal need that learners have, the teachers’ role should be the one
of suppliers of those needs. Communication is a two and multi-way process. When language learners
are out there, in real-life interactions, they do not know what kind of structures they are going to be
exposed to and what kind of words and expressions they are going to be hearing around. That is why
teaching cannot and should not respond to a pre-established syllabus.

In the event that you come across someone in the street and ask you something that you do not
understand, you cannot answer back by saying: Sorry, I´m doing English 1. Please ask me personal
questions. That’s what I’m learning at this level. Language learners need to know more than they are
being taught so that they can deal with unpredictable circumstances. That is what language learning
is all about.

Change in methodology and roles.

When it comes to language methodology, the best methodology is no methodology. This
assumption does not sound contradictory. As people meet and engage in conversations, the
negotiation of meaning comes in a variety of ways. People use all kinds of structures in different
tenses and modes, loaded with a great number of informal expressions, which usually are learned in

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situ. Nowadays, thanks to television services, the Internet, and mass media, both language teachers
and language learners grasp their meanings from those sources; otherwise, it would be a hard
endeavor to achieve. That is why a series of changes in methodology and roles needs to take place.
Among these changes, the following stand out: a) learners’ roles; b) active and participative learning;
c) meaningful hands-on tasks; d) task-based learning; e) realistic classroom projects; and f) teachers’
role.
 Learners’ roles: Teacher’s assistance can help somehow, but learners are responsible for their
own learning. They are to take sole responsibility as for their language gain.
 Active and participative learning: Learners become active participants since the L2 learning
springs from within as a need to be fulfilled. What really matters is to provide learners with
what they need to say no matter “the level that they are doing.” In real-life interactions,
language comes in a variety of modes, tenses, and a wide range of vocabulary words and
expressions, which are uncertain as people relate to others. Language cannot be predicted or
planned a priori. Language as such has no levels. Language has to be functional and practical.
 Meaningful hands-on tasks: Practical tasks in which learners can show their progress and
achievements in the language are a real need. When there is a purpose in everything we do,
positive outcomes can spring from it.
 Task-based learning: Similarly, learners learn best when teaching comes in a second place and
learning comes first.
 Realistic classroom projects: One of the best ways to show language learning is through its
projection in realistic and meaningful developments. The idea behind classroom projects has
to do with the application of language in communicative assignments carried out by learners.
 Teachers’ role is to devise the corresponding methodology so that learners can carry out, not
only activities, but also realistic classroom projects, which serve as the springboard for learners
to show relevant progress in their language and cultural achievements.

More emphasis should be made on vocabulary, reading, listening, and speaking.

Learners have a hard time understanding others as they speak. It is a quite natural and common
phenomenon. Let us say, you have never heard a Chinese, a Greek, or a Polish person speak. When
learners have not been exposed to any of those linguistic systems, they just say, “that’s Greek to me,”
and that is completely true. Our brains lack mental representations and concepts, which derive from
words and expressions we hear. In order for them to make sense, they have to be used with a purpose
in mind: a communicative one. Although we do not know, which words we are required to learn first,
we need to start learning as many words as necessary in order to deal with everyday situations. So a
question can be raised here, do these words and expressions that non-native speakers need to
internalize first have to supply everyday life situations? The answer is yes. Rather than dealing with
the structure of language as if a recipe would suffice, the idea is that language teachers are there to
guide their learners’ linguistic, cultural, and sociolinguistic demands based on a particular space and
moment. Initially, learners have to be supplied with some samples from which they can take the
necessary elements to create their mental images of what they want, need, and have to say orally.
Since language is primarily spoken, that should be the purpose of language learning. Learners cannot
be asked to write when they do not have anything to think about since they lack the spoken images
of the L2. The natural order is that native speakers, first speak, and then, they write or compose.

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 What is the best way for learners to be able to cope with mental images when they do not have
any? Many unplanned vocabulary words and expressions people are expected to come across on a
daily basis. Familiar words come from the need that learners have to use them in real communicative
tasks.

Once learners have a reasonable number of words and expressions; either active or passive, in
their brains, they are expected to put them into practice. Reading plays an important role as for how
native speakers structure the language. After they have internalized them in their brains, it will be
much easier for them to reinforce their application in reading. Reading serves as the foundation for
gaining knowledge of vocabulary words and idiomatic expressions.

Both intensive reading and extensive reading contribute to language improvement. Not only does
it have to do with language, but also with culture. The learning of semantic elements has a say in the
manner how thoughts can be expressed and reading can contribute meaningfully in this regard. As
you read, you structure your thinking, and words, which are used in a variety of applications, affect
their meaning since their contexts make them achieve new meanings. New meanings are assigned by
the contexts and settings in which they take place.

Let us take the case of babies and children. Before they can walk, they have to crawl, first. This is
a good simile. Teachers cannot demand and ask novice learners of English to produce written
language when they lack the necessary tools to produce spoken language, first. Since learning to walk
requires physiological maturation, speaking a language does, too. It does not take place overnight.
Then, once the incorporation of vocabulary words and reading all sorts of written passages, either by
the learner himself or by somebody else, then, speaking can come out naturally. It springs as a
communicative act or social event. Listening to language is also a prerequisite for someone to speak.
If the speaker is not exposed to aural stimuli, then communication cannot occur between a speaker
and a hearer. If there is nothing to be said, then the speaker prefers to be immersed into a silent period.
When the communicative act takes place, it means that it is the right moment for the spoken language
to spring from within. The result of sharing thoughts, needs, fears, doubts, likes, etc. comes to life as
the communicative process between a speaker and a hearer is made evident.

More emphasis should be made on writing.

Before delving into the issue of writing, it is important to frame what it is meant by writing. There
are different levels when it comes to writing. It can involve simple facts such as transcribing a piece
of writing from a blackboard, a book, a newspaper, a magazine, or a computer to paper. Writing can
refer to just jotting down ideas without any structural order. It also can deal with describing an image
or writing down a grocery list. Writing can also comprise both formal and informal texts. In the case
of formal writing, the following can be mentioned: a) a business letter; b) an academic report; c) a
newspaper report; d) a journal article; e) a short story or a novel, etc. As for informal writing, the
following can serve as examples: a) a biography; b) a personal letter; c) an e-mail message; d) a
restaurant menu; e) an anecdote; etc., even spelling or taking a dictation, which is also quite difficult
to do. Language teachers most of the time make little emphasis on writing. It is not because writing
is the Cinderella among the four language skills. It is because it is a complex and time-consuming
skill, which demands high qualification from learners as for how the L2 works, in terms of how to

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express their ideas appropriately and adequately. One of the most suitable strategies to develop
writing techniques requires a sound knowledge of the L2 grammar. Apart from this, reading
extensively and intensively also contributes to the improvement of writing. As we read from other
sources, our brain takes some models or samples of how native speakers of the L2 think, structure,
and express their ideas. Writing or composing in a foreign language implies being able to think in it.
Language teachers cannot and should not demand their learners to come out with pieces of writing if
they have not been exposed to any model or sample. Writing is a matter or trial and error. The more
you write, the better your style will be. Therefore, if writing is difficult for some teachers, imagine
how hard it is for their learners. As a language teacher, be ethical and coherent with what you demand
your learners to do. If you are unprepared for it, your learners even less. Writing is a matter of practice.
So practice, practice, practice because “Practice makes perfect.”

Implementation of sound and critical bilingual policies

Bilingual policies require a serious and thoughtful planning. The conditions are to be supplied
naturally, but not artificially imposed. They cannot spring from a political decision, but from a careful
educational analysis. Being able to think in a foreign language when the only person who might
slightly speak it is the teacher of English, not the English teacher, makes it very difficult for non-
native speakers to learn it. Not only do governmental officers and policy makers do pass laws, but the
implementation of those bilingual policies have to be backed up by native speakers of those
languages, which want to be implemented within the school, the community and cultural settings.
The ability to speak a language is something that results from an unplanned interaction among the
members of the linguistic community. As the expression suggests, a community is made up of
speakers, who share a common linguistic code, when there is only one. In the event that there are
some other languages, like in the case of Europe, people could have the chance to become bilingual
effortlessly, since languages are the means of communication to interact, to do business, to achieve a
common goal, or to satisfy any particular need or requirement. The implementation of bilingual
policies cannot be framed exclusively into the classroom if there is no any external support like the
one found in Europe, where people communicate with a variety of purposes in mind. When learners
have the chance to leave school and to interact with native speakers in real-life situations, it is the
moment when a country can become bilingual. Interactions and transactions are performed in a great
number of contexts, settings, and environments, on a daily basis, this demands the support of policy
makers, teachers, parents, and the community, as a whole, otherwise, is a real waste of time, effort,
and money. A series of conditions need to be fulfilled so that serious and realistic bilingual policies
can be implemented in the national context. Firstly, they have to be realistic and achievable, based on
the particular conditions where the communicative event takes place. Secondly, they need to be
designed according to the number of foreign speakers, who contribute to the development and
maintenance of the L2 in the corresponding setting and context where learners need to interact with
foreign speakers on a daily basis. Thirdly, the school, college, and university curricula require
working hand in hand with educational authorities and policy makers so that any decisions taken
contribute to the improvement and strengthening not only of the L2, but also of the mother tongue.
Fourthly, the school community should receive training, not only as for methodologies, but also to
brush up on their language skills. Lastly, businesses, companies, and industries are expected to train
their staff in the learning of an L2 and the like. Once these real conditions to foster bilingual policies
are met, in the country, it can be said that people or much better, the new generation of people, will

34
be able to deal with bilingual visitors, who can come from English-speaking countries. If the new fan
of possibilities is open to other languages other than English, our country can become multilingual in
the next twenty years to come, only if we are lucky enough, of course, without sacrificing their native
language and culture.

Why does communicative competence fail sometimes?

Aside from the aforementioned reasons expressed in this reflection, there are some other causes,
which make communicative competence fail. Some of them are expressed below:
 Emphasis is made on “teaching” not on learning. At this point, there should be a shift in the
roles played by teachers. Teachers should be regarded as being guides and learners as being
active participants, responsible for their own learning.
 Foreign language learners are not well prepared to speak it. They have had little, no sufficient
time, and no clear opportunities to internalize it in their brains and take it out from it to make
their thoughts visible.
 Language cannot spring effortlessly because for foreign learners it takes time to process it and
to think in it. Thinking in a language, which most of the time is alien to you and speaking it as
if it were an everyday endeavor, takes time, accuracy, and fluency, these last two terms as
suggested by Brumfit (1984).
 Taking for granted that speaking English or any other language is an easy task, is a big mistake.
Learners are those who carry the can because they are not prepared enough to perform the tasks
provided by their teachers because they have not been given a leading role in their learning.
 A real change needs to be made so that foreign or second language learners are the ones who
are really in command and not just mere passive followers. This is made possible only if
language teachers stop dominating the conversations and let their learners be in charge, instead.
 It is hard to be linguistically and culturally competent when the language learner has not been
exposed to language in natural settings, contexts, and environments. The case being made here
is that they have to be “taught” how to articulate the new spoken language, how to decipher
what they hear in it, what kinds of words and expressions they should use as they speak and
write in their attempt to communicate with native speakers. Besides, they have to learn how to
interact with them in ways that they have never been “taught” to which they have to be exposed
to. In the event that they have the chance to see how the foreign language works by its speakers
and they are given the chance to be active participants in real cultural settings, contexts, and
environments, the foreign language will have to be learned meaningfully and purposefully.

To conclude, it can be said that for someone to be able to speak, they have to be exposed to the
spoken language and the possibility to engage in communicative events. For them to be able to
understand what other people say either directly or indirectly, depends on their knowledge of
vocabulary words and expressions based on both listening and reading. If learners lack concepts, then
they need to be provided with them so that they can have a repertoire of vocabulary words and
idiomatic expressions, which serves as the foundation from which language can spring later on.
Communicative competence can fail because of one of the following: lack of knowledge of a variety
of language or dialect; little or no understanding of cultural practices in the new setting or context;
no recognition of body language since it is different; and the new meanings, which words and
expressions get, in other settings and cultural contexts.

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 The Pedagogy of Language

Language as such cannot be taught. Language sprang as a natural need for communication to take
place. Think about the manner how you grasped it. You did not have to attend school to acquire it. It
was just acquired thanks to the interaction held among the family members; that is why it is stated
that it cannot be taught. Native speakers, those who are born in a particular country, with a given set
of cultures, are exposed to the language in natural settings. It means that language is acquired naturally
and speakers do not need to be trained prior to their being exposed to it. For acquisition to take place,
the conditions under which language develops and changes need to be met. Learners have their own
interest in learning the L2, either how to listen to it or to speak it; or to know how to read it or write
it down; formally or informally. It is important to consider their background knowledge and their real
needs so that they can be successfully fulfilled. Once teachers have identified their learners’ interests
and the way they learn, then some changes in methodology are to be made, but whenever necessary.
Since language is acquired effortlessly, teachers are to provide their learners with the methodology,
which is similar to how it is acquired naturally. Language acquisition takes place when there is
exposure to it. Quality and quantity of interaction are held on a daily basis and language comes out
naturally, unplanned.

The more variation in language, the more learning will take place since it is learned without any
previous organization, as it really happens when it is acquired naturally. Language teachers have to
be able to ‘read’ the reality their learners have to respond to, and based on this, provide them with
their needs, interests, and problems, given the context and their circumstances so that they can deal
with unexpected situations when it comes to social interaction in the L2. Once language teachers
become familiar with the theories shared in this chapter, and throughout the book, they will have at
their disposal some principles and mechanisms, which favor language learning based on the
methodologies and the resources, which best fit their learners’ linguistic, communicative, and cultural
needs. Language teaching you be based more on language learning. The very fact of being able to
speak a foreign language implies not only what is taught in class, but actually what someone is able
to do, as an independent speaker in real-life interactions, outside the classroom. The organization of
language comes in and it is internalized in a chaotic manner, but it has to come out in an organized
manner. Moreover, how does it happen? Well, this is due to neurological and psycholinguistic
processes thanks to the social exposure, comprehension, interaction, and production of language. It
is quite illogical when it is expected that a foreign language can be taught in artificial settings and
environments when the only methodology, approach, and procedure are based on the structure of the
grammar, as it is commonly understood, in an organized manner. What really counts is that the
learner’s brain can be exposed to a series of communicative events where the L2 has a purpose and a
role to play, and it is done by providing it with a set of structures, which are shared by the speakers.
Reading cannot be considered as a passive process, but an active one, since the new knowledge
interacts with the previous knowledge. The latter serves as a foundation for a better understanding of
the former. Writing is an active process since ideas are connected as we write. Cohesion and
coherence contribute to unity and meaning in a piece of writing. In writing, there is a purpose and an
audience where the writer has a style that fits both of them. A piece of text can be read, deciphered,
interpreted, analyzed, compared, and elucidated.

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 Chapter 2
Language Change
There are many reasons for language to vary and to change.

Words convey meaning. Words carry the meaning people –writers or speakers– want them to convey.
Their arrangement depends on what we want them to mean. Time is responsible for language change
and language variation. It is not just that language changes per se, but people make those changes
happen. Progress and technological and scientific advancements make new specialized language –
jargon– to be developed, in order for it to be adjusted to people’s cultural requirements. It is said that
language is a dynamic entity and it is communities, societies, and people, who really make it change.

Time changes all things; there is no reason why language should escape this universal
law.
Ferdinand de Saussure

Language Change
As the title suggests, people make language change. People are vivid organisms and language is,
too. Language changes as people’s minds change based on societal, cultural, technical, or scientific
demands, requirements, or needs, as well as the social status and age of the speakers. According to
the locus where language is spoken, people adopt a view of life, which highly influences their
language behavior. Depending on the type of speakers, there will be contexts and settings in which
the choices of language and interactions are affected by the topics held. Based on the level of formality
or informality, people choose the words, the structures, and the sounds, which best fit their
interactions. Regarding the speakers’ status, language is affected because of their educational
background, societal position, so the viewpoints about the issue being held will completely change,
leading, in most of the cases, to cultural misunderstandings.

Because of the influence of time on people’s lives, language is supposed to change, for better or
worse. It is a living phenomenon within societal borders, it evolves as people modify their thoughts
and adopt a new philosophy of life. There are many reasons for language to vary and to change:
inventions and discoveries, politics, and economics also influence it. Some people consider that
language change is negative because it may mean that it is in a decaying state. Some other people
think that it is positive because language responds to the changes communities undergo as they
progress. It is undeniable that language has to be on the move. It cannot be static. The more influences
there are on language, the more changes will be experienced in the manner how people relate to one
another. Language is a product of social interaction. It cannot be understood unless it fulfills
communicative acts in a given cultural setting. The levels of language change comprise phonology,
morphology, syntax, and semantics, because of time, place, circumstances, settings, contexts, and
speakers’ age, social status, educational level, etc. As human beings change their speech and writing
over a certain period of time, language does too. Language is modified because of human interaction
thanks to technical and scientific discoveries. The manner how the new generations relate to one
another makes words get new concepts and meanings. Grandparents do not talk the same manner as

37
their children and grandchildren do. Grandchildren have a hard time understanding their grandparents
since they live in different times and places. Language cannot be still. Language is a dynamic entity
with its own identity. These changes can take place as for sound, meaning, or structure. McArthur
(1992: 575) defines Language change as follows:

The modification of forms of language over a period of time and/or physical distance. Such change may
affect any part of a language (pronunciation, orthography, grammar, vocabulary) and is taking place all
the time.

Reasons
Languages change as people change with the trends and the necessities of a community to convey
meaning in their willingness to achieve a common goal with language. If a language has some
differences between two languages, it is said to be a dialect or a language variety, a practical example
is Black English or Southern English. If there are many differences between two linguistic systems,
they are considered two distinct languages. There are many reasons for language to change. People’s
speech is not always the same everywhere due to a number of circumstances: geographical issues, for
example. People from the coast speak the language differently than those from the plains and the
same is true for those who dwell in the mountains. Some other features, which make language change,
are age, genre, social status, register, and educational background, among some other factors.

Educational Policies
Governmental agencies and educational institutions sign agreements to teach foreign languages,
influencing other languages and their cultures.

Economic Treaties
Leading economies try to establish dominating languages over poor or decaying economic
systems.

Imperialism
Powerful countries impose their languages and cultures to other countries, which are unable to
defend their identity from those rich nations.

Invasions
Wars make people move and emigrate, leaving behind their cultural heritage, which took them
many years to come into being.

Linguistic influence
Neighboring languages offer a threat to ‘low’ or ‘inferior’ languages to change somehow. Every
language should have the same status. No language can be considered inferior to any other linguistic
system.

Logical Consequences
Language varies or changes as people change their conceptions or ideas about life. It is an inherent
behavior, which affects the internal structure of a language.

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Cultural influence
Language tends to change, as there are social groups or communities with their own culture, with
their corresponding trends, fashions, and tendencies.

Political Causes
Based on the political measurements or policies, adopted by certain governments, language is
affected by the decisions made.

Technological influence
New words or expressions can be incorporated into an L2 system thanks to the appearance of
computational, medical, or legal terms, so to speak.

Internal Linguistic Structure

A language may vary according to its internal linguistic structure, that is to say, in terms of the
following criteria: Phonology, Syntax, and Semantics.

Phonology
People who come from other linguistic and cultural backgrounds can affect the way native
speakers speak, causing phonological differences in terms of the way they hear and produce the L2.

Syntax
A mixture of syntactic systems is mutually affected, of course, depending on the connection or
relatedness between them.

Semantics
Words and expressions from different linguistic backgrounds can lead to the creation of
completely new words, or old words can get new meanings, given the circumstances in which the
users of the language put them into practice. Words, idiomatic expressions, slang, jargon, and clichés
appear as a response to the communicative need of speakers in a variety of contexts. Science,
technology, and the world of nature, require the invention of new words to name reality. If there were
no new concepts as the result of technology, science, and the social sciences, for instance, it would
be difficult to come to an agreement as to what we want to convey. Words make up a speaker’s mental
repertoire so that communication can be developed, kept, and improved.

We have really everything in common with America nowadays, except, of course,

language.
Oscar Wilde

McArthur (1992: 575) refers to language change in the following terms:

Grammatical change. Major changes in syntax and morphology have affected English over many
centuries to the extent that speakers of Modern English are not able to understand Old English without
training. The structure of Old English was more like Latin in that words had various inflectional endings

39
 to indicate their grammatical function. This situation has been much simplified: for example, the form of
the definite article the, now invariant, once varied according to case, number, and gender, as in se mona
(the moon: masculine, nominative, singular), seo sunne (the sun: feminine, nominative, singular), and
þæt tungol (the star: neuter, nominative, singular). Word order in Old English was more flexible because
grammatical relations were made clear by the endings: Se hund seah þone wifmann (The dog saw the
woman) could also be expressed as þone wifmann seah se hund, because the inflected forms of the definite
article make it clear that ‘woman’ is the direct object in both cases. In Modern English, however,
grammatical relations are indicated largely by word order, so that the dog saw the woman and The
woman saw the dog (compare Old English Se wifmann seah þone hund) mean two different things.
Modern English has also lost its system of classifying nouns into three grammatical genders, as still
occurs in German.

Speakers’ age, educational background, and social class affect the choices of language that they
make or use. It is determined by the time and the circumstances in which they live. That is to say,
people use a type of language as they interact with family members, peers, friends, or just ordinary
people. Depending on the educational level someone has, literate or illiterate, lay or expert; they use
a specialized type of language. Young people do not speak the same way as their parents and
grandparents do; and the other way round, because concepts and ideas change because of age. If a
language changes as much as often, there is a tendency for it to derive into a language variety. Even
though a language has native speakers, if they resist continuing using it as a system for everyday
communication, it will potentially fade out. When ancestors are old enough and they do not have any
offspring to inherit their language and culture, it will lead to extinction of their linguistic systems and
cultural patterns, as such.

A nation’s culture resides in the hearts and in the soul of its people.
Mahatma Gandhi

Assessing Culture in the EFL /ESL Setting

Prior to addressing what it means to assess culture, it is important to establish the difference
between a small “c” and a capital “C” for culture. That is to say, culture is different from Culture. In
other words, depending on the type of culture that we are talking about and, of course, dealing with,
it can be interpreted, approached, and assessed differently in either the EFL setting or the ESL setting.
The concept of culture is understood as the set of beliefs, ideas, traditions, and customs, which make
up a people’s world. This type of culture is said to be particularly related to the base of society. Since
this type of culture covers the most part of society, society influences patterns of thinking and patterns
of behavior, which in turn, affects large societal groups.

Not every culture is the same everywhere. People think and behave differently depending on
geographic, ethnic, educational, and attitudinal traits. Whether people were born on the coast or in
the mountains, for example, will tell you too much about how they think, what ideas they may have,
what traditions they still practice, and what customs are about to disappear because of an acculturation
process.

40
 On the other hand, Culture can be read and interpreted from an elitist point of view, given the fact
that not many people have access to it, either because they lack taste or they are not qualified enough
to assimilate it as it should be. Culture is related to a series of criteria, which are socially accepted,
making part of people’s beliefs and practices. They are prone to develop and to maintain relations,
which are at their social level. Then, not anyone else is able to fit in their social class, but those who
have the minimum requirements to be accepted in their “closed environment.”

Nothing has been said about small c culture and big c culture yet, but it is important to state some
differences between them first. Big c culture is commonly associated to art, music, literature, etc.,
about a given society in a particular time and place in history. On the other hand, it is important to
mention that small c culture cannot be considered of lesser significance as it is compared with
Culture. It is the speakers’ social status, educational preparation, and professional training, among
some other aspects, which define it.

Popular culture can be compared with Elite culture. The former has to do with ideas, attitudes,
and behaviors, which are shown through cultural practices pertaining to the lowest strata in society.
The latter has to do with cultured traits peculiar to a selected group of people where most people do
not fit in. Once this distinction about culture has been made, it is now the moment to analyze how
each conception fits into the EFL/ESL setting. Either setting is expected to consider both conceptions
given the fact that Popular Culture and Elite Culture also have to provide some space so that they
can be practiced and developed within both settings. In other words, people have their own ideas
based on the principles taught by parents or the environment, where they have lived. Not only are
these the exclusive reasons, but there are some more, which could also play a role in its make-up: a)
geographical surroundings; b) attitudinal factors; c) educational background; d) traditional practices,
etc. Culture can be assessed only if one of the following conditions is met:

If it is first-hand and informally acquired.

When we say that culture can be informally acquired, it means that thanks to the direct contact
someone has with other people, all the type of interactions, which are involved in their cultural
exchange, on a daily basis. It is built, developed, and maintained because of a permanent interaction,
which is carried out between people belonging to the same social class, although differences in terms
of status could exist. Culture is said to affect people’s social, economic, and political relationships,
as there are gains and losses, which determine their quality, affecting both positively and negatively
the outcomes, which derive from them.

When it is stated that culture is first-hand and informally acquired, it means that people gain it
without any effort involved. People do not need to make any special effort for them to acquire it
naturally. It is done so because this is an unconscious process, which marks their beliefs, thoughts,
and attitudes, which spring from social groups or systems, such as family, school, friends, unplanned
encounters with complete strangers, as well. In culture, within a democratic society, there are no first-
hand and second-hand citizens. What there could really exist are social classes, which are usually
classified as low; middle; and high. All of them, whether you like it or not, are affected by internal
and external factors, which in the long run, make up what it can be termed as a society in the move
because of the views people have of the world and of themselves.

41
If it is learned through formal schooling.
When foreigners are not familiar enough with a foreign culture, they are to be formally taught in
the aspects, which make it up. Culture is learned just when people are not knowledgeable of it and
they need to be trained as for how they should communicate, behave, and relate to the native speakers
in the geographical space that they are sharing with them. Not everybody behaves and thinks alike
everywhere even though they come from the same country. Education, social status, beliefs, attitudes,
values and the like are determinant factors for people to think, to behave, and to make decisions, in
their communities and social encounters. Based on the aforementioned factors, foreign language
learners are expected to attend school so that they can gain some knowledge inasmuch as they are
partially or completely new to them. When one cultural system of thought, for example, needs to be
incorporated into an existing one, an acculturation process could take place. In other words, some
concepts, ideas, beliefs, and behaviors of the L1 have to be sacrificed so that the new ones can be
replaced by and incorporated into the new one.

If it is both acquired and learned simultaneously.

The idea behind getting culture both naturally and artificially implies the very fact that learners’
cultural requirements cannot be overlooked; some of them should not be sacrificed in order to favor
or benefit some others. One culture cannot be imposed either in natural settings or in artificial ones
over another. It is a learner’s decision as for what they want or do not from one or the other, that is to
say, the one pertaining to their mother tongue and the new one they have to be dealing with. When
this is the case, there could be a kind of blended culture, which in the end, instead of affecting one
over the other, or affecting each other simultaneously, what it makes is create a new dimension in its
values, interpretations, and gains derived from it.

If it is cultured because of the interest, that someone has in art, music, literature, etc.
Actually, the high C for Culture is the major interpretation people make of culture. The other one,
the low c for culture is perceived and read as being inferior as compared with the former conception.
In it, people are said to be cultured when have had an approach and direct contact with art, music,
literature, and film.

As the soil, however rich it may be, cannot be productive without cultivation, so the
mind without culture can never produce good fruit.
Lucio Anneo Seneca

Culture in the EFL Setting

The cultural milieu in artificial settings –EFL–, that is to say, where English is taught as a foreign
language, has to be recreated by language teachers so that it can somehow picture the customs, and
traditions, which are practiced by native speakers. It is a hard endeavor to carry out since English
language teachers are expected to be knowledgeable enough about what to be chosen, how to be
presented, and mainly why to be taken as a bastion of a given society, within a particular nation.

It is remarkable to point out that a nation is made up of series of cultures, either high or low, which
provide it with an identity for others to learn from. People contribute to its creation, development,
and extinction. Thanks to trends, influenced by “glocal” (global and local) tendencies, beliefs are

42
made evident in the practices carried out by people through their culture(s) and subcultures. A
language teacher is responsible for choosing those features, which best represent the foreign language
culture, based on the resources that may have at their disposal. Stereotypes are, on the one hand, the
first source for choosing EFL materials. That is to say, language teachers were taught by their previous
language teachers, according to the best decisions and EFL learning and teaching resources. Now, it
is much easier for language teachers, to select appropriate resources, which best fit their learners’
communicative competence based on their linguistic competence, linguistic performance, and most
importantly, the cultural background that they bring into the classroom setting, along with their very
expectations. The language learning context is essential for the adoption of cultural practices, which
depends on the type of setting in which it takes place, that is, the EFL, the ESL setting, or the
combination of both.

Because everyone uses language to talk, everyone thinks they can talk about language.
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe

Culture in the ESL Setting

The cultural ambiance in this kind of setting is the one in which the cultural conditions are gained
effortlessly and naturally. Foreign language learners have everything at their disposal when it comes
to acquiring first-hand beliefs, customs, attitudes, practices and the like, since they are prepared and
performed by native speakers, in the L2 setting. This fact is one of the most difficult for non-native
speakers to grasp because they lack the contact native speakers have as they interact on a daily basis.
How can this be achieved by them? What is the role played by both teachers and learners, in this
particular regard?

In the first place, there should be a change of mind and attitude towards the methodology,
pedagogy, and didactics used by teachers in order for learners to become acquainted with the L2
culture. The more and more teachers are aware and open minded as for how to impart their instruction,
there will be also a different reaction on the part of their learners about the importance of learning the
language and its varieties of cultures. That is to say, if learners find a reason to learn the foreign
language for practical purposes, then, language is expected to portray the diversity of cultures
practiced by native speakers in a variety of settings and contexts. For the same reason, culture serves
as a mechanism for language to be expressed differently as there are a huge variety of speakers, with
their very particular traits in terms of education, instructions, and beliefs, immersed into social
practices.

In the second place, language learners have to be provided with the L2 cultural background, which
although is outside their circumstances, has to be incorporated within their previous and existing L1
repertoire. This can be done by designing a sound curriculum. Culture is easily gained if learners
have chance to access it by a) inviting native speakers into the L2 classroom, b) selecting suitable
material (videos, listening resources, reading passages, etc.), which shows them how native speakers
relate and interact with one another, c) choosing literary, musical, and art pieces, which let non-native
speakers appreciate it from a quite different perspective.

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 In the third place, foreign language learners’ cultural practices are to be respected when foreign
ones are being shared. Language teachers cannot impose any type of thinking on their learners. Their
decision-making process as for what they choose to learn or not to needs to be respected.
Acculturation should be avoided at all costs. It does not make any good. Instead, it deprives learners
of what they have built in their lifetime. What it can be done is to let them make the decision as for
what aspects of the L2 culture they want to learn about, which to incorporate within their existing
system, or which ones to get rid of. Not everything, which is taught is learned and not everything that
learners have learned is because it has been taught. Sources and resources for L2 learning are plentiful
thanks to the influence ICT has had on the new generation of learners or digital natives.

The Big Five Questions:

How can culture be assessed?
As it happens in language acquisition, culture cannot be assessed in isolation or as a simple result
of instruction. Both language and culture can be assessed only if there are a number of reasons, which
support or approve of their application within communicative purposes. One thing is to attempt to
teach culture in a foreign ambiance. Another quite different thing is to force learners to adopt different
positions, views, or lifestyles, which contradict their very own postures acquired within and through
their native language. Let us not forget that language is the main vehicle of culture. It can be assessed
when learners have experienced it through everyday life interaction.

How to know which culture to be assessed?

There is no a single culture when it comes to the study and analysis of language. Language is
immersed into cultures and subcultures. People are responsible for how cultures and subcultures
behave because it is speakers’ mental and psychological processes, which define them. Therefore, it
is difficult to know, which culture to assess. Language learners are the ones who have the need of
specifying the culture, which meets their communicative and cultural requirements. According to the
settings, contexts, and social encounters in which language will be used, a new kind of culture will
appear.

What are the best ways for culture(s) to be assessed?

The best ways of assessing culture are by providing language learners with real-life chunks of
language, which can be used in social encounters and interactions. They are supposed to be active
participants by being involved in the decisions made as for how to proceed, to interact, and to deal
with the interactions held among participants in a speech community. Real language is not the one,
which appears in textbooks, although it could help somehow, but the one that is carried out in the
community: homes, schools, restaurants, hospitals, etc., that is to say, in outer spaces where language
learning and acquisition make sense. It is important to say that language changes across cultures.
Speakers in every single culture are responsible for those changes since they are the ones, who make
language change as they speak, read, and use it. Since the term culture is quite broad, it cannot be
defined as a single element since speakers interpret it and experience it differently.

What aspects of the culture should be assessed?

It is not easy to say, which aspects of the culture are to be assessed. As there are different speakers
as language users, there are also different culture users. Not everybody uses language for the same

44
communicative purposes, so it is difficult to define and to specify those to be taught. Language
teachers are thought to be troubleshooters in this stance since they do not know what to expect from
their learners. In other words, language cannot be planned since it changes based on the culture where
it takes place. Not every speaker uses the same language. Culture determines it.

Does the teaching of culture, in non-native settings, guarantee its being successful?
No, not necessarily, but it could help. It serves to prepare language learners for what they are about
to encounter once they are in contact with native speakers, in natural settings where both the language
and the culture are interdependent. Language teachers can provide language learners with some hints
on how to proceed, but settings and contexts are determinant as for the kinds of language to be used
differ. Age, position, and purpose have a say in the type of interactions to be carried out by language
users in natural settings. It is necessary to experience it firsthand. One of the best ways is by being
in direct contact with it, when there are native speakers around, and language is the vehicle to achieve
that. Since learners lack this kind of opportunities for obvious reasons, culture has to be taken into
the classroom by inviting native speakers into the classroom, by using authentic materials and
resources, by letting learners interact with native speakers via Skype or the Social Media, etc.

Language is a road map of a culture. It tells you where its people come from and
where they are going.
Rita Mae Brown

Language and Culture

Language and culture, as well as culture and language are the sides of the same coin. However,
language affects culture in the sense that the way people think, will eventually have either a positive
or a negative impact on and between interlocutors, or writers and readers. However, it is also true that
the way people have built and gained their culture is the result of their worldview and their
circumstances. Language is the vehicle to the expression of thought, and in turn, thought is the vehicle
to make language visible, with its strengths and weaknesses, which are made evident when ideas
come to life, either purposefully or not.

Language is a living entity with its own identity. Such an identity is made possible when language
is rooted in culture. Language has life in itself because it adapts to circumstances, changes according
to them, and is alive since there are native speakers, who use it. In the event that there are no native
speakers of a given language, it will die out. In order for it to be recovered, if anything, a group of
non-native speakers should be taught how to think and speak it, but no culture is present there. It has
to be created, developed, and maintained so that a completely new culture can spring from the
interactions and transactions held among speakers.

Language is the vehicle to express culture. People are responsible for making culture originate,
develop, evolve, or disappear. The latter can be achieved when people change their values and adopt
new ones derived from the contact with the language within a particular culture. It is important to say
that not every speaker speaks their native language the same way, which is due to their social status
within cultural practices. That is to say, although grandparents interact with their children and their
grandchildren, not all of them use the same words and expressions with the same sense and meaning.

45
Words and expressions change their meaning over time because it is people who make this happen.
Moreover, it is here where misunderstandings among speakers take place. That is why language is a
social phenomenon and as such, it must be taken out of the classroom and be put to the service of
social encounters and real-life interactions. Doyé (1996: 105) establishes the existing interdependence
between language and culture by saying:

The very nature of language forbids the separation of language from culture. If language is considered
as a system of signs, and signs are characterized by the fact that they are units of form and meaning, it
is impossible to learn a language by simply acquiring the forms without their content. And as the content
of a language is always culture-bound, any reasonable foreign-language teaching cannot but include
the study of a culture from which the language stems.

Culture is the vehicle through which language is expressed, perceived, understood, and structured
by practices that are derived from the concepts, which people elaborate and bring with them within a
new setting and context. Language is influenced by the way that people see their world around them.
Language, thought, and culture are interrelated and interdependent. Language is structured based on
mental schemata. Language determines and influences cultural practices. Thought is the foundation
on which language lies. Culture plays a role in the way societies are organized and it influences the
choices of language made by people as they attempt to communicate, to come to an understanding,
and to establish relations, in order to achieve common goals and to ensure survival.

As language has to be passed down from one generation to the next and culture does, too. It means
that during that period, many things will have affected language and culture will have been affected
by it, as well. It is not surprising to see how the language that people used to speak in the past, is not
the same anymore. In addition, the same can be said about culture. Neither culture nor language can
remain unmodified since speakers are responsible for the changes they have to go through in an
attempt to adjust to the advances in architecture, art, business, finance, medicine, science and
technology, and the evolution of the human mind to tackle the challenges that they will have to face
in the years to come.

To be cultured means to have good manners. Not only are parents responsible for how their
children behave, but sometimes teachers are foisted with those duties. Parents are expected to educate
their children and teachers to instruct them. Culture can be read as a blueprint of society, which is in
a permanent state of change. If language were attached to the past, culture would be unable to
advance, to be on the move. Similarly, cultural practices enable people to create new words and
expressions, which match them. People make up new slang and idiomatic expressions as a manner to
keep up with new social practices and cultural demands, which are framed within a given place and
time.

When someone does not behave as the norm demands and they do not comply with the rules and
regulations, which are set up by society, they are said to be coarse, uncaring, and unwilling to adapt
to the new standards most of the society obeys. In this sense, it can be perceived that language is a
reflection of their people’s beliefs, traditions, attitudes, and behaviors, which have been adopted by
them because of the teachings passed down from their grandparents to parents and from them to their
children, In brief, it can be concluded that language and culture are interdependent.

46
 The Pedagogy of Language Change

Language change cannot happen overnight in all its components. It does not respond to any particular
whim of changing it just because they want it to be so. Changes in language can take place in terms
of vocabulary as for meaning a word may have, at a particular place and moment, because of cultural
interaction where speakers decide a new meaning can be added to an existing concept. Music usually
adapts in its lyrics the spoken language used by youth, which is a kind of jargon, which is peculiar to
a given culture. Language affects culture and culture determines the language people speak and use.

In order for people to become acquainted with language change, what suffices is to obtain data
from authentic sources. By doing this, researchers and teachers can provide language series writers
and learners with the new expressions, which appear because of social contact, scientific, and
technological advancements. Language does not change as a matter of chance, but because of a need.
Television, the Internet, The Social Networks, and the written press, highly contribute to the
expansion of language. Cartoons, publicity, advertising, and mass media, are good sources for
language exploration in terms of its change. The more learners are in direct contact with learning
resources their language will strengthen their thinking skills.

Literary works, when being compared in a specific period, provide language teachers with some
hints on how it has been modified by literary style or by use. Depending on the type of literary genre,
authors try to incorporate in their works, words and expressions with a complete new meaning.
Textbooks alone cannot continue being the sole resource for language teaching or much better, for
language learning. Traditional series are in the market for 10 years, not realizing that language is a
social phenomenon, which is in constant move. At this very moment, in any language, new words
are appearing and some others are disappearing. It cannot be static. So, how could a language series
be in the market for quite a long time without any previous linguistic analysis that may respond to
current learners’ communicative needs?

Teachers should devise new strategies so that learners can become familiar with the language
changes because of human interaction for cooperation, progress, and survival. It cannot be admissible
to expose language learners to language without previously having considered their linguistic and
cultural needs. Language varies, as there are different settings, speakers, and writers.

Learners have to be updated; of course, a few of them are, in the sense that they incorporate new
linguistic forms into their L2 repertoire. It is a demanding task for teachers to respond to their learners’
language learning needs. Teachers do not teach in order to meet certain requirements, but to supply
their learners with realistic language that they can use as they meet native speakers of the L2, in order
to reach an understanding among those who attempt to speak a Lingua Franca, for example. Language
changes and evolves since it is its speakers and writers who make it change and evolve. Mass media:
Newspapers, Television, the Internet, and the Social Networks contribute to this phenomenon. Thanks
to discoveries, inventions, and social interaction, among other factors, new words and expressions
appear, some others take new meanings, and still some others disappear. In order to wrap up the
aforementioned ideas, it can be said that culture has a role to play and plays an important influence
in the changes language suffers, as a direct or an indirect impact that society has on it.

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48
 Chapter 3
Speech and Writing
Since speech is a dynamic system. It tends to change much more often than writing.

He who has the ability to speak a language is in charge since he can have access to a number of
resources at his disposal. If someone is under control, he may be willing to use speech to command,
to convince, and to collaborate with one another. That is why he may get what he wants or needs to
do business, to travel, or just to solve everyday tasks, as simple as that. Speech can fulfill certain roles
as to be used as a single possession individuals can make use of. When we speak, we make pauses;
when we write down, we use punctuation marks. Both speech and writing are modes for man to
communicate. They are not opposite but complementary. As we speak, words and expressions have
to be carefully chosen depending on the audience they are addressed to. When it comes to writing,
coherence, cohesion, and style need to be properly used so that the message can be conveyed
according to the writer’s area of focus or interest. The spoken language is much more commonly used
than the written language since there are more speakers than writers. Besides, not every language has
a writing system, but a spoken code.

Speech is the representation of the mind, and writing is the representation of speech.
Aristotle

Human language
Barber, Beal & Shaw. (2009: 2) refer to language in the following terms:

A human language is a signalling system. The written language is secondary and derivative. In the history
of each individual, speech or signing is learned before writing, and there is good reason for believing
that the same was true in the history of the species. There are communities that have speech without
writing, but we know of no human community which has a written language without a spoken or signed
one.

Language as well as the faculty of speech, was the immediate gift of God.
Noah Webster

Characteristics of spoken language

Language is primarily spoken, not written
After language appeared in the earliest communities in the manner of speech, it developed with
the contact and the interaction of people who shared a common linguistic system, particular to
individuals within a cultural group, in a given space and time.

It was first developed

For man’s survival, in the very ancient times, he was forced to make up the means to make himself
understood, and it was speech, which gave him the necessary resources to fulfill his needs in terms
of hunting for food and for shelter or for protection from the outer world.

49
It tends to change much more often
Since speech is a dynamic system, it tends to change much more often than writing. New words
and expressions are created on a daily basis. Formal and informal language can give birth to
acronyms, slang, technical, and scientific language, to respond to new discoveries and inventions,
made by man.

It is momentary
Speech is possible thanks to man’s interaction with others around him. Direct social contact is
carried out by the exchange of opinions, ways of thinking and solving problems with others via
spoken language, which tends to fade once it is uttered.

It is studied by most linguists

Given the fact that speech tends to change much more often than writing, linguists are more eager
to delve into its core, by analyzing the way people think and how their attitudes help them to interact
and to relate to others, either proper or strange.

It is permanent, if recorded on tape

Speech can be permanent only if it could be recorded on tape, videotaped, or using any other kind
of futuristic technology.

Speech is power: speech is to persuade, to convert, to expel.

Ralph Waldo Emerson

It is transitory
Spoken language is transitory in the sense that quick exchange of speech does not let man keep it
forever, but it transcends the natural borders of human interaction.

It is immediate
Once a thought or idea is processed in an individual’s mind, it is ready to come out through his
mouth so that speech is produced immediately.

It is studied at a certain period

In order to establish the possible changes that speech has gone through in a period, linguists choose
a particular time in history and come out with convincing conclusions about its changes by analyzing
them in terms of its grammar. Written language can also be studied, at a certain time in history, in
order to establish possible changes, in a given linguistic community.

It is used to swear and to say dirty words

Among the many applications of speech, man usually tends to use it to swear, to say dirty words,
or to convey emotional meaning. It is important to highlight that people use a type of language for
speech and another somehow different type, for writing.

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 Writing cannot express all words; words cannot encompass all ideas.
Confucius

Characteristics of written language

Not every society has a writing system. Writing systems develop in either rudimentary or advanced
societies, as people feel the need to record their life experiences and their viewpoints of the world
around them. Writing appeared as a need of recording experiences, of keeping memories. What
primitive people used to portrait was their realities, emotions, feelings, thoughts, and needs, were
pictures. It took many years for it to appear. Language originated as a common effort among people(s)
as an approach to meet their survival needs, but writing, as we know it today, seems to have taken
longer to appear and to develop than speech did.

It is much more structured

Cohesion and coherence are two characteristics of writing. Cohesion refers to the structure or the
unity of the paragraphs in a composition and coherence has to do with the sense and the meaning of
the message being conveyed. Therefore, in composition, writing has to be well structured for it to
make sense; that is why it is much more structured. In order to make this point clearer, let me cite
Ong (1982: 105), in Filkestein & McCleery (2002), when he states “Writing restructures
consciousness.”

It is used to preserve history and culture

In the past, oral tradition was used as one of the techniques for the transmission and the
preservation of culture, but now written records help man to preserve facts for a longer time than
when they are just done orally.

It is durable and continuous

“What is written, written it is,” Pilatus.
It can be said that readers have the chance to read that which is written because it lasts for the
centuries to come, it does not fade as quickly as spoken language does. Writing can be checked and
edited as many times as necessary because new ideas appear to support or to contradict what has been
stated earlier.

It is not immediate
Writing takes time for its analysis since it cannot be studied immediately as it happens with speech.
Written language requires a much more complex approach since it has to be carefully structured,
depending on the type of genre used, the circumstances, and the target population it has been
addressed to.

It is permanent
Written languages let people trace the origin, the development, and the spread of their cultures and
civilization, making feasible the record of events and achievements made by people in the past, makes
writing to be permanent.

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It is studied by some linguists
Not every linguist is interested in analyzing written language taking into account the changes it
has gone through for a certain period of time or at a given moment in history.

It is a referent to study dead languages

Writing has been the raw material of philologists and linguists, as the source to study languages
that have disappeared a long time ago. Latin does not have speakers anymore that is why it is a dead
language.

It tends to be more elaborate and careful

Careful writing is necessary, since a clear and objective style must be respected. Thoughts and
ideas have to be carefully elaborated because the authors of articles or papers address serious issues
for the scientific community or those interested in a given field.

Writing across languages and cultures

Goettel (2003-2010) tells a brief history about cuneiform writing, as follows:

Most linguists, historians, and archaeologists confer that cuneiform, which appeared about 5,000 years
ago is the first real written language. Cuneiform was developed by the Sumerians in southern
Mesopotamia, the land that presently lies within the borders of Iraq.
Most of the surviving evidence of cuneiform exists as inscriptions or impressions in stone and clay
tablets.

Cuneiform was created by impressing a wedge-shaped tool into uncured tables of clay. In fact, the
Latin word cuneus means, “wedge.” These writing tools, also known as “styluses,” were generally
made out of reeds.

Language is the only instrument of science, and words are but the signs of ideas.
Samuel Johnson

In China
People use logograms, which are graphemes or pictographic characters to represent a word; for
such a reason, for someone to master it, it is a hard endeavor to be reached because of the number of
words or ideas they require to express reality.

In the Ancient Egypt

In the past, Egyptians used hieroglyphics –inscriptions on rock– as a writing system. The alphabet
was based on characters, which summed up more than 2,000 hieroglyphics. Nowadays, there is some
evidence of hieroglyphics in modern Egypt, where archaeologists attempt to decipher the past or
probably the future, too.

Today’s English language

English has an alphabetic system although there is no always a correspondence between spelling
and pronunciation. It is a Latin-based alphabet made up of 26 letters, but the number of phonemes is
52
larger than that. The same is true for a long list of languages, such as German, French, Spanish, Italian,
Portuguese, Romanian, etc. Today, English is the most used and spoken language worldwide.

Semiotics
Also known as Semiology, semiotics refers to the study of human signs to complement man’s
interaction through speech. Semiotics studies the way man uses his gestures to convey meaning thanks
to the application of signs derived from the senses. Human speech is complemented with additional
piece of information coming from the behaviors, the attitudes, and the outcomes, which are present
in the speaker’s and the listener’s minds.

Signs
It is not only writing systems, which are interpreted by man, but there are more things that can be
read in nature and reality around us. Signs are one of these. In general, a sign is an indication, a trace
of something, a token of gratitude or a piece of evidence about something. Signs are cues, clues, or
hints, which let us interpret what they mean or we want them to mean to suffice a need or a desire.
Signs are everywhere we turn. They are found in the street, at work, at school, in libraries, in
museums, at the metro station, at the airport, you name it. Signs serve to express complex ideas
through pictures. In everyday life, signs express ideas, like in the following cases: a) dizziness is a
sign of anxiety; b) smoke is a sign of fire, c) gray clouds are signs of probable rain, etc.

Sign language
It is the type of language used by deaf and dumb people and it is mainly performed using hands
and visual cues, in order to provide the signers with a better understanding, that is to say, to convey
meaning and to let the conversation go on. Sign language differs from language to language. Sign
language is not the same everywhere. It is so because there is a direct connection and correspondence
between the phonemes a language has with those, which are used in sign language.

Linguistic signs: signifier and signified

In language, signs are something deeper as Saussure puts it. According to Saussure (1916) a sign
is composed of a signifier and a signified.
Signifier
It has to do with the sequence of letters in a word, that is its spelling and its corresponding
pronunciation. It is arbitrary since it changes in every language, e.g. árbol, arbre, tree, Baum.

Signified
It refers to the mental or the abstract representation of a word. The signified (mental representation)
is always the same, no matter the linguistic system. If someone speaks different languages, let us say
a polyglot, he has the same concept in those languages, what is changed in each language is how they
structure their words and pronounce them: signifier (spelling and sound).

Symbols
A symbol is the representation of something else.
A butterfly symbolizes ‘change’ or ‘transformation.’

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Stages involved in writing
Writing comes out because of an idea to suffice a need. The need is based on the thought of sharing
something with the public, in order to fill a certain vacuum.

Brainstorming or mind mapping

The idea needs to be expanded somehow. Mind mapping is a good technique or resource to use.
Other related words come into play. They are generated out of the mind-mapping activity. They give
the writer some insights about how it can be better developed and in this way, he or she would not
miss out anything.

Proposal
The idea of the piece of writing is developed into a proposal that sketches the general issues to be
addressed in it. It intends to show, to express, or to share with somebody else the main and the
supporting ideas, which will make up the text content.

In a writer there must always be two people - the writer and the critic.
Leo Tolstoy

Writing
The main and the supporting ideas are expressed cohesively and coherently. The style is carefully
developed as it implies your sign to your writing. Grammar and vocabulary are based on the genre
and the audience the writing is addressed to.

Proofreading
Both scanning (looking for specific information: names, places, numbers, addresses, etc.) and
skimming (looking for the main idea or supporting ideas) can help the writer to go over the text to
check spelling and mechanics, in order to avoid faulty writing and misleading ideas. This requires the
careful attention sometimes of somebody else other than the writer himself or herself.

Editing
A more careful and detailed reading of the written text contributes to avoid involuntary mistakes
and ambiguities.

Publishing
The piece of writing is ready to be disseminated for the public to enjoy it.

Writing in an L2 is not an easy endeavor. According to this Nunan (1999: 271) states that: “In terms
of writing, producing a coherent, fluent, extended piece of writing is probably the most difficult thing
there is to do in language. It is something most native speakers never master. For second language
learners the challenges are enormous.”

54
 The Pedagogy of Speech and Writing

It is not hard to tell that children acquire language just due to the very fact of their unique mental and
psychological mechanisms, which make them human beings. Exposure to language is said to be
permanent so that children grasp the intricacies of the linguistic system and make it their own. The
more they will hear the language, the more their thinking will be developed in it. The brain is capable
of distinguishing chunks of language, no matter what language it is.

When children feel the need of talking, they will do it in the most natural manner possible, if they
are surrounded by native speakers who will serve as language providers and the transmitters of
culture, at all times. In the case of teachers, learners are expected to be provided with meaningful
language input so that intake can be made possible and it that way, they can create the need of
communicating in a foreign or a second language, given the conditions and the circumstances.

Unlike talking, writing requires a special methodology, pedagogy, didactics, and training, so to
speak. Writing can be approached from many different perspectives, depending on the following
factors: a) the need; b) the writer; c) the reader; d) the writer’s age; e) the reader’s age; f) the topic;
g) level of formality or informality; h) the purpose; i) the context; j) the setting; k) the style, etc. There
is a direct relationship between the ease someone has for writing and their ability they have for
reading. In other words, the more someone reads, the better writers they will become, creating this
way, their very own writing style.

Academic writing in English is a difficult and time-consuming endeavor. It is not the same as
writing short compositions in the EFL/ESL classroom settings. Neither is it writing down words or
basic sentences in isolation, but it implies a well-structured language in terms in syntax, semantics,
vocabulary choice, mechanics, and stylistics. Academic writing requires proper usage of language
since a careful style is used in papers, magazines, research papers, reports, presentations, lectures,
and conferences, etc. Being an active reader provides someone with the conditions for having an
inquisitive and a creative mind, being the tools necessary for someone to become a skillful writer.
Reading extensively contributes to develop and to maintain a better writing performance.

Since language is used as a system of communication, the more you read, the better your writing
style will become. Reading will help writers to develop and to have a style of their own. Writing
develops from the very basics. As you advance in your writing, the more structured it will be. It is
through trial and error that perfection will be achieved. The writer will have to be exposed to a wide
variety of both formal and informal texts, and in doing so, he will decide upon what he would like to
write about and which style to make his own. It is well known that not everybody is capable of writing
legal, medical, or technical texts, even in their native language, which is still harder when it is done
in a foreign or a second language, due to the complexity of the language used, which is peculiar to
specific areas of knowledge.

The difference between speaking and writing is that people are exposed to language in a natural
manner, as for the former, and as for the latter, they have to be taught how to start doing it. Speaking
turns out to come out effortlessly, nobody is taught, meanwhile for writing, instruction is required.

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56
 Chapter 4
Communication
We most of the time say more with gestures than with words themselves.

Our choices of the words, which make up our world, are a key component of our communicative
competence, as words change meaning according to the contexts in which they appear. The words we
choose to establish interactions determine the types of communication systems, which are prone to
be used. Individual differences among people should be respected so that cultural understanding could
take place without affecting the manner how others conceive the world around them or they conceive
their ideas based on their beliefs, attitudes, or cultural traits.

To effectively communicate, we must realize that we are all different in the way we
perceive the world around us and use this understanding as a guide to our
communication with others.
Anthony Robbins

Communication is a system by which two or more individuals engage in a common undertaking,

in order to establish, to develop, or to maintain social relations to satisfy a human need, using a
common sign or language: oral, written, computational, or signed, as the word suggests, in a given
community. Communication is usually understood as a two-way process in which a speaker and a
hearer are involved. There is a message and a medium in which that message will be transferred; there
is also a purpose and a setting, which can provide us with meaningful information whereas it is a
public or a private place, if the discourse is well or poorly structured or if the register is formal or
informal. Communication entails a connection and a relationship between a speaker and a hearer,
from a source to a destination, with a message, which needs to be sent, mainly by means of speech,
writing, sign, or computational language. It is the foundation of good human relationships.

Types
Communication can be achieved, developed, expressed, improved, and maintained. Visual cues,
gestures, speech, writing, or computational systems are examples of communication systems. The
people involved in the process, create and interpret messages by using a common code of
communication. If both the speaker and the hearer feel the message has been well interpreted, then
communication has been successfully achieved; otherwise, this fact could lead to misunderstanding,
interfering with the purpose of the communicative act. If gestures happen to have different meanings
for both a speaker and a hearer, then there will be a breakdown in the communication process, since
gestures may affect communication because they have been given different meanings, in different
cultural settings and contexts. Thanks to modern and recent technology, communication can be
carried out using electronic devices like satellites, telephones, television, fax, computers, lap tops,
IPods, videotaping, teleconferencing, as well as email, voice mail, text messaging, chatting, and
blogs. Actually, to text is a new word, which came into being as a response to meet a purpose in
immediate communication by technology, which means to send messages via the keyboard, using the
traditional system proper to any linguistic system. Currently, worldwide, it seems to be a common

57
spread phenomenon in which students, usually teenagers, text more than they talk. Adolescents find
this way of communication much more fun than just a simple face-to-face kind of interaction. All of
this is highly influenced by the generalized use of the social networks such as Facebook, Twitter,
MySpace, LinkedIn, among some others, where communication is practically instant.

This style of communication is favored because of teenagers’ preferences, leading them to become
isolated, independent, and autonomous individuals in terms of their decision-making strategy to
approach problems, to learn issues of their interest, to make friends, to meet together anywhere else
or just to have fun. Therefore, thanks to current technology, people of all lifestyles have the chance
to achieve, to expand, and to share knowledge on line in their comfort of their home, school, office,
and the street, of course. Unlike man, animals use a type of language for communication or survival.

They use instinct since they do not have a developed phonatory system as we do. Animals respond
to the stimulus-response model. Although we also use it, we account for mental and cognitive systems
that help us to express our thoughts, as we respond to a condition from the environment, as it is the
case of this model. We use common sense or intuition as a complement of our ideas, which will be
expressed through speech, which is an analytical process being developed in our brains, in order for
us to sound logical. It is important to point out the fact that language teaching is different from
language learning. When language is learned formally in the ESL/EFL classroom or setting, it cannot
be understood from the grammatical point of view, since many factors intervene so that the
communication process can be successfully achieved.

Human communication
We convey meaning in a variety of ways: Spoken words, written texts, sign language, gestures,
and attitudes, eyesight, and emotions. Sometimes we do not even communicate. We just remain silent.
Probably there is no interaction with others, but it could be a personal choice for inner reflection.
Human communication can come in a variety of ways: a) men can communicate with other men; b)
men can communicate with other animals; c) men can communicate with nature; this can be done
directly or indirectly thanks to the application and use of technology or with the naked eye.

Communication breakdown
Spoken communication cannot take place if there is no coherence between what the speaker says
and what the hearer answers back. Some of the causes for this to take place include the following:

1. Background knowledge of the communicative event differs.

2. Lack of attention on the part of one or both participants.
3. Misunderstanding of the message sent because of noise interference.
4. Lexical items differ between those used by the speaker and the hearer.
5. Phonological differences between the linguistic systems used by them.
6. Message abandonment in which one of the participants quits the conversation.
7. Emotional, attitudinal, or psychological problems interfere with communication.
8. Both the speaker and the hearer do not reach a conclusion, which may lead to understandings.

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Animal communication
Both human beings and animals use systems of communication, which in some regards are alike
and in some others are quite different. Below there is a theory on how animals communicate and
much more particularly chimpanzees and dolphins. Depending on the species of animals, they use
different systems of communication to get their message across. Linguists, biologists, and other
scientists, have always been interested in studying how mammals like chimpanzees and dolphins
communicate. Lonsdorf (2003) has shown interest in the study of the behavior of chimpanzees. Here
is her opinion on how chimpanzees communicate:

It’s well known that in the wild, chimps communicate by vocalizing, body postures and facial
expressions. It is also likely that they communicate quite a bit by smell, but that has not been studied
well. In captivity, chimps have been taught to communicate in a variety of ways including American Sign
Language. The Chimpanzee and Human Communication Institute has some fabulous communication
information on a chimpanzee named Washoe that can communicate with sign language.

It is amazing to see how animals use their resources at hand for them to communicate by using
facial expressions and body language, as well as utterances coming out through their vocal tracts,
which help them to express fear, love, assistance, protection, or survival. Van der Toorn, (2009),
makes some comments on how dolphins can communicate. Here is what he states:

Dolphins communicate mainly by means of sounds. These sounds include whistles, but also so-called
pulsed sounds, which are often described as squawks, barks, rasps, etc. But they also use breaching
(jumping and falling back into the water with a loud splash) and pectoral fin (or flipper) and tail (or
fluke) slaps (hitting the flipper or fluke on the water surface). Body posturing and jaw popping also have
a role in communication. This list is not exhaustive.

As for language, we do not know if they have one. Several studies have demonstrated that dolphins can
understand a structured language like ours. This same has been demonstrated for a number of other
animal species as well (gorilla, bonobo, California sea lion, parrot). Some studies also indicate that
dolphin vocalizations are complex enough to support some form of language. However, to date it has
not been demonstrated yet that they indeed use a language for communication among themselves.

Although people do not usually use sign language as a system of communication, as other people can
do, those suffering from deaf disorders, for instance, there is too much of non-verbal communication
involved in their personal encounters. Speech is accompanied by this kind of language, in order to
emphasize the importance of what people tend to convey as they talk.

Body language is a very powerful tool. We had body language before we had speech,
and apparently, 80% of what you understand in a conversation is read through the
body, not the words.
Deborah Bull

Acquiring or learning a given language is not strictly and exclusively related to being able to speak
it well, but also to understand the meaning and the circumstances under, which non-verbal
communication is supposed to be successfully used. In an attempt to communicate, people use speech

59
as the most common means, but it is not speech, which is used by everybody. There are some other
types of communication systems, which we use to get our messages across and they correspond to
the following: Non-Verbal Communication, Body Language and Unspoken Communication, which
fall into the same category: Wordless communication.

One of the hardest cultural aspects to learn refers to the understanding and the application of
gestures, which accompany the spoken language. For some non-native speakers it is hard to interpret
those gestures since they have not been taught. The only way is that English language teachers, who
have been abroad, can give their learners some hints of what some gestures mean the same as those
used in their learners’ culture and, which of those mean exactly the opposite in order not to use them
and, in this way, avoid misunderstandings.

In the event that English language teachers have not traveled abroad and are not familiar with the
gestures used, the ideal places where non-native speakers can become acquainted with what gestures
mean and how they can be used, in real-life interactions, is in movies, T. V. series, sitcoms, or any
other kind of audio visual material. Another possibility is to meet people on the Internet, that is to say
online, so that the learning of gestures can be done much more easily since there is a direct contact
between the speaker and the hearer. They can ask for repetition or confirmation just to check
understanding so that negotiation of meaning can take place.

The lack of knowledge of what gestures mean in another country may lead to misinterpretations
in the target culture. Body language, posture, and distance between a speaker and a hearer vary from
culture to culture. Violation to any of these issues, for example, turn out to be offensive for the
speakers of the target language. In the Arab culture, for instance, showing the sole of your shoe is
offensive. Then, learners have to be familiar with cross-cultural communication before they travel
abroad or they are in contact with speakers of the L2.

As it can be appreciated, speaking a language not only has to do with its proper usage, but also
with the understanding of its cultural differences. In the event that these differences are overlooked,
then cultural misunderstandings are sure to take place. If non-verbal communication is used in a
foreign language and culture, speakers have to be very careful as regard the body language, facial
expressions that they use and the distance that they keep, in the new setting. Apologies are always
welcome when they are involuntarily done.

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 The Pedagogy of Communication

Attitude could be more evident than words themselves. A great deal of information can be interpreted
rightly or wrongly, depending on our conceptions or preconceptions captured through interaction. We
most of the time say more with gestures than with words themselves. That is why a gesture can be
read independently of the words spoken by a particular speaker. Gestures and words are supposed to
go hand in hand so that they reinforce the ideas expressed orally.

Gestures do not represent the same ideas everywhere; that is why special attention should be given
to the manner of expressing and interpreting them correctly. Non-verbal communication is any system
used to convey meaning, but not the traditional way, using words, but of gestures, facial expressions,
and posture. Other important factors, which also interfere with non-verbal communication, include
the space and the distance between the speaker and the hearer, which is called proxemics.

Body language is the language used by the movement of fingers, hands, or arms, eye contact,
gestures, and postures, adopted by people as they interact with one another. Unspoken communication
is the language used by people, influencing the behavior and the attitudes of others toward them. As
it was pointed out earlier, it is through facial expressions, eye contact, and body language how people
establish, develop, or maintain relations with relatives, friends, colleagues, or complete strangers.

Not every culture uses exactly the same gestures, body language, and non-verbal communication.
Speakers convey different meanings through them. Even within the same country, state, county, or
city, they are given different interpretations. As a language teacher, you have to be aware of the
differences in meanings they can convey to other speakers as interpreters of language. As a
concluding remark, it can be said that a gesture is worth a thousand words, which are capable of being
understood, interpreted, and applied accordingly.

Language cannot and should not be considered as an isolated phenomenon, instead, it should be
thought as a whole system of communication, where not only human beings, but also animals interact.
People make or do not make language be meaningful. Although animals also have a language or a
system of communication, our system is different in the sense that we use speech, which makes
language be fluent and most of the time accurate. That is why it should be introduced in a cultural
context. Animals, on the other hand, use cries and grunts with different intonation patterns, in order
to show hunger, need, fear, happiness; although we do too.

In order for communication to be initiated, at least two people need to be involved: a speaker and
a hearer, who eventually will take turns so that a communicative event will take place. This is the
idea behind the spoken language. Internal or emotional factors, as well as external factors intervene
in the success or failure of the communicative event, which will depend on a series of factors, which
either favor or hinder the oral-aural-oral exchanges between a speaker and a hearer. In order for
communication to be, successful there is some interest between the speaker or addresser and the
hearer or addressee in what it is intended to be negotiated: meaning, in an attempt to achieve a
particular or common goal.

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 Reflection
Chapter 1: Language
1. Which language functions do you usually apply much more often in class?
2. Which quotation about language do you find to be much more comprehensive?
3. How can the functions of language proposed by Halliday help you as a language teacher?
4. In what sense, is language a formal system?
5. Why is language a social phenomenon?

Chapter 2: Language Change

1. What would happen if language would not change as it is expected?
2. What is a piece of evidence for language change?
3. In which regards does language change much more often? Why is it so?
4. How does the influence of globalization affect language change or its disappearance?
5. What would happen if there were fewer languages in the future, let us say 5 or 10?

Chapter 3: Speech and Writing

1. What other features between speech and writing can you differentiate?
2. What concepts about speech and writing can you think of?
3. Why do some communities, tribes, or people not use a written language, but a spoken one?
4. What do you make much more emphasis on as you teach –speech or writing–? Explain your
choice, please.
5. Can you think of some tasks to promote the development of speech and writing?

Chapter 4: Communication
1. How do human and animal communication systems differ?
2. Which is the hardest aspect dealing with communication in a foreign language?
3. Can you mention other systems of communication used by other animals?
4. How does non-verbal communication contribute to get your message across?
5. Do you use non-verbal communication much more often in your L1 or L2?

Project
Analyze the interest and time language teachers devote to both spoken language and written
language and determine their learners’ linguistic achievements in both modes of communication.

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 PART 2
THE WORLD OF LINGUISTICS

A different language is a different vision of life.

Federico Fellini

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64
 Chapter 5
Linguistics
Language is a complex phenomenon, which does not take place overnight.

Linguistics is the scientific study of language because it is systematic, objective, and dynamic. For
a discipline to be systematic, it has to respond to a certain order in its behavior and constituency; for
it to be objective, it has to focus on the social and cultural phenomena as they really happen; and for
it to be dynamic, it has to evolve as people and their circumstances change on a daily basis. Linguistics
embraces the study of Syntax, Semantics, Morphology, Pragmatics, Phonology, Phonetics,
Psycholinguistics, Neurolinguistics, Translation, Applied Linguistics, First Language Acquisition,
etc. Grammar has always been related to just the written structure of a language. However, there are
principles, which govern both speech and writing, although in stylistics, there exist some differences
in the formality or informality of the language used. Grammar does not judge what is good or bad,
right or wrong, appropriate or inappropriate, since linguists do not tell people how they should use
the language. What they do is to study, to analyze, and to come out with the rules specifying the way
people arrange their ideas in their minds and express them fully. The way people arrange their
thoughts depends on a number of factors.

The marvelous thing is that even in studying linguistics, we find that the universe as a
whole is patterned, ordered, and to some degree intelligible to us.
Kenneth Pike

The world of linguistics studies language as a system, with its corresponding order and
constituency, which contribute to a cultural understanding when it is immersed into every single
aspect of social and cultural interaction. As people commit themselves to constitute a linguistic and
a cultural community, it becomes a dynamic entity. It is linguistics, which guides our teaching and it
is us who guide our learners’ learning.

“Leonard Bloomfield defined linguistics as the science of language” (Haegeman, 1994: 4).
Linguistics is the systematic study of language, that is to say, language as a whole system of
communication, but not just of particular languages. Linguistics studies and analyzes both speech and
writing. Linguistics is descriptive since it describes the phenomena involved in language. Linguistics
is not prescriptive. It does not tell people either how they should speak or write down a language.
What linguistics does is to try to find commonalities and differences between two or more linguistic
systems, especially in terms of their internal structure or grammar, pertinent to each language. As
those commonalities and differences arise, linguists are able to formulate hypotheses of how people
think and conceive the world around them. Linguistics has to do with the study, the description, and
the analysis of language from a scientific perspective. Linguistics is a fascinating world, which
provides us with invaluable information about language, people, communities, societies, and human
understanding. As it was stated earlier, linguists do not worry about telling people how they should
or should not talk; rather they study the characteristics of the real language used by people in very

65
particular contexts, settings, and circumstances. Linguists also analyze the linguistic patterns of
people based on a series of internal or external conditions to which they are exposed.

The Prague School of Linguistics

It was created by Mathesius, Trubetskói, and Jakobson, in 1926, which later influenced the works
of Firth and Halliday. Its main interest was to study language from the structural point of view, taking
into consideration how it has changed from two different perspectives: the diachronic and the
synchronic linguistics, given the fact that linguistics is a human, social, and cultural phenomenon.

Diachronic or historical linguistics

It is concerned with the changes language experiences over time. Linguists are interested in
figuring out the changes language has had throughout history, establishing, analyzing, and explaining
the changes of language in terms of its main aspects: phonology, semantics, syntax, morphology, etc.

Synchronic linguistics
It deals with the changes language has had in a particular period, that is to say, it concentrates on
a definite period: The Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the Twentieth Century, for instance. Its interest
is to see how language was in that precise period regarding sounds, meaning, and sentence order.

What linguistics studies

Linguistics studies those aspects related to language in terms of phonology, semantics, and syntax,
as well as language acquisition, neurolinguistics, psycholinguistics, etc. It is important to point out
that language is the result of the manner how people think, view the world around them, and relate to
one another. A linguistic system is innovated because of the natural environment, media, and
resources in which people live, work, and interact. Language teaching or language learning should be
based on the appropriateness, application, and use of the language.

Purposes
 To discover the origins of language.
 To describe language in all its aspects.
 To formulate theories as to how language works.
 To analyze the structural meaning of language.
 To trace the history of language.
 To establish relationships among languages.
 To study the changes and variations language experiences, etc.

A linguist’s job
To study how language originates, develops, and behaves; to explain, to describe, and to analyze
both speech and writing; to make emphasis on the use of language rather than its usage; to classify
languages and to define common features to all languages, as well as to specify their differences, that
is a linguist’s job. A linguist is someone who is interested in knowing, discovering, and explaining
how language functions in terms of how people use it on their daily life. It is not to tell people how
they should speak or write down, otherwise language would become artificial, it would sound
unnatural
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 Un lingüista no es el que habla muchas lenguas, sino el científico que investiga el
lenguaje humana desde todas sus facetas, su estructura, su uso, su historia, y su lugar
en la sociedad. Cisneros & Silva (2006)
A linguist is not someone who can speak many languages, but the scientist who
researches the human language from all its facets, its structure, its use, its history, and
its place in society.
Cisneros & Silva (2006). Translated by Oscar Molina Márquez

Structural Components of Language

Language

Semantics Syntax Phonology Morphology

Relationship of concepts Relationship of functions Relationship of sounds Relationship of word formation

Approaches to linguistics
Comparative linguistics
Two or more languages are compared in terms of their internal structure, especially in syntax,
semantics, phonology, and morphology. The purpose is to find commonalities, to see how they relate
to one another, as well as differences, in order to discover to what extent they differ. In doing so, they
can come out with some theories dealing with the way native speakers conceive the world around
them. In the past, it was known as comparative philology. Philology deals with the classic study of
literature. Its proponent is Sir William Jones.

Structural linguistics
It is when a language is analyzed in terms of its internal structure based on the behavior of
individuals, depending on the societal and cultural settings and contexts in which individuals interact
with one another. Its interest lies in the arrangement, the meaning, and the sounds proper to a specific
language system, its rules regarding the aspects previously mentioned. Its proponents are Ferdinand
de Saussure, Edward Sapir, Leonard Bloomfield, Roman Jakobson, and Zellig Harris.

Generative linguistics
It studies the laws and the principles governing the rules proper to any linguistic system, but
mainly from the grammatical (semantics, phonology, morphology, and syntax) or syntactic point of
view. It deals with two ideas proposed by Noam Chomsky, which are the poverty of the stimulus
argument (1981) and the minimalist program (1995). The former refers to which refers to the fact
that children are unable to learn the grammar of a language just because of exposure. The latter refers
to the importance the lexicon has in Chomsky’s generative grammar theory. To Chomsky, the lexicon
is made up of nouns, verbs, and adjectives, which tend to be different across languages.

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Branches in linguistics
Syntax: Arrangement or sequence of words within a sentence.
Semantics: Meaning of words.
Morphology: Formation and derivation of words.
Pragmatics: Meaning of words in context.
Phonetics: Production and articulation of sounds or phonemes.
Phonology: Study of one or two linguistic systems in terms of sounds.
Psycholinguistics: Mental processes underlying language.
Neurolinguistics: Relationship between language and the brain.
Sociolinguistics: Connection between language and society.
Discourse analysis: Study of the spoken language.
Text analysis: Study of the written language.
Language variation: Changes in language leads to language varieties.
Ebonics: Language used by the African American people.
Translation: Study of the processes involved in expressing ideas from an L1 to an L2.
Applied linguistics: Application of language to other areas of knowledge.
First language acquisition: Processes or phenomena involved in FLA.
Second language learning: Processes or phenomena involved in SLA.
Computational linguistics: Corpora, which are commonly used in a language.
Corpus linguistics: Natural and real life-like language as it is used by people.
Anthropological linguistics: Social and cultural issues about language.

Some linguists who have studied and proposed some theories recently about language include the
following: Chomsky (1965), Hymes (1966), Savignon (1972), Widdowson (1978), Canale & Swain
(1980), Savignon (1983), Krashen (1983) Van Ek (1986), Bachman (1990), Halliday (1993).

Chomsky’s Linguistic Competence & Linguistic Performance (1965)

Linguistic Competence is “the speaker-hearer’s knowledge of his language.”(1965: 4).
It is the mental representation of linguistic rules, which make up the speaker-hearer’s internal
grammar. It is what you know about language.

Linguistic Performance is “the actual use of language in concrete situations.” (1965: 4).
It is the use of this grammar in the comprehension and the production of language. It is what you
can do with what you know about language.

Hymes’ Communicative Competence

A term coined by Hymes (1966) Communicative Competence, in an attempt to explain or to
complement Chomsky’s ideas of linguistic competence and linguistic performance, which in his
opinion, were not comprehensive enough, in scope, to what they were supposed to mean or to cover.
For Hymes, Communicative competence is understood as the ability a speaker has to say what to
whom and how to say it purposefully. As it can be seen, Hymes made emphasis on the social character
of competence, and shared knowledge, while Chomsky considered competence and performance
from an individualistic point of view, that is to say, from a personal perspective.

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Savignon’s Communicative Competence (1972)
Savignon (1972: 264) “used the term communicative competence to characterize the ability of
language learners to interact with other speakers, to make meaning, as distinct from their ability to
perform on discrete-point tests of grammatical knowledge.”

Widdowson’s Language Usage and Language Use

Widdowson’s dichotomy (1978: 3) is explained below:

We are generally required to use our knowledge of the language system in order to achieve some kind of
communicative purpose. That is to say, we are generally called upon to produce instances of language use:
we do not simply manifest the abstract system of the language.
Usage, then, is one aspect of performance, that aspect which makes evident the extent to which the language
user demonstrates his knowledge of linguistic rules.
Use is another aspect of performance: that which makes evident the extent to which the language user
demonstrates his ability to use his knowledge of linguistic rules for effective communication.

Language Usage
It refers to the correctness and appropriateness of language. Language, in this instance, deals with
what is right to use in everyday life. Too much attention is paid to the form of language. People are
careful about choosing the appropriate structure and words to use. It has to do with the production of
correct sentences thanks to the knowledge of the rules of the linguistic system. Language is thought
of as a structure.

Language Use
It has to do with the application of the grammar of a particular language. It refers to the application
of the syntax, semantics, and phonology of language in real situations and contexts. Language is used
as a means of communication. Linguists study, analyze, and come out with some conclusions
regarding the manner how people from different backgrounds, cultures, social status, genres, ages
and the like, speak the language on a daily basis, either in the street, at home, at school, at work, or
anywhere else. As people change due to technological and cultural factors, so does language.
Language is a living phenomenon; as such, and it is people who make it evolve throughout time.
Language teachers have to provide learners with suitable tasks, which favor the learning of the L2 in
the most natural conditions possible. It is important to adopt a suitable methodology, which lets
learners learn it in a meaningful manner that makes sense to them.

Canale & Swain’s Communicative Competence

Canale & Swain (1980) decided to broaden the concept proposed by Hymes (1966), by explaining
the type of competence speakers should deal with for them to be linguistically proficient and
culturally competent in the L2.

Grammatical Competence
It has to do with the application of rules, syntax, semantics, phonology, and morphology in a
language. Not everyone speaks the same way ever. Every speaker chooses their language structure in

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terms of the aforementioned aspects, as well as their culture, so that the message to be conveyed can
be understood by the hearer and the communicative event can take place.

Sociolinguistic Competence
It refers to the use of language according to the context and the setting in which language takes
place by a speaker and a hearer in a community. Depending on the people involved in the
communicative act or event, they make use of the linguistic choices, which best fit it. Both the context
and the audience determine the way people relate to others, in a given setting and context, based on
the people involved and the purpose of the communicative event.

Discourse Competence
It deals with the appropriateness of both spoken and written language. Both the speaker and the
hearer use informal language with family, friends, or acquaintances. On the other hand, they can use
appropriate language when it comes to formal language as in the case of giving a keynote address or
a speech, attending a conference, or doing business, for example.

Strategic Competence
It deals with the strategies used by the speaker or the hearer to convey meaning and to keep
communication going. In the event that either the speaker or the hearer does not come across with a
word, something that they can do is one of the following strategies: a) defining the word; b) describing
the word; c) providing an example with it; or d) by using any other strategy they can think of, etc.

Krashen’s Monitor Model

Krashen (1983) in his monitor model came up with a theory about second language acquisition,
which is made up of the following hypotheses:

Acquisition-Learning
A distinction between acquisition and learning is made; the former is known as the ‘acquired
system,’ which tends to be natural, that is to say, language acquisition takes place in natural settings
with the help of native speakers. Learning, on the other hand, is known as the ‘learning system,’
which requires the use of a language instructor in an artificial setting, with other necessary issues.

Natural Order
It states that in language acquisition, there exists a logical sequence of structures, which are a
requirement for the others to take place, that is to say, some grammatical structures appear first than
some others.

Monitor Model
It is said that the language learner needs some time to plan his thoughts, structure his ideas, which
are either expressed in writing or just uttered through speech.

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Input
For language acquisition to take place, the learner must be exposed to comprehensive meaningful
speech with which he is expected to interact, by means of the use of a common linguistic code. He is
expected to deal with a number of issues and topics, which are being discussed via the language he is
being exposed to: “i+1,” meaning that linguistic competence must be beyond his current state of
knowledge in the language.

Affective Filter
The conditions in which acquisition develops must be devoid of negative feelings, attitudes, or
behaviors, which may hinder the learner’s linguistic competence, first and the linguistic performance,
then. The affective filter must be low so that fear or anxiety does not interfere with the outcomes of
language in natural settings.

Van Ek’s Communicative Ability (1986)

Van Ek proposed the term Communicative Ability (1986) added two new concepts to the term of
Communicative Competence. These two terms were Socio-Cultural Competence and Social
Competence. The former refers to the ability the speaker has to deal with the cultural component of
the language in which he is immersed. The latter, on the other hand, deals with the issues covering
the social situations in which the language develops, according to social conventions.

Bachman’s Communicative Competence (1990)

Baker (2011: 14) shows Bachman’s Model in the following diagram:
Communicative Competence
1. Organizational Competence:
(i) Grammatical (e.g. syntax, vocabulary).
(ii) Textual (e.g. written and oral cohesion).
2. Pragmatic Competence:
(i) Illocutionary Competence (e.g. speech strategies, language functions).
(ii) Sociolinguistic Competence (e.g. sensitivity to register, dialect, cultural figures of
speech).

Halliday’s purposes of language

Halliday (1993: 112) comes up with three ideas about the purpose of language:

All learning -whether learning language, learning through language, or learning about language-
involves learning to understand things in more than one way.

Language permeates our lives since it is present in everything we do. Man cannot be understood
without the influence of language. The first two ideas are common to ordinary people, while the last
one is of the interest of linguists, psychologists, neurologists, sociolinguists, anthropologists, etc.
To know about language
It involves those aspects of language dealing with the internal systems of a language: phonology,
phonetics, syntax, semantics, as well as methodologies, methods, designs, approaches, techniques,
strategies, activities, and tasks, used by the language teacher in order to facilitate language learning.

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To know language
It refers to how well the learner uses and applies the language system in natural or artificial settings
in which the language is used as a communicative and cultural means of respect, assistance, and
cooperation among people(s) who share a common language system. Language is also a tool used to
establish, to maintain, to develop, to foster, and to improve relationships among its users.

To know through language

It implies that the language learner uses the language as a means to get information, to become
knowledgeable, to explore the world, and to try to deal with it accordingly, that is to say, based on
their linguistic, psychological, social, and cultural needs, interests, and problems. Language is a
system through, which they establish links with others that use the same code as a means of
communication and cultural understanding.

Important concerns on Communicative Competence

 What does Communicative Competence consist of?

 What is the right definition of Communicative Competence that suits your context / purpose?
 What does the language learner want to learn the L2 for?
 How can language and its cultures be immersed into a foreign language setting so that it could
resemble the second language setting?
 What is meant by a Communicative Competence Model?
 Does the Communicative Competence Model attempt to sharpen specific language skills, that
is to say, which of them are to be implemented?
 Does the school, college, or university want to favor the Sociolinguistic Competence immersed
into an L2 cultural context in which speaking and listening are paramount skills?
 Under what premises is the Communicative Competence Model going to be based on?
 What are some of the requirements that the new L2 Model have to comply with?
 Who is going to benefit from such a Model: a) regular course learners, b) extension language
course learners, or c) pre-service teachers?
 Will the L2 Model satisfy all of the language requirements as for Sociolinguistic Competence
in the school’s language program?
 Does a Communicative Competence Model suffice? Why or why not?
 What strategies will be devised so that they can be incorporated within the learners’ mental
repertoire and the L1 cultural system since foreign cultural practices are to be part of both of
them?
 How can learners account for the L2 cultural component knowing that they are not exposed to
authentic language on a daily basis?
 Language, language teaching, language learning are not isolated issues dealing with
sociocultural practices and encounters, either in one’s native language or in a foreign one.
 The main concern here is to know how the intercultural component (Baxter, 1983) and (Byram,
1990) can be incorporated and developed in a foreign language syllabus, where the cultural
component cannot be easily achieved.

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  How feasible is it to develop, to improve, or to maintain a Communicative Competence Model
in a non-native language setting like yours?
 Which improvements would you make to the existing Model so that it could meet your learners’
Sociolinguistic Competence in an L2?

If you were to create a new Model, what would it include? How would you support it
theoretically? What aspects should a Communicative Competence Model include for its
being successful?

What: Involvement in Sociocultural Contexts.

How: Task-Based Learning & Project Work.
Why: Creating the Necessary EFL Learning Conditions.

What: Active & Meaningful Participation.

How: Quality & Quantity of Interaction.
Why: Meaningful Learning Can Lead to Acquisition.

What: Making Learning More Important than Teaching.

How: Teachers & Learners Play Specific Roles.
Why: Guidance & Involvement in Meaningful Tasks.

How can Sociolinguistic Competence be ‘taught’ and assessed?

Learning by doing and doing it with a purpose in mind.
Out-of-the-classroom Tasks: Visit Places around Town where the L2 is spoken.
In-the-classroom Tasks: Invite native speakers to interact with learners.
Individual Work, Pair Work, Team Work monitored by the language teacher.

A language cannot be taught. What parents, caretakers, teachers, family, and complete strangers
can do is to create the conditions for language to spring whenever the neurological, psychological,
mental, and physiological conditions are met.

A language is acquired in out-of-the-classroom contexts, which is framed in a natural setting.

Language acquisition is carried out effortlessly. There is a purpose in mind for communication to take
place. In a classroom setting, the conditions need to be created.

A language is learned when learners attend lessons formally under the guidance of a language
teacher who defines the objectives of the lesson, selects the teaching, and learning resources by
adopting a given methodology where both teacher’s roles and learners’ roles are specified.

Most of the time language teaching follows and develops a structured and structural syllabus,
which is based on linguistic competence and not on the development of the sociolinguistic
competence.
Kasper (1997) starts her article on pragmatic competence by asking the following question:

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 'Can Pragmatic Competence Be Taught?' The simple answer to the question as formulated is
"no". Competence, whether linguistic or pragmatic, is not teachable. Competence is a type of
knowledge that learners possess, develop, acquire, use or lose. The challenge for foreign or
second language teaching is whether we can arrange learning opportunities in such a way that
they benefit the development of pragmatic competence in L2.

In order for Sociolinguistic Competence to be fostered in a Non-Native Context, language

teachers have to bear these aspects in mind:
Change of Attitude
Commitment to adopt new methodologies and roles played.

Use of Authentic Resources

Books, Literature, Culture, Movies, Newspapers.

Quality of Interaction
Meaningful Tasks, Project Work, Debates, Presentations.

Quantity of Interaction
Teacher Talk. Learner Talk. Face-to-Face Interaction.

Learning by doing and doing it with a purpose in mind

Out-of-the-classroom Tasks
Visit Places around Town where the L2 is spoken.

In-the-classroom Tasks
Invite native speakers to interact with learners.

Individual Work, Pair Work, Team Work, or Group Work, developing the Tasks assigned,
being monitored by the language teacher.

Some Hints for the Development of Sociolinguistic Competence in non-natural settings

and cultural contexts include:

Movies
Foreign Language learners can model relationships, behaviors, and attitudes, distance, type of
social language, cultural encounters.

Videos
Proxemics and Kinesics are part of non-verbal communication, which are featured and captured
in them.

Conversations
First-hand language is used in real and diverse types of contexts.

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On-line Interviews
Social language is picked up directly from people in formal & informal settings.

Documentaries
Formal, technical, & scientific language is portrayed in: History, CNN, National Geographic, etc.

Authentic Reading & Listening Material

Literature, newspapers, biographies, speeches, lectures: forms of address, style, register, cohesion,
coherence, etc.

On-line Chatting
Immediate communication with native speakers and proficient EFL/ELS learners.

E-mail & Pen-pals

Formal and informal discourse is explored in such a way that Non-native speakers can grasp the
basics of writing.

Social Networks
On-line establishment of Social & Cultural Contact and Connections with Native & Non-native
speakers.

Why can communicative competence fail sometimes?

 Language learners’ lack of linguistic knowledge.
 Different cultural practices between native speakers and non-native speakers.
 Misunderstandings and misconceptions in conversational exchanges.
 Presuppositions for taking ideas for granted.
 Inappropriate use of body language between speaker and a hearer.
 Message abandonment since there is not any agreement between them.
 Either the speaker or the hearer does not get his message across.
 Teaching practices do not guarantee the successful completion of the task.
 Cultural expressions are unknown for either the speaker or the hearer.
 Lack of background knowledge in terms of what is discussed.
 Teaching methodologies do not fit learners’ learning styles.
 Classroom contents differ from those used in real settings and contexts.
 Lack of opportunities for interaction in the L2 in meaningful situations.

How to tackle the problem to make it work purposefully?

 Change of attitude (community, staff, parental associations, coordinators, teachers, learners).
 Make language learning much more realistic and culturally-appropriate to needs.
 Provide the space & time for learner’s participation under teacher’s supervision.
 Use authentic materials & resources, which lead to the improvement of the L2.

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Remarking conclusions
Language acquisition is a first-hand experience. Language learning is a second-hand experience.
Both of them take time, involvement, and active participation so that they cannot be forgotten. Stop
speaking your native language, for a while, and soon you will forget all about it. This happens when
you live in another country and you do not use it, on a daily basis, with a communicative purpose in
mind. The same is true for a foreign or a second language that you could speak. Do not continue
speaking your French, Portuguese, German, or Italian, and soon you will forget how to think in it and
express your ideas fully in it. We have to remember that language learning takes time. It does not
come unexpectedly. We need to be patient as our learners make their best in a language that they have
never thought before. Can we think in Chinese or Russian if we have never been exposed to them and
their cultures? Not everything that is taught is learned and not everything that learners have learned,
is because they have been taught by a teacher. We need to provide our language learners with as many
meaningful sources and resources as possible so that they can keep their languages alive and they
have to make their best efforts to learn them with a real purpose in mind.

In the case of adolescents and adults learning a foreign language if they cannot understand and
know what people are talking to them about, how can they talk what they cannot understand and
know about? This is something similar to what foreign language learners have to go through. If they
cannot understand “instructional” English, so how can you expect them to write academic articles?
Writing academic articles, per se, is a hard endeavor, even in their native language. Could you imagine
how difficult it is then when it comes to doing it in a foreign language?

Language is acquired as a whole. In its acquisition, there are processes, which are thought to be
universal to any language (Chomsky). Language is spoken, written, signed, and computational. The
skill that comes in first is listening comprehension. The second one is speaking. The third one is
reading comprehension. In addition, the fourth one is writing. How come some seasoned
unexperienced English teachers make their language learners produce written texts in an L2 even
when they lack the necessary skills to do it in the foreign language when they have to write an article
or a research project for their Master’s or PhD program?

The difference between speaking and writing lies in the fact that being able to talk naturally
requires being exposed to the language, either native or foreign. As for writing, it requires a great deal
of effort and guidance since native speakers or foreign language learners need to be instructed in it.
In writing, there are many issues, which come into play: coherence, cohesion, style, and sound
knowledge of the syntax of the native or foreign language. Being able to talk happens overnight when
all the conditions are met in a natural environment, but being able to write does not come
unexpectedly. Although academic writing is difficult for both native and non-native speakers, a piece
of writing serves as a reference for others to take as a model and start writing based on it. Writing, as
a personal choice, is hard in the sense that the L2 learner has to make use of a set of linguistic
resources: vocabulary words, idiomatic expressions, cohesion, coherence, style, etc. For some others,
speaking is even harder than writing because the speaker’s task is to organize and to assemble their
ideas in their brains as fast as they can based on what needs to be said, which is subject to the moment,
place, and circumstances in which the communicative event takes place.

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 The Pedagogy of Linguistics

Linguistics is the scientific and formal study of language. One of the most difficult aspects dealing
with the teaching of linguistics is to choose the proper methodology and didactics, which best suit
language learners’ needs. Linguistics should be part of every language training program, so that its
understanding and application can help teachers to appreciate better its importance in terms of the
fields comprising it and how they contribute to their learners’ language learning.

The very fact of having language teachers be acquainted with linguistics, first language
acquisition, second or foreign language learning, semantics, syntax, phonology, neurolinguistics,
psycholinguistics, etc., will help them to understand the processes and the conditions under which a
second or a foreign language is acquired or learned, respectively. Some conditions, which need to be
met as for the pedagogy of linguistics, include the following:

 Being respectful as for the theories proposed by linguists, which attempt to shed some light on
how their revolutionary ideas propose some insights to teachers and from there, they have to
make them their own.

 Having an open mind regarding the methodologies proposed by researchers, which best
contribute to the acquisition, learning, and teaching, and of course, to the processes involved
in them.

 Selecting the principles behind teachers’ beliefs, which have been gained through analysis and
reflection, derived from experience, training, and performance, in their areas of expertise.

 Respecting learners’ capacities to interpret and to make use of the language that they are
exposed to. Language learning, in the conditions they are, requires patience and time for them
to become familiar with it and the cultures within which it is purposefully used.

 Providing the necessary requirements so that learners gain some confidence as for how to be
able to convey a message.

Language is a complex phenomenon, which does not take place overnight. There are many factors
that teachers should be aware of, and in doing so, they are to be respectful and understanding that
language learning is a hard endeavor. Besides what is taught does not guarantee that it has to be
learned, but learners have to be given the chance to be in contact with it and use it meaningfully and
conveniently. Depending on the circumstances, language learners may have a certain kind of interest
in knowing about language, knowing language, or knowing through language. Teachers are supposed
to respond to learners’ needs as they approach the L2 learning.

The idea behind being familiar with some notions of linguistics responds to a need that language
teachers should have in order for their teaching practices can be framed within a sound theoretical
framework. By doing so, they will be a little more aware of what learning a foreign language implies.

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78
 Chapter 6
Grammar and Syntax
Grammar, per se, depends on the manner how thoughts are arranged in a person’s mind.

Grammar
It can be inferred that not every single speaker ever speaks the same way everywhere and not always
the same way with everybody. People speak differently as they interact with others: babies, toddlers,
children, and adults, even literate or illiterate people. The grammar of a language can be carefully
thought and structured based on the status or social position of both the speaker and the hearer. People
can use grammar accordingly, in some circumstances, but not in others. They at some extent can
violate the rules of the grammar of the language they speak or write down. Grammar, in general
terms, has always been understood as the structures, which should govern a language. However, the
approach to grammar, at school, should be conceived differently. Teachers should provide their
learners with the rules they need to be aware of so that a piece of message can be expressed
accordingly, by means of a practical example, rather than the “mathematical formula.”

You can be a little ungrammatical if you come from the right part of the country.
Robert Frost

Grammar cannot be understood as something repetitive or mechanical human beings do, but as
something that has to do with mental processes. If this is the case, language can spring from within
and then, it can be made evident as two or more individuals engage in effective communication.
Grammar is language-specific. Sentences do not correspond to the same principles or parameters as
for sentence formation, that is to say syntax. What could be well structured in one language could be
ill formed in another. Grammar is a reflection of the way people think and organize their thoughts in
their minds based on the needs, expressed in ideas, to fulfill a communicative and functional task.

Grammar can be considered as being Language-Based because thoughts and social practices are
the foundations of how speakers view their world and Speaker-Dependent because speakers make
choices of their language according to their culture and the functions of language that they use to
convey meaning as interaction takes place and communication unfolds, as it is shown below:

Grammar

Language-Based Speaker-Dependent

Thought- Socially- Culture- Functional-

based based Dependent Dependent

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It was recognised that simply being able to create grammatically correct structures in
language did not necessarily enable the learner to use the language to carry out
various real-world tasks.
David Nunan (1988:25)

Grammar, per se, depends on the manner how thoughts are arranged in a person’s mind. Ideas are
organized depending on the type of effect we want and need language to produce in others. Either in
the ESL or the EFL classroom, grammar cannot and should not be taught based on a pre-designed
syllabus; rather grammar should respond to what learners need to say and how to say, formally or
informally, at the right time; not just when we want to instruct them with it. Language develops as
people intervene in the communicative events they participate.

For grammar to be acquired or learned, the learner is expected to be immersed into engaging and
meaningful settings and contexts, which let them be proficient in the L1 or the L2 system. When we
refer that a non-native speaker speaks an L2 system by the grammar, it can be stated something like:
“You don’t speak a language. You just speak grammar.” The kind of people we interact with makes
us adapt the grammar of a given language. Thoughts should not be modified, but speakers should be
selective of the structures they want to use as they interact with others and want communication to
continue as they engage in meaningful conversations.

Grammar Grammar

Taught Conscious Mechanical Natural Unconscious Meaningful

Learned Methodology Instructor Acquired Mental Communication

Aitchison (1992: 164) refers to grammar in the following terms:

A grammar is above all a device which specifies what is, and what is not, a well-formed sentence. It
encapsulates rules which define which possible sentences, but it does not concern it with how these
possibilities are assembled.

Language must be adapted according to the following criteria, but it has to sound natural and
intelligible:

Age of participants. Topic of conversation.

Mental processes. Background knowledge.
Speaker-hearer relationships. Type of interaction.
Purpose of communication. Setting, context, and co-text.
Means of communication. Discourse competence.

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Chomsky’s components of grammar
For Chomsky (1957) a grammar of a language is made up of three components:
Syntax: It has to do with the arrangement of words in a sentence.
Semantics: It studies the meaning of words within sentences.
Phonology: It refers to the analysis of sounds of phrases or sentences.

Languages differ in terms of syntax

Below there are the different typologies or syntactic patterns of the world languages:
S: Subject; V: Verb; O: Object.
(SVO): English, French, German, Spanish ‘I love you.’
(SOV): Japanese, Korean, Turkish ‘I you love.’
(VSO): Breton, Hawaiian, Hebrew, Irish, Welsh ‘Love I you.’
(VOS): Fijian, Malagasy ‘Love you I.’
(OSV): Xavante ‘You I love.’
(OVS): Hixkaryana ‘You love I.’

Some of the languages, which follow the (SVO) typology include:

English: He has a car.
French: Il a une voiture.
German: Er hat einen Wagen.
Italian: Lui ha una macchina.
Portuguese: Ele tem um automóvel.
Spanish: Él tiene un auto.
Languages differ in terms of semantics:
English car house Money cat dog
French voiture maison Argent chat chien
German Wagen Haus Geld Katze Hund
Italian macchina casa Soldi gatto cane
Portuguese automóvel casa dinheiro gato cão
Spanish auto casa dinero gato perro

Languages differ in terms of phonology

Languages have specific features, which are proper to each language. These phonological
differences relate to segmental or discrete units, which include vowel and consonant sounds, as well
as Suprasegmentals features, which include tone, stress, and intonation. Grammar has to do with the
rules governing the usage of language. Grammar is the set of rules, which govern the thought of the
people who use it. It is usually related to the arrangement of words within a phrase, a sentence, a
statement, or a clause. Grammar serves to keep order, to make sense, and to sound right.

It is certainly the business of a grammarian to find out, and not to make, the laws of a
language.
John Fell (1874)

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Van Lier’s function of grammar
Van Lier (2004: 86) wonders about the function of grammar and language by stating:

Are the rules of language, i.e., its grammar, - fixed or are they constructed in interaction, in practices of
socialization, and are the use of language as a tool of thought and social life? Traditionally, language is
seen as consisting of a prefabricated structure that exists either as a biologically inherited endowment (a
universal grammar, or UG, as in Chomsky’s linguistics), or is a cultural-historical monument that has
grown into what it is over the millennia of human social intercourse (as Saussure suggested).

Although grammar can be approached from different perspectives, there is a set of functions that
it has to fulfill, within the communicative event.
Descriptive
Function
Prescriptive
Grammar
Deductive
Approach
Inductive

Function
Descriptive Grammar
It is when linguists objectively describe language as a social and cultural phenomenon. They
describe it as it is actually spoken and written, by native speakers.

Prescriptive Grammar
It is when someone is told how to speak or write down a language correctly. Correction of grammar
is not usually very successful. The following example was recorded and reported by McNeill (1966:
69):

Child: Nobody don’t like me.

Mother: No, say ‘nobody likes me’.
Child: Nobody don’t like me. (Eight repetitions of this exchange)
Mother: No, now listen carefully; say ‘nobody likes me’.
Child: Oh! Nobody don’t likes me.

Approach
Deductive Grammar
It is said that grammar is taught deductively when it is the teacher who teaches it by the rule. That
is to say, learners are expected to memorize the rules of the language that they are learning and
practice them in isolated sentences, usually in meaningless contexts.

Inductive Grammar
Grammar is taught inductively when it is learners who have to come out with the conclusion of
how grammar works. In other words, as learners are exposed to language, they are expected to
interpret how the L2 grammar works or functions. The internal mental grammar is the unconscious

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knowledge a native speaker has about the language system, which is proper to the language he has
been exposed to from birth. Native speakers are able to tell, which structures, words, or phonemes,
sound right to them and, which do not; since there exits an innate knowledge within their brains,
which enables them to judge right sentences from wrong ones. Learning how to speak a language
does not have to do with mathematical or algebraic formulae. Initially, when someone is learning how
to speak a foreign language, there is a tendency to internalize it by following a certain kind of
structure, however this is not always the case. If you want to know the formula, go out and ask those
who can speak it or native speakers to give it to you and then, you will see that such a thing does not
exist. Language is acquired and learned in a chaotic environment, where language cannot be planned
in terms of its structure, but it terms of what it needs to be conveyed and the brain will be able to do
it, effortlessly and naturally. There is a tendency among adult learners who usually ask you for it.
Besides, syntax does not always follow such an order of S + V + C. Just think about it. Let us take
the following: “What if we happen to talk after the class is over?”

Even if you do learn to speak correct English, whom are you going to speak it to?
Clarence S. Darrow (1857-1938)

A linguist’s role
It is to try to find commonalities, that is, common features shared by languages and then formulate
the rules underlying the acquisition processes of language, not of any language in particular. Universal
Grammar explores and explains the principles, which are proper to all linguistic systems.

Brumfit’s accuracy and fluency

Brumfit (1984: 56) coined the terms of Accuracy and Fluency; as being defined as:

… Language display for evaluation tended to lead to a concern for accuracy, monitoring, reference rules,
possibly explicit knowledge, problem solving and evidence of skill-getting. In contrast, language use
requires fluency, expression rules, a reliance on implicit knowledge and automatic performance. It will
on occasion also require monitoring and problem-solving strategies, but these will not be the most
prominent features, as they tend to be in the conventional model where the student produces, the teacher
corrects, and the student tries again.

In brief, accuracy refers to how well the language should be spoken and fluency has to do with
how fast one speaks a foreign or a second language. More than being accurate, the purpose of
communication must be achieved; the message has to be conveyed. More than attempting to speak as
a native speaker does, the most important thing is to convey meaning and to get the message across
in the L2, but it is also important to have proper pronunciation and intonation; otherwise
misunderstandings can take place. Language teachers then must be patient with their learners as they
internalize and interact with the L2 in natural or artificial settings. Language teachers should provide
learners with opportunities for being exposed to the L2, as well as the chances of using it with a
communicative purpose in mind, rather than ‘teaching’ them the mechanics of the language. It can be
compared with the situation in which someone knows about how a car works, but he does not know
how to drive it. A language learner may have the theory, but still, he can be unable to do anything
with it.

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 Syntax
Syntax varies from language to language, from speaker to speaker, and from culture to culture.

Syntax varies from language to language, from speaker to speaker, and from culture to culture. As
people from a certain region get together, they think and attempt to interpret the world around them.
The way they talk is a reflection of the view of the world around them.

Syntax is the study of the principles and processes by which sentences are constructed
in particular languages.
Noam Chomsky

Syntax has to do with the order of the elements in a phrase, a sentence, a statement, or a clause;
based on what the speaker wants to convey. The way those elements are arranged in the sentence
depends on our communicative needs and on what we want to convey, that is to say, the message to
be uttered. Syntax is the factual and evident reflection of the way people view the world in every
culture, around them. Syntax is the representation of thought through speech, writing, sign, or
computational language. Syntax has to do with the logic of language, which is and should be based
on meaning. Although semantics deals with meaning, which is paramount in language, we are
selective on how to express an idea through syntax. In other words, according to the kind of addressee,
we attempt to select the “right” kind of structure. Meaning can be expressed in a variety of “syntaxes.”
The choice of the syntax used depends on the audience: babies, toddlers, children, adolescents, adults.

Syntactic analysis goes up to the sentence level, e.g. “The baby cried” or “He threw the ball.”
When these two ideas are analyzed, they have to be approached, from the semantic and the pragmatic
points of view, as independent sentences or from the discourse analysis or the text analysis point of
view, if they are to be analyzed as a whole. Let us consider the following sentences:
The lion killed the horse.
The car hit the cat.
The police captured the thief.
The children played ball.
The fire destroyed the house.
The rain flooded the city.

Let us consider the following ill-formed sentences:

*The cheese ate the mouse.
*The spinster called her husband.
*The book read the boy.
*The soccer is playing children.
*The lunch will cook my mom.

Transformational-Generative Grammar
Chomsky (1957) proposed his language theory, which deals with the making up of all the right
and correct possible sentences, which may be generated in any language. People have the innate

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capacity to use language as a faculty inherent to the human race. No matter the language people speak,
in their brains and minds, they have the potential to acquire language easily since they can grasp the
rules in terms of semantics, phonology, syntax, and morphology, easily, and apply them in meaningful
sentences, based on their survival and communicative needs. Babies and children create rules thanks
to both exposure and interaction of language and culture as they are immersed into societal settings,
contexts, and circumstances. Although the sentences above are well written in terms of syntax, they
do not make sense in terms of semantics.

Reflection about language, thought, and syntax

a) Language is the means by which human beings express their thoughts.
b) In first language acquisition, language is first, thoughts are second, and syntax is third, based
on what wants to be conveyed.
c) Language is used to make our thoughts visible.
d) In second language acquisition or foreign language learning, thoughts are first, language is
second and syntax is third, based on what wants to be conveyed.
e) We view the world based on the language we speak and the culture we live in.
f) An idea can be expressed based on a phoneme, a phrase, a sentence, or a statement.
g) A sentence, which is a representation of an idea, is the reflection of our thoughts.
h) Thoughts expressed through speech or writing, are used to make language visible.
i) Since the universe represents order, syntax does too.
j) Both speech and writing are the reflection of our world.
k) Then, syntax deals with the relationships and the analysis of words within a system.

Syntax varies as users of the language are influenced by the culture they develop in their relations
on a daily basis. There is more than one possibility for the following words to be organized:
the/bit/dog/the/cat. It all depends on what really happened: “The dog bit the cat;” or “The cat bit the
dog.”

Reality is based on the actual and current facts rather than organizing those elements the way we
wanted to, not paying attention to what really happened. In this sense, semantics is more important
than syntax. That is to say, words are arranged based on what needs to be communicated. Meaning is
conveyed based on the ordering of those elements within the sentence. In addition, Suprasegmentals
like intonation and stress also play a role on that, which wants to be said.

Suprasegmentals help the speaker to express emotions, feelings, fears, doubts through statements,
such as commands or questions, for example. Everybody, with no exception, makes mistakes and
commits errors as they talk or write down. A number of circumstances, for us to make mistakes,
include the very fact of being humans; fear, anger, anxiety, tiredness, insecurity, are all factors, which
contribute to our realization that it is through language, that is to say, speech, that people express their
thoughts, which are to be expressed with a purpose in mind: survival.

Saussure’s paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations

Saussure (1916) also proposed two terms for the analysis of signs, which are Paradigms and
Syntagms.

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Paradigms:
Within the same sentence, one sign may be replaced by another, and a new meaning is obtained.

Syntagms:
It is the linear relationship one sign has with the other signs within the same sentence and the
correlation refers to the functions those signs play.

Paradigms
The price of those jeans is high.
color walls nice.
taste veggies disgusting.
smell flowers delicious.
look tiles perfect.
style uniforms gross.
Syntagms

Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.

Noam Chomsky (1957)

Although the sentence above is structured correctly, it lacks meaning, which is the purpose of
every language. That is why semantics is of paramount importance as for people organize their
thoughts. Syntax should respond to what it wants to be conveyed, not the other way around.

Chomsky’s deep structure and surface structure

Chomsky’s theory suggests that, in the syntax of any language in the world, there are two
important structures in Transformational Grammar (1965):

Deep Structure (DS)

It refers to the mental representation or idea of what is thought.

Surface structure (SS)

It is what someone hears, reads, writes, or talks about.

D-Structure

Movement rules

S-Structure

Phonetic form / phonological rules

Logical form / semantic rules

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I-language and E-language
Chomsky (1965) coined the concepts of linguistic competence and linguistic performance, which
were expanded later with his theory of I-language and E-language, respectively, which was developed
in 1986. The former refers to the internal knowledge a speaker has about his or her native language,
that is to say, the internal systems, which help people to understand language. The latter refers to the
external representation a speaker makes of his or her native language. It refers to the production,
application, and use people make of that I-language system.

Universal Grammar (UG)

It is a theory of linguistics proposed by Chomsky (1965) where he establishes the principles of
grammar, which are shared by all languages and they are thought to be innate to humans. With this,
Chomsky means that people share common features as far as language acquisition is concerned.

Phrase Structure Rules

A phrase structure rule is the manner used to break down the components of a sentence, showing
every single element and the relationship with the others in the same sentence. Below there are some
of them:
Sentence: (S)
Noun: (N)
Determiner: (Det.)
Adjective: (Adj.)
Preposition: (P)
Adverb: (Adv.)

Noun Phrase: NP
e. g. Jim (N)
The boy (Det. N)
The little children (Det. Adj. N)

Prepositional Phrase: PP
e. g. on (P)
in the car (P NP)
off the lonely road (P Det. Adj. N)

Verb Phrase: V + (NP)

e.g. called (V)
broke the window (V NP)
drives the car fast (V NP Adv.)
broke into the apartment (V PP)

Representation of sentences
Sentences can be represented as follows: using a labeled bracket notation or a phrase structure
tree, as it is shown below:
‘The dog bit the little girl.’ [S [NP The dog][VP [V bit][NP the little girl]]]

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‘The children can play the flute.’ [S [NP The children][VP [V can play][NP the flute]]]

Structural and semantic ambiguity

Sentences can be interpreted in more than one way because of their syntax, which leads to ambiguity
in its sense. Below some examples follow:

“The boy saw the man with the telescope.”

 The boy used a telescope to see the man.
What did the boy use to see the man? A telescope.
When the boy saw the man, the man had a telescope.
Who did the boy see? A man, holding a telescope.

“American history teachers.”

 History teachers who are American.
 Teachers of American history.

“The magician touched the boy with the wand.”

 The magician touched the boy. The boy had a wand.
 The magician touched the boy. He used a wand to touch him.

Explaining semantic ambiguity

Sentences can be analyzed in terms of the functions words play in them, that is to say, as a verb,
a noun, an adjective, etc. Analyze the following sentences by providing two interpretations:
“Flying planes can be dangerous.”
“I saw her duck.”
“They are hunting dogs.”
“The parents of the bride and groom.”
“Students hate annoying professors.”
“I think that water is cold.”

Disentangling semantic ambiguity

The context of the conversation or the relationship sentences have in the analysis of a piece of
text, contribute to have a clear understanding of what a certain sentence means, in a given context.
For the understanding of what a complete sentence, as an idea conveys, needs to be analyzed in terms
of the other sentences, both in discourse or text analysis. However, sentences can also be analyzed in
terms of their meaning conveyed, in the following sentence: ‘John lost his pants.’

What did John lose –his trousers or underwear–?

For an American person, ‘pants’ can be interpreted as ‘trousers.’

For an English person, ‘pants’ refer to ‘underwear,’ instead.

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 The Pedagogy of Grammar and Syntax

The teaching or not teaching of grammar or syntax is a tricky concern. The types of audience you are
dealing with as a language teacher will help you better to decide on which approach to use: the
inductive one or the deductive one. Let us say that you are teaching at the university level, much more
specifically, at the school of languages or at the college of education.

For such an audience, grammar has to be taught deductively, that is to say, by providing pre-
service teachers with the rules of language, that is to say, the usage of language: correctness,
appropriateness, and competence, in terms of when to use the right piece of language. It is known that
language teachers need to be knowledgeable of the rules governing the structure of a particular
language, when it is expected to be taught to others.

The fact of telling right structures from wrong ones will let teachers feel at ease when questions
about usage may appear in the everyday instruction. If you are dealing with adult learners, the most
possible approach that they would like to be taught will be the deductive one. It is usually so because
they like to know the ‘why’ more than the ‘how’ and even the application of a grammar rule than the
practical use of language.

Children and adolescents do not worry very much about the ‘why’ because they can come out with
their own conclusions as for how the L2 grammar works and functions. They enjoy playing with the
language since they grasp it much more easily and naturally, than adults do.

In other words, instruction plays a positive or a negative role in the manner how children and
adolescents process the L2. Inductive teaching favors L2 grammar learning since it is done
effortlessly. Learners are not given the rule prior to using it. They speak the language as they are in
direct contact with it thanks to the contact they have with native speakers, music, movies, television,
radio, newspapers, the Internet.

Language is meant to mean. A sentence is structured based on what it wants to be conveyed, not
the other way round. Teachers can expose language to their learners, but according to their
communicative needs, they will select those language elements, which best fulfill their purpose.
Learners cannot be exposed to all of the structures of a language; instead, they have to be provided
with those they need to convey a message. Probably the structures, which are being taught are
meaningless because there is no point in learning them since there is no need of real application.

Some language teachers refer to grammar as the set of rules and restrictions applied to the
structures and the formation of sentences. In order for language to make sense, it has to be logical as
for what it is to be said, conveyed, and meant. In first language acquisition, I do not recall the moment
in which my parents, siblings, and the people around me taught me those structures by asking me to
write them down in a pad or notebook. If this were the case, everyone still would have those notes
with me and with them. Language is acquired naturally, through exposure. As a baby, your parents
talked to you although you did not because you were not prepared to do so. The process of foreign
language learning is different, of course, but still it requires more time and effort.

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90
 Chapter 7
Phonology and Phonetics
The knowledge of phonology is installed in the speaker’s brain. It is on the mind.

Phonology
Phonology is the study of the sound system of language. It is the study of the wide variety of sounds
in all languages. Phonology is about patterns of sounds. Phonology explores the differences between
phonemes, which leads to the change in an utterance. According to Crane, the place and the manner
of articulation change emotionally. From my personal perspective, it can be said that not everybody
always speaks the language the same way. If someone is excited, worried, angry, tired, or anxious,
they could think and interact, through language differently.

Pronunciation varies from speaker to speaker . . . These variations, moreover, occur

between different social groups as well as between different regions, for there are
class accents as well as regional differences.
Charles Barber (1993: 14-15)

According to Ladefoged & Johnson (1993: 33) phonology is defined in the following terms:

Phonology is the description of the systems and patterns of sounds that occur in a language. It involves
studying a language to determine its distinctive sounds, that is, those sounds that convey a difference in
meaning.

The knowledge of phonology is installed in the speaker’s brain. It is on the mind. It relates to the
whole system for producing, hearing, interpreting, and understanding sounds particular to any
language. Phonology deals with the study, the analysis, and the classification of phonemes, as well
as the rules, which govern them. Phonology is a broader term, which covers phonetics. Some of the
concepts referring to phonology include Phonemes, Free Variation, Complementary Distribution,
Allophones and Phonotactics, among some other concepts covering it. Phonology is on the mind.

Phonology studies, analyzes, explains, and classifies speech sounds. It sets the patterns within the
sound system of a language. It establishes similarities and differences between two or more
phonological systems.

Mispronunciation leads to fossilization if pronunciation errors are not corrected from the very
beginning, that is to say, from an early age or stage when learners are formally exposed to the L2.
Foust (2003) draws on the importance of achieving a native-like pronunciation if the learner acquires
or learns the L2, at an early age, by saying:

Pronunciation is more like that of a native speaker when language study begins early. Some experts
believe this is due in part to physiological changes at puberty; by age 15, a child’s facial muscles and
bones are nearly mature, and his musculature loses sensitivity to phonetic distinctions that are not

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 relevant to the languages he speaks. It is simply harder for the older student to make new, unfamiliar
sounds. A psychological factor may also be at work: Older children are more inhibited in trying out new
sounds and more concerned about making mistakes.

Distinctive Features
The distinctive features of a phoneme correspond to the form of articulation of the vocal tract
when that phoneme is uttered. The phonemes of a language are not very separate entities; they share
common features. Any feature that distinguishes some phonemes from others is called a distinctive
feature.
/b/, /d/, /m/, /n/ /p/, /b/, /m/ /m/, /n/, /ŋ/
are voiced are bilabial are nasal

Some examples of distinctive features of a phoneme include the following:

Allophones
Pennington (1996) considers allophones as “two different phones which are phonetic variations
(or allophones) of the same phoneme.” Allophones are the various pronunciations a speech sound
takes, i.e., /p/, which is pronounced differently, according to the position it takes in a word. The same
is true for /t/ and /k/.
Initial Position Mid Position Final Position
pen speak top

time study pit

car account look

e. g. Where is my pen?
We speak English and French.
It’s on top of the shelf.

Minimal Pairs
Words that differ by only one sound are known as minimal pairs, and one way to look for the
sounds of a language is to search for such pairs. Minimal pairs signal meaning difference, although
some words, per se, can have more than one meaning. A minimal pair is a technique used to identify
meaning difference.

Some examples include the following:

pan [pʰæn] can [kʰæn] sit [sɪt] sin [sɪn] bear [bɛr]

pen [pʰɛn] tan [tʰæn] seat [si:t] tin [tɪn] pear [pɛr]
e. g. The pan is on the kitchen table.
I need my pen back.
Sit down by my side.
He bought a seat on the New York Stock Exchange.

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More examples of minimal pairs follow:
bit die lack nice price

beat tie lag rice prize

Properties of a Minimal Pair

1. It contains the same number of segments.
2. It differs in meaning.
3. It exhibits only one phonetic difference.

Free Variation
It is when the pronunciation of a phoneme may vary without signifying a change in meaning. The
substitution of one sound for another, in a given environment, with no change in meaning.
data [dætə] [deɪtə]

economics [ɛkənɑmɪks] [iːkənɑːmɪks]

either [iːðər] [aɪðər]

giant [ʤayənt] [ʤjənt]

neither [niːðər] [naɪðər]

sandwich [sændw]ɪɪ [sæmw]ɪɪ

status [stætəs] [steɪtəs]

Complementary Distribution
Complementary distribution is the mutually exclusive relationship between two phonetically
similar segments. It exists when one segment occurs in an environment where the other segment never
occurs.
e. g. [ ĩ ] and [ i ] are allophones of the same phoneme /i/.
[ ĩ ] occurs before nasal consonants in the same syllable: bean [bĩ:n]
[ i ] occurs elsewhere: beat [bi:t]

Phonological Processes
Phonological processes refer to the manner how one sound affects the other sound within the
spoken chain. The most common phonological processes in English include the following:

Aspiration
Word-initially voiceless sounds are always aspirated.
e. g. Pen [pʰɛn]
Take [tʰeik]
Cat [kʰæt]

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Assimilation
It is when a sound is influenced by another sound, that is to say, “a sound is influenced by the
characteristics of a neighboring sound,” as Celce-Murcia (1996: 159) puts it.
e. g. Bags [bæ:gz] Backs [bæks]
Lived [lɪvd] Rented [rɛntɪd]
Finished [fɪnɪʃt]

Dissimilation
It is when similar consonant sounds in a word become less similar, and one of them is replaced by
another sound.
e. g. Marble becomes marbrɛ

Deletion
Schwa [ə] is removed from a sound in words like the ones below:
e. g. Mountain [maʊntn]
People [pʰɪpl]
Sudden [sʌdn]

Elision
It is when a sound segment is purposefully omitted.
e. g. Factory [fæktrɪ]
Medicine [mɛdsn]

Epenthesis
It is when a vowel or a consonant is inserted into a word for it to be pronounced better.
e. g. Stay [stei] is pronounced like [estei] in Spanish.

Metathesis
It is when two sounds within the same word are changed in their sequence.
e. g. Brid instead of bird [bɜːrd]

Phonotactics
It is the study of what sound sequences are and are not allowed in a given language. What is
allowed in a language is not allowed in another. Word-initially, in English these are possible
sequences; in Spanish, they are not.

Phonotactics English Spanish

/s/ + /k/ + /r/: scream escribir

/s/ + /p/ + /l/: split espléndido

/s/ + /t/ + /r/: street estricto

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e. g. I heard her scream early this morning.
Don’t split the apple into two pieces.
We live on a quiet street.

Below there are syllable clusters, which are both common in English and Spanish.
Phonotactics English Spanish

/k/ + /r/: crime criollo

/p/ + /l/: please pleno

/t/ + /r/: trumpet trono

e. g. There is little crime in town.
Please turn on the light.
The children play the trumpet.

The Application of Phonology

In the foreign or second language classroom, teachers can make use of either one approach or the
other, in order to help learners to become familiar with certain phonemes, which are new to them.
Then, teachers can use the top-down approach or the bottom-up approach according to their learners’
particular communicative needs.

Top-Down Approach
Learners are exposed to a particular piece of language either formally or informally. According to
what they grasp from it and based on their previous knowledge; then, it will be easy or difficult for
them to follow what is being heard. Once they have listened to a part of it or the whole of it, teachers
can ask a set of questions in order to check comprehension and from it, start a discussion about the
issue in question.

Bottom-Up Approach
The alphabet can be approached from the following analysis:

 Letter recognition.
 Proper identification of the phoneme.
 Proper articulation of the phoneme.
 Phonological processes involved.
 Linking sounds, which take place within the spoken chain.
 Attitudinal and emotional state of the speaker, etc.

Since phonology deals with mental processes, which can be easily recognized by native speakers, it
is very hard for non-native speakers to be able to incorporate in their foreign or second language
minds those processes, which come out naturally for the former. In order for them to be able to
articulate as native speakers do; meaningful exposure to the language, training, and opportunities are
keys to speaking the L2 in suitable, appropriate, and accepted ways.

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 Phonetics
Phonetics is the science of speech sounds in terms of their production, transmission, and reception.

Phonetics is in charge of the study and the analysis of the articulation, the production, and the
description of how a sound is uttered. Every language has a specific set of sounds, which is particular
to the manner how speakers utter sounds based on age, educational background, and geographical
issues, among some other features.

Phonetics is concerned with describing the speech sounds that occur in the languages
of the world.
Peter Ladefoged (1993: 1)

Phonetics is in the mouth, jaws, tongue, and nose, in the ear, and in the air. It has to do with the
realization of sounds. An early training course is required if pronunciation errors are to be avoided or
corrected, so that they do not interfere with understanding either when delivering a speech or
interacting with other speakers of that language; otherwise it would be harder for both the speaker
and the hearer to get their message across.

Phonetics is the study of phonemes in a language. Phonetics is concerned with the description of
speech sounds in a language. Phonetics is the science of speech sounds in terms of their production,
transmission, and reception. The knowledge of phonetics has to do with the realization of sounds once
they have been thought firstly in the speaker’s brain and mind.

Types
Phonetics can be studied from three different perspectives and it can be applied in the forensic
sciences as for word recognition.
 Articulatory
It refers to the manner how articulators establish contact every time a phoneme is uttered.
 Acoustic
It has to do with the physical mechanisms involved, that is to say, the transmission used in
the production and the understanding of a given phoneme.
 Auditory
It is concerned with the manner how a phoneme reaches the ear, and therefore how phonemes
are heard.

Phonemes
A phoneme is the smallest contrastive unit in the sound system of a language. A phoneme is a
class of phonetically similar sounds that signals difference in meaning. Each language uses a
relatively small number of phonemes. A phoneme is the smallest segment of sound, which can
distinguish two words.

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 The words ‘pit’ and ‘bit’ differ only in their initial phoneme, in terms of aspiration; ‘pit’ and ‘bit’
are said to be minimal pairs.

Collins & Mees (2003: 10) conceive phonemes as “the contrastive units of sound which can be
used to change meaning are termed phonemes.”

Every language has a set of certain number of phonemes (speech sounds: both vowel and
consonant sounds), which are sufficient to make all the necessary phonemes found in them, because
people speak differently.

Accent is the soul of a language; it gives the feeling and truth to it.
Jean Jacques Rousseau

Transcribing phonemes
Transcription refers to the representation of the phonemes in a particular word. It can be at the
Phonological or Phonemic level, which refers to the general pronunciation of a word, which uses
slashes /…/ for such a purpose; it has to do with the mental representation of that phoneme.

The Phonetic level relates to a very detailed transcription of the phoneme of a given word, which
uses brackets […], instead; this level serves to compare how people from other cultures pronounce
the word differently, which leads to the appearance of dialects of a language.

When we talk about speech sounds, we usually refer to the term Prosody, which includes the terms
Segmental and Suprasegmentals. Segmental phonemes refer to sound segments, which include
consonants, vowels, and semi-vowels. Suprasegmentals refer to intonation, stress, pitch, rhythm, etc.

Consonants may be described in terms of voicing, place of articulation, and manner of

articulation: Voicing characterizes consonantal sounds that when they are pronounced make the vocal
chords to vibrate or not to vibrate, so voicing could be either voiced or voiceless, which is also known
as unvoiced.

A speech sound is said to be voiced when there is vibration of the vocal chords.
e. g. /b/ /d/ /g/ /l/ /m/ /n/ /r/

A speech sound is said to be voiceless or unvoiced when there is no vibration of the vocal chords.
e. g. /p/ /t/ /k/ /f/ /s/

Elements of the Vocal Tract

The vocal tract is made up of the teeth, the tongue, the jaws, the alveolar ridge, the hard palate,
the velum, the uvula, the pharynx, the larynx, and the trachea. Some of the features, which have to do
with phonetics include technical terms like Voicing, Manner of Articulation, and Place of
Articulation, which are of great importance for the English language teacher, in order for him or her
to identify pronunciation errors and to try to overcome them fully.

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Place of Articulation
It has to do with the parts of the mouth and throat, which intervene in the production of speech
sounds. Consonantal sounds are said to be:
Bilabial: the upper and lower lips. e. g. [b] buy; [p] pen; [m] man
Labiodental: the upper teeth and the lower lip. e. g. [f] first; [v] very
Interdental: the upper teeth and the tip of the tongue. e. g. [θ] thin; [ð] that
Alveolar: the gum ridge and the tip of the tongue. e. g. [t] take; [d] dark; [s] six
Palatal: the front palate and the front of the tongue. e. g. [j] you
Alveo-palatal: the front of the tongue towards the area
between the alveolar ridge and the hard palate. e. g. [tʃ] chin; [ʃ] sheep
Velar: the back palate and the back of the tongue. e. g. [k] cat; [g] game
Glottal: sounds that are made at the glottis. e. g. [h] department

Manner of Articulation
It has to do with the manner how speech sounds are produced by the speech organs. The manner
of articulation has to do with the place of articulation a phoneme has within an individual’s mouth,
such an articulation depends on the individual’s linguistic and cultural backgrounds. When two
linguistic systems share both the manner of articulation and the place of articulation, the production
of those shared phonemes will be easier for the speakers of those languages.

Consonant Classification
Stops or plosives
These sounds are produced by blocking the air stream.
e. g. /p/ voiceless bilabial stop
/b/ voiced bilabial stop
/t/ voiceless alveolar stop
/d/ voiced alveolar stop
/k/ voiceless velar stop
/g/ voiced velar stop
Fricatives
These sounds are produced by friction.
e. g. /f/ voiceless labio-dental fricative
/v/ voiced labio-dental fricative
/θ/ voiceless inter-dental fricative
/ð/ voiced inter-dental fricative
/s/ voiceless alveolar fricative
/z/ voiced alveolar fricative
/h/ voiceless glottal fricative
Affricates
These sounds are a combination of Stops and Fricatives.
e. g. /tʃ/ voiceless alveo-palatal affricate
/ʒ/ voiced alveo-palatal fricative
/dʒ/ voiced alveo-palatal affricate

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Laterals or liquids
These sounds are produced through the sides of the mouth.
e. g. /l/ voiceless alveolar lateral

Nasals
These sounds come out through the nose, not the mouth.
e. g. /m/ voiced bilabial nasal
/n/ voiced alveolar nasal
/ŋ/ voiced velar nasal
Glides
These are sounds, which correspond to /w/ and /j/, which are also considered as semivowels or
semi consonants.
e. g. /j/ voiced palatal approximant
/w/ voiced bilabial approximant

The International Phonetic Alphabet – IPA:

The IPA is a system of phonetic transcription, which can be used to describe the wide variety of
phonemes of languages in the world.

Vowels are speech sounds produced with no blockage of the vocal tract. American vowels can be
classified as being Monophthongs or Diphthongs.

Monophthongs: It takes place when only one sound is involved.

e. g. [i:], [ı], [e], [æ] for instance read, rid; pen, pan.

Diphthongs: It is when to sounds are pronounced in two different syllables.

e. g. [ai], [ei], [aʊ], [oʊ] for instance buy, bay; now, know.

Features about vowels

 Tongue height: high mid low
 Tongue backness: front central back
 Lips: unrounded rounded
 Duration pattern: tense lax

Semivowels or glides are very like vowels, but they can also function as consonants, too, in the
sound system of English.
e. g. [w] When, window, write
[j] Yes, you, fly, try
Position Front Central Back
tense / lax tense lax tense lax tense lax
high i (meal) ɪ (dig) u (food) ʊ (foot)
mid e (game) ɛ (get) ʌ (luck) ə (about) o (coal) ɔ (saw)
low æ (map) ɑ (not)

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Description of vowel features
[i] High Front Tense Vowel [ɛ] Mid Front Lax Vowel
[ɪ] High Front Lax Vowel [æ] Low Front Lax Vowel
[e] Mid Front Tense Vowel [u] High Back Tense Vowel

Pronunciation issues, which could play a role in the way people pronounce and talk, are as follow:
Articulation
The phonological tract of the speaker interferes with the manner how he or she talks

Suprasegmentals
The tone, the pitch, the intonation, and the stress, as we talk, determine our speech and the
relationships we establish with others in a communicative event.

Geographical and climatic factors

Mountains, hills, flats, canyons, valleys, and desserts, shape the language of people in the places
where they were born, they live, work, or study.

Biological and racial factors

The biological traits and the racial factors of children who acquire a language or the individuals
who learn it, tend to have an impact on the manner how they speak it.

Culture and ethnicity

People pronounce and speak differently depending on their culture and national origin.

Social class and status

People from different social class and status speak a language differently within society.

Educational level
The education and the training someone has had throughout their lifetime show how well they can
speak or articulate a first language, a foreign language or a second language.

Attitude
The willingness and desire someone has to articulate well as they talk.

Aptitude
The ability and the capacity someone has to pronounce phonemes in a language.

Time
The time and the contact spent with the language and some other languages.

Quality of interaction and quantity of interaction

The quality and the quantity of interaction affect an individual’s speech.

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Sounds
There is no always correspondence between spelling and pronunciation in English.
Before Currently
knee [kni:] [ni:]
knight [knait:] [nait:]
knot [knat:] [nat:]
know [kno:] [no:]

Sounds change according to the linguistic environment in which they occur:

e. g. Please [pli:z]
Pleasant [plɛsant]
Pleased [plist]
Pleasure [plɛʒər]

‘b’ is silent before ‘t’:

e. g. Debt [dɛt]
Doubt [daut]

‘b’ is silent at the end of a word:

e. g. Comb [kʰom]
Dumb [dʌm]

‘l’ is silent before ‘d’:

e. g. Could [kʰʊd]
Should [ʃʊd]

‘l’ is silent before ‘m’:

e. g. Calm [kʰæm]
Palm [pʰæm]
Psalm [sæm]

The same sound, but different spelling:

e. g. [ai] I, eye, mine, sight, sign, line, by, buy, bye, like, tie, vie.
[ei] Ate, eight, cake, brake, break, fake, late, day, may, main.
[i] Me, mean, deceive, receive, leak, speak, sea, see, tea.
[f] Family, fine, cough, laugh, tough, phantom, pharmacy, leaf.
[k] Car, cold, cute, Kate, queue, scheme, school, skill, luck, talk.

Not every sound is pronounced the same way:

e. g. ‘ch’ in spelling: e.g. ‘ea’ in spelling:

[tʃ] Child [ei] Break, steak
[k] Chemist [ɛ] Heard, leather
[ʃ] Chicago [i:] Mean, team

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 The Pedagogy of Phonology and Phonetics
Since human beings interact much more frequently using the spoken code than the written one, then
phonology has an important role to play. However, the concern lies on the fact on how to proceed
about it. How could it be tested? Language in the school should be a reflection of the one used and
spoken outside, in real-life interaction. There is no point of dealing with language from only one
perspective, when it is indeed necessary to be explored and exploited in the most common use: the
oral-aural one. Reading aloud and silent reading also contribute to improve thinking and organization
of ideas in an L2. What it is meant here is that language is a dual process of being exposed to it since
there are two individuals involved: one speaker and one hearer, although sometimes one single person
could perform both actions: he can be a speaker and a hearer of what he has already said.

The speaker uses his vocal tract to utter a sound, a phoneme, a syllable, a word, a phrase, a
sentence, a clause, a statement, a piece of text contained in a paragraph, in a reading, in a recording.
The hearer, on the other hand, uses his previous or background knowledge about the issue being dealt
with, in the language spoken by the speaker. What he does then is to decipher or to disentangle those
phonemes coming from the spoken chain. Speakers use their resources to make themselves
understood, although there are some internal or external factors, which either favor or hinder their
very personal objectives as it comes to being engaged in a conversation, for instance.

Mental, psychological, attitudinal, and emotional conditions, affect, for better or worse, a person’s
ability to utter language properly, given the circumstances. As it was stated earlier, not every speaker
always utters language the same way. Teachers should be respectful when their learners make
mistakes or errors such as slips of the tongue, which are made unconsciously or involuntarily; we all
do make them, even in our own language. Listening comprehension and articulation should also be
approached, from either the top-down or the bottom-up model. The former has to do with the general
to the specific; in other words, learners are responsible for grasping the main idea or a piece of specific
information based on what they hear. The latter refers to the fact that learners are trained starting from
the very basics until they can grasp the most difficult issues of a spoken piece of language, for
example. Phonology can be approached based on the techniques and the resources that teachers and
learners have at their disposal.

Below there are some tips on how you can help your learners to grasp the basics of phonology by
listening to: a) Authentic listening material; b) Videos; c) Music: lyrics, songs, karaoke, and videos;
d) Tongue twisters; e) Dictation exercises; f) Spelling bee; g) Dialogs and conversations; h)
Interviews; i) Debates; j) Presentations; k) Repetition drills; l) Watching mouth movements in a
mirror, etc.

As it was stated earlier in the chapter, not every speaker ever utters the same sounds. Neurological,
psychological, maturational, physiological, emotional, geographic, educational, among some other
factors, determine the manner how someone speaks. The intention of what is said or uttered through
speech implies the type of intonation, tone, pitch, rhythm, stress, or any other suprasegmental to be
used. Culture also shows the way children, adolescents, and adults communicate in their oral
interactions.

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 Reflection
Chapter 5: Linguistics
1. What aspects of linguistics do you usually make emphasis on in your teaching?
2. How can you help your learners to become linguistically competent?
3. How can linguistic performance be promoted, developed, and maintained?
4. How can you help your students to achieve communicative competence?
5. Which theories do you consider to be relevant for your language teaching?

Chapter 6: Grammar and Syntax

1. What are some of the factors that make people organize their ideas differently?
2. How is grammar learned much more easily -deductively or inductively-?
3. What is an effective way to teach grammar?
4. How can your language learners learn it effectively?
5. Can you provide some examples regarding restrictions in the grammar of English?

Chapter 7: Phonology and Phonetics

1. What phonological problems have you identified in your learners?
2. What are some of the causes for these phenomena to take place?
3. How can phonetics and phonology help you?
4. Which sounds do you consider the hardest for your learners to articulate?
5. What are some possible issues, which can make someone sound as a foreigner to native
speakers of the L2? Provide three possible reasons.
6. What is the connection between articulatory phonetics and speaking?
7. What is the link between auditory phonetics and listening comprehension?
8. Which types of phonetics are you interested in as a language teacher?
9. What role does phonetics play in your language planning?
10. How can phonetics be applied in your language teaching?

Project
Select the five most difficult phonemes in English that Spanish learners or speakers have a hard
time pronouncing the L2. Provide some suggestions to overcome the problem. Please specify age,
gender, social status, educational background, among some other factors.

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104
 PART 3
LANGUAGE IN THE BRAIN AND THE MIND

All mental processes, even the most complex

psychological processes, derive from operations of
the brain.

Eric Kandel

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 Chapter 8
Neurolinguistics is highly related to psycholinguistics in the sense that they complement each other.

Neurolinguistics and Psycholinguistics

Neurolinguistics
Neurolinguistics is the branch of linguistics, which deals with the make-up, the development, and the
functioning of the brain, in other words, it comprises all the processes, which take place in a man’s
brain. Neurolinguistics is also interested in studying the phenomena related to mental illnesses, which
interfere with language understanding and language production, which comprise tip-of-the-tongue
phenomenon, aphasia, agrammatism, anomia, which are due to strokes, malformation of the brain,
traumas the child had at birth, accidents or impairments someone has suffered throughout time in
their lifetime, etc. Neurolinguistics is highly related to psycholinguistics in the sense that they
complement each other. The former relates to the brain processes involved in language, the latter
refers to the mental processes underlying it. Both issues will be covered in this chapter.

Neurolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the brain.
George Yule (1996)

Make-up
Development
Brain
Functioning
Mental processes
Neurolinguistics Processing
Understanding
Language Production
Retrieval
Speech disorders

The brain is a very big place in a very small space.

Carl Sagan

The brain is the physical structure –nerves and masses– that makes the mental functions be born,
develop, and nourish. The brain is also responsible for the other basic functions people and animals
are to perform. It is quite evident to point out that language in terms of production, comprehension,
processing, and retrieval, among some other functions, are installed in the brain. Neurolinguistics
studies the neural mechanisms of both the human and animal brains. Neurolinguistics studies and
analyzes the physiological properties of where and how language, that is, speech, is produced and
understood in the brain. Neurolinguistics deals with the study of the human brain in order to describe,
to explain, or to decipher the phenomena related to the acquisition, storage, production,

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understanding, and retrieval of language. Neurolinguistics is also interested in the language disorders
individuals suffer from due to a number of circumstances, related to birth problems or strokes, among
some other possible causes. The brain can stop functioning properly due to physical injuries and
deterioration due to aging, and probably, because of negative episodes people have had throughout
their lives, such as frustrations, deceptions, anger, fear, solitude, helplessness, boredom and the like.
Alzheimer’s disease is believed to be produced because of the loss of neurons and atrophy, according
to medical records.

Main parts of the brain

The left hemisphere:
It controls the right side of your body. It is responsible for language, math, and reasoning.
The right hemisphere:
It controls the left side of your body. It is responsible for music, art, etc.
The central sulcus
It is a deep furrow in the brain, which separates the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe.
The motor cortex
It controls the movement of hands, feet, arms, face, jaw, tongue, and larynx.
The arcuate fasciculus
It is a bundle of nerve fibers, which connects Broca’s area to Wernicke’s area.
The corpus callosum
It connects the two hemispheres.
The brain stem
It connects the brain and the spinal cord.

Language
Left hemisphere
production
Broca's Area
Impairment Broca's aphasia
Language in the brain
Language
Left hemisphere
understanding
Wernicke's Area
Impairment Wernicke's aphasia

Language in the brain

Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area are thought to be the places in the human brain, which are
responsible for both language production and language understanding, respectively. However,
although Broca’s area is the part of the brain, which is responsible for speech production, it is also
responsible for language processing and language comprehension somehow. First discovered in 1861,
Broca’s area was named after Pierre Paul Broca (1824-1880), after studying a patient’s brain after his
death, who suffered from speech impairment. Broca’s area is located in the anterior cortex of the left
hemisphere. In this area is where speech is produced. Neurologist Carl Wernicke (1848-1905) was
the scientist who discovered the place where language is understood. Wernicke’s area is located in
the posterior cortex of the left hemisphere. In this area is where speech is comprehended or
understood. Wernicke’s area is responsible for language comprehension, semantic processing,
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language recognition, and language interpretation. It is important to remark that deaf people cannot
speak, not because of an impairment of the region responsible for speech in the brain, but because
they are unable to hear, so they are not exposed to language as the average people do, and that way,
they do not train their brain to hearing. The more someone hears language; their brain will start
receiving stimuli from external sources: people, nature, and circumstances.

Speech disorders
They are characterized by a difficulty in producing normal speech patterns. Some of the most
common speech disorders are aphasia, anomia, agrammatism, tip of the tongue, spoonerism,
stammering or stuttering, etc. The Encyclopedia of Children’s Health (2010) refers to the stages
children have to go through as they attempt to produce spoken language as follows:

Children go through many stages of speech production while they are learning to communicate. What is
normal in the speech of a child of one age may be a sign of a problem in an older child. Speech disorders
include voice disorders (abnormalities in pitch, volume, vocal quality, resonance, or duration of sounds),
articulation disorders (problems producing speech sounds), and fluency disorders (impairment in the
normal rate or rhythm of speech, such as stuttering.
Speech disorders are common. More than a million children in the public schools’ special education
programs have been diagnosed with a speech disorder. One in 10 people in the United States is affected
by a communication disorder: speech, language, or hearing disorders.

Aphasia
The term aphasia comes from the Greek language and means ‘speechless.’ Aphasia is a language
disorder caused by the damage to the temporal lobe. Someone who suffers from it has problems to
understand or to produce language or both. Aphasia may be present due to one of the following
factors: strokes, brain injuries, or brain damage. Yule (1996: 167) defines aphasia in the following
terms:

Aphasia is defined as an impairment of language function due to localized cerebral i.e. (brain) damage,
which leads to difficulty in understanding and/or producing linguistic forms.

Types of aphasia
Broca’s aphasia
It refers to language production impairments caused by strokes, brain injuries, etc. According to
Yule (1996), Broca’s aphasia is also known as “motor aphasia” and it is characterized by substantial
reduced amount of speech, distorted articulation, and slow and effortful speech. Individuals who
suffer from Broca’s aphasia do not have any difficulty in understanding speech, so, individuals can
understand speech easily, but they have a hard time making themselves understood as they talk.
Below there is a dialog, which is taken from the following webpage:
https://webspace.utexas.edu/shettyml/fall2003/brain.html:

Examiner: Tell me, what did you do before you retired?

Aphasic: Uh, uh, uh, uh, pub, par, partender, no.
Examiner: Carpenter?
Aphasic: (shaking head yes) Carpenter, tuh, tuh, tenty year.

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Wernicke’s aphasia
It deals with difficulties someone has to understand language. According to Yule (1996),
Wernicke’s aphasia is also known as “sensory aphasia” and the individual has difficulty in
understanding speech. Individuals who suffer from Wernicke’s aphasia do not have any difficulty in
producing speech, but have a hard time understanding it. Following there is an example reported in
Akmajian et al (2001: 543):

Examiner: Do you like it here in Kansas City?

Aphasic: Yes, I am.
Examiner: I’d like to have you tell me something about your problem.
Aphasic: Yes, I, ug, can’t hill all of my way. I can’t talk all of the things I do, and part of the part I can
go alright, but I can’t tell from the other people. I usually most of my things. I know what can I talk and
know what they are, but I can’t always come back even though I know they should be in, and I know
should something eely I should know what I’m doing.

Global aphasia
Global aphasia is an acquired language disorder involving severe impairments in both language
production and language comprehension.

Anomic aphasia
Anomia is a language disorder in which the individual cannot remember words easily, especially
nouns and verbs.

Agrammatism
According to Richards, Platt, & Platt (1992: 18), “agrammatism is difficulty in using grammatical
words, such as prepositions, articles, etc.”

Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
It is a phenomenon when someone is sure he knows a word, but they are not able to remember it.
They say they have it at the tip of the tongue, but they just cannot remember the word or the
expressions they are required to utter. This phenomenon happens when they are under stress, tiredness
or fear.

Spoonerism
Spoonerisms are expressions, which are named after Reverend W. A. Spooner. He used to
misplace some syllables within the same phrase or sentence, for instance:

He meant: “Our dear old Queen,” but he said: “Our queer old Dean.”

Stammering or stuttering
It results because of the prolonged repetition of phonemes, syllables, and words, affecting the
smooth flow of speech. It can vary according to the circumstances, the contexts, and the people
involved in the speech event.

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 Psycholinguistics
Mental representations differ from speaker to speaker.

Psycholinguistics develops the idea behind the relationship between psychology and language. It aims
at analyzing those features related to the mind of the speaker and the hearer and the processes involved
in such a relationship. Mental representations differ from speaker to speaker. Not every individual
uses the same strategies to process, to understand, and to retrieve language. The mental processes are
the raw material from where those interested in this field get their primary attention.

Psycholinguistics deals with the way in which the mind deals with language, including
matters such as how language is stored in the mind, how language is understood and
produced in real time, how children acquire their first language.
Laurie Bauer

Since psycholinguistics deals with the study of language and the mind, it attempts to provide some
insights about language in terms of its acquisition, production, comprehension, storage, and retrieval.
Psycholinguists get evidence about the functioning of the mental and the cognitive systems in the
brain by analyzing pieces of language, providing patients with tests on how they produce and
understand human language.

Psycholinguistics

Psyche Language

Mind Thoughts

Mental
Mental processes
representations

Psycholinguistics establishes a direct relationship between language and mind, which is interested
in studying the cognitive processes, which take place to understand, to produce, or to store language.
The mind is the amorphous entity in which our thoughts come to life. Language is an instrument for
the expression or communication of thought.

Language can affect thought once thought has been established. Both the brain and the mind have
unlimited powers from which men should learn, in order to reach and to develop their most potential,
and in doing so, they can benefit from them as sources of knowledge, creativity, and expressiveness.

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Strong minds discuss ideas, average minds discuss events, weak minds discuss people.
Socrates

Language and social interaction

Language is the foundation of thought. Language serves to shape people’s thoughts. Speech as
language is the basis of thinking. Speech understanding precedes speech production. Speech is a
common human trait, which is shared by any infant no matter the linguistic code or system they speak
or understand. Language as speech is what really makes us different from other mammals or insects
in our attempt to communicate, to understand one another, to maintain and to improve our social
interaction, to develop mental abilities, or to perform higher cognitive skills.

Thought is not merely expressed in words; it comes into existence through them.
L. S. Vygotsky

Both language and mathematics require mental processes for their understanding and solving
problems. As language makes part of a common ground, everybody has to interact to keep a
conversation going; this is not the case of mathematics. The more we use language, the more it
develops naturally and it becomes perfect as individuals participate more often, on a daily basis.

Language was born as a survival element. No matter what language a child acquires, there is a
common pattern, which is naturally developed by them, in the world. It means that the human brain
is essentially the same to produce, to understand, and most importantly, to do something out of it. The
way people organize their thoughts is a responsibility of the brain, the language they speak and the
cognitive processes underlying them. Culture also has a say in the sense that what people experience
around them, contributes to organize their thoughts, and in doing so, they will be able to interact with
their peers in the achievement of very specific and particular goals, where others also are responsible
for contributing with their counterpart.

Three approaches to psycholinguistics

Psycholinguistics

Mind Language Cognition

Amorphous
Instrument Processes
entity

Thoughts Thoughts Thoughts

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 The first one has to do with the mind: It deals with the manner how the amorphous entity
interprets the thoughts installed in the brain, that is to say, the mind is not physical by nature.

The second one, with language: It is the vehicle or the instrument through which our thoughts
come to life, the manner how it contributes to human understanding.

The third one, with cognition: It refers to the processes involving language in terms of the
manner how people know and gain some understanding of their surrounding and how those
experiences enrich the acquisition or the learning of language and of what is achieved thanks to it.

Plato, Aristotle, and the Mind

Mukherjee & Ramaswamy (1999: 74) state “For Plato, the mind was active, capable of directing
itself towards objects of study, and if nurtured properly, it was capable of becoming totally receptive
to objects from the environment.”

Feher (2012: 297) provides the following idea referring to what the mind represented for Aristotle,
by saying: “To Aristotle, the mind was not a material entity.”

Language is the dress of thought.

Samuel Johnson

Language is not just influenced by what takes place in the brain, but also by external factors, which
affect the linguistic competence, the linguistic performance, and the communicative competence, of
both speaker and hearer, based on the issue being dealt with. The brain is the controlling source of all
and every mechanism articulated physiologically, affecting a person’s mental and psychological
states. As for language acquisition, language, in any linguistic system, has to be installed, first in the
brain and the mind. Right after this, thoughts and ideas appear, as there is a need to be fulfilled.

As time passes, but many hundreds, thousands, or millions of years, are necessary for this to be
evident. People in their small social and cultural groups started to organize those thoughts and ideas
based on what they wanted to convey, in order to achieve communication and understanding, of
course. That is where syntax, in the spoken language, appeared. Language, thought, and syntax, were
common problems or issues for linguistic systems started to appear and probably to be expanded, first
in small communities, cities, areas, regions, countries, and finally, continents, until the whole world
was completely covered with a wide variety of languages, which are supposed, as it was stated earlier,
sprang from a common trunk known as Protolanguage.

Once people have control over language, thought comes out easily, which is somehow very
different then, from the manner how babies, toddlers, and children acquire their native language, of
course, under natural and normal conditions. In the case of animals such as dogs, for instance,
although they do not have speech as humans do, they can understand some of the words, phrases, or
even sentences we tell them: ‘baby,’ ‘doggy,’ ‘puppy,’ ‘sweetie,’ ‘Let us go,’ ‘would you like to go
for a walk?’ They answer back just by waging their tails or moving their ears, for instance, but they
can also react like this to greet someone or another dog, animals or insects, or to express their

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affection, fear, hunger, thirst, happiness, or curiosity, using different tones of voice, for instance. It is
not a word, which carries a whole meaning or understanding of an idea, but a simple phoneme
performs such a task. An instance of this is an interjection, which is used to express apology (oops!);
disbelief (oh!); disgust (yuck!); fear (eek!); hesitation (uh!); pain (ouch!); or surprise (wow!).

Language acquisition takes place naturally and effortlessly. Language learning, on the other hand,
requires an inordinate amount of time and effort. A word in isolation can carry meaning per se, but
the context in which it is used plays a role. Words such as ‘help!,’ ‘police!,’ ‘water!,’ can actually
carry meaning. Even, when people are unable to come up with a given word, they use a number of
strategies to make themselves understood and achieve their communicative goals.

Language serves not only to express thought but to make possible thoughts which
could not exist without it.
Bertrand Russell

Following Russell’s quotation above, language is the means, the vehicle, or the system through
which both thought as thinking and thoughts as ideas can be expressed.

As for language acquisition, then, I suggest two terms, which are Quantity of Interaction and
Quality of Interaction. The former refers to the amount of time the learner is exposed to a piece of
knowledge in formal contexts: the classroom or natural settings. The latter refers to how effective
teaching is or has been; as well as how meaningful the type of material, which is being presented.

Therefore, babies, children, adults, and dogs require quantity of interaction, as well as quality of
interaction in terms of language, spoken language where they have to decipher it and read the gestures,
body language, and non-verbal communication in order for them to get a clue so that the aim of
communication can be reached.

Babies, toddlers, and children can easily and effortlessly ‘grasp the language’ they are in contact
with, for long periods. The same is true for those who are just exposed to the sounds, not the
phonemes, of birds and mammals, and nature, found in the wind, the water, the fire and the earth. In
this way, they will develop the physiological, cognitive, and mental abilities to reproduce, to
recognize, and to communicate with those sounds or much better phonemes in order to reach
understanding, cooperation, and survival.

Although animals attempt ‘to talk,’ that is to say, to sing as in the case of roosters, for instance, all
of them make the same sounds no matter the language background, although the speakers of those
languages hear them differently.

Language is generated in and by a person’s brain, mind, and psyche, and not just as it has been
stated by Chomsky with his syntactic model or by Jackendoff with his cognitive semantics. In my
opinion, the generation of language is one thing and the production of language through speech and
writing is another thing. There are more issues behind what language is and what it is used for.

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 The Pedagogy of Neurolinguistics and Psycholinguistics
The more parents, caretakers, and teachers are in contact with babies, toddlers, children, and teenagers
or even adults, the more they will have the chance to detect possible language disorders, traumas, or
damages, which are responsible for the processing, the comprehension, the production, the storage,
and the retrieval of language in their brains and their minds. Then, it is important to refer them to
people specialized in the area, and in doing so, they can be treated accordingly.

Language teachers should have sound knowledge and understanding of the possible causes and
consequences that some of the disorders covered in this chapter can affect the manner how
individuals, with limited language command, deal with language and communication as they want to
be understood as they interact with others.

The world of neurolinguistics is not just for those interested in the field, but also for parents,
caretakers, and teachers, who are those who spend most of their time under the care or the instruction
of children, teenagers, and adults. By understanding how the brain works, all of them will become
more aware of their responsibility for the development of language in the most natural circumstances.
The way the brain processes language and how the mental processes take place within it, is the interest
of both Neurolinguistics and Psycholinguistics.

That is why teachers should take advantage of some of the principles underlying language
acquisition or language learning, and in doing so; they could become aware of the possible problems
learners are to deal with in their attempt to achieve language for them to make themselves understood.
Language learning cannot be directly related to what is taught at school, but to the mental and
psychological processes through which they have to go through as they attempt to approach the L2.

Teachers have to be aware of the stages, which make up their learners’ linguistic repertoire and
identify any problems, which may appear as they advance toward their language attainment, as well
as the cultural patterns accompanying the L2 community where it takes place and develops. Language
processing in a foreign language takes time.

Teachers have to be patient with their learners since they learn at their own pace and not all of
them learn the same issues because their interests differ in terms of background knowledge and the
direct application of the instruction held in the classroom. A sense of security must be given to
learners as they attempt to speak a foreign or second language where few or no opportunities for
interaction are given, outside the classroom. The need has to be created and the conditions furnished
so that language understanding and language production can spring from within.

One of the factors dealing with the failure of foreign language learning has to do with the lack of
knowledge that some language teachers could have about some of the phenomena intervening in such
a process. The fact of being aware of what foreign language learners have to go through refers to the
neurological network and psychological factors with either favor or hinder L2 learning. Language
teachers should not be experts in the field. However, they are expected to have some background
knowledge about the areas in which language comprehension and language production take place.

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 Chapter 9
First Language Acquisition and Second Language
Learning
Language cannot and should not be taught by certain levels, but what learners really need
to convey. Language is timeless. It is a social construct.
Native language
It is the language a baby acquires in direct contact with native speakers, which includes parents,
peers, friends, and the whole community out there, in natural environments. Another name for native
language is mother tongue.

First language
It is the case when a child has been exposed to more than one language, that is to say, English,
Italian, German, Japanese, and with which he or she feels much more comfortable for expressing their
thoughts, needs, and preferences, that is to say, in the language of their choice.

Second language acquisition is concerned with the nature of the hypothesis (whether
conscious or unconscious) that learners come up with regarding the rules of the
second language.
Susan Gass & Larry Selinker (2001: 1)

Acquisition
Acquisition is the natural process by which children grasp language unconsciously, at an early age,
as Krashen & Terrell (1983) state. Babies cannot think in any given or specific language if they have
not been previously exposed to it, in a natural environment. Babies’ speech is somehow replaced by
cries, which is a sign to express hunger, sleep, happiness, cold, or fear, until he or she is prepared to
understand it and to speak it as it should be; depending on the opportunities they have to interact with
those around them in a given linguistic system, within a specific culture. Thanks to our mental
processes, any language can be easily acquired from an early age, only if the conditions necessary for
that to take place, are successfully met. Babies can just react to a number of circumstances, as it was
stated earlier, but they do it as a sign to express their needs, wants and preferences, which are
conveyed by cooing, babbling, crying, but also by using body language, gestures, posture, and facial
expressions, features, which are commonly found in any language.

Language requirements

Brain Language Language Language Social & Cultural

maturity exposure production comprehension practices

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 But what am I?
An infant crying in the night: An infant crying for the light;
And with no language but a cry.

Alfred Lord Tennyson (1809-1898)

Molina’s (2003) distinction between Acquisition and Learning is shown here:

Acquisition Learning
It is an unconscious process It is a conscious process
Learner’s internal factors Learner’s external factors
Mental mechanisms are natural It is hard to think in the language
It takes place in a natural setting It takes place in an artificial setting
It is based on natural communication It is based on formal instruction
There are native speakers There are no or few native speakers
Direct contact with native speakers Presence of teacher or instructor
There is a real language purpose There are many reasons to learn it
The emphasis lies on fluency The emphasis is on accuracy
The conditions are already met The conditions need to be created
Language is linked to culture/speech It is hard to gain cultural insights
The curriculum is need-based The curriculum tends to be gradual
There are cognitive/mental processes There is a lot of drilling involved
There are authentic materials Materials need to be created or adapted
Native or natural pronunciation Odd or strange pronunciation
Language is being exposed from birth Language is taught after childhood
Speech sounds natural Speech has a type of an ‘accent’

Conditions and requirements for language acquisition to arise:

 Speakers around the children need to interact with them in a certain language.
 Then, there is language exposure within a cultural environment.
 Language comprehension is a need for communication to be successful.
 Chances for interaction with people around them are necessary.
 When the children’s brain is mature and ready, language production will take place.
 Feedback is provided as people interact, talk and experience language.
 Error correction is given naturally. Children are not ‘taught’ how to speak language; it just
comes out naturally although some mistakes may occur.
 Meaningful language exchange will develop naturally.

Physiological traits
The internal organs and articulators should be well developed.

Psychological traits
The individual’s mental willingness toward the language must be positive and adequate.
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Language exposure
The time the individual is exposed to language is necessary.

Quality of interaction
The type of interaction could be good or poor.

Quantity of interaction
The time someone has been exposed to the L2 plays a role in language acquisition.

First language acquisition

It studies the processes involved in terms of the understanding and the production of language, in
natural settings and contexts, when children attempt to communicate with their parents, friends, peers,
or even complete strangers.

Second language learning

It explores the procedures used by non-native speakers to grasp a second language in settings
where it is spoken and used either, within the family or within the community.

Some features about language acquisition include the following:

 It is somewhat natural.
 It develops in natural settings.
 It is acquired effortlessly.
 It is a process, which is usually acquired fast.
 It does not require any formal instruction.
 It does not require instructional materials.
 It takes place in a number of contexts and throughout time.
 Control is gained directly from the contact with native speakers.
 Native speakers have the ability to judge what is right or wrong.
 Brain maturity is reached when the child is five years of age.

Foust (2003) provides some insights about language in the brain by saying:

Many scientists believe that a newborn’s brain is genetically “programmed” to learn language, just as a
bird is programmed to sing or a spider to weave a web. No one actually teaches a child to talk. Rather,
parents and others enable her learning by speaking while they interact with her. The interaction is a
critical part of this process; merely hearing TV or radio is not enough by itself.

Language Acquisition Theories

Language Acquisition Theories

Behaviorism Nativism Cognitivism Interactionism Emergentism

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Behaviorism
Behaviorism was a theory of language acquisition proposed by Watson (1878-1958), Skinner
(1904-1990). Behaviorism is based on the idea that language is acquired by stimulus, response,
imitation, reinforcement, and repetition of a behavior. Mental processes are not considered important
in the acquisition of language. It is important to mention that although Pavlov (1927) investigated
classical conditioning, he did not agree with behaviorism. Van Patten & Benati (2010: 68) refer to
behaviorism as follows:

Behaviorism was applied to language learning in the 1940s and 1950s. At the heart of the application is
the belief that language is a set of patterns or habits. Child L1 acquirers learned language by imitating
the language they heard and receiving positive reinforcement from the environment (e.g., getting what
they…).

Nativism or Innateness Hypothesis

As a rejection to the ideas proposed by behaviorists, Chomsky (1965) proposed the Nativism
theory, which is also known as Innateness hypothesis (1968) that states that language acquisition
relates to mental processes, not to observable behavior as it was stated in Behaviorism. Nativism
theory is because the child is capable of understanding and producing language thanks to his
Language Acquisition Device –LAD–. The Innate Hypothesis states that humans are born with the
capacity to acquire language. Weiten (2010: 326) explains Chomsky’s LAD theory by maintaining:

Nativist theory proposes that humans are equipped with a language acquisition device (LAD)—an innate
mechanism or process that facilitates the learning of language

Cognitive Theory
Cognitive theory appeared as a response to Behaviorism. For the same reason, Piaget (1967)
proposed his Cognitive theory, which underlies how important it is for the child to understand
concepts prior to incorporating them into his or her linguistic system, in order for them to be used
with his or her parents, peers, friends, and other people with whom they share the same code. It
includes the concepts of assimilation and accommodation. Bukatko & Daehler (2012, 2004: 23) refer
to these definitions in the following terms:

Piaget believed that schemes change through two complementary processes. The first, assimilation, refers
to the process of interpreting an experience in terms of current ways of understanding things. The second,
accommodation, refers to the modifications in behavior and thinking that take place when the old ways of
understanding, the old schemes, no longer fit.

Learning contributes to the processing of information and to the implementation of new

mechanisms in order to make the necessary changes, as learning makes us understand the world
around us differently. Experiences, positive or negative, make us make sound decisions as for living
under better conditions.

Williams & Burden (1997: 13) refer to the field of interest of cognitive psychology by saying:

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 In contrast to behaviourism, cognitive psychology is concerned with the way in which the human mind
thinks and learns. Cognitive psychologists are therefore interested in the mental processes that are
involved in learning. This includes such aspects as how people build up and draw upon their memories
and the ways in which they become involved in the process of learning.

Teaching processes should favor learning so that learners can internalize the new knowledge and
have it interact with their previous knowledge so that problem solving can take place successfully. In
other words, teachers are expected to change their practices so that learners’ practices can become
meaningful and can make sense to them, otherwise, it would be a waste of time, effort, and money
invested.

Interactionism
Larsen-Freeman (2011: 159) makes an emphasis on the idea that interaction is essential to
language acquisition to take place when she states:

Interactionists (e. g. Snow 1979) believe that it is not necessary to appeal to an innate LAD to explain the
facts of language acquisition. They instead could be accounted for by looking closely at the interaction
between the child and its caregivers, and the support the latter provides. For instance, even neonates
engage in ‘conversations’ with their caretakers, with the latter making particular accommodations to
facilitate language acquisition.

There is always a need in everything we embark on. Language is not the exception. It cannot be
understood, developed, and produced only is there is a purpose behind it. It is through interaction
human beings attempt to come together to solve problems, to socialize, to help one another, you name
it. Language learning, either in a four-wall classroom or in the open air, comes to life only when there
is something to be communicated, a need to be met, some kind of assistance to be provided, etc.
Williams & Burden (1997: 3) stress on the importance of social interaction by saying:

As we see it, babies are born into social worlds, come to develop a concept of self as a result of their social
interactions with others, and increasingly employ language to make sense of that social world and to help
them play an effective part within it. Thus, an understanding of the social factors which play a part in our
increasing competence as language users is essential for all language teachers.

Language cannot and should not be taught by certain levels, but what learners really need to
convey. Language is timeless. It is a social construct. Everyone in the community contributes to its
birth, growth, development, maintenance, and decay. Emotions come and go. They are made present
anywhere and everywhere. You cannot tell your language learners this is what you are to learn to say
and nothing else. In such a case, you are not complying with their communicative requirements. You
are to provide them with what they want to say, no matter if it is not included in the course syllabus.
Babies, toddlers, and little children are not taught their native or second language according to levels,
but through social interaction and cultural exposure, where language plays a key role. So it is the time
to have your language learners –foreign or second– immersed into both the language and the culture.

Emergentism
Gass & Selinker (1994: 219) refer to connectionist/emergentist models as follows:

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 In this approach to language learning, also referred to as constructivist approaches, the emphasis is on usage.
Learning does not rely on an innate module, but rather it takes place based on the extraction of regularities
from the input. As these regularities or patterns are used over and over again, they are strengthened…

For Ellis (1998: 657) emergentism can be interpreted as follows:

Simple learning mechanisms, operating in and across the human systems for perception, motor-action
and cognition as they are exposed to language data as part of a social environment, suffice to drive the
emergence of complex language representations.

Motherese and Teacherese

In the theory of language acquisition, the term Motherese usually appears. Motherese is the kind
of language used by mothers when they interact with their babies or children. Other terms for
Motherese include: Mother talk, Parentese, Care-taker speech, Child-directed speech or Baby talk.
Teacherese is another term related to Motherese and it refers to the language or speech used by
teachers in the ESL or EFL classroom setting. Some features about Motherese include the following:
Simple language: No complex or difficult language.
Slow pace: No fast speech delivered.
High-frequency words: Familiar and common words or expressions.
Nouns and verbs are commonly used: Most heard and spoken words.
Exaggeration: Too much articulation and repetition of the message, which needs to be conveyed.
Intonation patterns emphasized: Loud speech, rhythm, tone, and pitch.

According to Foust (2003), Motherese plays a role in the acquisition of language:

Baby talk by adults is part of this interaction. It involves simple sentence structure and vocabulary,
exaggerated intonation and sounds, repetition, and questions, all of which help a child sort out meanings,
sounds, and sentence patterns of a language.
During this early period, two languages can be learned simultaneously as long as the child regularly
interacts with speakers of both languages.

Kies (2010) retakes some background information about the critical period to language acquisition
according to Lenneberg’s theories (1964, 1967):

Although children will begin to vocalize and then verbalize at different ages and at different rates, children
–most children– will learn their first language, a highly complex and abstract symbol system, without
conscious instruction on the part of their parents or caretakers and without obvious signs of even making
the effort, let alone experiencing any difficulty in doing so. However, before learning can begin, children
must be ready to learn; that is, they must be biologically, socially, and psychologically mature enough to
undertake the task.
Linguists do not agree on exactly how biological factors affect language learning, but most do agree with
Lenneberg (1964) that human beings possess a capacity to learn language that is specific to this species
and no other. Lenneberg also suggested that language might be expected from the evolutionary process
humans have undergone and that the basis for language might be transmitted genetically.

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Acquiring a second language
It refers to the fact that children acquire language naturally from the direct contact with other
speakers. They can interact directly with native speakers or with those who are fluent and proficient,
not only in the language, but in the culture, which makes part of that language. Acquisition is a term,
which is related to second language. As it comes to child language acquisition, no language is ever
taught to children. It is a personal endeavor, which requires little effort. They just acquire or learn it
as they are in contact with it thanks to exposure and the opportunities children have to experience it
in meaningful contexts and settings.

Learning a foreign language

It is the one, which is usually taught at school and the speaker has control over the grammar of the
system that he or she learned directly through the explanation and the application of the rules
governing that language. Learning is a term, which is related to foreign language learning or foreign
language teaching.

Language acquisition stages

It is evident that almost every normal child in the world goes through these stages, in their attempt
to acquire language: a) Cooing; b) Babbling; c) One word; and d) Two words.
Cooing: Babies start to coo in order to express their needs and wants with soft murmuring sounds.
They start to gurgle after they are about 3 months old.
Babbling: Babies start to babble those phonemes they hear around them. This takes place when they
are about 6-10 months old. There is eye-to-eye contact with caretakers.
e. g. [b], [m], [p].
One-word or holophrastic stage: Babies utter meaningful words such as content words (nouns,
adjectives, verbs). This takes place when they are about 1 year old. At the semantic level, one word
may mean different things.
e. g. Kitten; sleepy; eat.
Two-Word Stage: Babies combine two words to express ideas that are more complex. Language
tends to be short, but effective. This takes place when they are about 2 years old. Language becomes
more complex.
e. g. allgone milk; baby sleep.

Foust’s (2003) The Brain and Language Acquisition excerpt:

The “window of opportunity” idea is widely accepted. Here is a very simplified explanation: From birth
until puberty, the brain literally formats itself to perform various specialized functions, such as language,
based upon the input it gets from the world. Neural networks gradually form, and they function more and
more efficiently as they are used. If a second language is part of that input, networks for understanding
and using it grow richer. Therefore, early exposure to a second language actually causes more
connections to grow in a child’s brain, and those connections, in turn, allow for easier additional learning
in the second and first languages.

This “formatting” process, especially active in the first six years, ends at puberty, or around age 12, and
the brain begins to shed connections it no longer uses. The capacity to distinguish and make sounds not
encountered in languages the child speaks diminishes or disappears.

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Important Aspects in Second Language Acquisition
Language input
It refers to the language the child is in contact with, directly or indirectly, either from his parents,
friends, family or external sources like radio or television. It has to do with all the possible kinds of
sources the child is in contact with and he or she has the possibility to use it in meaningful contexts.
Some useful input includes family, friends, music, television, newspapers, magazines, journals, the
Internet, sports programs, language software, or Web Sites to learn the L2, from authentic sources.

Language intake
It refers to the ability the learner has to choose from the aforementioned sources, that is to say, he
or she selects those sources, which best contributes to his or her L1 or L2 learning or acquisition.

Language output
It has to do with the ability and the capacity the child has to produce speech. It relates to the
production the learner makes, applying his linguistic knowledge.

Attitude
It refers to the drive that makes people move in the achievement of a given goal. If it is absent
from the desire to learn a foreign language, there is no point in making any effort. Learners’ attitude
greatly determines the success or the failure in attempting their linguistic and cultural aims.

Interaction
It has to do with the cooperation two individuals have to carry out a project together, to cooperate
in the solution of a common project, or to convey meaning while doing transactions thanks to the use
of language.

Motivation
In general, motivation can be defined as the interest, which may derive from outside or from
within. It refers to the willingness and the desire the child has to acquire language naturally. Both
motivation and demotivation are two sides of the same coin. They are necessary to mold a person’s
character. It is through good and bad experiences that people achieve their personal goals throughout
time. The word Motivation refers to other concepts like reason, interest, like, preference, desire, and
need. Motivation is a drive, which pushes us to take action toward a certain goal in order to be reached,
which is highly related to psychological and linguistic theories. If someone is applying for a
scholarship, grant, or fellowship to pursue graduate studies such as a Master’s Program, a PhD. or
Post-Doctoral Studies, they feel the need to learn English no matter what. Because there is much at
stake, they do feel the motivation to learn English in order for them to achieve their academic goals.
Besides, it may also happen that a great job opportunity is at risk of being lost because learners or
professionals are not linguistically competent in the L2.

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Motivation can be classified as follows:
Intrinsic motivation
It is an internal drive that makes someone react to a desire or need to be fulfilled. It comes from
the individual’s internal factors. He or she is interested in learning it because he or she feels like doing
it
Extrinsic motivation
It refers to an external series of factors, which serves to initiate a response from within. It comes
from external factors to the individual. He is not interested in learning or acquiring the language
because he wants to, but he has to learn it anyway.
Integrative motivation
It is when learners openly accept to become active members of a linguistic community in a cultural
setting. The individual learns the language to be in contact with the people who speak it and want to
make part of that community or society.
Instrumental motivation
It is when language is used as a tool or means for learners to reach their personal goals, but they
have no interest in becoming members of the community where they live. The individual learns the
foreign or the second language with a purpose in mind: to get a job, for a job promotion, to do
business, for tourism, to work, or to live in a foreign country, that is to say, the language is the tool
to get what the individual wants to achieve. Some aspects rooted to the issue of motivation could
include the following:
Goal Purpose to be reached

Attitude Participants’ personality

Content Material and knowledge

Location Setting, context, and weather

Methodology Approaches and techniques

Means Instructional resources

Commitment Interest shown in the task

Verification Checking task completion

You can lead a horse to water, but you can’t make him drink.
Dorothy Parker

Reflection
1. Which of the issues mentioned above, do you consider are the three most important ones?
2. How can you make your learners be engaged in their language learning?
3. Should the language teacher foster motivation? If so, how?
4. Can motivation be increased only when there is a real use and application of language?
5. Which are at least five reasons, which demotivate learners to learn the L2?

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 The Pedagogy of First Language Acquisition and Second
Language Learning
First language acquisition takes place when babies, toddlers, and children, grasp it unconsciously,
without intervention from instruction. They are then in direct contact with and surrounded by it in
order to reach their communicative needs by guaranteeing survival and social interaction. First
language acquisition cannot be taught, but the conditions have to be created in artificial settings when
it comes to a foreign or a second language-learning situation.

Since language is being exposed from birth, learner’s cognitive and mental processes develop
naturally, there is no much effort involved in its thinking. Native-like pronunciation is acquired
unconsciously and naturally. As for second language learning, the conditions are quite different. It
refers to the fact that one language has been previously mastered and then another language makes
part of the speaker’s linguistic system.

Within the family, parents should speak one or more languages so that their children can acquire
them effortlessly so that they can become familiar with new linguistic systems and start interacting
with others who also speak them.

Time and exposure to language are two necessary conditions that children are expected to take
advantage of, apart from willingness and motivation. Language teachers should contribute somehow
with the kind of motivation their learners are expected to have, in order for them to approach an L2.
Everybody has their own personal reasons to learn a foreign or a second language.

Some of them feel the need; others are forced to learn it. Some others want to become part of the
community where it is used. Still some others want to learn it just to survive at the work place, but
they keep their own language as a means to express and to keep their cultural identity.

In second language learning, there is a purpose behind it, so teachers do not have to struggle to
convince learners in their endeavor. Although pedagogy and didactics make emphasis on accuracy,
teachers should devote their efforts in fluency, since learning to speak is first than just learning the
basics of the language: grammar or syntax. This traditional method has not always been successful.

When a learner travels to another country to learn its language, the conditions are already given,
what needs to be offered are the opportunities for communication in the L2. Culture is just one step
away: people’s lifestyles, beliefs, and practices, are learned from first-hand experience; otherwise
learners have to be provided with a representative sample of what it is meant by high culture:
literature, art, music, etc. In short, it can be stated that first language acquisition and foreign language
learning are two similar processes since they involve proper conditions, such as exposure, quality,
quantity, and opportunities for interaction with the language and its cultures, etc. However, they occur
under different circumstances. In order for learning to be similar to acquisition, the conditions of the
latter have to be extrapolated to contexts of the former. In this sense, language teachers, along with
governmental officers, have to work hard so that this can come true.

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 Chapter 10
Contrastive Analysis, Error Analysis, Interlanguage,
Fossilization, and Language Transfer
Making mistakes is a natural endeavor, which reflects the way learners attempt to approach the L2

Making mistakes is a natural endeavor, which reflects the way learners attempt to approach the L2,
which provides language teachers with meaningful data regarding learners’ current state in terms of
linguistic competence, linguistic performance, and communicative competence. In educational,
societal, and cultural contexts and settings, there should be given careful attention to the
aforementioned processes in order for making the necessary adjustments to language teaching
practices. By being aware of them, language teachers are expected to be understanding, respectful,
and tactful, as they approach any of the phenomena mentioned above, otherwise they would affect
learners’ attitudinal behaviors. In their attempt to learn a foreign or a second language, adolescents
and adults, usually have to go through a series of processes, which involve some of the following, if
not, all of them:

 Contrastive Analysis (Robert Lado, 1957)

 Error Analysis (S. Pit. Corder, 1967)
 Interlanguage (Larry Selinker, 1972)
 Fossilization (Larry Selinker, 1972)
 Language Transfer (Terence Odlin, 1989)

All of these processes provide linguists with some insights about the mental conditions and the
stages language learners are in, at a certain moment, which can give language teachers some hints
about their developmental stage and how well or poorly they structure their L2, is. The periods of
language contact and the feedback for correction the learners get from their teachers, can give them
an idea of how formal and informal instruction or external sources play a role in the L2 learning
process. That is why some piece of evidence should be kept, recordings, videos, interviews, and
journals, so to speak. The researchers should be ethical, objective, and respectful as for the results
they find in their analysis of their learners’ oral production or written work.

Individuals tend to transfer the forms and meanings, and the distribution of forms and
meanings of their native language and culture to the foreign language and culture.
Robert Lado (1957: 2)

Lado’s Contrastive Analysis (1957)

Also known as CA, Contrastive Analysis deals with the comparison of two languages in order to
discover similarities and differences between them. The similarities between the L1 and the L2 will
ease the foreign or second language learning. The differences between the two systems explain which
aspects will hinder the learning or the acquisition of the L2. On the other hand, James (1980), in his
Preface to his book Contrastive Analysis, points out the following about the issue by stating:

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 In the heyday of structural linguistics and the pattern practice language teaching methodology which
derived insights and justification from such an approach to linguistic description, nothing seemed of
greater potential value to language teachers and learners than a comparative and contrastive description
of the learner’s mother tongue and the target language.

As it can be appreciated, Contrastive Analysis attempts to discover the commonalities and the
differences between two linguistic systems, related or unrelated, in terms of grammar: a) phonology;
b) semantics; c) syntax; and d) morphology, so that predictions can be made in which aspects or
senses L1 favors or hinders the learning or the acquisition of the L2. Once these aspects have been
dealt with in depth, teachers have to devote some time and analyze, which issues need consideration,
only if are there any negative influences on the L2 learning. Most of the time, this analysis or
comparison made between two linguistic systems is in terms of speech.

Lightbown & Spada (1999: 73) draw on the idea of Contrastive Analysis from another perspective,
by stating the influence of an L1 to an L2 and from that very same L2 to that L1. That is to say, there
is a reciprocal influence of a language over another as learners attempt to learn them, by learners from
different language backgrounds by saying:

A traditional version of the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) would predict that, where differences
exist, errors would be bi-directional, that is, for example, French speakers learning English and English
speakers learning French would make errors on parallel linguistic features.

In English, people say, for instance: “I read it,” as referring to a book, while in Spanish, people
say, “Yo lo leí.” On the other hand, in Spanish, people say, “La gente está ocupada,” while in English
it is expressed like, “People are busy.”

Corder’s Error Analysis (1967)

Corder (1967) who first decided to work systematically on the analysis of error correction, based
on the performance of speakers as for their language morphology, syntax, and lexicon. That is to say,
he was interested in going deeper into the studies of the reasons behind learners’ mistakes as for the
grammar of their languages as an attempt to produce their utterances in an L2.

For Lightbown & Spada (1999: 73-74) error analysis distinguishes from contrastive analysis in its
purpose, as they explain below:

Error analysis differed from contrastive analysis in that it did not set out to predict errors. Rather, it
sought to discover and describe different kinds of errors in an effort to understand how learners process
second language data. Error analysis was based on the assumption that, like child language, second
language learner language is a system in its own right –one which is rule-governed and predictable.

What learners do is to transfer the knowledge they have of their mother tongue and attempt to use
a given structure, a phoneme, or a vocabulary word, into the new language, sometimes misleadingly.
Error Analysis as proposed by Corder (1967: 167) is interpreted and expected to be applied, in the
following terms:

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 A learner’s errors, then, provide evidence of the system of the language that he is using (i.e. has learned)
at a particular point in the course (and it must be repeated that he is using some system, although it is not
yet the right system). They are significant in three different ways. First to the teacher, in that they tell him,
if he undertakes a systematic analysis how far to the goal the learner has progressed, and, consequently,
what remains for him to learn. Second, they provide to the researcher evidence of how language is learned
or acquired, what strategies or procedures the learner is employing in his discovery of the language.
Thirdly . . . they are indispensable to the learner himself, because we can regard the making of errors as
a device the learner uses in order to learn.

Errors do not necessarily take place as a lack of knowledge of the grammar of a certain or particular
language. Somebody’s language cannot be said that is faulty because they do not follow the patterns
as the rules convey, but because of other reasons:

 Lack of attention.
 Tiredness.
 Fatigue.
 Lack of formal instruction.
 Because that was the manner how they acquired the language directly from their parents or
even the interaction with others around them.

In both first language acquisition and foreign language learning, native speakers, especially
children, and adolescents and adults, test hypothesis about, not just the behavior of the language, but
about the people think and express those ideas, feelings, and emotions, through speech or writing.
Someone can be aware of the right way to say ‘it,’ but because of some of the aforementioned reasons,
they do it sometimes so that others can understand them, in a particular cultural setting.

To err is human, to forgive is divine.

Alexander Pope

The idea behind this is that language teachers should not concentrate on the mistakes learners
make; instead they should ask why that happens, make the necessary corrections, and consider them
as being natural processes that learners have to go through in their attempt to learn the L2. The main
interest of error analysis is to distinguish between errors and mistakes. An error is said to be
systematic and interferes with understanding a piece of message in the communication process.
Mistakes, on the other hand, do not have such a negative impact.

Interlanguage refers to the separateness of a second language learner’s system, a

system that has a structurally intermediate status between the native and target
language.
Douglas Brown (1994)

Selinker’s Interlanguage (1972)

Richards et al, (1992: 186) define Interlanguage as follows:

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 The type of language produced by second and foreign-language learners who are in the process of
learning a language… Since the language which the learner produces using these processes differs from
both the mother tongue and the TARGET LANGUAGE, it is sometimes called an Interlanguage, or is said
to result from the learner’s Interlanguage system or approximative system.

Ellis (2004: 30, 350) defines Selinker’s Interlanguage (1972) as follows:

The interim grammars which learners build on their way to full target language competence… The starting
point for any discussion of the mental processes responsible for L2 acquisition is the concept of
interlanguage, a term coined by Selinker (1972). It is used to refer to both the internal system that a
learner has constructed at a single point in time (‘an interlanguage’) and to the series of interconnected
systems that characterize the learner’s progress over time (‘interlanguage’ or ‘the interlanguage
continuum’).

In Spanish, Italian and French, the negative particles (no, non and ne . . . pas), respectively, come
before the verb, in English, German, and Dutch, the verbs ‘Be’, ‘Sein’, and ‘Zijn,’ respectively, come
before the negative particle.

Spanish: (Yo) no soy (un) comerciante.

Italian: Io non sono un comerciante.
French: Je ne suis pas un commerçant.
English: I am not a businessperson.
German: Ich bin nicht ein Geschäfstmann.
Dutch: Ik ben niet een Zakenman.

Comparing German to Dutch, there are many similarities in terms of syntax, at this very basic
level: they are quite evident. Nouns are capitalized in both languages. Native speakers utter language
very differently from the manner how non-native speakers do. It is in this interlanguage transition
that the latter attempts to speak as the former do and the language produced contains a mixture of
both linguistic systems, which can be improved once non-native speakers get in contact with native
speakers, by means of their language and culture(s).

Selinker’s Fossilization (1972)

Richards et al (1992: 145-146) define fossilization in the following terms:

(in second or foreign language learning) a process which sometimes occurs in which linguistic features
become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language. Aspects of pronunciation,
vocabulary usage, and grammar may become fixed or fossilized in second or foreign language learning.
Fossilized features of pronunciation contribute to a person’s foreign accent.

Some reasons for Fossilization to happen are the following:

a) Poor teacher’s linguistic preparation;
b) Negative input learners or speakers gain from their surroundings;
c) Learner’s lack of interest in learning or acquiring the L2 as it should be;
d) Lack of meaningful opportunities for learners to interact through it;

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 e) Inadequate methodological procedures to teach the L2 and its culture(s);
f) Insufficient authentic learning resources, which portrait the L2 culture(s);
g) The language being taught in the L2 classroom differs from the one used outside.

Yule (1996: 195) defines fossilization in the following terms:

If some learners develop a fairly fixed repertoire of L2 forms, containing many features which do not
match the target language, and they do not progress any further, their Interlanguage is said to have
‘fossilized.’ The process of fossilization in L2 pronunciation is one obvious cause of a foreign accent.

By the same token, Brown (2000: 231) refers to fossilization as follows:

A fossilized error is the most aggravated form of an error, as it refers to the “relatively permanent
incorporation of incorrect linguistic forms into person’s second language competence.

Lightbown & Spada (1999: 72) establish the notion that language transfer is not the sole
responsible for language errors, when they state:

Not all errors made by second language learners can be explained in terms of first language transfer
alone. A number of studies show that many errors can be explained better in terms of learners’ attempts
to discover the structure of the language being learned than an attempt to transfer patterns of their first
language.

Odlin’s Language Transfer (1989)

Language transfer (1989: 27) is defined as follows:

Transfer is the influence resulting from the similarities and differences between the target language and
any other language that has been previously (and perhaps imperfectly) acquired.

Language transfer refers to cross-linguistic influences a language exerts over another linguistic
system. A learner makes use of his language knowledge and transfers some of its aspects into the
language being learned. When there are no coincidences between the two systems, there is a
breakdown in communication, so the message cannot be conveyed. The differences lie in terms of the
L1 and L2 grammars.

Selinker (1992: 208) provides a definition of language transfer as follows:

Language transfer is best thought of as a cover term for a whole class of behaviours, processes, and
constraints, each of which has to do with cross-linguistic influence, i.e. the influence and use of prior
knowledge, usually but not exclusively native language knowledge.

Richards et al, (1992: 205) define language transfer as follows:

The effect of one language on the learning of another. Two types of language transfer may occur. Negative
transfer, also known as interference, is the use of a native-language pattern or rule which leads to an

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 error or inappropriate form in the target language . . . Positive transfer is transfer which makes learning
easier, and may occur when both the native language and the target language have the same form.

At the initial stages, language transfer is a common phenomenon, especially foreign language
learners tend to transfer some aspects of syntax, semantics, or phonology from their L1 system to the
L2 system. Once the new system has been installed in their brains and mind, the quality of language,
in terms of grammar, is expected to improve when the L2 is used purposefully.

Transfer can be either positive or negative. Positive transfer refers to the fact in which the
structures of the speakers’ native language are similar to those used by non-native speakers. Negative
transfer results when there is no coincidence in terms of the structures used by non-native speakers
attempting to communicate with them or with others who are in the same situation.

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 The Pedagogy of Contrastive Analysis, Error Analysis,
Interlanguage, Fossilization, and Language Transfer
Linguists try out a quite number of theories, which better helps to understand the internal mechanisms
people use to process a foreign or a second language. The aforementioned processes in this chapter
(contrastive analysis, error analysis, Interlanguage, fossilization, and language transfer) constitute
a series of efforts that linguists have devised in order to interpret the stages learners have reached in
their attempt to master an L2.

When linguists back on their theories on observation, practice, and reflection, they come out with
the best principles to cope with an understanding of the procedures and processes underlying language
learning, more than acquisition itself. These have been the prime theories that have accompanied
language teachers for a while, always with an attempt to improve language teaching and to foster
language learning, whenever possible. All of them have language as the main issue. Let us concentrate
on the Interlanguage process. Interlanguage is of great help to teachers because it is a process in
between where two linguistic systems meet. It can be said that mental operations become more
complex as a new linguistic system makes part of an existing one.

As learners advance in their language learning, the Interlanguage system seems to fade away, and
the interference of the existing language gradually disappears. Teachers have to be careful, respectful,
and attentive, to the processes their foreign language learners have to go through as they approach it.

Both the spoken language and the written language can provide teachers with some insights about
the progress that their learners have made because of instruction or language exposure, and practice,
of course.

The more authentic materials and resources that language teachers use and provide their learners
with, the better for their Interlanguage system to be reduced progressively. On the one hand, discourse
analysis serves to explore and to study speech produced by learners in oral interactions through
language exchange, in or outside the classroom setting, in real-life situations, where language is the
means of communication.

On the other hand, text analysis can shed some light to the manner how the foreign written
language starts to look like that produced by native speakers. What teachers can do is to record and
to videotape speech so that it could be transcribed and analyzed for further research. The same is true
for the written language, when learners’ compositions serve as samples for further analysis and
exploration so that some pedagogical measures can be taken accordingly.

Language improvement is possible thanks to the opportunities that language learners are given to
be in contact with the language and its culture, autonomously. Once they become independent from
their teachers, their decisions to continue learning the L2 are just personal. It can be said that both
native and non-native speakers are prone to making mistakes. However, this is much more common
within non-native speakers since different phenomena can come into play and be intertwined.

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 Reflection
Chapter 8: Neurolinguistics and Psycholinguistics
1. For a teacher, is it important to have a sound knowledge of neurolinguistics?
2. How could it be applied in the EFL setting?
3. How can you apply in your teaching the concepts addressed in this chapter?
4. Have your learners ever experienced any language disorders?
5. What are some of the possible reasons for spoonerisms to take place?
6. How can you apply some knowledge of psycholinguistics in your teaching?
7. What is the relation between psycholinguistics and neurolinguistics?
8. Why is it important to know how people understand and produce language?
9. Which area of psycholinguistics would you like to delve into?
10. Which field -Psycholinguistics or Neurolinguistics- is much more important in your language
teaching situation?

Chapter 9: First Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning

1. How can you apply Motherese in your teaching situation?
2. What kinds of tasks can you think of in order to provide learners with input?
3. How can instruction help your learners to become interactive participants, in a foreign
language community?
4. What is much more important: quantity of interaction or quality of interaction?
5. Which features are necessary for second language learning to arise from your teaching point
of view?

Chapter 10: Contrastive Analysis, Error Analysis, Interlanguage, Fossilization, and

Language Transfer
1. In which regards could an L1 and L2 be compared?
2. If two languages are related, does it mean that the learning of the L2 will be easier?
3. Who tends to compare the L1 to the L2 much more often –children or adults–?
4. Have you ever found any evidence of Interlanguage systems in your learners’ minds?
5. What aspects of Interlanguage can be worked in your language lessons?

Project
Analyze both a piece of spoken discourse and written discourse by determining the most common
process that your EFL/ESL learners are in as they attempt to learn it and explore new ways to go
about finding a solution to such an issue.

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 Part 4:
THE POWER OF WORDS

You can change your world by changing your

words… Remember, death and life are in the power
of the tongue.
Joel Osteen

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 Chapter 11
Morphology
Words exist as they supply communicative needs to be used in social settings and cultural contexts.

Words themselves have their own structure in terms of origin, formation, derivation, function, and
meaning. Words have their own rules, which specify how they are formed. Words exist as they supply
communicative needs to be used in social settings and cultural contexts. Words can be classified as
functional in terms of grammar; that is, they have a role to play within a sentence and they convey
meaning when it comes to verbs, nouns, adjectives, etc., to describe reality. Although words seem to
mean the same everywhere, they do not. Words do not necessarily mean what they are to mean, but
what people want them to mean. The power of words deals with some disciplines of linguistics, which
include Morphology, Semantics and Pragmatics. Words make sense when we know where they come
from or how they originate. Words are useful to us as they help us to know what they refer to. Words
are essential for us to know in which context they have to be used.

Morphology: The study of the structure of words.

Akmajian et al (2001: 11)

Morphology deals with the creation of words. A word may give the chance for other words to be
created out of them, by different processes, such as backformation, blending, compound, etc.
Semantics is responsible for the meaning of words; by the way, what is a word? - A word can convey
meaning according to a particular context and given the circumstances. The phonology, the
morphology, the spelling, and the meaning a word gets, is not subject to a common consensus among
languages, so words are arbitrary since they do not follow any laws. Words and phonemes make up
the raw material of language. Not all well-formed sentences in terms of syntax are said to be coherent
in terms of meaning.

Meaning is paramount when it comes to expressing one’s ideas fully. Pragmatics is interested in
the analysis of language in context. A word is an abstract entity, which carried out a function to
convey meaning, based on a number of contexts and settings. A word is analyzed, based on the roles
played by the speaker and the hearer, in the communicative act. Words are the raw material of
language; without them, there would not be concepts and ideas, derived from language, spoken,
written, signal, or even computational. Words come from people’s minds and their meaning vary
according to what people want them to mean in their specific contexts and settings, where culture
plays an important role.

Lexicon
The term lexicon refers to the mental repertoire of words, phrases, or expressions that someone
may know of the reality in their language and culture. The lexicon refers to idioms, slang, jargon,
clichés, etc. Words, concepts, and representations make up the backbone of language. The functions
that words play depend on the meanings they are given by native speakers in speech and writing. If
they did not exist in a speaker’s mental repertoire, it is difficult for them to figure out what they mean.

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What “to know” a word means
To know a word implies the connection with some other disciplines of linguistics: Phonology,
Semantics, Syntax, Morphology, and Pragmatics. Culture, indeed, has an important role to play in the
meaning a word can take since words change their meanings over time, according to people
background knowledge, educational level, social status and the like.

Phonology: It refers to the manner how a word sounds.

Semantics: It has to do with the meaning of words.
Syntax: It relates to the arrangement of words within a sentence.
Morphology: It deals with the make-up of words.
Pragmatics: It studies the relations people establish with and through language.
Culture: It embodies the thoughts, beliefs, ideas, or traits of a group, a society.

Function
Morphology is interested in studying the formation processes involved in the creation of new
words. Below there are some examples about third-singular person, the plural of regular nouns, and
the regular past tense.

Third-person singular The plural of regular nouns The regular past tense

He speaks English. I like to read books. I studied for the test.

She lives in town. Close the doors She rented the flat
He watches T.V. Pick up the boxes He missed the flight

Allomorph
Tartaglia (1972: 107) refers to an allomorph as follows:

Each of the different phoneme sequences of the plural ending in boys, cats, and roses is called an
allomorph of the plural morpheme. (An allomorph is a morpheme variant which occurs in fixed
environments.)

An allomorph is a variation of a morpheme in terms of pronunciation, based on the linguistic

context. The realization of the [s] sound may be pronounced as /s/, /z/ or /iz/ depending on the
linguistic context in which the [s] sound takes place, as it is shown above; the same is true for the
pronunciation of the regular plural form and the regular past tense.

Simple Present Tense Marker

[-s]
/s/ /z/ /iz/
paints goes washes
e. g. He paints landscapes.
She goes to work by metro.
The maid washes the dishes after meals.

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Plural Noun Marker
[-s]
/s/ /z/ /iz/
books cars boxes
e. g. I have two books to read.
There are few cars in the garage.
We need some boxes to pack our stuff.

Simple Past Tense Marker

[-ed]
/d/ /t/ /id/
lived worked rented
e. g. I lived abroad for 5 years.
We all worked on the project.
They rented a cozy apartment.

Classification of Morphemes: Free or Bound

Free morphemes can stand alone as an independent word in a sentence.
e. g. House, big, short.

Bound morphemes cannot stand alone as an independent word in a sentence. It has to be attached
to another morpheme: a free morpheme.
e. g. Houses, bigger, shortest.

Affixes are a kind of a bound morpheme. Affixes include Prefixes and Suffixes. Prefixes are
morphemes, which go before base morphemes, providing a new meaning or function to the word.
in + legal illegal

in + mature Immature

in + possible Impossible

in + relevant irrelevant
e. g. His behavior was somewhat immature.
To me, it is quite impossible.

Suffixes are morphemes, which are attached at the end of base morphemes, provide a new meaning
or function to the word. Some examples of suffixes are:
_s friends

_ing reading

_ed worked
e. g. We have lots of friends.
Reading is my favorite pastime.

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 Base morphemes Bound morphemes Examples

comfort _able comfortable

run _er runner

examine _tion examination

e. g. Your apartment is very comfortable.
Jerome was an excellent runner.
The proposal requires a careful examination.

Some words may derive from their verbs, adjectives, nouns

Verbs
e. g. Build: builder; building; rebuild; rebuilding.
Create: creator; creativity; recreate; recreation; recreational.
Adjectives
e. g. Easy: easiness; uneasiness; uneasy; easily; uneasily.
Polite: politeness; impolite; politely; impolitely.
Nouns
e. g. Certainty: certain; certainly; uncertain; uncertainly; uncertainty.
Anger: angry; angrily.
Heat: heater, heating.

Parts of Speech or Word Classes

They refer to the different kinds of words, which are used to form phrases, sentences, clauses,
either orally or in writing. Parts of Speech include:
Nouns: bus, eraser, hotel Pronouns: I, his, ours Conjunctions: and, or, either

Verbs: to do, to get, to go Adverbs: fast, slowly, well Determiners: a, an, some, the

Adjectives: cold, easy, hard Prepositions: at, in, on Interjections: oh, uh-huh, oops

Word Classification
Open Class words refer to content words, which correspond to Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives, and
Adverbs. It means that new words can be created in this category, based on the discoveries, inventions,
or advancements in science and technology.

Closed Class words refer to function words, which correspond to Pronouns, Prepositions,
Conjunctions, Interjections, and Determiners. It means that no more new words can be created in this
category. Until now, there has been no need to create more words to fulfill other purposes,
corresponding to function words.

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Importance of Words and Context
Isolated words convey a particular function or meaning. Words within a particular context play a
function and have a specific meaning.
e. g. The child likes to play ball.
We attended the ball last Saturday.
I had a ball at the party.

Inflectional Suffixes
_s / _es: third-person singular. e. g. He plays the piano.
_ing: continuous tense. e. g. Francis is taking a nap.
_d / _ed: simple past tense. e. g. We arrived home early.
_er: comparative. e. g. Benjamin is taller than Paul.
_est: superlative. e. g. He is the best person I know.
_ly: adverbs out of adjectives. e.g. She sings beautifully.

Word-Formation Processes
New words appear as a response to a need people have to name reality in terms of science, law,
architecture, engineering, art, music, dentistry, medicine, technology, etc. The formation of words
comprises several phenomena, which will be explained below:

Acronyms: The initial letter of a word serves to create an expression.

A.S.A.P.: As soon as possible. C.U.L.A.: See you later alligator.

J.A.S.: Just a second. C.U.T.: See you tomorrow.

J.F.K.: John Fitzgerald Kennedy. C.Y.L.: See you later.

K.I.T.: Keep in touch. T.G.I.F.: Thanks God it’s Friday.

e. g. Call me A.S.A.P.
C.U.T. I love you.

Backformation: A verb is derived from a noun.

to acculturate acculturation

to babysit babysitter

to evaluate evaluation

to resurrect resurrection

to televise television
e. g. We need to vaccinate the children.
She usually babysits on the weekend.

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Blending: A new word is formed by combining some elements of both words.
breakfast + lunch brunch

emote + icon emoticon

motor + hotel motel

smoke + fog smog

work + alcoholic workaholic

e. g. On weekdays, there is much smog all over the city.
Her husband is a workaholic. He rarely rests on the weekend.

Brand Names: The brand of a company makes it identifiable for everyone.

Band-Aid Coke

Frotex Kleenex

Kool-Aid Kotex
e. g. Do you have a Kleenex by any chance?
It’s too hot today. Could you please fix some glasses of Kool-Aid?

Brand Names: Business and technological nouns turned out to become verbs.
E-mail to e-mail

Fax to fax

Google to google

Hoover to hoover

Twitter to tweet

Xerox to xerox
e. g. Can you google that for us, please?
Tweet me your pictures.

Compound: A new word is made by joining two words together.

book + store bookstore

hand + shake handshake

news + stand newsstand

e. g. The bookstore has been closed down.
Give me a strong handshake.

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Agentive Nouns: Nouns are made starting from their verbs.
to drive driver

to sing singer

to teach teacher
e. g. He works as a taxi driver.
She is my favorite singer.

Shortened Forms: Long words become shorten.

advertisement ad

gymnastics gym

laboratory lab

newspaper paper
e. g. They put an ad on the Internet.
The lab is on the second floor.

Diminutives: These are words, which express tenderness, love, or affection.

Dad Daddy

Mom Mommy

Grandma Granny
e. g. Raymond is Daddy’s pet.
Mommy has been a great support for her.

Diminutives: for common words include the following:

book booklet

cigar cigarette

kitchen kitchenette
e. g. We don’t like cigarettes.
The booklet is by the night table.

Nicknames: Some nicknames for people are shown below:

Thomas Tom

Richard Dick

Henry Harry
e. g. Harry Potter is a fantastic novel.
Tom, Dick, and Harry were at the party.

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 Some differences in terms of spelling and verb formation are common in British and American
English. These differences are due to geographical or historical influences from other languages, such
as French. In the case of British English, some spelling examples follow: behaviour, colour, favour,
honour, labour, neighbour, while in American English, the words above are spelled as behavior,
color, favor, honor, labor.

In terms of verb differences in spelling some examples, follow: for American English dreamed,
dwelled, kneeled, learned, spelled, spilled; for British English dreamt, dwelt, knelt, learnt, spelt, spilt.
Some other differences between British English and American English has to do with the s-c
distinction, for example, practise, practice; and the s-z distinction, as in the following words:
apologise, apologize; analyse, analyze.

Still, there are some other differences in spelling between British English and American English.
Can you think of some of them? Please write them down below:

N° American English British English

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15

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 The Pedagogy of Morphology
The internal form of words is peculiar to particular languages. Not every language has the same
prefixes, infixes, or suffixes. Derivation of words differs from language to language. There could be
some similar processes when there are certain features shared by two or more languages.

It is quite interesting to be able to compare an L1 to an L2 as for its corresponding formation and

derivational processes. The more relationship exists between English and German, or Spanish and
Italian, for instance, the more common processes are to be found in them. Teachers can establish
similarities and differences between two languages by formally approaching them in the EFL or ESL
classroom setting.

By determining the behavior or a particular part of speech, that is, adverbs of manner, some
regularity can be determined between Spanish and English, in this regard. In Spanish, we have words
such as Fácilmente, Comúnmente, and Rápidamente. In English, they correspond to Easily,
Commonly, and Quickly. The word Fast, can behave as an adjective and an adverb, too, undergoing
no change, so we cannot say *Fastly since it is an exception to the rule _ly.

While in Spanish, adjectives agree in number and genre, in English they do not. A very common
error is the transference Spanish learners make when they attempt to express an idea by making the
adjective plural, for example, Ellas son bonitas, which in English is interpreted as *They are
beautifuls, which becomes a common error of transference. An easy process to specify someone’s
profession is when _er is added to the verb from which it is derived, for example, for engine we get
engineer, the same is true for teach, teacher; learn, learner; drive, driver; swim, swimmer; dance,
dancer, etc., but not for cook, for instance.

Compound words are common in English and Spanish, but they have their very specific processes
in their corresponding languages. In English, there are some examples: blackout; handbook, sidewalk.
In Spanish, some examples include abrelatas, paraguas, pasamanos, sacacorchos. As for
diminutives, both languages have similar processes. Some examples in English and Spanish are
shown respectfully, cigarette, cigarrillo; daddy, papito; doggy, perrito; kitchenette, cocineta;
mommy, mamita.

It can be concluded that although there are morphological similarities, differences between
languages, people have the possibility to create new words out of others, according to the
requirements and advancements in science and technology, or even, the simple everyday language
people use in their social interactions.

The formation of new words responds to the need to supply those to name an idea, a product, an
action, etc. and that is exactly what happens with content words. New verbs appear as they derive
from nouns or sometimes the other way around. In morphology, there exists the possibility to create
new words, such as adjectives, nouns, verbs, and adverbs; that is why they are considered to be open-
class words. Advances in agriculture, business, education, engineering, science, and technology, so
to speak, make the appearance and the development of new words and expressions possible.

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 Chapter 12
Semantics and Pragmatics
The material world requires names for things around us or abstract concepts for them to be named.

That what is read are words, but that we get out of them are ideas, which are based on our
preconceptions or concepts. Semantics deals with the meaning of words. Words are the symbols used
to help human beings to relate to the world. Words make up our world. The material world requires
names for things around us or abstract concepts for them to be named. What it can be inferred from
what Shakespeare wrote is that more than words in a book, what we read is the sense we can make
out of them.
-What do you read, my Lord? -Words, words, words.
William Shakespeare (Act 2, Scene 2 Page 8)

Words come into being only if there is a need for them to be used in ‘real’ life. Words do not exist
into a vacuum. They exist to make us be aware there is a reality out there, which needs to be named.
Words make sense only if they are used in meaningful contexts. The meaning of words varies
according to a number of circumstances. How, why and in which degree words change meaning, is
the task of semantics. Our needs, interests, problems, wants, and feelings are expressed in the order
in which we organize the words in our minds, based on our emotions. For semantics to make sense
there should be a common agreement between the speaker and the hearer, in terms of the topic, the
context, the setting, the cultural traits, and the intentions of the communicative act. It is better
conveyed thanks to the use of non-verbal communication, sometimes.

The study of meaning is normally referred to as semantics.

Jean Aitchison (1992)

Semantics is expressed by signs, symbols, pictures, emoticons, and speech. Semantics does not
stand alone; it requires the use of other resources, such as topic, purpose, subjects, setting, context,
means, etc., for it to make sense. It makes the hearer or the reader interpret the concept of a word
based on the knowledge of the world and the manner how he or she relates to it, that is to say, people
react to ideas based on previous experiences. The interpretation of a word depends on what it evokes
the hearer, the speaker, the reader, or the writer. For sentences to have a logical meaning, they have
to be coherent in terms of what they want to convey. Not all well-formed sentences in terms of syntax
are said to be coherent in terms of meaning. Sentences are expected to be cohesive and coherent so
that they can fulfill their communicative purpose.

First learn the meaning of what you say, and then speak.
Epictetus

Words provide us with concepts, which vary depending on our personal and cultural perceptions of
the circumstances we live in. Therefore, it is important to have a sound understanding based on the

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relations we establish with words. Although sentences are said to be written, spoken, or signed, they
are meant to mean something, but it is not always the case; all this depends on the relatedness of the
elements or words within a sentence. Semantics analyzes all of the possible interpretations a single
word may have due to the concepts involved in the speaker’s and the hearer’s minds. Meaning does
not always take place in isolation, but within both a linguistic and a cultural context. For an isolated
word or concept to make sense requires a lot of thinking on the part of the hearer, the viewer, or the
reader, if it were the case. Words do not mean what they really do, but what people want them to.
Some examples include the following:

In Colombia, for instance, people use the verb ‘to provoke’ when offering something to someone,
as in: ‘¿Te provoca un café?’ In English, it is something like: ‘Do you fancy a coffee?’ or ‘Would you
like some coffee?’ In English, for instance, the word broad has different meanings, as in: ‘What you
said requires a broad explanation,’ and ‘who is that broad?’

Semantics and syntax are related fields of linguistics in the sense that whatever you want to say
has to be well structured, so that your idea can be well understood, by either the hearer or the reader.
The manner how an idea is expressed, depends on the speaker’s or the writer’s preferences, that is,
either one or the other selects the pieces or chunks of language, according to factors like the audience,
the educational background, the psychological age, etc.

Language without meaning is meaningless.

Roman Jakobson

Once you have clarified your thoughts, then you get ready to write down or talk about what is on
your mind. In this regard, there is something, which goes like this:

Contexts and the Importance of Meaning

Linguistic context, also known as co-text, refers to how a word or a concept relates to others in
the same phrase or sentence.

Cultural context refers to the possible connotations a word or a concept can take, based on the
meaning it has in a given culture. The meaning or the interpretation of a sentence, which could sound
ambiguous, depends on the perceptions we have of the world around us and of our inner conceptions
based on our cultural background, as well as the topic of the conversation.

Semantic Ambiguity in English

It is when the meaning of a sentence offers more than one possible interpretation, but no more
than one syntactic interpretation. Explain the possible interpretations for the sentences below:

 “Visiting great-aunts can be a nuisance.”

 “Students hate annoying professors.”
 “I said I would see you on Tuesday.”
 “She cannot bear children.”
 “The chicken is ready to eat.”

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 Words are much powerful and treacherous than we think.
Jean Paul Sartre

Ladusaw (n. d.), in his article about ‘Meaning,’ states the following:
Investigating how our understanding of what is said is influenced by our individual and cultural
assumptions and experience, which are much less visible than what is explicitly said, can help make us
more aware and effective communicators.

Semantic Ambiguity in Spanish

How would you interpret the following sentences in English?
 El puerco de mi vecino, apesta.
 El burro de mi amigo.
 La perra de mi vecina aúlla mucho.
 El gato se comió el dulce debajo de la cama.
 Eso acaba con la hoja y la mata.

Semantics, Word Choice, and Translation

Word meaning changes according to the context, given a particular situation. That is why
translation is difficult for the translator to choose a lexical item from a dictionary, since there is no
explicit reference when it comes to translating isolated sentences.

Grouping Lexical Items

It helps people to classify, to organize, to store, and to retrieve words according to categories in
terms of meaning, as well as syntax and phonology. Below there are some examples:
e. g. Colors: Black, white, blue, red, yellow, brown, orange, green, pink, etc.
Emotions: Happy, angry, sad, worried, excited, patient, impatient, etc.

Words are the leaves of the tree of language, if some fall away; a new succession takes
their place.
John French

Semantic Change
Words change their meaning over time due to a number of factors.
Gay: Merry, happy; lively, colorful A gay: A homosexual

A guy: A person of grotesque appearance A guy: An average man or woman

A mouse: A small rodent A mouse: A cursor control device

To starve: To die To starve: To die of hunger

e. g. He is gay.
He is a gay.
Many people are starving.

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 She starved due to the plague.
Componential Analysis
It refers to the classification of lexical items based on specific criteria, such as the species, its
genre, or its age. Some examples follow:
e. g. Stallion [horse + male + adult]
Mare [horse + female + adult]
Colt [horse + male - adult]
Filly [horse + female - adult]

Semantic Features
It is a notational method, which can be used to express the existence or non-existence of semantic
properties by using [+] or [-].
e. g. A man is [+human], [+male], [+adult]
A woman is [+human], [-male], [+adult]
A boy is [+human], [+male], [-adult]
A girl is [+human], [-male], [-adult]

Words and Expressions

In order for a word, a term, a lexical item, a concept, and an expression, to be understood by a
speech community, it must have an agreed-upon meaning within it. This can be achieved as soon as
it comes into use by its speakers, who depending on their age, sex, or social and cultural condition,
give birth to new meanings, which can be easily spread as it makes part of people’s lives and
circumstances. No one knows for sure what effect words will have on people as they make them
acquire new meanings. It is intentions what contributes to the conceptualizations of words.

Some words or even better concepts keep on living although they take a new identity, that is to
say, a new and different meaning appears. Some others change meaning, and some others, disappear.
Life is granted when there is a purpose in mind. The same is true for words. Words are given new
meanings, as there is a need to be fulfilled. Still some others disappear because of technology, since
there is no point in continuing using them and new words appear so that the new reality can be named,
by taking their place.

Denotation
It is the literal meaning of a word. It is what a word conveys.
e. g. Dog, eagle, rat, snake, etc.

Connotation
It is the meaning a word may have based on the context in which it takes place.
e. g. A dog represents Friendship or Loyalty.
A snake represents Treason or Fear.
An eagle represents Freedom or Spiritual Protection.
A rat represents Fertility or Plague.

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 Words have meaning as they relate to other items in the language
Jean Aitchison (1992)

Semantic, thematic, or theta roles, proposed by Fillmore (1968), refer to the roles played by the
components of a sentence and their relationship within it.
e. g. John hit Bill.
Bill was hit by John.

Agent It is the doer of a volitional act.

Experiencer It is the object whose condition or property is described.
Theme It is what undergoes an act.
Recipient It is the receiver of an object.
Instrument It is the tool used to perform an act.
Time It refers to the moment in which the act is performed.
Location It is the place of an act or object.
Source It is the origin of a motion or change.
Goal It is the destination of a motion or result of a change.
Manner It refers to how the act is performed.

e. g. The child hid the candy under the bed.

Agent=CHILD
Theme=CANDY
Location = UNDER THE BED
Time = PAST

What words are meant to mean

In life, nature and reality, words are to express a great number of concepts based on cultural
heritage, and in order for them to be described, synonyms, antonyms, homophones, homonyms,
homographs, and euphemisms are commonly used.

Synonyms are words that have the same meaning. The richness of a language can be measured by
the number of words its people have at their disposal to name their reality.
boring dull

happy joyful

intelligent witty

sad down
e. g. The meeting was very boring /dull.
We felt extremely happy / joyful.
It is a fake (bogus, dodgy, counterfeit, phony) phone number.
That guy is kind of obese / overweight.

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 Antonyms are words, which mean the opposite.
easy difficult

happy sad

light heavy

thin fat
e. g. This exercise is quite easy /difficult.
The price was high / low.
Those suitcases were not light / heavy at all.
The little boy is thin / fat.

Homophones are words, which sound and are written the same way, but they have different
meaning.
back bark book count crane

date flat game kind pen

pound straw swallow tip wear

e. g. The bark of the tree is rotten.

Dogs usually bark at night.
I can count to ten.
The count was arrested.

Homonyms are words, which are pronounced alike, but they are spelled differently.
buy by bye

cite sight site

knight night

knot not

know no

to too two

there their they’re

right rite write Wright

e. g. Eye for an eye and tooth for a tooth.
I am very proud of him.

Do you know her?

No, I don’t.

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 Homographs are words, which are spelled the same way, but with different meaning and may be
pronounced differently.
Noun address process progress program record

Verb to address to process to progress to program to record

e. g. What’s your address?
Do I have to address such an issue?

Euphemisms refer to words, phrases or expressions, which replace others, which tend to be
offensive.
e. g. She died last night.
She passed on last night.
She passed away last night.
She kicked the bucket last night.

Some other examples include the following:

e. g. He got fired.
He lost his job.
He got the sack.
He was made redundant.

e. g. You are crazy.

You are nuts.
You are up the pole.
You are out of your mind.

e. g. They were mad.

They were furious.
They were angry.
They were pissed off.

It can be said that learners of a foreign or a second language who are able to use and to understand
euphemisms have the possibility to interact much more easily with native speakers at it comes to
cultural matters. Being culturally proficient is one of the most difficult aspects foreign or second
language learners have to deal with. One of the best ways to develop such a cultural understanding is
to be in contact with native speakers, to read heavily, and to watch movies or sitcoms where the
culture is portrayed through the language and the language is portrayed through the culture.

There are three things in life that, once gone, never come back. They are: time,
opportunity and words.
Author Unknown

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 Pragmatics
Not every concept has the same word.

Context
The linguistic context, as well as the context of the conversation in which language occurs, make
people use it according to several circumstances: participants, age, social status, topic, type of
interaction, etc. Language must respond to truth, as it is one of its basic functions, to convey meaning
as something real. It is important to highlight that truth is one of Grice’s principles, the Maxim of
Truth where the information conveyed must be truthful. The most important idea about language is
to convey meaning, which is a requirement for communication to be useful. The hearer’s or the
reader’s task is to understand not just what words mean, but also the context of the conversation, non-
verbal communication, attitudes, understandings, and misunderstandings, especially that, which has
not been said, as well.

Pragmatics studies the factors that govern our choice of language in social interaction
and the effects of our choice on others.
David Crystal (1987: 120)

Physical Context
It serves to clarify the meaning of a concept below there is an example with the term ‘bank,’ which
is used in two different contexts:
e. g. The bank closes at 4:00 p. m.
Don’t go camping near the bank of the river.

Deixis
It is a term, which refers to people, place, or time:

Person Deixis
It refers to people: ‘this man;’ ‘that girl;’ ‘these children;’ ‘those friends;’ etc.; or pronouns like
‘me;’ ‘you;’ ‘her;’ ‘us;’ ‘them,’ etc.
e. g. I love you.
We saw her.

Spatial Deixis
It refers to adverbs like ‘here;’ ‘there;’ ‘over here,’ etc.
e. g. Meet me there.
The keys weren’t here.

Temporal Deixis
It refers to adverbs like ‘today,’ ‘tomorrow,’ ‘later,’ etc.
e. g. See you tomorrow.
They arrived yesterday.

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 The study of ‘intended speaker meaning’ is called pragmatics.
George Yule (2006)

Reference
It is a linguistic form, which serves to identify one idea. One idea reinforces the next idea.
e. g. Hemingway wrote ‘The Old Man and the Sea.’ He wrote it in 1951.
My family and I went to our farm. We had a good time there.

Ellis (1999: 112) defines the concept of reference as follows:

Reference. All texts have some elements that refer to something else for interpretation. These elements are
not directly semantically interpreted but rely on reference to something else for semantic interpretation...
There is a further distinction between endophoric and exophoric reference. Endophoric reference is when
a cohesive tie relies on some element within the text for interpretation: When a tie must go to something
back in the text it is called an anaphoric reference, and when it must wait for something forward in the
text it is called a cataphoric reference. An anaphoric relation says “look backward in the text for an
interpretation,” and a cataphoric relation says “look forward.” An exophoric reference instructs the
listener to go to the context of the environment for interpretation and not to some other place in the text.

Inference
It is a term, which relates to something you can conclude based on the evidence provided.
e. g. Dad really likes listening to Strauss. (Dad likes Strauss’s music).
Shakespeare is difficult to read. (Shakespeare’s literary style is difficult to follow).

Anaphora
It refers to a term that will be mentioned later on and it refers to the same person or thing.
e. g. Laura stayed home. She was sick.
The book was very heavy for me to carry, so I left it home.
The children played the whole day. They were really tired after that.

Cataphora
It refers to a term, which has been mentioned in a sentence and it is explained in the second
sentence, in order to make the previous idea clear.
e. g. She typed it in a jiffy. The letter was quite long, though.
We invited her, but Granny dropped out the invitation.
The boy broke the window. He was forced to pick up the pieces.

Presupposition
It is an assumption made about something or someone, but there is no real evidence that it is
completely true or certain.
e. g. When were you fired? (You are not working anymore).
How late did you leave? (You had to work late last night).

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Speech Acts
A speech act is an utterance used to convey meaning.
e. g. Locutionary propositional:
I’m tired. (I’m exhausted).

Illocutionary meaning:
I’m tired. (I want you to go to bed. I’m tired, too).

The language of truth is simple.

Euripides

Examples for Speech Act Classification

Commissive: ‘I’ll help you out tomorrow.’
Declarative: ‘I pronounce you husband and wife.’
Directive: ‘Please come in.’
Expressive: ‘The dinner was delicious.’
Representative: ‘This is Mr. President.’
Politeness: ‘Do you mind telling Annie not to come?’

The language that you speak, the language that you write down, or the language that you teach
must sound logical either to native or non-native speakers. And in doing so, understanding and
cooperation could be reached.

Grice, (1975) proposed 4 Maxims to be applied in the communicative act; these are:
Maxim of quantity: The information is adequate.
Maxim of quality: The information is truthful.
Maxim of relevance: The information is relevant.
Maxim of manner: The information is clear, brief, and orderly.

Grice’s 4 Maxims can be applied both in speech and in writing. Language is the best means by
which people attempt to convey messages as they talk or write down. In language teaching, in the
development of syllabi and curricula, as well as in the design of language tests to evaluate and to
assess learners’ progress and attainment, Grice’s 4 Maxims can be highly used and applied in the
ESL/EFL contexts and settings. In your language teaching profession, it is important to bear in mind
the following aspects:

 Make your speech clear, relevant, sufficient, and precise.

 Make your writing adequate, truthful, although it could be fictional; necessary, and orderly.
 Design your English language tests as natural as possible so that the L2 culture may be
reflected on them.

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 The Pedagogy of Semantics and Pragmatics
The real foundation of language is its words, which are referred to as being functional or content
words. The external world, represented by nature and the outer space, serves as the breeding ground
to create new words as the demands require. Those words and expressions, which have not been used
so much, so far, let new words and expressions appear, or their meanings are likely to take new
interpretations, since there are diverse cultures and people. The internal state of individuals also
makes them create new words as emotions, feelings, frustrations, fears, and pleasures, are to be named
somehow. Semantics helps us to name what has not been named yet.

Pragmatics contributes to the understanding and the interpretation of meaning as the context
varies, according to areas of knowledge. A curious thing to do is to trace down the manner how a
word or an idiomatic expression gets its meaning, that is to say, how people reach a consensus on
what it means. It is a socio-cultural phenomenon. Words can spring from society, of course, even
without knowing their exact origin, but what really matters is the new meaning it will have within the
linguistic repertoire of a given community or social group.

Since a town, a city, or a state, is culturally diverse not every concept is easily understood by other
speakers in quite different settings and contexts, which makes communication difficult. For instance,
the word ‘mango’ in Colombian Spanish can be interpreted as the ‘heart,’ when we say ‘Me duele el
mango,’ which in English corresponds to ‘My heart aches.’ At a naked eye, it could sound strange,
but if a connection between the shape of the mango and that of the heart, is established, it could be
easily understood that the inference being made makes sense, in this particular case. The same is true
when people refer to the ‘El mango de la sartén’ to refer to ‘The handle of the pan,’ but of course
with a different meaning in mind, because the co-text is different.

And the word ‘mango’ as such, is directly understood in the following sentence: ‘Me gusta el
mango,’ clearly meaning ‘I like mangoes.’ In its more general sense. The same is true in English,
with the word ‘head,’ where many different concepts come to mind. For example, ‘She is the head of
the company,’ meaning ‘She is the president of the company.’ Some other examples include “The
head of beer is thick,” referring to the upper part. ‘Our father usually sits at the head of the table,’
meaning that he deserves respect, he is the authority. However, the traditional meaning of the word
head as the part of the body is commonly used in the sentence: ‘My head aches.’ Words mean exactly
what people want them to mean. They do not exactly mean what a dictionary entry means, but what
we want them to refer.

A word is the result of the need to name an entity. If this were not the case, there would not be any
reason to create it. Words exist since there is a ‘reality’ to be named. Words and expressions are made
to satisfy both social and cultural needs, which for sure will have different meanings according to the
contexts in which they are used. Not every concept has the same word. That is to say, people have
different words to name the same concept. For example, people from different parts of a region or
country, start talking about what a word or expression is called in their corresponding places and it
turns out that there are many words with different and sometimes opposing meanings for the same
concept. Such a situation will help us to improve the L2 system to avoid misunderstandings.

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 Reflection
Chapter 11: Morphology
1. How does morphology affect semantics?
2. What is necessary to know about the internal structure of words?
3. Which role does a word play in terms of the other words in a sentence?

Chapter 12: Semantics and Pragmatics

1. Is there any connection between semantics and pragmatics?
2. How do words get their meaning?
3. Why do some words change their meaning?
4. If we have not seen a word before, does it mean that it does not exist?
5. What strategies do you use to teach vocabulary words and expressions?
6. How can culture be related to the learning of concepts in a foreign language?
7. What is the role of context?
8. What are some strategies to teach semantics meaningfully?
9. What is the role of pragmatics in the interpretation of a context?
10. How can EFL/ESL teachers implement pragmatics in the classroom?
11. Does pragmatics help you to go beyond the interpretation of a piece of text?
12. Does pragmatics contribute to the understanding of the world around you?

Project
In English, as in any other language, words change their original meaning by being given other
meanings, which sometimes are not related to the initial one. Please select some words of your
preference and analyze how other additional meanings have been given to them.

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 PART 5
LANGUAGE AS THE FOUNDING ELEMENT OF
SOCIETY

A common language is the most obvious binding

element in any society.
Michael Howard

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 Chapter 13
Sociolinguistics, Language Varieties, and Ebonics
Language in society and society in language are key features to be studied by Sociolinguistics.

Sociolinguistics
Sociolinguistics studies language in relation to society. Sociolinguistics deals with the social
phenomena, which affect language. Sociolinguistics is also interested in studying, analyzing, and
describing, how language affects the social relations of individuals within a given community or
society. Not everybody behaves, communicates, and relates to one another in the same way. Age is a
factor, which interferes with the kind of language used by those who take part in the communication
process: children, adolescents, adults, and old people. Expressions also differ because of social status,
educational background, geographical features and the like.

Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society, whereas the sociology of

language is the study of society in relation to language.
Richard A. Hudson (1996: 4)

Wolfram (n. d.) provides a specific definition about sociolinguistics. Here is what he says:

The basic notion underlying sociolinguistics is quite simple: Language use symbolically represents
fundamental dimensions of social behavior and human interaction. The notion is simple, but the ways in
which language reflects behavior can often be complex and subtle. Furthermore, the relationship between
language and society affects a wide range of encounters—from broadly based international relations to
narrowly defined interpersonal relationships. For example, sociolinguists might investigate language
attitudes among large populations on a national level, such as those exhibited in the US with respect to
the English-only amendment—the legislative proposal to make English the ‘official’ language of the US.
Similarly, we might study the status of French and English in Canada or the status of national and
vernacular languages in the developing nations of the world as symbols of fundamental social relations
among cultures and nationalities. In considering language as a social institution, sociolinguists often use
sociological techniques involving data from questionnaires and summary statistical data, along with
information from direct observation.

Man, in his attempt to communicate, has to take advantage of all the necessary resources at his
disposal, to interact with one another. Society is the common ground where man establishes
relationships to advance in the achievements of his goals. Language in society and society in language
are key features to be studied by Sociolinguistics. In the normal transfer of information through
language, we use it to send vital social messages about who we are, where we come from, and who
we associate with. It is often shocking to realize how extensively we may judge a person’s
background, character, and intentions based simply on the person’s language, dialect, or, in some
instances, even the choice of a single word. An English variety is a type of dialect that has some
differences in terms of grammar, that is to say, semantics, syntax, and phonology, as well as spelling,
punctuation, idioms, and slang. Languages have their very own features, which make them
distinguishable from others.

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 A teacher’s job is to make language practice possible, not just in the classroom or school facilities,
but also out of the school’s walls, where language learning makes sense. Sociolinguistics studies and
analyzes language as speakers and hearers within a given geographic region, social class, educational
background, use it. Not everybody speaks the same way. Grandparents, parents, and children, for
example although they speak the same language, there are differences in terms of semantics. Words
and expressions have a new connotation or they just appear because of the advancements in science,
technology, or the social sciences, for instance.

Ebonics is a language variety used by the black people for their communication, interaction, and
cooperation through speech. It follows its internal rules in terms of grammar and people use it as a
manner to talk and not let others understand what they say.

Basic concepts about Sociolinguistics follow:

Idiolect
It is the manner how an individual uses language based on very specific and particular preferences.

Sociolect
It is a variety of language that is used by a given community based on specific features to that
society.

Dialect
It is a regional variety of language in terms of structure. A dialect has its particular way of speaking
or writing. It has some differences in terms of semantics, syntax, phonology, pragmatics, and
sociolinguistics.

Lingua Franca
It is the language used as a means of communication, interaction, and transaction, even if there
are some other languages spoken in a society. Nowadays, English is used as a Lingua Franca. People
use it in order to do business. In the past, Latin was used as lingua franca.

Pidgin
It is when many languages come into contact within a particular community and a completely new
language is created out of them. This new language, initially, has no native speakers since a new
structure, syntax, vocabulary system, and phonological features contribute to its formation. This type
of language is created when people are doing business and there is no a common language of
communication or it is created because of the contact with people who are carrying out economic,
political or military actions abroad.

Winford (n. d.) in his article “Languages in Contact,” provides important information about pidgin
languages. Here are his comments:

Other pidgins like Eskimo Trade Pidgin and Chinese Pidgin English derive their vocabulary primarily
from one source, usually the language of the group that held control of the trade or its location. Pidgins

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 have also arisen in contexts other than trade, for instance in cases of military occupation (Pidgin English
in Japan) or in domestic settings for communication between masters and servants of different language
background (Indian Butler English) or on plantations (Hawaiian Pidgin English . . . Examples include
languages like Tok Pisin and Bislama, official languages of Papua New Guinea and Vanuatu respectively,
both descended from an earlier plantation pidgin, in turn descended from early Pacific trade pidgin.

It can be said that pidgin may take place as a societal need for survival in which people, from
different language backgrounds and cultural contexts, have to deal with different languages, in order
to solve their daily problems.

Creole
A creole is a variety of language that develops out of a pidgin. The children of the people, who
come from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds, will develop a completely new language,
which is rich in vocabulary words, expressions, and new phonological features, which derive from
those languages with which they have been in contact. Culture is gained once the native speakers
interact and establish norms, which may help them to respect and to understand each other.
Completely new languages or dialects appear because of the direct contact that speakers have with
diverse languages.

Richards, Platt & Platt (1992: 283) define post-creole continuum as follows:
Post-creole continuum. When people in a creole-speaking community are taught in the standard language
to which the creole is related, they form a post-creole continuum. For example, in Jamaica and Guyana,
an English-based creole is spoken and standard English is taught in schools. Those with higher levels of
education speak something close to standard English, the acrolect. Those with little or no education speak
the creole or something close to it, the basilect, and the rest speak a range of varieties in between, the
mesolect.

Diglossia
Ferguson (1959) came out with the term Diglossia. Briefly, it can be defined like this: It is when
within a society, there exist two types of varieties of language, one is high and the other is low. The
former is somewhat prestigious and the latter is somewhat vulgar. Diglossia, then, may occur in places
or areas in which there are two types of language or two languages with which people may interact,
for instance, Quechua and Spanish, which are spoken in Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia. Quechua is
considered a low-variety language, while Spanish is not. Galician in Spain is considered inferior
compared with Spanish.

McArthur (1992: 312) defines Diglossia in the following terms:

A term in sociolinguistics for the use of two varieties of language for different purposes in the same
community. The varieties are called H and L, the first being generally a standard variety used for ‘high’
purposes and the second often a ‘low’ spoken vernacular. In Egypt, classical ARABIC is H and local
colloquial Arabic is L [. . .] Functions generally reserved for H include sermons, political speeches,
university lectures, and news broadcasts, while those reserved for L include everyday conversations,
instructions to servants, and folk literature.
The varieties differ not only in grammar, phonology, and vocabulary, but also with respect to function,
prestige, literary heritage, acquisition, standardization, and stability. L is typically acquired at home as a

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 mother tongue and continues to be so used throughout life. Its main uses are familial and familiar. H, on
the other hand, is learned through schooling and never at home, and is related to institutions outside the
home. The separate domains in which H and L are acquired provide them with separate systems of support
...
Standard Language
It is a type of language, which is commonly accepted as being the one used on business
transactions and, which tends to be formal for more academic and research purposes.

Non-Standard Language
It is a type of language that people tend to use and to speak in the street, at school, at work, not
when serious matters are discussed. A non-standard language is spoken with family, friends, peers,
or partners.

Taboo in Language
It is an important aspect of any linguistic system and culture. Some words or expressions are said
to be banned by society because they tend to be vulgar, inappropriate, or even dirty.

e.g. Words about national or ethnic origin tend to be offensive and you had better not use them:
Chimp; WASP; monkey; nigger; redneck.
Holy words or those related to religion are said to be blasphemous:
Oh, my Gosh; Oh, my Gee; Holy shit; For God’s sake; For goodness sake; God damn it,
I don’t give a damn; I don’t give a shit.
Good-bye derived from the expression: “God be with ye.”

Parts of the body and those related to the male or female organs are also taboo in language. Words
about sexual practices and sexual orientation are considered to be vulgar, as well. The fact of having
included dirty language in this chapter has to do with the very reason why cultures approve of it or
disapprove of it. However, other than that, obscene language is rooted in the culture of every society.

It does not mean that language teachers should teach it to their students for them to use it to offend
others. It is important that teachers make learners aware of and familiar with those expressions as
they interact with native speakers of the L2 or just with proficient speakers of it. By doing so, learners
will not feel any kind of embarrassment for not being able to understand a conversation, in the most
natural settings, contexts, or cases, so to speak.

Culture has a role to play in the way people interpret their circumstances and name or refer to their
realities. Words and expressions, such as interjections are very particular to languages, that is to say,
they change from language to language and even from culture to culture, depending on the way people
think they hear the sounds or they express surprise. Interjections are used as discourse markers to
show feelings such as emotion, surprise, fear, anxiety, doubt, and assertiveness. Language teachers
should be knowledgeable of these speech or written resources. They also should teach them to their
learners so that they become familiar with the expressions native speakers use as they intervene in
communicative acts within their particular cultural settings, contexts, and circumstances.

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 Below there is a comparative chart with some interjections in different languages:
English: Oh! Oops! Ouch! Uh-huh! Bang! Yuk! Yummy!

French: Oh! Houp! Aïe! Ouais! Boum! Berk! Deliciuex!

German: Ach! Hoppla! Autsch! Ja! Peng! Igitt! Lecker!

Italian: Oh! Ops! Ahi! A-ha! Bang Puh! Squisito!

Portuguese: Oh! Opa! Ai! Acordo! Bum! Nojo! Delicioso!

Spanish: ¡Ah! ¡uy! ¡Huy! ¡Aja! ¡Pum! ¡Gas! ¡Mmm!

A: Oops! I didn’t mean it.

B: No problem. That’s O.K. But don’t bollix it up again.

A: Yuck! That’s gross.

B: I completely agree.

A: ¡Mmm! Huele delicioso.

B: Sí. Lo hice especialmente para ti.

A: ¡Gas! ¿A qué huele?

B: Huele a gas.

A: Est-ce que nous pouvons parler par Twitter?

B: Oh!, Oui! D’accord.

A: Ouais, c’est à facile à faire.

B: Merci beaucoup.

A: Ach! da bist du endlich.

B: Ja, da bin ich. Wir können jetz gehen.

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 Language Varieties
Language is always on the move as people are, too.

For language to be in a permanent flux of change, not necessarily decay, people have to establish
social relations as they interact for the attainment of their particular needs, within society and beyond.
Thanks to the advancements in technology: The Internet, the social networks, language is always on
the move as people are, too. According to Emerson, language is a collaborative endeavor in which
every person contributes to its development, improvement, or decay within society.

Language is a city to the building of which every human being brought a stone.
Ralph Waldo Emerson

When there are many differences between two English varieties, let us say American and British,
this fact makes them be unintelligible, of course, this is not the case. English is spoken differently
depending on geographical features. In the United States, there exists a variety of language, which
differs mainly in terms of pronunciation, given the regions in a country. Not every language is the
same: dialects.

There are marked linguistic differences among English-speaking countries. The same happens
with other languages worldwide, such as Spanish, where we have Iberian Spanish, Latin American
Spanish and Caribbean Spanish. Spanish is spoken in Spain and most Latin American countries.
French is not the exception to this phenomenon, that is how there are significant differences between
the language used in France and the one used in Canada by their corresponding native speakers.

English is not the same everywhere. Not every English variety is the same. Chinese, spoken in
China, has a variety of dialects: Tibetan, Cantonese, Taiwanese, etc. The internal system of language,
as for its spelling, semantics, syntax, meaning, and idioms, has to respond to particular needs of their
speakers, that is why there are language varieties. Culture is responsible for the vision that speakers
have of their world around and beyond them. New meanings are assigned to old words, that is to say,
words have a completely new meaning, sometimes they keep them or the old one, is displaced by the
new one.

Language varieties refers to changes in terms of how a language is pronounced. Geographical

issues such as mountains, valleys, plains, beaches, etc. affect somehow the way that the people speak
it. Besides, within common geographical boundaries there exist differences because of the
educational background of their speakers. Urban people pronounce and speak differently from those
people, who live in rural or distant areas. These changes occur at the semantic level since words and
expressions are not the same within a same geographical region in a particular country. When it comes
to words and expressions used among countries, sometimes, there are greater differences as for some
of them mean. Culture plays a role in the meaning assigned by speakers and writers to a particular set
of words and expressions.

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 Features American British

Spelling It’s in the center of town It’s in the centre of town

What’s your favorite color? What’s your favourite colour?

We need to analyze the data We need to analyse the data

Semantics She lives in an apartment She lives in a flat

He escaped from jail He escaped from gaol

May I have the check? May I have the bill?

Syntax Do you have a car? Have you got an automobile?

I already read that book I’ve already read that book

Difference in Meaning I’m wearing new pants I’m wearing new trousers

She lives on the first floor She lives on the ground floor

We are on the second floor We are on the first floor

Idioms He beats around the bush He beats about the bush

It’s a swell idea It’s a good idea

Language cannot and should not be understood as an isolated system, as it usually happens in the
EFL classroom, instead, it needs to be conceived as a complex one in which a number of issues come
into play, as it is shown below:

 The place where the person was born, lives, works, or studies.
 The culture particular to every region affects the manner how the people see the world.
 Language is highly influenced by the culture where it develops.
 People do not always speak or pronounce the same way everywhere.
 The words and expressions used by people differ.
 Ideas are not always expressed in the same way.

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 Ebonics
The nature of language is the nature of the human mind, which is based on the human experience.

The term Ebonics derives from the combination of Ebony, which means black and the term
Phonics, which means sound. So, what the term Ebonics refers to is the language or speech used by
Black American people. It is thought that Ebonics is attributed to the American psychologist Robert
Williams (1973). As Ebonics refers to English spoken by Black Americans, it is believed that its
influence comes from the time of slavery when they worked as servants in the American South. This
type of a dialect has very peculiar characteristics in terms of pronunciation, vocabulary, and syntax,
of course. Since it is a dialect, it is a non-standard language spoken by Black people. Other names for
Ebonics include the following: African American Vernacular English (AAVE), “nigger speak,”
“niggerish,” which in my opinion tend to be very pejorative. Some important issues about Ebonics
according to Rickford (n. d.) include the following:

To many people, the first examples that come to mind are slang words like phat ‘excellent’ and bling-bling
‘glittery, expensive jewelry’, words that are popular among teenagers and young adults, especially rap
and hip hop fans. But words like kitchen ‘the especially kinky hair at the nape of one’s neck’ and ashy ‘the
whitish appearance of black skin when dry, as in winter’ are even more interesting. Unlike many slang
terms, these ‘black’ words have been around for ages, they are not restricted to particular regions or age
groups, and they are virtually unknown (in their ‘black’ meanings) outside the African American
community.
Ebonics pronunciation includes features like the omission of the final consonant in words like ‘past’ (pas’)
and ‘hand’ (han’), the pronunciation of the th in ‘bath’ as t (bat) or f (baf), and the pronunciation of the
vowel in words like ‘my’ and ‘ride’ as a long ah (mah, rahd). Some of these occur in vernacular white
English, too, especially in the South, but in general they occur more frequently in Ebonics. Some Ebonics
pronunciations are more unique, for instance, dropping b, d, or g at the beginning of auxiliary verbs like
‘don’t’ and ‘gonna’, yielding Ah ‘on know’ for “I don’t know” and ‘ama do it’ for ‘I’m going to do it.’

We learn the Ebonics of Spanish. The first things we learned were the numbers and
cuss words.
Andrew Roberts

According to this, no language can be considered as being either inferior or superior regarding its
complexity to interpret nature or culture. Language is created based on very particular needs. People,
in their surroundings, do not necessarily have the same environments although their technology is
similarly advanced or developed. Perceptions related to the interior world change as their emotions
are highly affected by their external factors. Reasoning is one of the features that makes language be
what it actually is intended to be. When people reflect on language is the same as the very fact of
reflecting on their essence: thoughts, ideas, desires, experiences, and expectations. The search for
language is a never-ending endeavor. People are always questioning about its origin, establishment,
evolution, and current state. The nature of language is the nature of the human mind, which is based
on the human experience, which in turn, is shaped by the cultural background people gain in their
everyday exchange and influenced by the environment and the view people have about their
surroundings and needs.

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 The Pedagogy of Sociolinguistics, Language Varieties, and Ebonics

Being away where a foreign or a second language is learned or acquired, respectively, is one of the
biggest issues language teachers have to deal with. It is not easy to learn how to cope with the quality
of language used by native speakers if someone is not mingled with them. Teachers are likely to delve
into the language spoken in natural settings by native speakers, from television, soap operas, movies,
music, dialogs, and conversations, as well as written sources. Then, they are to analyze them and to
come out with some ideas on how to design practical lessons where sociolinguistics can be easily
reflected.

Language is a reflection of society. It is people who make language come to life, to move on, to
evolve, and even to disappear. Language is a social phenomenon, which exists for a variety of reasons,
but not everybody uses it in the same way, with the same purposes in mind. Language teachers are
expected to take advantage of their experience and initiative to set the conditions under which
language use can be done naturally. In sociological terms, language is acquired in natural settings and
it is passed down from parents to children. It is through interaction and negotiation of meaning that
social contact is possible.

Since people relate to one another through language differently, there exist language varieties, also
known as Dialects. These dialects derive from the contact that people have with language and, of
course, with those who speak it, in order to establish relations, to do business, or to communicate
purposefully. In the event that there are many differences between two dialects, then a new language
may develop out of them, like in the case of the Romance languages: Portuguese, Spanish, Italian,
French, and Rumanian, which derived from Latin.

Depending on the setting and the contexts where the linguistic and cultural phenomena occur,
speakers adopt and develop a specific type of language variety known as Ebonics. Afro Americans
use this variety of language. Language teachers need to choose appropriate materials and to design
pertinent strategies where language varieties can be evident and foreign language learners can be
exposed to and cope with them, as required. Some resources can include authentic materials found in
documentaries, literature, magazines, movies, musical videos, newspapers, sitcoms, social networks,
television programs, The Internet and the like. It is important to say that no language variety is better
or worse than any other variety.

Since culture is affected by language and language is affected by culture, this reciprocal
phenomenon makes people perceive the world and their circumstances differently. Most of the time,
language teachers have a hard time choosing the ideal language textbook to teach English knowing
that no textbook can tell you how people really speak because language is always on the move because
speakers make it change as societal conditions also change. Language is functional; that is why
authentic resources should be chosen, in order for foreign learners can learn it and function within the
social parameters, which where socially chosen by their speakers, not because of a common
agreement, but because of cultural interaction among them. As people are immersed into culture
language is too. All of them have a role to play: people make culture, which is expressed by language
and the language people use is influenced by the culture that they are part of.

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 Chapter 14
Idioms, Slang, Sayings, Jargon, Clichés, and Collocation
If someone lacks the knowledge of idioms, jargon, and slang, they would not be able to engage in
everyday life encounters.

Being a proficient language speaker comprises a series of factors. A question arises, but how can
anyone achieve such a goal? Well, there are too many things, which come into play regarding the
achievement of such a particular interest in mind. If someone is a foreign language learner, they have
to start from the very beginning, that is to say, there is not just a single and magic answer for this
dilemma. Motivation, interest, hard work, and commitment, are some of the key factors, which
intervene in the carrying out of a particular project, which needs to be achieved, for any personal or
professional reason. Below there are some requirements for this to take place:
 Attitudinal and motivational factors are paramount.
 A wide variety of vocabulary words and expressions is necessary.
 Exposure to a particular language variety as it is used in the speech community.
 Direct contact with native speakers is the ideal thing to do.
 Listening to a variety of sources in the L2 from audios, videos, or movies.
 Speaking about a wide variety of topics of interest for the L2 learner.
 Reading extensively, that is to say, books, magazines, newspapers, and specialized journals, etc.,
either from print material or from The Internet.
 Writing in a formal or in an informal style is to be well designed and properly developed.
 Comprehending language in all its forms and cultures.
 Being knowledgeable about basic jargon relating to a variety of professions.

Foreign languages are another favourite topic, and as these men are bilingual they have a fair
notion of what it means to speak and think in many different idioms.
John Millington Synge

Authentic materials and their effects on language learning

Watching authentic materials, which include movies, T.V. programs, newsreels, sitcoms, contests,
games, sports, and interviews will help the learner to be exposed to the language as it is used in real
contexts and settings, and not just exclusively focused on the prescriptive grammar of the language
being taught and learned in the EFL classroom. Some of the most difficult features about a language
and its cultures, for a non-native speaker of any particular language, are to deal with the meaning and
the use of expressions, which involve idioms, slang, sayings, jargon, clichés, and collocations.
However, how could they be able to internalize the meaning of so many idiomatic expressions, which
appear from the direct contact with people if they are taught the L2 grammar out of context?

ICT, settings, and contexts

The Internet is a good option for EFL learners to meet other learners or native speakers with whom
they could engage in meaningful and lasting experiences of gaining insights of how the new language
works and how people relate to one another in a wide variety of scenarios. Other technological devices
like tablets, IPhone, and IPod, help people to be in contact with other speakers or users of the L2.

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 In order for someone to be updated with the idioms, jargon, and slang, being used in a certain
period, requires a lot of hard work, since the learning or the acquisition of those expressions change
as people’s ideas, thoughts, attitudes, or behaviors also change. Expressions change over time because
they get new and complete different meanings that they used to have in the past. That is to say,
language expressions vary from generation to generation, from culture to culture, and from age to
age. They also get other meanings according to geographic features in the sense that people from the
plains use different expressions as those used by people from the mountains, valleys, flats, or coasts.
Learning to speak a foreign language in settings and contexts where learners do not have direct contact
with native speakers and access to the L2 culture is a hard endeavor. This is the case in most of the
Latin American countries where Spanish is the most spoken language. In Europe, for instance, the
situation is completely different since there are native speakers from Portugal, Spain, France, Italy,
Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, etc., where these are neighboring countries and people have
a direct contact with other speakers; something that in Latin America is not the case. That is why
learners are expected to have access to an unlimited number of resources available anywhere, anytime
thanks to music, radio, television, The Internet, the social media, as well as movies and
documentaries.

The knowledge of both language and cultural understanding is a reflection of the lifestyle of native
speakers of that language. Being competent in a foreign or a second language is not just related to
how well someone can use their linguistic system; rather, they should be able to deal with the
expressions native speakers use on a daily basis, in the street, at work, at school, at home, or
somewhere else. If someone lacks the knowledge of idioms, jargon, and slang, they would not be able
to engage in everyday life encounters with their peers, friends, colleagues, or just complete strangers,
since they would be unable to decipher and to understand how people conceive their world around
them according to the choices of language they make. Consequently, they would not fit in social
settings, and interactions would be difficult for them to interact with others who speak it. One of the
hardest things to master, for a non-native speaker of an L2, is to exchange and to understand idiomatic
expressions as native speakers do. Most of the time, they are taught the basics of the language system
in terms of its syntax, semantics, and phonology, toward the improvement of the four language skills.
Second or foreign language teachers should let learners be in contact with language as it is naturally
used and the best manner for them to grasp it is to interact with native speakers, to bring culture into
the classroom. The best way in order for this to be achieved is through a variety of modes: guests as
proficient native speakers, proficient non-native speakers, cultural events, T.V. programs, movies,
sitcoms, documentaries, fashion, cooking, sports, lifestyle and the like.

Idioms
They are defined as expressions whose meaning differs from the individual meaning of the words,
which make them up.
e. g. I’ll be leaving at the crack of dawn.
That’s the pot calling the kettle black.
There’s something fishy here.
He’s going to take me under his wing.
She doesn’t like going out. She is a wet blanket.
He is wet behind the ears. He needs to learn more from life.

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Slang
It refers to informal idiomatic expressions used by people based on their social status.
e. g. He’s a couch potato.
You need to be more laid-back.
I want to veg out in front of the television this weekend.
Teacher, may I go to the john / toilet, please?
We saw a nice flick / movie / film.

Ours is the age of substitutes: instead of language, we have jargon: instead of

principles, slogans: and, instead of genuine ideas, bright ideas.
Eric Bentley

Sayings
They are popular expressions based on the beliefs of individuals, which leave a message, that is
to say, people get a teaching out of them. They are usually referred to as proverbs.
e. g. A man is known by the company he keeps.
Between the devil and the deep blue sea.
The early bird catches the worm.

Jargon
It is a variety of language that has been used by the academic or the scientific community
according to an agreement reached among its members (teachers, lawyers, doctors, engineers, etc.).
e. g. Anecdotal records, critical thinking, learning, lesson plan, teaching. (In Teaching).
Affidavit, case, courtroom, guilty, innocent, lawsuit, plaintiff, prison. (In Law).
Allergy, doctor, health, medication, nurse, outpatient, pain, treatment. (In Medicine).

Clichés
They relate to expressions people use on a daily basis.
e. g. As old as hills.
At a drop of a hat.
Cat got your tongue?
Dumb as a rock.
Think outside the box.
Time will tell
Collocation
It refers to the positioning of two or more words, which make up phrases and usually have to do
with culture specific to each language, community or society. Collocation refers to words, which go
together within the same phrase.
e. g. Black and white.
Today or tomorrow.
Fork, knife, and spoon.
Keep an eye on that while I come back.

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 alive and kicking an arm and a leg black and white
e. g. He is still alive and kicking.
They paid an arm and a leg for their apartment.
I can see everything black and white now.

bread and butter cats and dogs dead or alive

e. g. I usually have orange juice, bread and butter and coffee.
It’s raining cats and dogs.
He is wanted dead or alive?

hand in hand heads or tails here and there

e. g. Poverty and violence go hand in hand.
What do you choose -heads or tails-?
We are here and there.

in a jiffy in a nutshell in and out

e. g. I’ll be back in a jiffy.
In a nutshell, everything is under control.
They have been in and out.

in dribs and drabs nook and cranny pros and cons

e. g. They collected the information in dribs and drabs.
We need to explore every nook and cranny of the subject.
They didn’t consider the pros and cons.

salt and pepper sooner or later spick and span

e. g. Could you please pass the salt and pepper?
Everything will turn out O.K. sooner or later.
I bought a spick and span car.

to and fro trial and error up and down

e. g. He walked to and fro.
We all learn through trial and error.
She eyed him up and down.

Men of few words are the best men.

William Shakespeare

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 The Pedagogy of Idioms, Slang, Sayings, Jargon, Clichés, and Collocation

One of the hardest aspects language teachers have to deal with refers to the manner how non-native
speakers manage to learn idiomatic expressions in a particular language and culture. Native speakers
cannot always understand idioms, slang, and jargon because they differ from region to region or
country to country. That is to say, not everybody can understand other people’s expressions although
they speak the same language. Expressions are culture-specific since they relate to specific situations,
which are interpreted by those who can speak the same language.

There is no guarantee that if someone was born in a Latin American country, they will be able to
understand any single expression from Mexico down to Argentina, except for Brazil and other
countries, which do not speak Spanish. The same is true for the language variety used by speakers
within their geographic boundaries. It is a common phenomenon in any language. Speakers can have
a hard time as they try to make themselves understood. It is not a matter of grammar, or much better,
structure or syntax, but about semantics.

We have seen misunderstandings between American and British people; French and Canadian
people; Spaniard and Colombian people, for instance, because words and expressions do not always
mean the same to everyone. Connotation of words, in terms of their meaning, usually leads to
misinterpretations, although people do not always do it on purpose.

As someone becomes familiar with idiomatic expressions, they will be able to understand the
culture in which native speakers move around. Then, they will be accepted by them much more easily.
The learning of sayings, jargon, clichés, and collocation, lets non-native speakers be considered as
their pairs since there is commitment, respect, and understanding between the two cultures involved.

A question arises here, how could non-native speakers become proficient in the use of idiomatic
expressions if they are not in authentic settings where the L2 is commonly used by native speakers?
Well, they are to be taken into the classroom as learners are exposed to music, movies, television,
radio, the Internet, and printed materials.

Soap operas, series, and sitcoms, are good sources of information for learners to gain some
understanding of what they mean and how they can be used. Proverbs, for instance, give foreign or
second language learners, some hints about the manner how their culture is expressed. That is why a
handful of proverbs, quotations, and idiomatic expressions, is recommended to be ‘taught’ to learners,
being their language teacher a useful source of information. The idea is not to sound as a foreign
speaker, although it would be the ideal thing to happen, in order to convey meaning and to
communicate with others successfully.

Language learning is a never-ending process. We cannot decide stop learning it as a matter of

personal choice. Let us suppose that one day you decide to start doing so. Then, when someone
approaches you and you are unable to understand them; you will have to ask for clarification or
exemplification so that understanding can take place. People are creative since new idiomatic
expressions appear because of social interaction, scientific breakthroughs, inventions and the like.

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 Reflection
Chapter 13: Sociolinguistics, Language Varieties, and Ebonics
1. Does sociolinguistics have any impact on your language teaching?
2. Which aspects of sociolinguistics do you consider important?
3. What are the causes for a pidgin language to develop?
4. How do pidgins or creoles affect language?
5. Are creoles a reflection of the deterioration of language?
6. How do language varieties come into being?
7. What makes language change?
8. Are there any language varieties better than any others are?
9. Do you have to teach a specific language variety at the place you are currently working?
10. Why are there some language varieties favored or better than any others are?
11. What is the connection between sociolinguistics and Ebonics?
12. Why is it necessary to have some basic knowledge of AAVE?
13. In which countries is Ebonics a common linguistic phenomenon?
14. Why do black people use Ebonics?
15. How does Ebonics affect the purity of Standard American English?

Chapter 14: Idioms, Slang, Sayings, Jargon, Clichés, and Collocation

1. How is language informally portrayed in L2 textbooks?
2. Why is it difficult to pick up informal language most of the time?
3. What are some of the best strategies to learn idioms, slang, and sayings in an L2?
4. In your teaching, how do you usually expose your learners to informal language?
5. How important is it to have a sound knowledge of jargon, clichés, and collocations in an L2?

Project
When it comes to selecting an English textbook, do you think of its possible users? What aspects
of Sociolinguistics do you take into consideration as for the selection of language textbooks and
language learning resources?

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 PART 6
DISCUSSING DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

The analysis of the functions of language can be

referred to as discourse analysis to capture the
notion that language is more than a sentence-level
phenomenon.
H. Douglas Brown

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 Chapter 15
Discourse Analysis and Critical Discourse Analysis
The role of discourse is to analyze language, as well as the intentions, which come from the mind or
from the heart of those who speak a language.

Although language is primarily spoken, it turned out to become written, as a response to a need men
had to make it last for the centuries to come. Linguists, philosophers, and psychologists, have shown
some interest in the study of language, in order to see how people affect language and how people
affect it. It is quite evident that we do not speak the way we write and we do not write the way we
speak. In every culture, speakers have certain rules for them to speak and some others, sometimes
quite different, for them to write. Idiomatic expressions are used differently, both in speech and in
writing.

Those who write as they speak, even though they speak well, write badly.
Comte de Buffon (1753)

When we interact with one another, using the main two linguistic means, which are speech or
writing, we are immediately dealing with discourse. What is the point of uncovering discourse?
Speakers, hearers, writers, and readers, must be careful when exchanging speech or messages through
writing; it is where discourse comes into being. Writers and readers should pay attention to style,
level of formality, or informality, context, and participants, based on the depth of the issue, which is
being discussed.

People talk about everything and anything, sometimes they are aware of their discourse; some
other times, they are not. It is important to analyze it in order to see how language changes or remains
unmodified, that is to say the way people speak or write down. We choose our utterances in some
cases, but not in others, why is it so? Because depending on whom we are talking to or who is talking
to us, or who we are writing to, we try to be cautious about what style to adopt. We analyze what we
want to convey right before uttering it or writing it down, depending on the addressee and the context
that we are dealing with.

Discourse Analysis examines utterances of spoken language, as in conversations, dialogs,

interviews, talks; whereas Text Analysis refers to the study of written language or compositions found
in e-mail messages, journals, letters, magazines, memos, menus, messages, newspapers, poems, etc.
Depending on the teacher’s or researcher’s interest, either discourse analysis or text analysis can
contribute to a better understanding of the manner how people think and view their world around
them. Language is expected to be analyzed as it is really used, in a number of circumstances, either
in the spoken or written mode.

Discourse
Before getting started, it is necessary to define the two terms, independently. Discourse is any type
of speech someone can use to address an audience, as in lectures, conferences, interviews, dialogs,
conversations, sermons, declamations, speeches, etc.

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Functions
Discourse refers to the fact that language can be analyzed in terms of utterances, that is to say,
pieces of spoken language are studied by relating what has been said with the contextual analysis of
the whole, just to see if there exist both coherence and cohesion.

Analysis
Analysis has to do with a careful and detailed study of the implications something has over
anything else. What can be analyzed is the interest of linguists in order to uncover the phenomena
involved in language interaction, between two or more participants, within a linguistic community.

Discourse Analysis
Discourse analysis, a term coined by Harris (1952), aims at discovering, explaining, and studying
the phenomena involved in the make-up of language, either spoken or written. Discourse analysis is
then; interested in analyzing the ways people use language, in a particular place and time, in history,
in order to come out with some theories about how language is modified by social groups.

According to Donoghue & Punch (2003: 79) discourse analysis can be analyzed from a societal
point of view:

Although discourse analysis is defined in various ways, it frequently refers to an examination of the way
in which language, as social practice, produces and reproduces social structures (Gilbert and Low, 1994;
Marshall, 1994; Kamler et al., 1997; Skillington, 1997).

Text linguistics
It usually studies written texts, such as ancient inscriptions, hieroglyphs, literature, letters,
messages, stories, short stories, e-mail, and the grammar of a particular language, in order to
understand how people choose a type of language and not another, and in doing so, they can analyze
compositional devices like coherence and cohesion. Style is what identifies you from others. People
have their own writing style depending on the genre and the audience.

Structuralism
It is the school of thought, which is in charge of the study and the analysis of both the spoken and
the written modes of language. Structuralism can be approached from the syntactic, semantic, and
phonological points of view. Proponents of structuralism include Saussure, Bloomfield, and
Hjelmslev. Structuralism has to do with a syntactic approach to language, considering it from a linear
analysis, but at the compositional level, the text being the minimum component of analysis, in order
for the linguist to delve into its constituency. Discourse analysis and text analysis are approached in
terms of their internal structures, that is to say, grammar, but also semantics, morphology and
phonology. Discourse analysis comprises the study of dialogs, conversations, speeches, presentations,
debates, etc. Speech is explored in terms of the interaction held, the interlocutors, the topic being dealt
with, the purpose of the communicative act, the level of formality or informality, which is being
expressed, the type of turn-taking being exchanged, but mainly, the type of information being shared,
transferred, and interpreted and how the goals established can partially or fully be developed.

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 Some other factors, which are worth mentioning, include the depth of knowledge about the issue,
the level of empathy between the speaker and the hearer, as they exchange ideas, information, data,
or concerns. Both speakers and writers use certain strategies to convey meaning as they are exposed
to language. Based on the proficiency level that they have reached, they are expected to interact
accordingly in order to carry out a task or to pursue a common goal.

Some of the strategies used to make themselves understood include the following: body language,
facial expression, and proxemics, etc., as well as descriptions, synonyms, antonyms, approximation,
or just in some other cases, message abandonment, because they lack the necessary tools to express
what they want to mean, either orally or in writing. The adopted style of writing is related to the
writer’s personality, the audience, and the issue being dealt with. Pieces of raw material of language
help language teachers, psychologists, or linguists, to determine how the L2 is being internalized.
Below there are some examples in which language interactions and language transactions are held.

 May I borrow your car, please?

 Yes, you may.
 Is it O.K. if I take you home?
 Yes, it is.
 Do you know where the hospital is?
 Yes. I do.

How appropriate are the answers provided above? Although they are right in terms of grammar,
they are not the suitable answers in terms of pragmatics; in order to establish a relationship between
the speaker and the hearer, there should be logical answers to previous requests as it is shown below:

 May I borrow your car, please?

 Sure, no problem. Anytime. / Sorry. It has a flat tire.
 Is it O.K. if I take you home?
 Yeah, that’s fine. It’s very nice of you. / No, thank you. Don’t bother.
 Do you know where the hospital is?
 Oh, I’m sorry. I’m new in town. / Uh-huh. It’s five blocks away from here.

Some of the factors, which have to do with the manner how people speak or talk and write down,
are the following:

Purpose
The communicative event makes a difference based on the goal to be achieved.
Topic
Every issue is approached in a very particular way, depending on the person’s knowledge about
the issue in question.

Geography
The viewpoint of life and circumstances are affected by the place people live in.

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Culture
The beliefs and the principles passed down from generation to generation.

Background
The personal experience gained through trial and error.

Age
The mental and the psychological processes, which are involved in the brain, vary in every person.

Training
The courses the individual takes contributes to his or her performance.

Context
The situation in which speech or writing takes place and develops has to do with context.

Setting
The place and the circumstances, under which language is used, make a difference.

Target audience
People speak, talk, and write differently depending on the speakers and writers, that is to say their
addressees.

Interlocutor
As we talk to children, teenagers, and adults, language is affected.

Reader
Our preferences and personality determine what we like to read about.

Mental framework
Our vision of the world around us determines our thoughts and concepts.

Coherence and Cohesion in Discourse Analysis

Coherence refers to meaning, so it deals more with semantics. Cohesion refers to unity, so it has
to do with syntax. Coherence and cohesion lead to logical meaning of a text or a piece of discourse,
when the reader has some background knowledge of the matter. Interpretation has a role to play as
for any piece of language either uttered or written down. Halliday & Hasan (1976: 1-4) define text,
texture, and cohesion as follows:

The word text is used in linguistics to refer to any passage, spoken or written, of whatever length, that
does form a unified whole. A text is best regarded as a semantic unit; a unit not of form but of meaning.
A text is a unit of language in use. It is not a grammatical unit like a clause or a sentence; and it is not
defined by its size.
The concept of texture is entirely appropriate to express the property of ‘being a text’. A text has texture,
and this is what distinguishes it from something that is not a text.

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 Cohesion occurs where the interpretation of some element in the discourse is dependent on that of
another. The one presupposes the other, in the sense that it cannot be effectively decoded except by
recourse to it.

Connor’s definition of Cohesion

Connor (1996: 83) defines cohesion in the following terms:

Cohesion is defined as the use of explicit linguistic devices to signal relations between sentences and parts
of texts.

In other words, cohesion deals with how sentences relate to others within a piece of writing.
Aspects dealing with syntactic references are analyzed in order to see how they affect other sentences
in a particular piece of text.

Functions of Spoken Discourse and Written Discourse

Everywhere people engage in an endlessness number of exchanges, which either mean or do not
mean anything at all. It is in those exchanges that linguists show some interest in the use of spoken
language. Since language is primarily spoken, linguists devote some time to its analysis and
application. Spoken discourse varies according to contexts, settings, and people involved in the
linguistic exchange. Not every speaker ever speaks the same way about common issues since internal
and external factors determine the type of language chosen, such as state of mind and circumstances.
Written discourse can be analyzed at the level of phrases, sentences, clauses, or paragraphs, or longer
compositions.

Textbook writers and language teachers should focus their attention on how discourse competence
reflects language as it is used in real-life interactions. In this way, people will be able to engage in
meaningful interactions, leading to the learning of the foreign language, as well as its culture, and
everything that is implied of it.

For Halliday (1978) the social context of language can be analyzed in terms of: a) Field (subject
or topic); Tenor (role relationships, power, and status); and Mode (channel: spoken or written).

Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA)

The term Critical Discourse Analysis can be replaced by Critical Linguistics. Some scholars prefer
to use the term Critical Discourse Studies, instead. Some of the proponents of CDA include
Fairclough (1997), Van Dijk (2007), Wodak (1997, 2008). Fairclough & Wodak (1997: 258) relate
to CDA as follows:

CDA sees discourse -language use in speech and writing- as a form of ‘social practice’. Describing
discourse as social practice implies a dialectical relationship between a particular discursive event and
the situation(s), institution(s) and social structure(s), which frame it. As a dialectical relationship is a two-
way relationship: the discursive event is shaped by situations, institutions, and social structures, but it
also shapes them.

Wodak (2006: 53) provides the aims behind CDA as follows:

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 CDA [is] fundamentally interested in analyzing opaque as well as transparent structural relationships of
dominance, discrimination, power and control when these are manifested in language. In other words,
CDA aims to investigate critically social inequality as it is expressed, constituted, and legitimized by
language use.

Language, either spoken or written, is analyzed within the social practices in which speakers and
writers engage in. CDA aims at studying and exploring the relationships held between speakers,
writers, and readers and how their language choices affect their use of power and authority.

Language and social relationships, framed within cultural practices, let people attempt to convey
meaning, based on its use and application. Discourse is field specific in language use, within and
along the social class or status. Not everybody always speaks the same way in their fields and they
do not always use the same means to express or to get their messages across. It is for this reason that
we have explicit words and expressions used by the different occupations and professions in society.
A practical example can be appreciated in the jargon used by doctors, engineers, and architects,
teachers, office workers, plumbers, carpenters, bus drivers, and the average Joe or Jane in the street.

Power is not just given by those who hold it in a broader sense, but by parents when it comes down
to family relations with their children. It is also present in the boss-worker relationships and in the
teacher and learner interactions in the school setting. However, when the circumstances change, the
type of power and authority may also change as external forces exert tensions when those under
oppression, are no longer oppressed by their parents, bosses, or schoolteachers.

Discourse is affected by everything that surrounds it: science, technology, discoveries, and
inventions. Since new words and expressions need to be coined to name reality, present or absent,
discourse is always on the move. The social, political, and economic movements have a say in the
manner how discourse is articulated in the minds of people, either with or without power. The idea
of power is transitory.

Not everything lasts forever. Those who are at the top of governments and organizations today,
tomorrow are overthrown thanks to the new artifacts and gadgets found in the social media, which
move people to move others from where they are. Power is in the tongue. It can serve to praise or to
curse. The role of discourse is to analyze language, as well as the intentions, which come from the
mind or from the heart of those who speak a language.

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 The Pedagogy of Discourse Analysis and Critical Discourse Analysis

Language is at the heart of the human activity. When speakers utter a need, it is because they want to
convey meaning. Discourse, which is interpreted as spoken language, differs from text analysis,
which is interested in studying and analyzing language from the written mode. Although both modes
of communication spring from a communicative need, linguists tend to devote their time to discourse
analysis since it tends to change much more often than text discourse does.

Spoken language is the result of mental processes derived from voluntary and involuntary
reactions of brain functional and emotional states. Internal and external factors, such as thought,
imagination, and creativity, as well as feelings, emotions, and desires, play a role as for how people
structure language.

Spoken language, which is usually considered as the basic mode of communication, has served to
the expansion of language itself, language varieties, dialects, and even, the appearance of other
languages. In such an expansion, other language varieties have developed, making discourse analysis
the central discipline to explore, mainly, spoken language. Linguists, then, have shown some concerns
about how discourse analysis can shed some light on the manner how people make language change,
not the other way round.

Although people tend to speak a common type of language, discourse is affected by factors like
the following: a) age; b) geographical features where someone is born; has lived, or is currently living;
c) social status; d) socio-economic position; as well as the kind of contact within their family, school,
or work. It is important to see how children make up their ‘reality,’ taking language as a standpoint
peculiar to their experiences. Depending on the issue of the conversation, setting, context, and
audience, people choose their discourse, so that it varies as interlocutors and places change, as well
as the triviality or the seriousness of the conversation held through spoken language.

Linguists, psychologists, neurologists, and sociolinguists, attempt to delve into the intricacies and
the underlying mechanisms, which make people change their discourse, as they get involved in
language, making them speak differently. Discourse analysis usually seeks to explore the devices,
which force people to interact as they engage in language. Language is a social phenomenon, which
is practiced everywhere: home, school, work, or street.

Social language makes sense when interlocutors use it to establish, to develop, and to keep
relations or do business, for instance. Learners should be given the chance to practice it meaningfully
so that it could be a reflection of how it is actually used anywhere. Critical Discourse Analysis should
be widely researched in the EFL/ESL contexts and settings so that relations of power and learners
participation can be traced down in a way in which favoritisms could be left out, either from the
teachers or their learners. The issues of Discourse Analysis and Critical Discourse Analysis should
be a concern to those involved in research in linguistics. However, unfortunately this is not the case.
As it was stated earlier, language teachers should delve into these issues in order to strengthen the
teaching processes and the learning practices within a non-threatening environment so that they
cannot be affected.

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 Reflection
Chapter 15: Discourse Analysis and Critical Discourse Analysis
1. Why do some linguists bother to analyze speech as language?
2. Which features of speech do linguists devote much more time in their study?
3. Is there any connection between discourse analysis and the teaching of grammar?
4. In which regards, is text analysis of some interest to teachers and linguists?
5. Why do people speak differently than they write?
6. How can the use of language serves to measure power and authority in the EFL/ESL context?
7. In what ways can CDA serve as a mechanism to shed some light on the use of authentic
language in the EFL/ESL setting?

Project
Choose a segment of your school community and analyze the way they talk or write down. Specify
age, sex, cultural background, etc. Then, share your findings with your partners.

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 PART 7
THE APPLICATION OF LANGUAGE

The process of translation comprises in its essence

the whole secret of human understanding of the
world and of social communication.
Hans Georg Gadamer

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188
 Chapter 16
Applied Linguistics
The idea behind the term Applied linguistics appeared in the United States as an attempt to solve
problems related to the teaching and the learning of languages.

There is a purpose in everything we do, as both individuals and teachers. In language teaching, for
instance, the main emphasis lies precisely on teaching, but it should be on learning, instead. Language
learners are to be provided with the necessary tools, autonomy, and independence so that they become
responsible for their own learning. That is why language teachers should have a sound understanding
of the underlying processes that learners have to go through, and in doing so, make use of the
principles derived from the discipline of Applied Linguistics.

The theoretical and empirical investigation of real-world problems in which language

is a central issue.
Christopher Brumfit (1997b: 93)

Applied Linguistics
Applied linguistics must be conceived as a broader term that fulfills the expectations of linguists
and those interested in the areas of language learning and teaching. Applied linguistics covers a wide
range of areas, such as language teaching, language learning, engineering, ESP courses, law,
medicine, psychology, sociology, speech pathology, translation, etc.

Carter (1993: 3) indicates that, “…applied linguistics is the application of linguistic theories,
descriptions and methods to the solution of language problems which have arisen in a range of
human, cultural, and social contexts.”

The study of language can be approached from two different perspectives: a theoretical one or an
applied one. The former has to do with the design, the development of systems of theories, and models
underlying language. The latter refers to the application of language. Some of the fields in which
applied linguistics has some important application both in language teaching and language learning
comprise the following: Foreign Language Teaching, Translation, Bilingual Education,
Sociolinguistics, Language Planning, Discourse Analysis, Text Analysis, Syllabus Design,
Psycholinguistics, Neurolinguistics, Testing, or English for Specific Purposes, for instance.

Production
Theoretical Understanding
Analysis
Linguistics
Practical
Applied Problem-solving
Teaching

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 Theorists of language are much more concerned with the production, the understanding, and the
analysis of language as a societal and cultural phenomenon. Experience, research, need, and
reflection, are important factors for theory to be developed, and finally applied, in the areas of
language teaching, pedagogy, and didactics, so to speak. The idea behind the term Applied linguistics
appeared in the United States as an attempt to solve problems related to the teaching and the learning
of languages. As the term suggests, linguistics should serve a practical purpose in order to solve
concerns both for theorists and language teachers or translators, for instance. An applied linguist must
have a sound knowledge of what linguistics is, as well as its application in instruction or in any other
field.

Origin
Kaplan (2002: vii) explains the origin of applied linguistics, as follows:

The term applied linguistics came into existence in the 1940s through the efforts of language teachers
who wished to ally themselves with “scientific” linguists and to disassociate themselves from teachers of
literature”. By the mid-1950s, the term was given credence by the opening of the School of Applied
Linguistics at the University of Edinburgh (1956) and by the creation of the Center for Applied.
Linguistics (CAL, 1959) in the United States. Soon thereafter, during the 1960s, the term was
institutionalized in the International Association of Applied Linguistics (Association Internationale de
Linguistique Appliquée, [AILA]; 1964).

Mackey (1965: 253) states that “Throughout the history of formal language teaching there has always
been some sort of applied linguistics, as it is known today.”

Richards, J.C., Platt, J. & Platt, H. (1992: 19) refer to Applied Linguistics in the following terms:
“The study of second and foreign language learning and teaching.” “2. The study of language and
linguistics in relation to practical problems, such as lexicography, translation, speech pathology, etc.
Applied linguistics uses information of from sociology, psychology, anthropology ...”

Definitions
Schmitt & Celce-Murcia (2002: 1) refer to Applied Linguistics as follows: “‘Applied Linguistics’ is
using what we know about (a) language, (b) how it is learned, and (c) how it is used, in order to achieve some
purpose or solve some problem in the real world.”

Cook (2003: 5) refers to applied linguistics in the following terms: “This is the aim -and the
aspiration- of applied linguistics, the academic discipline concerned with the relation of knowledge about
language to decision making in the real world.”

ESP Courses
In foreign or second language teaching, there has usually been an interest in the design of English
for Specific Purposes –ESP– courses. Its main emphasis falls on language courses that could suit the
learners’ needs in real-life situations, at school, at work, or in society. ESP courses were popular in
the 1980s, where English language instruction was geared towards fulfilling a communicative need,
especially in the area of reading for understanding in specific fields: medicine, law, engineering, the

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tourism industry, the food industry, etc. Language courses were tailored according to the learners’
needs.

Language teachers should be acquainted with the most recent approaches or methodologies
regarding the development, the design, and the implementation of ESP syllabi or curricula, based on
the outcomes of a needs-analysis program. It requires a careful study since ESP courses require
careful planning. They also should be well developed in terms of the goals, the resources at hand, the
materials design, that is to say, they have to suit learners’ communicative needs responding to, but
especially respecting their cultural traditions or heritage.

It is the teacher’s responsibility to design the ESP syllabi taking into consideration his or her
learners’ particular needs, which by the way, and their design is a time-consuming endeavor.
Although their emphasis has usually been on reading comprehension, it is important to explore the
other language skills. One of the drawbacks of ESP courses then is that it does not focus on listening
comprehension and speaking skills, but mainly on reading comprehension. ESP courses are usually
designed for more technical and scientific texts, which learners are to become familiar with;
especially in areas such as medicine, law, engineering, robotics, or architecture, for example.

Discourse analysis has also a place in the approach of ESP courses inasmuch as it intends to
explore language, as it is spoken or written. For example, reading contributes to increase a learner’s
vocabulary power, speaking enhances the learners’ linguistic competence, as they are to extrapolate
the issues provided in the reading. Listening comprehension can be promoted as they watch videos
or listen to documentaries related to the topic of a given piece of text. Learners can also express their
points of view as they write down brief ideas, short paragraphs, or even academic papers, with a
particular purpose in mind.

The analysis of the both the spoken and written language cannot be judgmental. People speak their
language because of a variety of reasons and circumstances, which determine the way they view their
world. Speech is the mere representation of people’s thoughts as they interact with others to achieve
a common set of goals: to reach understanding, to cooperate among themselves, to get things done,
to solve problems, to live in a community, either broad or narrow, among many other possible
purposes that we can think of. Language is the vehicle through which needs, wants, likes, desires,
fears, etc. are made visible. That is why people from different socio-cultural settings, contexts, and
environments speak the language differently. The educational level of both the speaker and the hearer

The discourse analysis of written language is wide ample. Not every piece of writing is always the
same. Formal and informal registers determine the way people speak. Within the first category, public
documents, legal papers, commercial agreements, etc. can be found. In the second category, personal
letters, texting, messages, are commonplace. In the case of e-mail messages, they can be either formal
or informal. In other words, the seriousness of the piece of writing determines if the writer decides to
approach it either formally or informally. Each piece of writing carries a specific structure according
to the text, which is chosen. The addresser, the addressee, the purpose, the content, the context, and
some other circumstances have a role to play in the manner how we relate to others.

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 The Pedagogy of Applied Linguistics

Applied linguistics covers a wide range of fields and disciplines, which somehow contribute
to the study of language from very different perspectives and applications in everyday life
and contexts. More than just providing some ideas on how to proceed with the application of
language, there should be a real analysis and study regarding the following:

 Not every area of knowledge can be approached in the same way. That is why a real
needs analysis has to be carried out as for the requirements a specific field has to
fulfill, according to the context.

 Goals have to be previously thought and established as those needs are to be met and
satisfied accordingly.

 It is important to stress out the importance the context has since starting from it, the
objectives are established, responding like this to the completion of the goals
previously stated.

 Once the context has been studied, the content is specified according to the
methodology, teaching principles, and didactics, which are supported in the
teleological components of an institution or a language program.

Nowadays, there is much emphasis on the four language skills, although they are not given
the real attention they all deserve. Commonly, the school staff, the language program
director, teachers, as well as the parental association, have a say in what the emphasis of
instruction or learning should be on. They could decide on what aspects of the language
teachers are to work on, not knowing the needs analysis of their very particular learners.

Applied linguistics, in this case, should work as a functional and remedial mechanism to
solve real problems both teachers and learners have to face. Most of the time, teachers are
ignorant of the context in which they will work and instead of focusing on learners’ needs,
what they do is to devote some time to the teaching of isolated grammar.

In order for applied linguistics to be considered a serious discipline, it has to have at its
disposal a series of methodologies, which varies, as the disciplines involved require a specific
methodology, instructional materials, and resources, which provide language teachers and
specialists with some hints on how to proceed. Therefore, it is important to define the
assessment criteria, which serve to identify, to determine, and to measure the effectiveness
of the methodology used based on the goals achieved.

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 Chapter 17
Monolingualism, Bilingualism, and Multilingualism
The real concern is that they will be able to continue being bilingual or multilingual.

Language is considered a personal asset or possession for people in a community or society. Language
is perceived as an active system, which requires interaction so that others around native speakers can
acquire or learn it. It can be achieved through different approaches: Monolingualism, Bilingualism,
or Multilingualism.
Those who know nothing of foreign languages, knows nothing of their own
Johann Wolfgang Von Goethe

Monolingualism, also known as Monoglottism or Unilingualism, refers to those people who just
use one language to be in contact with others, within their community or society, in order to
communicate or interact with them.

Bilingualism refers to the ability someone has to speak two languages, but it should refer to other
features, which are not necessarily related to speech, which include mental processes, the
development of linguistic patterns, and cultural knowledge.

To have another language is to possess a second soul.

Charlemagne

Biculturalism means that the learner is able to interact in two different cultures as he or she speaks
the foreign or the second language, in a given community or society.

Multilingualism refers to the fact that the people who speak more than two languages are
considered to be multilingual. Being a multilingual is a much more common phenomenon than being
a monolingual. It means that there are more people who are bilingual, multilingual, or polyglot than
monolingual. The more people (businesspeople, students, teachers, professionals) are on the move,
there will be more need of establishing relations using language. It cannot longer be considered as
being exclusive to a particular country or nation, but as a universal language or lingua franca in which
they can communicate with others.

Monolingualism
People who just can speak only one language are said to be Monolingual. Some of them are
monolingual because of a personal choice; they think that their language and culture are more
important compared to those of other people. Because of lack of direct contact with the foreign or
second language, they find it difficult to leave their Monolingualism behind. Language is a personal
possession because it takes place in a person’s mind. It is evident as it is used in a given culture and
its speakers can be classified as being monolingual, bilingual, or multilingual. Social factors have a
say in the manner how speakers think and view their world around them. Language use is a matter of
a decision-making process.

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 According to Valdés (n. d.) being a monolingual is a scarce language phenomenon, since most
people tend to be bilingual or multilingual. Here is what she says in this regard:

Contrary to what is often believed, most of the world’s population is bilingual or multilingual.
Monolingualism is characteristic only of a minority of the world’s peoples. According to figures cited in
Stavenhagen (1990) for example, five to eight thousand different ethnic groups reside in approximately
160 nation states. Moreover, scholars estimate that there are over 5000 distinct languages spoken in that
same small number of nation states. What is evident from these figures is that few nations are either
monolingual or mono-ethnic. Each of the world’s nations has groups of individuals living within its
borders who use other languages in addition to the national language to function in their everyday lives.

If you can speak three languages you’re trilingual. If you can speak two languages
you’re bilingual. If you can speak only one language you’re an American.
Author Unknown

Factors which contribute to the state of Monolingualism are:

Geographic features
Countries in the region just speak a common language because there are no neighboring countries,
which speak several languages. In Latin America, and more precisely in South America, most of the
countries speak Spanish, with the exception of Brazil, where people speak Portuguese.

Superiority
Because of race or ethnic origin, some countries consider that they do not have to learn to speak
another language, which could be inferior to theirs, so they do not care about learning those languages
or they would learn a language, which could represent prestige and respect.

Political reasons
If a country or a culture thinks its language is powerful enough for political reasons, then it
becomes the dominant language in the region or the world, due to their political influence, which is
exerted over the other countries.

Economic reasons
Due to the economic influence a country has over that of other countries, there is no need for the
people to learn other languages, but others ought to learn theirs.

Scientific reasons
Thanks to the advancement in research, most of it comes in the dominant language, so research
findings are usually published in that particular language.

Technological reasons
The language or the culture in which inventions are made, establishes the parameters for others to
adopt them.

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Tradition
There has been little or no tradition inasmuch as the importance it has to speak a foreign language.

Loss of cultural identity and acculturation process

Some cultures think that if their people speak another language, there could be a loss of identity
or an acculturation process could take place, so they decide not to learn another language, but to keep
theirs and have others learn theirs.

The native-like control of two languages.

Leonard Bloomfield

Bilingualism
Bilingualism is the use of at least two languages, by either an individual or a group, within a
community. Being bilingual implies the knowledge of not just the language system, but also its culture
since language is embedded into it and culture, is too. People feel the need of being bilinguals because
it is a requirement to survive in the community.

At home, parents expose their children to more than one language system in order for it to be
acquired naturally. At school, children are taught two or more languages. At work, individuals have
the possibility to interact with others in face-to-face encounters or virtually, thanks to the
advancement of technology, where distance is not a burden, but a possibility to come into contact in
real-time interaction.

Being bilingual implies to . . .

 . . . think with ease in two languages, either second or foreign
 . . . get along very well in two languages
 . . . understand and speak two languages
 . . . interact with native or non-native speakers about any particular topic
 . . . read and write down them properly
 . . . understand, speak, read, and write them down alike
 . . . use sign language and any other modes, if it were the case
 . . . practice the foreign or the second language as much as possible
 . . . provide learners with the conditions so that the L2 can flourish naturally
 . . . be immersed into a culture so that the L2 can be maintained and improved

Types
Compound
It is when a child begins acquiring the two languages before the age of 6, The child organizes them
in their brains as if it were just one language.

Co-ordinate
It is about early or late bilinguals. It is when a child begins learning the second language after
puberty and their first and second languages are established as two separate language systems.

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Simultaneous
It is when a child acquires two languages at the same time.

Sequential
It is when a child acquires one language first, and then he or she acquires the other language.

Additive
It is when someone acquires a second language without interfering with the acquisition of their
native language, but both languages are acquired, developed, and maintained.

Subtractive
It is when the acquisition of a second language interferes with the acquisition of the first language
in completely new settings for the learners. It is so because they do not have the chance to practice or
to speak their native language due to the lack of exposure to the language they are living in. If children
are removed from the environment in which they were born, their minds would grasp the new
language(s) easily, due to the flexibility of their brains, in order to accommodate to new situations,
almost effortlessly.

Fostering bilingualism
 When both parents speak two different languages at home, children are exposed to them, for
socializing purposes.
 When one language is spoken at home and the other language at school or at work.
 When families interact in their native language and use the second language with colleagues,
friends, or complete strangers, in the street, at any other moment.

Some criteria to design bilingual programs include the following:

 National standards
 Political policies
 Economic policies
 Educational policies
 International Standards
 Learner’s linguistic needs
 Teaching training programs
 Teacher language qualification
 Adequate instructional materials
 Attitudinal and motivational factors
 Appropriate teaching methodologies
 Suitable assessment techniques and strategies
 Learners’ opportunities to interact with the L2
 Maintenance of both the language and its culture(s)

Bilinguality is a characteristic of the individual while bilingualism is a societal phenomenon. Titone

(1989: 18) defines the term Bilinguality as follows:

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 Bilinguality implies a degree of communicative competence sufficiently foe effective communication in
more than one language; effectiveness requires the ability to correctly understand the meaning of
messages and/or parallel ability to produce intelligible messages in more than one code.

It is stated that someone is bilingual when they can . . .

 … communicate with others who share the same code
 … gain cultural traits from those who speak the L2
 … do business with other people from other nations
 … interact with others almost simultaneously thanks to technology
 … read literature as it was written by important authors
 … have the chance to travel around the world
 … have the chance to pursue graduate studies abroad
 … have the advantage to succeed if they are bilingual

Being bilingual does not delay the early acquisition of the native language.

Hamers & Blanc (1989: 25) define bilinguality as “the psychological state of an individual who has
access to more than one linguistic code as a means of social communication.”

Language proficiency
Someone is linguistically proficient when they can handle the language in terms of the following
aspects:
 … its phonological and phonetic systems.
 … the language system in terms of its structure.
 … its words, their meanings, and their proper use.
 … how to use it in meaningful contexts.
 … how to interact with users or speakers of it.
 … how to use the four language skills properly.
 … how to intervene in the L1 and L2 settings.
 … how to think and communicate properly in the L2.
 … how to overcome cultural misunderstandings.
 … how to deal with language varieties.
 … how to talk about any issues related to specialized language.

To learn to think more clearly, to speak and to write more efficiently and to listen and
to read with a better understanding – these are the goals of the study of language.
Samuel Ichiye Hayakawa

Language is learned with a purpose in mind. That is why it is important to have a sound knowledge
of linguistics in order for you to make the right decisions regarding the goals of your teaching and
those of your learners.

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Factors affecting language and cognition may include the following:
 Brain development.
 Age of the child to acquire the second language.
 Exposure to the language.
 Maintenance of the L2 at home, in school, and in the community.
 Status of the language.
 Child’s cultural awareness related to the L2.

Children have the ability to speak any language. The fact is that children are endowed with the
faculty to acquire the language to which they have been exposed to, from an early age, given the
circumstances, to practice it naturally, in ordinary settings, with a communicative purpose in mind.

Code switching
The switching from one language to another language is called code switching. Someone can speak
two languages and in their interactions, they can speak or answer back in one language and then in
another language. People code switch for a number of reasons: to exclude a group of speakers from
the conversation, to demonstrate modernity or show educational standing.

Immersion education
It is when learners learn their curricula in their native language and most of the other subjects are
taught or delivered in a second language, which is spoken in their community.

Dual or “Two-Way” immersion programs

These programs involve students representing two native language groups, for example, native
speakers of English and native speakers of Spanish, and the learners learn the curriculum, which is
delivered in both languages.

Bilingual education
It refers to the teaching of a foreign or a second language other than the mother tongue, at the
school level, for the teaching of content subjects. English is used as the language of instruction, for
instance.

Multilingualism is defined as ‘being proficient to a certain degree in more than one

language.’
Kees de Bot

Multilingualism
Now than ever before, it is very important for anyone to be proficient in both a language and the
culture of that language rather than their own. If someone wants to get along well with native speakers
of an L2, it is necessary for them to have a clear and sound knowledge of the cultural traits pertaining
to that language. Thanks to the scientific development, the growth of telecommunications and the
impact globalization has had on the relationships established among people, more and more people
are becoming multilingual and bi-cultural or polycultural. In order for someone to be admitted into a

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linguistic community, they have to know how to deal with cultural matters, which are new to them,
in such an environment.

Valdés (n. d.) in her article “Multilingualism” mentions some types of Bilinguals and Multilinguals
and she approaches them as follows:

Because there are very different kinds of bilinguals and multilinguals, much effort in the study of
bilingualism has gone into developing categories which might make the measurement and description of
these differences possible. The categories used to describe different types of bilinguals reflect different
researchers’ interests in focusing on specific aspects of bilingual ability or experience. Researchers
concerned about the age of acquisition of bilingualism, for example, classify bilingual individuals as
either early or late bilinguals and further subdivide early bilinguals into simultaneous bilinguals (those
who acquired two languages simultaneously as a first language) or sequential bilinguals (those who
acquired the second language (L2) after the first language (L1) was acquired).

Some factors to classify someone as being bilingual or multilingual are the following:
Age
Early bilingual or late bilingual: The sooner someone becomes bilingual, the better for their mental
processes since they take place naturally.
Setting
Simultaneous bilingual or sequential bilingual: Depending on the type of bilingual, the individual
can process his or her thoughts and ideas much more easily as for the opportunities he or she has for
interacting in the L2.
Context
It could be either artificial (language institutions) or natural (in the community), or a mixture of
both contexts, which is expected to favor the learning or the acquisition of the L2.

The construction of a linguistic community

 A linguistic community is understood as a group of individuals, who share a common language
so that communication can take place.
 There cannot be a linguistic community if it is not immersed within a cultural context.
 Language varies and needs to be adopted according to particular traits of their speakers within
a cultural framework.
 People who share a common linguistic code differ in the manners how they relate to one
another because of cultural practices.
 Learners can be exposed to language within the L2 classroom or outside of it, but they have to
learn how to manage to use it as they are in direct contact with native speakers, in their specific
settings and contexts.
 So, if it seems to be a hard endeavor to achieve, how can a linguistic community be created in
the L2 classroom?
 If the resources are carefully chosen then teachers have to comply with their learners’
requirements.
 Exposure to language as it happens in natural settings, although there are different contexts.
 Opportunities for interaction, participation, and exchange, have to be provided so that L2
learning can flow smoothly.

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 Part of real life is expected to be taken into the classroom so that learners can depict it once
they leave the classroom.
 In order for a learner to become part of a linguistic community he should show willingness of
belonging, adapt to the linguistic demands as the members advance in the learning of the L2,
among some other features.
 Every participant is expected to contribute to its creation and development since language is a
social entity with its own identity.
 The teacher is responsible for the selection and the use of the resources to which learners are
going to be exposed to, but a sense of discipline, commitment, and motivation are necessary so
that communication through the L2 can be made possible.

Issues, which have a direct connection to the creation of a linguistic community, follow:

Methodology Learner-Centered; Sense of Belonging; Dynamic; Realistic; Practical

Interaction Teacher-Learner; Learner-Teacher; Teacher-Class; Class-Teacher; Learner-Class

Techniques Pair work; Team work; Class work; Outer Community

Resources Human; Place; Educational

Tasks Debates; Movies; Presentations; Readings; Interviews; Musical Videos; Immersions

Projects Learning Centers; Learning Circles; Cooperative Work; Collaborative Work

Skills Integration of Language Skills Favoring Communication & Interaction

Assessment Objective & Formative; Permanent & Continuous

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 The Pedagogy of Monolingualism, Bilingualism, and Multilingualism

Thanks to the advent of the National Bilingual Program in our country, in the last recent years, there
has been an interest in the teaching and learning of English, both in public and private institutions. In
applied linguistics, the issues of bilingualism and bilingual education become important as for the
opportunities learners have to do business, pursue graduate studies, or settle down in a country where
the language is spoken. Methodological procedures have to be designed with sound practices favoring
the foreign or the second language. It is in this way that bilingual education becomes successful.

All over the world, people tend to speak one, two, or more languages, for a variety of reasons and
purposes. The chances for these phenomena to take place depend on the economic, educational, and
political policies adopted by governments. Being monolingual is a personal decision. It is easy for
someone to become monolingual, what is necessary is to close every opportunity to be in contact with
people who speak a foreign or a second language, believing that their linguistic system is the best and
others should learn it. Some people do not like to learn a foreign language because they feel that they
will lose their linguistic and cultural identities. What is important here is to let them know about the
benefits they can gain once they become bilingual: a) They can have access to a new culture; b) They
can view the world differently; c) They can pursuit graduate studies abroad or even in their countries;
d) They can be hired much more easily for a job; etc.

For those who want to become bilingual and multilingual, then, what suffices is to promote and to
foster national and multinational agreements in which learners can have access to exchange programs
to pursue graduate studies and to have access to first-hand culture in an English-speaking country.
That is why language learning and teaching resources must go hand in hand with pertinent and
meaningful practices, which favor the design and the development of curriculum and instructional
programs for the improvement of the L2, supported by governmental policies that have to be backed
up by sound educational policies. There must be a change of mind by those responsible for and
involved in the field of language education, although indirectly: policy makers, curriculum
developers, staff, and parents.

Since language learning is a matter of practice, when the conditions are not met, they have to be
created somehow, in the best conditions possible. Being bilingual is not something magical, it does
not happen overnight and it does not always work for everyone. Besides, it is not just, because a
decree was passed that everyone will become bilingual or multilingual. Is everybody held responsible
committed to achieving this goal, in our country, in the years to come?

Time will tell. Therefore, some political measurements and educational policies need to be adopted
and passed by governments, favoring the conditions so that learners can become bilingual in their
own countries, without traveling and living abroad, which in most cases, is hard to achieve, but
something needs to be done if this is what we expect to accomplish. No matter if someone is bilingual
or multilingual. The real concern is that they will be able to continue being bilingual or multilingual.
If there is a real contact with the languages and an intention to communicate an idea with those who
speak them, they will be able to improve and to maintain their languages alive; otherwise, they will
forget them overtime as a lack of permanent use within a linguistic community.

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 Chapter 18
Translation
Translation is possible when accuracy respects the writer’s intentions in its original text so that the
version, which results from the L1 interpretation in the L2, conveys the intended meaning .

Translation
It is the process whereby one idea is translated from the source language (L1) into the target language
(L2). Translation deals with expressing ideas, in at least two languages, without changing the essence
of the message.

To translate is to say in another language what has been written keeping the semantic
and stylistic equivalence.
Author Unknown
http://www.multilingual-sites.com/translators-role

The Translator in Translation

 The translator must be able to handle both linguistic terms without interfering with the meaning
of the original or source language.
 The translator must have a sound knowledge of the culture of the languages being translated.
 The translator must respect the ideas, but keeping the style, which is proper to the language
being translated.
 The translator must write down what the text in the original source really means, not just
expressing the ideas he thinks that should be right.
 The translator must have many stylistic resources at hand so that they fit the linguistic and
cultural contexts found in the L1.
 The translator should leave subjectivity aside and focus on the message, without distorting the
writer’s intentional meaning,
 The translator should be able to deal with features related to vocabulary choice, cultural
patterns, syntactic structures, which could lead to further misunderstandings to the potential
reader of the finished work.
 The translator should have, at his disposal, excellent reference-desk books, monolingual and
bilingual dictionaries, grammar books, etc.
 The translator should be able to explore any field of knowledge in order to have a broad
worldview, as for languages and cultures.
 The translator should be exposed to up-to-date theoretical frameworks related to new methods
or approaches to translation processes.

Translations are a partial and precious documentation of the changes that the text suffers.
Jorge Luis Borges
http://www.multilingual-sites.com/translators-role

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 Although the structure of expressing ideas in two or more languages is completely different, in the
most of the cases, what the translator must look for is sense and meaning so that the message conveyed
fills the original writer’s purpose, with style and clarity.

Approaches
Popovič (1976) posits four types of equivalence, which must be considered when it comes to
translating a piece of text. These include the Linguistic, Paradigmatic, Stylistic, and Textual types of
equivalence.
Linguistic Equivalence
It deals with word-for-word translation from the source language (L1) to the target language (L2).
This kind of translation is not easy to do and to find since thought in every language is not always the
same. People view their inner and outer worlds differently. More than having a word-for-word
translation the idea is to keep both meaning and message unmodified.

Paradigmatic Equivalence
It refers to the fact that the structural components are said to be similar in both languages, which
is not either easy to find in the L2 translation from the L1 original text.

Stylistic Equivalence
It is expected that both texts keep the same style, that is to say maintaining the “expressive ideas”
coming from the L1 without changing their style and meaning to be expressed conveniently.

Textual Equivalence
It means that the L1 has special ways to express its own discourse, which is not always the same
when it comes to expressing it in the L2.

On the other hand, Nina (1964: 159) defines both Formal Equivalence and Dynamic Equivalence,
in the following terms:

Formal equivalence focuses attention on the message itself, in both form and content. In such a translation
one is concerned with such correspondences as poetry to poetry, sentence to sentence, and concept to
concept. Viewed from this formal orientation, one is concerned that the message in the receptor language
should match as closely as possible the different elements in the source language. This means, for example,
that the message in the receptor culture is constantly compared with the message in the source culture to
determine the standards of accuracy and correctness.
The type of translation which most completely typifies this structural equivalence might be called a “gloss
translation,” in which the translator attempts to reproduce as literally and meaningfully as possible the
form and content of the original.
... A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression, and tries to relate the
receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture; it does not insist that he
understands the cultural patterns of the source-language context in order to comprehend the message.

Following Nida, the translator must translate the ideas from the source language into the target
language as they were stated by the original writer. That is to say, the translator must be faithful to
the text and the ideas expressed in it, without interfering with the message conveyed by the author.

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This type of translation is called Formal Equivalence. The translator also needs to get the ideas
expressed by the original author and then put a personal touch into it, only if the being or passage
being translated lets him or her do it. This type of translation is called Dynamic Equivalence or
Functional Equivalence. The translator’s task is to respect the writer’s original ideas as they have to
be interpreted in the target language as he or she expressed them in the source language. The
translator, then must be fluent both in the language and respectful of the cultures in which the text is
expressed.

Processes
The translator must be culturally knowledgeable in order to interpret correctly, what is meant from
the L1 to the L2 or from the L2 to the L1. For this particular reason, the translation process can
comprise the following processes:
1. Understanding the grammatical components of the text.
2. Checking the cultural components, which interfere with its understanding.
3. Identifying the original writer’s style.
4. Keeping the original ideas as they were expressed in the text.
5. Using clear and formal language to convey the ideas expressed in the target language.

The proper words in the proper places made the true definition of a style.
Jonathan Swift

Style
Translators are expected to have and to develop their own style to translate texts either from the
L1 into the L2 or vice versa. Their style has to respect the original ideas of the text being translated
so that the text can be clear as possible in both the source language and the target language. The level
of formality or informality depends on the type of text, which includes articles about science,
technology, art, medicine, engineering, architecture, or letters, reports, diplomas certificates, legal
documents, newspaper articles, abstracts or informal pieces of texts. Please analyze the translation
into Spanish of Woolf’s “A Haunted House,” which follows it:

A Haunted House
Virginia Woolf
https://www.englishclub.com/reading/story-haunted-house.htm

Whatever hour you woke there was a door shutting. From room to room they went, hand in hand,
lifting here, opening there, making sure—a ghostly couple.
“Here we left it,” she said. And he added, “Oh, but here tool” “t’s upstairs,” she murmured. “And
in the garden,” he whispered. “Quietly,” they said, “or we shall wake them.”
But it wasn’t that you woke us. Oh, no. “They’re looking for it; they’re drawing the curtain,” one
might say, and so read on a page or two. “Now they’ve found it,’ one would be certain, stopping the
pencil on the margin. And then, tired of reading, one might rise and see for oneself, the house all
empty, the doors standing open, only the wood pigeons bubbling with content and the hum of the
threshing machine sounding from the farm. “What did I come in here for? What did I want to find?”

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My hands were empty. “Perhaps it’s upstairs then?” The apples were in the loft. And so down again,
the garden still as ever, only the book had slipped into the grass.
But they had found it in the drawing room. Not that one could ever see them. The windowpanes
reflected apples, reflected roses; all the leaves were green in the glass. If they moved in the drawing
room, the apple only turned its yellow side. Yet, the moment after, if the door was opened, spread
about the floor, hung upon the walls, pendant from the ceiling—what? My hands were empty. The
shadow of a thrush crossed the carpet; from the deepest wells of silence the wood pigeon drew its
bubble of sound. “Safe, safe, safe” the pulse of the house beat softly. “The treasure buried; the room
. . .” the pulse stopped short. Oh, was that the buried treasure?
A moment later the light had faded. Out in the garden then? But the trees spun darkness for a
wandering beam of sun. So fine, so rare, coolly sunk beneath the surface the beam I sought always
burned behind the glass. Death was the glass; death was between us, coming to the woman first,
hundreds of years ago, leaving the house, sealing all the windows; the rooms were darkened. He left
it, left her, went North, went East, saw the stars turned in the Southern sky; sought the house, found
it dropped beneath the Downs. “Safe, safe, safe,” the pulse of the house beat gladly. “The Treasure
yours.”
The wind roars up the avenue. Trees stoop and bend this way and that. Moonbeams splash and
spill wildly in the rain. But the beam of the lamp falls straight from the window. The candle burns
stiff and still. Wandering through the house, opening the windows, whispering not to wake us, the
ghostly couple seek their joy.
“Here we slept,” she says. And he adds, “Kisses without number.” “Waking in the morning—”
“Silver between the trees—” “Upstairs—” “In the garden—” “When summer came—” “In winter
snow time.” The doors go shutting far in the distance, gently knocking like the pulse of a heart.
Nearer they come, cease at the doorway. The wind falls, the rain slides silver down the glass. Our
eyes darken, we hear no steps beside us; we see no lady spread her ghostly cloak. His hands shield
the lantern. “Look,” he breathes. “Sound asleep. Love upon their lips.”
Stooping, holding their silver lamp above us, long they look and deeply. Long they pause. The
wind drives straightly; the flame stoops slightly. Wild beams of moonlight cross both floor and wall,
and, meeting, stain the faces bent; the faces pondering; the faces that search the sleepers and seek
their hidden joy.
“Safe, safe, safe,” the heart of the house beats proudly. “Long years—” he sighs. “Again you found
me.” “Here,” she murmurs, “sleeping; in the garden reading; laughing, rolling apples in the loft. Here
we left our treasure—” Stooping, their light lifts the lids upon my eyes. “Safe! safe! safe!” the pulse
of the house beats wildly. Waking, I cry “Oh, is this your buried treasure? The light in the heart.”

La Casa Encantada
Virginia Woolf
http://www.ciudadseva.com/textos/cuentos/ing/woolf/la_casa_encantada.htm

A cualquier hora que una se despertara, una puerta se estaba cerrando. De cuarto en cuarto iba, cogida
de la mano, levantando aquí, abriendo allá, cerciorándose, una pareja de duendes.
“Lo dejamos aquí”, decía ella. Y él añadía: “¡Sí, pero también aquí!” “Está arriba», murmuraba
ella. “Y también en el jardín”, musitaba él. “No hagamos ruido”, decían, “o les despertaremos.”

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 Pero no era esto lo que nos despertaba. Oh, no. “Lo están buscando; están corriendo la cortina”,
podía decir una, para seguir leyendo una o dos páginas más. “Ahora lo han encontrado”, sabía una de
cierto, quedando con el lápiz quieto en el margen. Y, luego, cansada de leer, quizás una se levantara,
y fuera a ver por sí misma, la casa toda ella vacía, las puertas quietas y abiertas, y sólo las palomas
torcaces expresando con sonidos de burbuja su contentamiento, y el zumbido de la trilladora sonando
allá, en la granja. “¿Por qué he venido aquí? ¿Qué quería encontrar?” Tenía las manos vacías. “¿Se
encontrará acaso arriba?” Las manzanas se hallaban en la buhardilla. Y, en consecuencia, volvía a
bajar, el jardín estaba quieto y en silencio como siempre, pero el libro se había caído al césped.
Pero lo habían encontrado en la sala de estar. Aun cuando no se les podía ver. Los vidrios de la
ventana reflejaban manzanas, reflejaban rosas; todas las hojas eran verdes en el vidrio. Si ellos se
movían en la sala de estar, las manzanas se limitaban a mostrar su cara amarilla. Sin embargo, en el
instante siguiente, cuando la puerta se abría, esparcido en el suelo, colgando de las paredes, pendiente
del techo... ¿qué? Yo tenía las manos vacías. La sombra de un tordo cruzó la alfombra; de los más
profundos pozos de silencio la paloma torcaz extrajo su burbuja de sonido. “A salvo, a salvo, a
salvo...”, latía suavemente el pulso de la casa. “El tesoro está enterrado; el cuarto...”, el pulso se
detuvo bruscamente. Bueno, ¿era esto el tesoro enterrado?
Un momento después, la luz se había debilitado. ¿Afuera, en el jardín quizá? Pero los árboles
tejían penumbras para un vagabundo rayo de sol. Tan hermoso, tan raro, frescamente hundido bajo la
superficie el rayo que yo buscaba siempre ardía detrás del vidrio. Muerte era el vidrio; muerte
mediaba entre nosotros; acercándose primero a la mujer, cientos de años atrás, abandonando la casa,
sellando todas las ventanas; las estancias quedaron oscurecidas. Él lo dejó allí, él la dejó a ella, fue al
norte, fue al este, vio las estrellas aparecer en el cielo del sur; buscó la casa, la encontró hundida bajo
la loma. “A salvo, a salvo, a salvo”, latía alegremente el pulso de la casa. “El tesoro es tuyo.”
El viento sube rugiendo por la avenida. Los árboles se inclinan y vencen hacia aquí y hacia allá.
Rayos de luna chapotean y se derraman sin tasa en la lluvia. Rígida y quieta arde la vela. Vagando
por la casa, abriendo ventanas, musitando para no despertarnos, la pareja de duendes busca su alegría.
“Aquí dormimos”, dice ella. Y él añade: “Besos sin número.” “El despertar por la mañana...”
“Plata entre los árboles...” “Arriba...” “En el jardín...” “Cuando llegó el verano...” “En la nieve
invernal...” Las puertas siguen cerrándose a lo lejos, distantes, con suave sonido como el latido de un
corazón.
Se acercan más; cesan en el pasillo. Cae el viento, resbala plateada la lluvia en el vidrio. Nuestros
ojos se oscurecen; no oímos pasos a nuestro lado; no vemos a señora alguna extendiendo su manto
fantasmal. Las manos del caballero forman pantalla ante la linterna. Con un suspiro, él dice: “Míralos,
profundamente dormidos, con el amor en los labios.”
Inclinados, sosteniendo la linterna de plata sobre nosotros, nos miran larga y profundamente.
Larga es su espera. Entra directo el viento; la llama se vence levemente. Locos rayos de luna cruzan
suelo y muro, y, al encontrarse, manchan los rostros inclinados; los rostros que consideran; los rostros
que examinan a los durmientes y buscan su dicha oculta.
“A salvo, a salvo, a salvo”, late con orgullo el corazón de la casa. “Tantos años...”, suspira él. “Me
has vuelto a encontrar.” “Aquí”, murmura ella, “dormida; en el jardín leyendo; riendo, dándoles la
vuelta a las manzanas en la buhardilla. Aquí dejamos nuestro tesoro...” Al inclinarse, su luz levanta
mis párpados. “¡A salvo! ¡A salvo! ¡A salvo!”, late enloquecido el pulso de la casa. Me despierto y
grito: “¿Es este el tesoro enterrado de ustedes? La luz en el corazón.”

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 The Pedagogy of Translation

Becoming a translator requires a set of qualified characteristics. First, translators must have a sound
knowledge of the linguistic systems, which make up the grammar, and much more significantly, the
structure of the target language, in terms of its rules and internal functioning regarding syntax. Along
with this, translators are expected to have developed a writing style, which does not betray the original
writer’s intentions as they are to be expressed, especially keeping the sense and the essence of the
intended meaning, with its corresponding accurate grammar.

Comparative Studies of Translation

One of the best strategies, for translators to deal with the analysis, understanding, and production
of translations, is by carrying out comparative studies of scientific, technical, or literary works done
by different kinds of authors. By comparing and contrasting linguistic systems, by selecting terms,
which fit the linguistic and cultural contexts, by making use of appropriate methods, approaches, and
reference materials, translators will have at their disposal the necessary resources. They will help
translators to convey the intended meaning of the piece of work initially written in a language that
the audience does not understand.

Practice
Theory without practice is meaningless. Practice serves as the foundation of theory. The more
practice is carried out, the more strengthened theory becomes. In other words, translators gain a better
understanding of the processes, procedures, and outcomes, which are derived from practice and
reflection.

Theory
Theory is based on both observation and practice since it is from experience that we gain some
insights about it. Some other times, theory could be based on mere speculation, which over time turns
out to be right. Translators, then, should keep a balance between theory and practice, probably derived
from the analysis and the reflection of comparative studies, by taking into account the style kept in
both the source language and the target language.

Both practice and theory complement each other. They are both founded on the fact that trial and
error contribute to the improvement of production, which implies the application of a theory within a
practical framework. Theory has a role to play as it contributes to the improvement of a particular
kind of practice. Translation is possible when accuracy respects the writer’s intentions in its original
text so that the version, which results from the L1 interpretation in the L2, conveys the intended
meaning. The L1 text should be a reflection in the L2 or vice versa. Both texts cannot be interpreted
as if they were isolated pieces of discourse, rather they should be considered as it were a single piece
of text using different types of discourse and style, where meaning, accuracy, and coherence are to
be respected.

Translators are expected to be knowledgeable enough about both linguistic systems: the source
language and the target language. Translators also require keeping meaning with style as for the kinds
of structures, which are proper to the source language, without affecting the author’s sense and ideas.

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 Reflection
Chapter 16: Applied Linguistics
1. Which other applications can you think of with the insights gained in this handbook?
2. Which is harder to develop -a theory or its application-?
3. How has the reading of the Handbook of Language and Linguistics impacted you as a
language teacher?
4. How useful was the theory presented in it for your language teaching?
5. Which aspects of linguistics did you find to be much more relevant?

Chapter 17: Monolingualism, Bilingualism, and Multilingualism

1. What are some of the reasons for a country to be monolingual?
2. What percentage of your language learners are monolingual?
3. What policies should be included so that monolingualism can lead to bilingualism or
multilingualism?
4. How responsible are parents for their children being monolingual?
5. How can the problem of monolingualism be overcome in a school community?
6. What are some of the requirements for a person to become bilingual?
7. What does the fact of being bilingual imply?
8. How can bilingual programs be developed in your school?
9. What are some of the advantages and drawbacks offered by bilingual programs?
10. How can bilingualism be achieved in societal and cultural environments if there is not a
culture for its achievement?
11. , which of the multilingual programs applied abroad can be carried out in your country?
12. What does multilingualism imply in the new generations to come?
13. What are some of the reasons, which hinder multilingualism in underdeveloped countries?
14. What strategies can you think of in order for multilingualism to become a reality and remain
a successful program?
15. Why is multilingualism much more favored in Europe than in Latin America?

Chapter 18: Translation

1. What are some of the difficulties that language translators have to deal with as it comes to
translating technical texts?
2. There is a saying that goes: “Translators are traitors,” is it really so? Please explain.
3. What makes a good translator anyway?
4. What makes a good translator whatsoever?
5. Are there any advantages and drawbacks associated to translation?

Project
Carry out a classroom project in which you can determine how your language teaching
methodology can foster bilingualism in the school community. On the other hand, you can compare
two pieces of texts in which their discourse can be analyzed in an L1-L2 or an L2-L1 translation.

209
210
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