LESSON 25

Prepositions

Errors with prepositions are among the most difficult errors to catch. Preposition use in English is
complex. For every rule, there seems to be an exception. Recently, there have been more errors involving
prepositions in the Structure part of TOEFL test, and the errors have been more difficult to spot.
Prepositions are used in the following ways:
• In adverbial phrases that show time, place, and other relationships
in the morning on Pennsylvania Avenue to the park
by a student
• After certain nouns
a cause of a reason for a solution to
• After certain adjectives and participles
different from aware of disappointed in
• After certain verbs
combine with rely on refer to
• In phrasal prepositions (two- or three-word prepositions)
according to together with instead of
• In certain set expressions
by far in general on occasion at last
There are two main types of preposition errors that you may see in the Structure part of the test: errors in
preposition choice and incorrect inclusion or omission of prepositions.

ERRORS IN PREPOSITION CHOICE

The wrong preposition is used according to the context of the sentence.
There are two particular situations involving preposition choice that are often tested in Structure:
• Errors with from . . . to and between . . . and
Both of these expressions are used to give the starting time and ending time. They can also be used to
show relationships of place and various other relationships.
He lived in Seattle from 1992 to 1997.
He lived in Seattle between 1992 and 1997.
Route 66 ran from Chicago to Los Angeles.
Route 66 ran between Chicago and Los Angeles.

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Errors usually involve an incorrect pairing of those words or the incorrect use of other prepositions:
between A to B from X and Y
between A with B since X to Y
• Errors with since, for, and in
Since is used before a point in time with the present perfect tense—but never with the past tense. For is
used before a period of time with the present perfect and other tenses. In is used before certain points in
time (years, centuries, decades) with the past tense and other tenses—but never with the present perfect
tense.
He’s lived here since 1995.
He’s lived here for two years.
He moved here in 1995.
Errors involve the use of one of these prepositions for another:
He’s lived here in 1995.
He’s lived here since two years.
He moved here since 1995.

Sample Items
The pitch of a tuning fork depends of the size and shape of its arms.
A B C D
The correct answer is (B). The preposition after the verb depend is on, not of.

The Alaskan Pipeline runs between Prudhoe Bay on the Arctic Coastal Plain to the port of
A B C
Valdez, a distance of 789 miles.
D
The correct answer is (B). The pattern is from . . . to.

Candles were mankind’s chief source of illumination since at least 2,000 years.
A B C D
The correct answer is (C). Before a period of time (2,000 years), the preposition for should be
used.

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 LESSON 25: PREPOSITIONS

INCORRECT INCLUSION OR OMISSION OF

PREPOSITIONS
A preposition is used when one is not needed or not used when one is needed.

Sample Items
According many critics, Mark Twain’s novel Huckleberry Finn is his greatest work and is
A B
one of the greatest American novels ever written.
C D
The correct answer is (A). The preposition to has been omitted from the phrase according to.

Some of the most of spectacular waterfalls in the eastern United States are found in the
A B C D
Pocono Mountains of Pennsylvania.

The correct answer is (B). The preposition of should not be used in this phrase. (When most
means “majority,” it can be used in the phrase most of the. “Most of the people agree . . . ,” for
example. However, in this sentence, most is part of the superlative form of the adjective spectacular,
so it cannot be used with of.)

EXERCISE 25.1
Focus: Identifying correct and incorrect preposition choice

Directions: Underline the prepositions that correctly complete the following sentences.

1. Wage rates depend (in/on) part (from/on) the general prosperity (of/for) the economy.

2. (For/To) an injection to be effective (on/against) tetanus, it must be administered (by/within) 72

hours (of/for) the injury.

3. The invention (of/for) the hand-cranked freezer opened the door (for/to) commercial ice-cream
production, and (for/since) then, the ice-cream industry has grown (in/into) a 4-billion-dollar-a-year
industry.

4. (At/On) the time (of/in) the Revolutionary War, the North American colonies were merely a long
string (with/of) settlements (along/among) the Atlantic Coast (between/from) Maine and Georgia.

5. The probability (of/for) two people (in/on) a group (of/for) ten people having birthdays (in/on) the
same day is about one (in/of) twenty.

6. Showboats were floating theaters that tied up (at/to) towns (in/on) the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers to
bring entertainment and culture (to/at) the people (on/in) the frontier.

7. Scrimshaw, the practice (of/for) carving ornate designs (in/on) ivory, was first practiced (by/of)
sailors working (by/with) sail needles while (in/on) long sea voyages.

8. Assateague Island, (off/of) the coast (off/of) Virginia, is famous (for/to) its herds (of/with) wild ponies.

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9. (In/On) order (for/to) an object to be visible, light must travel (from/for) that object (at/to) a
person’s eyes.

10. (In/On) the 1930s and 1940s, when train travel was (on/at) its peak, passengers could look forward
(for/to) wonderful meals (on/at) trains.

11. (In/Since) the 1960s, op art, which was based (in/on) scientific theories (of/for) optics, employed
patterns (of/in) lines and colors that seemed to change shape as the viewer looked (on/at) them.

12. The first national convention devoted (for/to) the issue (of/with) women’s rights, organized partly
(of/by) Elizabeth Cady Stanton, was held (in/on) her hometown (in/of) Seneca Falls, New York,
(in/on) 1848.

EXERCISE 25.2
Focus: Identifying and correcting errors involving the inclusion or omission of prepositions

Directions: If there is a preposition unnecessarily included in a sentence, mark that sentence X and
underline the preposition. If there is a preposition incorrectly omitted from a sentence, mark that
sentence X, underline the words before and after the missing preposition, and write the correct
preposition on the line after the sentence. If the sentence is correctly written, mark that sentence C.

______ 1. According polls taken throughout the twentieth century, Lincoln and Washington are the
preeminent American presidents.

______ 2. Today, many varieties of fruit are available all year thanks improved storage and shipping
techniques.

______ 3. The origin of the Moon remains a mystery.

______ 4. Traffic jams can cause of pollution, delays, and short tempers.

______ 5. The sun’s rays heat the earth’s surface, on which then radiates the heat into the air.

______ 6. A warm-blooded animal is one that keeps the same body temperature regardless the air
temperature.

______ 7. Charlie Parker, considered by many the greatest improviser in the history of jazz, influenced
many other jazz musicians.

______ 8. Most the people are aware of the need to visit dentists regularly.

______ 9. Muscle fibers are attached bones by tendons.

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 LESSON 25: PREPOSITIONS

______ 10. In his essay Self Reliance, Ralph W. Emerson told to his readers why they should not
depend on the ideas of others.

______ 11. The crayfish is a freshwater crustacean related the lobster.

______ 12. Charles Goren was an expert the game of bridge.

______ 13. Stomata are the tiny openings in the leaves of plants through which oxygen and carbon
dioxide pass.

______ 14. Ducks have small oil glands by which keep their feathers oily and repel water.

______ 15. The tail of a comet always points away the sun.

______ 16. Lichens grow in extreme environments in where no other plant can exist.

______ 17. Not all of waterfalls are formed in the same way.

EXERCISE 25.3
Focus: Identifying and correcting preposition errors (Note: One or two items in this exercise do not focus
on preposition errors. These are marked in the answer key with an asterisk.)DIR

Directions: For Sentence Completion items, mark the answer choice—(A), (B), (C), or (D)—which
correctly completes the sentence. For Error Identification items, circle the underlined portion of the
sentence that would not be considered correct.

1. __________ seed of a flowering plant is 3. Water polo is a game in which is played

covered by a dense protective coat. A
in the water by two teams, each with seven
(A) On each B C D
(B) Each players.
(C) Each of
(D) That each
4. __________ 1900 there were some 300
2. Dynamite is ordinarily detonated bicycle factories in the United States that
________________ called a blasting cap. produced more than a million bicycles.
(A) a device is used (A) In
(B) that a device (B) Because in
(C) with a device (C) It was in
(D) the use of a device (D) That in

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5. A thick layer of fat called blubber keeps whales 14. All of the wheat grown throughout the
warm even __________ coldest water. A B
world belongs one of fourteen species.
(A) though the C D
(B) in the
(C) the 15. In 1886, a number of national unions
(D) of the formed the American Federation of Labor
__________________________________.
6. Many of radio stations began broadcasting
(A) Samuel Gompers was its leader
A B C
baseball games during the 1920s. (B) under the leadership of Samuel
D Gompers
(C) which, under Samuel Gompers’
7. __________ the United States, the general leadership
movement of air masses is from west to east. (D) Samuel Gompers led it
(A) Across
16. Harmonicas and autoharps ______________
(B) To cross
folk instruments.
(C) They cross
(D) It’s across (A) are examples
(B) for example
8. The economy of Maine is based to a great ex- (C) are examples of
A B (D) as examples of
tent in its forests, which cover 80 percent of
C D 17. There are approximately 600 different
its surface area.
A B
species of trees native of the continental
9. The removal of waste materials is essential to C D
United States.
A B C
all forms of live .
18. ______________ industries, such as banking
D and travel, in which computers are not a
10. The bark of a tree thickens _________. convenience but a necessity.
(A) with age (A) Where some
(B) it gets older (B) In some
(C) as older (C) Some
(D) by age (D) There are some

11. John Diefenbaker, Prime Minister of Canada 19. Waterwheels, which appeared on the
A B
during 1957 to 1963, is given much of the fourth century B.C.E., were probably
A B C
credit for the adoption of the Canadian Bill the first machines not powered by humans
D C D
of Rights. or animals.

12. A substance that is harmless to a person who

has no allergies can cause mild to serious re- 20. Since centuries, Southwestern Indian tribes
actions in a person ____________ allergies. A
have valued turquoise and have used it
(A) has B C
(B) which having in jewelry .
(C) can have D
(D) with

13. The first stage on the manufacturing of all

A B
types of clothing is the cutting of the material.
C D

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 LESSON 26
Articles

Articles are specifically tested only in Error Identification items.

Like errors with prepositions, errors with articles are sometimes hard to catch. This is partly because
of the complexity of the article system in English, and partly because articles, like prepositions, are “small
words,” and one’s eye tends to skip over errors involving these words.
The basic uses of articles are explained in the chart:
Indefinite Definite
Articles a and an Article the No Article
A or an is used before singular The is used before singular, plural, No article is used before noncount
nouns when one does not have a and noncount nouns when one nouns or plural nouns when one
specific person, place, thing, or does not have a specific person, does not have specific persons,
concept in mind: place, thing, or concept in mind: places, concepts, or things in mind:
an orange the orange orange
a chair the oranges oranges
the fruit fruit
the chair chair
the chairs chairs
the furniture furniture
The indefinite article a is used before words that begin with a consonant sound (a chair, a book); an is
used before words that begin with a vowel sound (an orange, an ocean liner). Before words that begin
with the letters h- and u-, either a or an can be used, depending on the pronunciation of the words.
Vowel Sounds Consonant Sounds
an honor a hat
an umbrella a university
There are also some specific rules for using (or not using) articles that you should know.
• An indefinite article can be used to mean “one.” It is also used to mean “per.”
a half, a quarter, a third, a tenth
a mile a minute (one mile per minute)
an apple a day (one apple per day)
• A definite article is used when there is only one example of the thing or person or when the
identity of the thing or person is clear.
The moon went behind some clouds. (There’s only one moon.)
Please open the door. (You know which door I mean.)
• A definite article is usually used before these expressions of time and position.
the morning the front the beginning
the afternoon the back the middle
the evening* the center the end
the past the top
the present the bottom
the future

* No article is used in the expression “at night.”

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• A definite article comes before a singular noun that is used as a representative of an entire class of
things. This is especially common with the names of animals, trees, inventions, musical instru-
ments, and parts of the body.
The tiger is the largest cat.
My favorite tree is the oak.
The Wright bothers invented the airplane.
The oboe is a woodwind instrument.
The heart pumps blood.
• A definite article is used before expressions with a ordinal number. No article is used before
expressions with cardinal numbers.
the first one
the fourth chapter Chapter Four
the seventh volume Volume Seven
• A definite article is used before decades and centuries.
the 1930s the 1800s
the fifties the twenty-first century
• A definite article is usually used before superlative forms of adjectives.
the widest river the most important decision
• A definite article is used in quantity expressions in this pattern: quantifier + of + the + noun.
many of the textbooks not much of the paper
some of the water most of the students
all of the people a few of the photographs
These expressions can also be used without the phrase of the.
many textbooks not much paper
some water most students
all people a few photographs
• A definite article is used before the name of a group of people or a nationality. No article is used
before the name of a language.
The Swedish are proud of their ancestors, the Vikings.
She learned to speak Swedish when she lived in Stockholm.
• A definite article is used when an adjective is used without a noun to mean “people who are . . .”
Both the young and the old will enjoy this movie.
The poor have many problems.
• A definite article is used before a noncount noun or a plural noun when it is followed by a
modifier. No article is used when these nouns appear alone.
The rice that I bought today is in the bag.
Rice is a staple in many countries.
Trees provide shade.
The trees in this park are mostly evergreens.
• A definite article is used before the name of a field of study followed by an of phrase. If a field is
used alone or is preceded by an adjective, no article is used.
the literature of the twentieth century literature
the history of the United States American history

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 LESSON 26: ARTICLES

• Definite articles are used before the “formal” names of nations, states, and cities. (These usually
contain of phrases.) No articles are used before the common names of nations, states, and cities.
the United States of America America
the state of Montana Montana
the city of Philadelphia Philadelphia
• Definite articles are used before most plural geographic names: the names of groups of lakes, mountains,
and islands. No article is used before the names of individual lakes, mountains, and islands.
the Great Lakes Lake Powell
the Rocky Mountains Mount Washington
the Hawaiian Islands Long Island
In the Structure section, there are three main types of errors involving articles:

INCORRECT ARTICLE CHOICE

One of the most common errors is the use of a in place of an or vice versa. Fortunately, this is also the
easiest type of error to detect. Another error is a or an used in place of the, or the in place of a or an.

Sample Items
A eclipse of the sun may be either total or partial .
A B C D
The correct answer is (A). An must be used before a noun beginning with a vowel sound such
as eclipse.

Rose Bird was a first woman in the history of California to serve on the State Supreme Court.
A B C D
The correct answer is (A). In a phrase with an ordinal number (such as first), the definite article
the must be used.

INCORRECT OMISSION OR INCLUSION OF

AN ARTICLE
Sometimes an article is used when none is needed or one is omitted when one is required.

Sample Items
Slag consists of waste materials and impurities that rise to top of melted metals .
A B C D
The correct answer is (C). The definite article the should not be omitted from the phrase
the top of.

The most asteroids are beyond the orbit of the planet Mars.
A B C D
The correct answer is (A). Definite articles are used only before quantity expressions that
contain of phrases. (Most asteroids or Most of the asteroids are both correct in this sentence.)

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USE OF A DEFINITE ARTICLE IN PLACE OF

A POSSESSIVE
A definite article may be incorrectly used in place of a possessive word—its, his, her, or their.

Sample Item
The Ozark Mountains of Arkansas are famous for the rugged beauty.
A B C D
The correct answer is (D). The should correctly read their because the sentence refers to the
beauty belonging to the Ozark Mountains.

EXERCISE 26.1
Focus: Identifying the correct and incorrect use of articles

Directions: Underline the forms that correctly complete the sentence.

1. Only about (the one/one) percent of (the water/water) on Earth is (the fresh/fresh) water.

2. (The mineral/Mineral) phosphate is (the most/most) common ingredient of all types of (the fertilizers/
fertilizers).

3. (The/A) process of refining minerals requires (a/an) huge amount of (an electrical/electrical) energy.

4. (A humor/Humor) runs through (the American/American) literature from (the earliest/earliest) times
until (the present/present).

5. (The ozone/Ozone) layer acts as (a/an) umbrella against (the most/most) of (the Sun’s/Sun’s) danger-
ous rays.

6. In (the early/early) 1800s, Sequoia, (a Cherokee/Cherokee) leader, created (the/a) first written form of
(a North/North) American Indian language.

7. (The Goddard/Goddard) family of (the New/New) England produced some of (the/a) finest furniture
made in (the United/United) States in (the seventeenth/seventeenth) century.

8. (The popcorn/Popcorn) has (a/the) same food value as any other kind of (a corn/corn).

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 LESSON 26: ARTICLES

EXERCISE 26.2
Focus: Identifying and correcting errors with articles (Note: One or two items in this exercise do not focus
on article errors. These are marked in the answer key with an asterisk.)

Directions: Decide which of the four underlined words or phrases—(A), (B), (C), or (D)—would
not be considered correct, and write the letter of the expression in the blank.

______ 1. The most butterfly eggs are coated with a sticky substance that holds them to plants .
A B C D
______ 2. A number of large insurance companies have the headquarters in Hartford, Connecticut.
A B C D
______ 3. To be effective , an advertisement must first attract an attention .
A B C D
______ 4. Virgin Islands National Park features a underwater preserve with coral reefs and colorful
A B C
tropical fish .
D
______ 5. Arthritis, a painful swelling of the joints, is often associated with elderly people, but it can
A B C
afflict young as well.
D
______ 6. Wilmington is an only large city in the state of Delaware.
A B C D
______ 7. About the third of the earth’s land surface is covered by relatively flat plains .
A B C D
______ 8. In the 1920s , gasoline companies began giving away free road maps to the customers .
A B C D
______ 9. The Tropic of Cancer is imaginary line that marks the northern boundary of the earth’s
A B C D
tropical zone.

______ 10. Hereford cows are one of most common breeds of cattle raised for the beef .
A B C D
______ 11. American soprano Kathleen Battle taught music in elementary school before beginning
A B
the career as a professional singer.
C D
______ 12. In 1891, first state law to help local communities pay for highways was passed in New Jersey.
A B C D
______ 13. Lumber is dried and seasoned in an heated chamber called a dry kiln.
A B C D
______ 14. Grandfather Mountain, a highest mountain in the Blue Ridge mountain range, is in North Carolina.
A B C D
______ 15. The eardrum is the only organ in a human body that is capable of detecting changes in air
A B C D
pressure.

______ 16. It was around 1925 that a accurate , convenient system for recording the choreography of ballet
A B C D
was developed.

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