See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/237435902

Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy

Article · January 2005

CITATIONS READS

13 14,230

1 author:

Wayne Froggatt
Rational Training Resources Ltd
2 PUBLICATIONS   13 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Wayne Froggatt on 27 August 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 A Brief Introduction To

Rational Emotive
Behaviour Therapy
By Wayne Froggatt
Third Ed.(this version Feb 2005)

Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT) is based on the concept that emotions and behaviours result from cog-
nitive processes; and that it is possible for human beings to modify such processes to achieve different ways of feel-
ing and behaving. REBT is one of a number of therapies that come under the heading ‘cognitive-behavioural’.

In the mid-1950’s Dr. Albert Ellis, a clinical psy- (about themselves, other people, and the world in
chologist trained in psychoanalysis, became disil- general). It is what people believe about situations
lusioned with the slow progress of his clients. He they face – not the situations themselves – that de-
observed that they tended to get better when they termines how they feel and behave.
changed their ways of thinking about themselves, REBT, however, also argues that a person’s
their problems, and the world. Ellis reasoned that biology also affects their feelings and behaviours
therapy would progress faster if the focus was – an important point, as it is a reminder to the
directly on the client’s beliefs, and thus was born therapist that there are limitations to how far a
the method now known as Rational Emotive Be- human being can change. A person’s belief sys-
haviour Therapy. tem is seen to be a product of both biological in-
REBT was originally called ‘Rational Ther- heritance and learning throughout life.
apy’, soon changed to ‘Rational-Emotive Ther- A useful way to illustrate the role of cognition
apy’ and again in the early 1990’s to ‘Rational is by using Ellis’ ‘ABC’ model. In this framework
Emotive Behaviour Therapy’. REBT is one of a ‘A’ represents an actual event or experience, and
number of ‘cognitive-behavioural’ therapies, the person’s ‘inferences’ or interpretations as to
which, although developed separately, have many what is happening. ‘B’ represents the ‘evaluative’
similarities – such as Cognitive Therapy (CT), beliefs that follow from these inferences. ‘C’
developed by Psychiatrist Aaron Beck in the represents the emotions and behaviours that fol-
1960’s. REBT and CT together form the basis of low from those evaluative beliefs.
the family of psychotherapies known as ‘Cogni- Here is an example of an ‘emotional episode’,
tive-Behaviour Therapy’. Over the past half- experienced by a person prone to depression who
century, REBT has developed significantly, and tends to misinterpret the actions of other people:
continues to change.
A1. Activating event – what happened:
Friend passed me in the street without ac-
Theory of causation knowledging me.
REBT is not just a set of techniques – it is also a
A2. Inferences about what happened:
comprehensive theory of human behaviour. REBT
proposes a ‘biopsychosocial’ explanation of cau- He’s ignoring me. He doesn’t like me.
sation – i.e. that a combination of biological, psy- B. Beliefs about A:
chological, and social factors are involved in the I’m unacceptable as a friend – so I must be
way humans feel and behave. worthless as a person. (Evaluation)
The most basic premise of REBT, which it
C. Reaction:
shares with other cognitive-behavioural theories, is
that almost all human emotions and behaviours are Emotions: depressed.
the result of what people think, assume or believe Behaviours: avoiding people generally.

Page 1 of 15
 Note that ‘A’ alone does not cause ‘C’ – ‘A’ behaviours that harm oneself, others, and one’s
triggers off ‘B’, and ‘B’ then causes ‘C’. Also, life in general.
ABC episodes do not stand alone: they run in 2. It distorts reality (it is a misinterpretation of
chains, with a ‘C’ often becoming the ‘A’ of an- what is happening and is not supported by the
other episode – we observe our own emotions and available evidence);
behaviours, and react to them. For instance, the
3. It contains illogical ways of evaluating oneself,
person in the example above could observe their
others, and the world: demandingness, awfulis-
avoidance of other people, interpret this as weak,
ing, discomfort-intolerance and people-rating;
and engage in self-downing.
When talking with clients, we often refer to
Note, too, that most beliefs are outside con-
scious awareness. They are habitual or automatic, beliefs as ‘self-defeating’ rather than ‘irrational’,
often consisting of underlying ‘rules’ about how to emphasise that the main reason for replacing a
belief is because it negatively affects their lives.
the world and life should be. With practice,
though, people can learn to uncover such subcon- Two Types of Disturbance
scious ‘core’ beliefs. REBT suggests that human beings defeat or ‘dis-
turb’ themselves in two main ways: (1) by holding
Theory of change irrational beliefs about their ‘self’ (ego distur-
According to REBT, change can occur at different bance) or (2) by holding irrational beliefs about
levels. Let’s say, for instance, that you are anx- their emotional or physical comfort (discomfort
ious because you think someone is disapproving disturbance). Frequently, the two go together –
of you. At a superficial level you can feel better people may think irrationally about both their
by altering your body chemistry (e.g. via exercise, ‘selves’ and their circumstances – though one or
dietary change or medication); by changing the the other will usually be predominant.
situation (e.g. by avoiding contact with the other Ego disturbance represents an upset to the
person); or by changing your inferences about the self-image. It results from holding demands about
situation (for example, you make yourself feel one’s ‘self’, e.g. ‘I must … do well / not fail / get
less anxious by convincing yourself that the dis- approval from others’; followed by negative self-
approval isn’t going to happen). evaluations such as: ‘When I fail / get disapproval
For a person to go beyond feeling better to ac- / etc. this proves I am no good’ and so on. These
tually get better – that is, to achieve fundamental beliefs create ‘ego anxiety’ – emotional tension
and lasting change – involves modifying the un- resulting from the perception that one’s ‘self’ or
derlying core beliefs that create difficulties for personal worth is threatened – and lead to other
them in a range of situations. Using our example problems such as avoidance of situations where
above, rather than convince yourself that disap- failure, disapproval, etc. might occur; looking to
proval isn’t going to happen, you accept that it other people for acceptance; and unassertive
might, but deal with your underlying core belief behaviour through fear of what others may think.
that you need approval and must not ever receive Discomfort disturbance results from demands
disapproval. about others (e.g. ‘People must treat me right’)
REBT therapists accept that superficial change and about the world (e.g. ‘The circumstances un-
may sometimes be the more realistic option for der which I live must be the way I want’). Dis-
some clients, but aim for fundamental change comfort disturbance comes in two slightly differ-
wherever possible. To achieve such change, ent but related flavours:
REBT uses a range of cognitive, emotive and be- • Low frustration-tolerance (LFT) results from
havioural strategies (more about these later). demands that frustration not happen, followed
by catastrophising when it does. It is based on
What is irrational thinking? beliefs like: ‘The world owes me contentment
and happiness;’ or: ‘Things should be as I
We have seen that what we think determines what want them to be, and I can’t stand it when
we feel. But what types of thinking are problem- they are not.’
atical for human beings?
• Low discomfort-tolerance (LDT) arises from
A definition demands that one not experience emotional or
To describe a belief as ‘irrational’ is to say that: physical discomfort, with catastrophising
when discomfort does occur. It is based on be-
1. It blocks a person from achieving their goals, liefs like: ‘I should be able to feel happy all
creates extreme emotions that persist and the time;’ ‘I must be able to feel comfortable
which distress and immobilise, and leads to

Page 2 of 15
 all of the time;’ ‘Discomfort and pain are aw- 5. My unhappiness is caused by things that are
ful and intolerable, and I must avoid them at outside my control – so there is little I can do
all costs;’ ‘I must not feel bad;’ and so on. to feel any better.
The two types – LFT and LDT – are similar 6. I must worry about things that could be dan-
and closely related (often one expression is used gerous, unpleasant or frightening – otherwise
to refer to both). Discomfort disturbance leads to they might happen.
problems like: 7. Because they are too much to bear, I must
• ‘Discomfort anxiety’ (emotional tension re- avoid life’s difficulties, unpleasantness, and
sulting from the perception that one’s comfort responsibilities.
(or life) is threatened). 8. Everyone needs to depend on someone
• Worrying (‘because … would be awful, and I stronger than themselves.
couldn’t stand it, I must worry about it in case
9. Events in my past are the cause of my prob-
it happens’).
lems – and they continue to influence my
• Avoidance of events and circumstances that feelings and behaviours now.
are seen as ‘too hard’ to bear or ‘too difficult’
10. I should become upset when other people
to overcome.
have problems, and feel unhappy when
• Secondary disturbance (upsetting oneself they’re sad.
about having a problem, e.g. becoming anx-
11. I shouldn’t have to feel discomfort and pain – I
ious about being anxious, depressed about be-
can’t stand them and must avoid them at all
ing depressed, and so on).
costs.
• Short-range enjoyment – the seeking of im-
mediate pleasure or avoidance of pain at the 12. Every problem should have an ideal solution –
cost of long-term stress – for example alcohol, and it’s intolerable when one can’t be found.
drug and food abuse; watching television Four types of evaluative belief
rather than exercising; practising unsafe sex; All of the core beliefs listed above have a germ of
or overspending to feel better. truth in them. Are not love and approval good
• Procrastination – putting off difficult tasks or things to get? Is it not better to succeed, be treated
unpleasant situations. well by others, and find ideal solutions? Note,
• Negativity and complaining – becoming dis- though, the way most of the core beliefs are
tressed over small hindrances and setbacks, worded: all except a few are stated as demands –
overconcerned with unfairness, and prone to characterised by words like ‘should’, ‘must’,
making comparisons between one’s own and ‘need’. Some also contain several other types of
others’ circumstances. belief we shall address shortly. REBT proposes
that there are four types of evaluative thinking
The rules people live by
that are dysfunctional for human beings:
Underlying what we think in specific situations Demandingness. Referred to colourfully by
are what is known as ‘core beliefs’, which are Ellis as ‘musturbation’, demandingness refers to
underlying rules that guide how people react to the way people hold unconditional shoulds and
the events and circumstances in their lives in gen- absolutistic musts – believing that certain things
eral. Ellis proposes that a small number of core must or must not happen, and that certain con-
beliefs underlie most unhelpful emotions and be- ditions (for example success, love, or approval)
haviours. Here is a sample list of such ‘rules for are absolute necessities. Demandingness implies
living’: certain ‘Laws of the Universe’ that must be ad-
1. I need love and approval from those signifi- hered to. Demands can be directed both internally
cant to me – and I must avoid disapproval and outwardly. REBT suggests that there are three
from any source. basic musts:
2. To be worthwhile as a person I must achieve, 1. Demands about the self;
succeed at whatever I do, and make no mis- 2. Demands about others;
takes. 3. Demands about the world.
3. People should always do the right thing. Demands about the self will lead to ego distur-
When they behave obnoxiously, unfairly or bance; demands about others and the world will
selfishly, they must be blamed and punished. lead primarily to discomfort disturbance. Also, as
4. Things must be the way I want them to be, well as being involved with core beliefs, demands
otherwise life will be intolerable. also occur with beliefs about specific situations.

Page 3 of 15
For example, a general core belief like: ‘People Let’s say that a person holds the rule: ‘For me
should always behave in a correct and right fash- to be happy, my life must be safe and predict-
ion’ may lead to the specific belief: ‘He should able.’ Such a core belief will lead them to be hy-
not have done what he did’. persensitive to any possibility of danger and over-
Arising out of the demands people place on estimate the likelihood of things going wrong.
themselves, others, and the world are three further Suppose they hear a noise in the night. Their hy-
types of evaluative thinking: awfulising, discom- persensitivity to danger leads them to infer that
fort-intolerance, and self/other-rating. there is an intruder in the house. They then evalu-
Awfulising occurs when we exaggerate the ate this possibility as catastrophic and unbearable,
consequences of past, present or future events; which creates feelings of panic.
seeing them as the worst that could happen. Aw- REBT is mainly concerned with helping peo-
fulising is characterised by words like ‘awful’, ple identify their underlying general rules (‘core
‘terrible’, ‘horrible’. beliefs’). This involves going beyond a person’s
Discomfort intolerance, often referred to as surface inferences to their evaluations, and from
‘can’t-stand-it-itis’, is based on the idea that one there deducing the core belief(s) on which they
cannot bear some circumstance or event. It often are likely to be operating.
follows awfulising, and can fuel demands that Inferences. In everyday life, events and cir-
certain things not happen. cumstances trigger off inferences about what is
People-rating refers to the process of evaluat- ‘going on’ – that is, we make guesses about what
ing one’s entire self (or someone else’s); in other we think has happened, is happening, or will be
words, judging the total value or worth of a per- happening. Inferences are statements of ‘fact’ (or
son. It represents an overgeneralisation whereby a at least what we think are the facts – they can be
person evaluates a specific trait, behaviour or ac- true or false). In REBT, little time is spent on a
tion according to some standard of desirability or client’s inferences – they are regarded as signifi-
worth. They then apply the evaluation to their cant only in the sense that they provide a window
total person – eg. ‘I did a bad thing, therefore I am to the evaluative thinking.
a bad person.’ People-rating can lead to self- Evaluations. More significantly from the
downing, depression, defensiveness, grandiosity, REBT perspective, as well as making inferences
hostility, or overconcern with approval and disap- about things that happen, we go beyond the ‘facts’
proval, and is a key factor in ego disturbance. to evaluate them in terms of what they mean to
us. Evaluations are sometimes conscious, some-
Note that in REBT, demandingness has tradition- times beneath awareness. Irrational evaluations
ally been seen as the main type of irrational think- consist of one or more of the four types of beliefs
ing, with the other three types deriving from it. listed earlier: demandingness, awfulising, discom-
For example, you are only likely to rate yourself fort-intolerance, and self/other-rating. An evalua-
as ‘worthless’ for failing at something if you be- tion following on from the inference described in
lieve that you ‘must’ always succeed; or you the previous section could be: ‘I need her to love
would only be prone to regarding discomfort as me – because if she didn’t, this would prove I was
unbearable because you believe that you ‘must’ worthless.’
not be uncomfortable. In my experience, it seems
Core beliefs. Guiding a person’s inferences
that there is almost always a demand at the root of
and evaluations are their underlying, general core
a person’s emotional or behavioural problems; but
beliefs. An example of a general core belief that
some flexibility is appropriate for the few occa-
would apply to the inference and evaluation we
sions when no demand can be identified by the
are using as our example could be: ‘For me to be
client or therapist.
worthwhile as a person I must have someone who
The Three Levels of Thinking loves me unreservedly.’
Human beings appear to think at three levels: (1) Putting It All Together
Inferences; (2) Evaluations; and (3) Core beliefs.
Here is an example (using the ABC model) to
As previously described, every individual has show how it all works:
a set of general ‘rules’ – usually subconscious –
that determines how they react to life. When an A. Your neighbour phones and asks if you will
event triggers off a train of thought, what you baby-sit for the rest of the day. You had al-
consciously think depends on the general rules ready planned to catch up with some garden-
you subconsciously apply to the event. ing. You infer that: ‘If I say no, she will think
badly of me.’

Page 4 of 15
B. You evaluate your inference: ‘I couldn’t stand 3. Teach the client how to dispute and change the
to have her see me as selfish.’ irrational beliefs, replacing them with more ra-
Your inference and the evaluation that fol- tional alternatives. Again, education will aid
lows are the result of holding the core belief: this. The ABC format is extended to include
‘To feel OK about myself, I need to be liked, ‘D’ (Disputing irrational beliefs), ‘E’ (the new
so I must avoid disapproval from any source.’ Effect the client wishes to achieve, i.e. new
(an example of ego disturbance). ways of feeling and behaving), and ‘F’ (Fur-
ther Action for the client to take).
C. You feel anxious and say yes.
4. Help the client get into action. Acting against
In summary, people view themselves and the irrational beliefs – for example, disputing the
world around them at three levels: (1) inferences, belief that disapproval is intolerable by delib-
(2) evaluations, and (3) core beliefs. The thera- erately doing something to attract it, then
pist’s main objective is to deal with the underly- discovering that one survives – is an essential
ing, semi-permanent, general ‘core beliefs’ that component of REBT. Its emphasis on both re-
are the continuing cause of the client’s unwanted thinking and action makes it a powerful tool
reactions. for change. Such activities are usually referred
REBT places greater emphasis on dealing with to as ‘homework’.
evaluative-type thinking than do other cognitive-
behavioural approaches, which focus rather more
on inferential thinking. (In fact, in REBT, the cli-
The Process of Therapy
ent’s inferences are regarded as part of the ‘A’ What follows is a summary of the main compo-
rather than the ‘B’, whereas in general CBT infer- nents of an REBT intervention.
ences are seen as part of the ‘B’). REBT espe-
Engage client
cially underscores the centrality of demanding-
ness over other types of thinking. However, both 1. The first step is to build a relationship with the
REBT and general CBT are ultimately concerned client. This can be achieved using the core
with the underlying core beliefs. conditions of empathy, warmth and respect.
2. Watch for ‘secondary disturbances’ about
Secondary disturbance coming for help: self-downing over having
Another unique feature of REBT is its recognition the problem or needing assistance; and anxi-
of the importance of working with ‘secondary ety about coming to the interview.
disturbances’, that is, problems about problems 3. Finally, possibly the best way to engage a client
(e.g. feeling guilty about being angry, or anxious for REBT is to demonstrate to them at an early
about becoming anxious). More about this later. stage that change is possible and that REBT is
able to assist them to achieve this goal.
HELPING PEOPLE CHANGE Assess the problem, person, and situation
The steps involved in helping clients change can Assessment will vary from person to person, but
be broadly summarised as follows: following are some of the most common areas
1. Help the client understand that emotions and that will be assessed as part of an REBT interven-
behaviours are caused by beliefs and thinking. tion.
This may consist of a brief explanation fol- 1. Start with the client’s view of what is wrong
lowed by assignment of some reading. for them.
2. Show how the relevant beliefs may be uncov- 2. Check for any secondary disturbance: how
ered. The ABC format is invaluable here. Us- does the client feel about having this problem?
ing an episode from the client’s own recent 3. Carry out a general assessment: determine the
experience, the therapist notes the ‘C’, then the presence of any related clinical disorders, ob-
‘A’. The client is asked to consider (at ‘B’): tain a personal and social history, assess the
‘What was I telling myself about ‘A’, to feel severity of the problem, note any relevant
and behave the way I did at ‘C’? As the client personality factors, and check for any non-
develops understanding of the nature of irra- psychological causative factors: physical
tional thinking, this process of ‘filling in the conditions; medications; substance abuse;
gap’ will become easier. Such education may lifestyle/environmental factors.
be achieved by reading, direct explanation, and
by self-analysis with the therapist’s help and Prepare the client for therapy
as homework between sessions. 1. Clarify the treatment goals, ensuring these
are concrete, specific and agreed to by both

Page 5 of 15
 client and therapist; and assess the client’s 3. Assess the ‘A’: what happened, when did it last
motivation to change. occur? What did the client infer was happen-
2. Introduce discussion about the basics of ing or would result from what happened?
REBT, including the biopsychosocial model 4. Assess the ‘C’: specifically what unwanted
of causation. emotion did the client experience, and how
3. Discuss the approaches to be used and impli- strong was it?
cations of treatment, then develop a contract. 5. Identify and assess any secondary emotional
Implement the treatment programme problems (inappropriate negative emotions
about having the problem, for example shame
Most of the sessions will occur in the implemen-
about feeling grief).
tation phase, using activities like the following:
6. Identify the beliefs (‘B’) causing the unwanted
• Analysing specific episodes where the target
reactions, especially demandingness, awfulis-
problem(s) occur, ascertaining the beliefs in-
ing, discomfort-intolerance, and people-rating.
volved, changing them, and developing home-
work (I call this ‘Rational Analysis’). 7. Connect ‘B’ & ‘C’ (ensure the client sees that
their unwanted reaction resulted from their
• Developing behavioural assignments to re-
thoughts).
duce fears or modify ways of behaving.
• Supplementary strategies & techniques as ap- 8. Clarify and agree on the goal (‘E’): how does
propriate, e.g. relaxation training, interper- the client wish to feel (and behave) when next
sonal skills training, etc. confronted with a similar ‘A’?
9. Help the client dispute their beliefs, using a
Evaluate progress range of techniques. Replace beliefs that are
Toward the end of the intervention it will usually agreed to be irrational.
be desirable to check whether improvements are 10. Plan next homework assignments (‘F’) to en-
due to significant changes in the client’s thinking, able the client to put their new rational beliefs
or simply to a fortuitous improvement in their into practice. Identify and deal with any poten-
external circumstances. tial blocks to completion of the homework.
Prepare the client for termination
It is usually wise to prepare the client to cope with Techniques Used In REBT
setbacks. Many people, after a period of wellness, Ellis recommends a ‘selectively eclectic’ ap-
think they are ‘cured’ for life. Consequently, proach to therapy, using strategies from REBT
when they slip back and discover their old prob- and other approaches, but ensuring the strategy is
lems are still present to some degree, they are compatible with REBT theory. Following are
likely to despair and give up working on them- some examples of procedures in common use.
selves altogether. Warn that relapse is likely for
many emotional and behavioural problems and Cognitive techniques
ensure they know what to do when their symp- Rational analysis: analyses of specific episodes
toms return. Discuss their views on asking for to teach the client how to uncover and dispute irra-
help if needed in the future. Deal with any irra- tional beliefs (as described earlier) are usually done
tional beliefs about coming back, like: ‘I should in-session at first; then, as the client gets the idea,
be cured for ever’, or: ‘The therapist would think they can be carried out as homework.
I was a failure if I came back for more help’. Double-standard dispute: If the client is hold-
ing a ‘should’ or is self-downing about their be-
A typical REBT interview haviour, ask whether they would globally rate
another person (e.g. best friend, therapist, etc.) for
What happens in a typical REBT interview? Here doing the same thing, or recommend that person
is how an interview based on the ABC model hold their demanding core belief. When they say
would usually progress: ‘No’, help them see that they are holding a dou-
1. Review the previous session’s homework. Re- ble-standard. This is especially useful with resis-
inforce gains and learning. If the homework tant beliefs which the client finds hard to give up.
was not completed, help the client identify and Catastrophe scale: this is a useful technique to
deal with the blocks involved. get awfulising into perspective. On a whiteboard
2. Establish the target problem to work on in this or sheet of paper, draw a line down one side. Put
session. 100% at the top, 0% at the bottom, and 10% in-
tervals in between. Ask the client to rate whatever

Page 6 of 15
it is they are catastrophising about, and insert that Behavioural techniques
item into the chart in the appropriate place. Then, One of the best ways to check out and modify a
fill in the other levels with items the client thinks belief is to act. Clients can be encouraged, for
apply to those levels. You might, for example, put instance, to check out the evidence for their fears
0%: ‘Having a quiet cup of coffee at home’, 20%: and to act in ways that disprove them.
‘Having to mow the lawns when the rugby is on
Exposure: possibly the most common behav-
television’, 70%: being burgled, 90%: being diag-
ioural strategy used in REBT involves clients en-
nosed with cancer, 100%: being burned alive, and
tering feared situations they would normally
so on. Finally, have the client progressively alter
avoid. Such ‘exposure’ is deliberate, planned and
the position of their feared item on the scale, until
carried out using cognitive and other coping
it is in perspective in relation to the other items.
skills. The purposes are to (1) test the validity of
Devil’s advocate: this useful and effective one’s fears (e.g. that rejection could not be sur-
technique (also known as reverse role-playing) is vived); (2) de-awfulise them (by seeing that catas-
designed to get the client arguing against their trophe does not ensue); (3) develop confidence in
own dysfunctional belief. The therapist role-plays one’s ability to cope (by successfully managing
adopting the client’s belief and vigorously argues one’s reactions); and (4) increase tolerance for
for it; while the client tries to ‘convince’ the discomfort (by progressively discovering that it is
therapist that the belief is dysfunctional. It is es- bearable).
pecially useful when the client sees that a belief is
Shame attacking: this type of exposure in-
irrational, but needs help to consolidate that un-
volves confronting the fear of shame by deliber-
derstanding. (NB: as with all techniques, be sure
ately acting in ways the client anticipates may
to explain it to the client before using it).
attract disapproval (while, at the same time, using
Reframing: another strategy for getting bad cognitive and emotive techniques to feel only
events into perspective is to re-evaluate them as concerned or disappointed). For example, you
‘disappointing’, ‘concerning’, or ‘uncomfortable’ could suggest that the client switch their shoes to
rather than as ‘awful’ or ‘unbearable’. A variation the wrong feet then walk round the office building
of reframing is to help the client see that even with you for ten minutes or so, at the same time
negative events almost always have a positive disputing their shame-inducing thinking.
side to them, listing all the positives the client can
Risk-taking: the purpose is to challenge beliefs
think of (NB: this needs care so that it does not
that certain behaviours are too dangerous to risk,
come across as suggesting that a bad experience is
when reason says that while the outcome is not
really a ‘good’ one).
guaranteed they are worth the chance. For exam-
Imagery techniques ple, if the client has trouble with perfectionism or
Time projection: this technique is designed to fear of failure, they might start tasks where there
show that one’s life, and the world in general, is a reasonable chance of failing or not matching
continue after a feared or unwanted event has their expectations. Or someone with a fear of re-
come and gone. Ask the client to visualise the jection might talk to an attractive person at a party
unwanted event occurring, then imagine going or ask someone for a date.
forward in time a week, then a month, then six Paradoxical behaviour: when a client wishes to
months, then a year, two years, and so on, consid- change a dysfunctional tendency, encourage them
ering how they will be feeling at each of these to deliberately behave in a way contradictory to the
points in time. They will thus be able to see that tendency. Emphasise the importance of not waiting
life will go on, even though they may need to until they ‘feel like’ doing it: practising the new
make some adjustments. behaviour – even though it is not spontaneous –
The ‘blow-up’ technique: this is a variation of will gradually internalise the new habit.
‘worst-case’ imagery, coupled with the use of hu- Stepping out of character: is one common type
mour to provide a vivid and memorable experience of paradoxical behaviour. For example, a perfec-
for the client. It involves asking the client to imag- tionistic person could deliberately do some things
ine whatever it is they fear happening, then blow it to less than their usual standard; or someone who
up out of all proportion till they cannot help but be believes that to care for oneself is ‘selfish’ could
amused by it. Laughing at fears will help get con- indulge in a personal treat each day for a week.
trol of them. Again, the use of this technique re- Postponing gratification is commonly used to
quires sensitivity and appropriate timing. combat low frustration-tolerance by deliberately
delaying smoking, eating sweets, using alcohol,
sexual activity, etc.

Page 7 of 15
Homework for which REBT is eminently suited. REBT is also
Probably the most important REBT strategy is frequently used with couples, and there is a grow-
homework. This can include such activities as ing literature on REBT family therapy. A newer
reading, self-help exercises, and experiential ac- development is the use of REBT in non-clinical
tivities. Therapy sessions are really ‘training ses- settings in the workplace, as described above.
sions’, between which the client tries out and uses Suitable client groups
what they have learned. At the end of this article
REBT has been developed over the years for use
there is an example of a homework format which
with individuals, couples, and families; adults and
clients can use to analyse specific episodes where
children; people with mental health problems;
they feel or behave in the ways they are trying to
people with physical illnesses, disabilities, and
change.
terminal illnesses; different cultural groups; and
people of varying intellectual ability, including
Applications of REBT those with learning impairments.
REBT has been successfully used to help people
with a range of clinical and non-clinical problems, Practice Principles of REBT
using a variety of modalities.
• The basic aim of REBT is to leave clients at
Clinical applications the completion of therapy with freedom to
Typical clinical applications include choose their emotions, behaviours and lifestyle
(within physical, social and economic re-
• Depression
straints); and with a method of self-
• Anxiety disorders, including obsessive- observation and personal change that will help
compulsive disorder, agoraphobia, specific them maintain their gains.
phobias, generalised anxiety, posttraumatic
stress disorder, etc. • Not all unpleasant emotions are seen as dys-
functional. Nor are all pleasant emotions func-
• Eating disorders, addictions, impulse control
tional. REBT aims not at ‘positive thinking’;
disorders
but rather at realistic thoughts, emotions, and
• Anger management, antisocial behaviour, per- behaviours that are in proportion to the events
sonality disorders and circumstances an individual experiences.
• Sexual abuse recovery
• There is no ‘one way’ to practice REBT. It is
• Adjustment to chronic health problem, physi- ‘selectively eclectic’. Though it has techniques
cal disability, or mental disorder of its own, it also borrows from other ap-
• Pain management proaches and allows practitioners to use their
• General stress management imagination. There are some basic assump-
• Child or adolescent behaviour disorders tions and principles, but otherwise it can be
varied to suit one’s own style and client group.
• Relationship and family problems
• REBT is educative and collaborative. Clients
Non-clinical applications learn the therapy and how to use it on them-
• Personal growth – REBT theory contains de- selves (rather than have it ‘done to them’). The
tailed principles (for example, enlightened therapist provides the training – the client car-
self-interest, self-acceptance, risk-taking) ries it out. There are no hidden agendas – all
which can be used to help people develop and procedures are clearly explained to the client.
act on a more functional philosophy of life Therapist and client together design homework
(see: Froggatt, W. (1997). GoodStress. Auck- assignments.
land: HarperColllins). • The relationship between therapist and client
• Workplace effectiveness – DiMattia (DiMat- is very important, but is seen as existing to fa-
tia & Ijzermans, 1996) has developed a varia- cilitate therapeutic work – rather than being
tion of REBT known as Rational Effective- the therapy itself. The therapist shows empa-
ness Training which is increasingly being thy, unconditional acceptance, and encour-
used in the workplace to aid worker and agement; but is careful to avoid activities that
managerial effectiveness. create dependency or strengthen any ‘needs’
Modalities for approval.
The most common use of REBT is with individual • While REBT is active-directive, the therapist
clients, but this is followed closely by group work, almost always works within the client’s value

Page 8 of 15
 system. New ways of thinking are developed themselves as ‘worthy’ human beings. REBT
collaboratively. therapist takes a radically different approach –
• An individual’s past is seen as relevant in that encouraging the client to throw out the idea of
this is where much irrational thinking origi- self-esteem entirely! This involves giving up the
nates; but because uncovering the past is not practice of trying to judge human beings as ‘wor-
usually helpful in changing how a person re- thy’ (a notion, incidentally, that implies it is pos-
acts in the present, REBT therapists do not en- sible for them to be ‘unworthy’!); and getting rid
gage in very much ‘archaeological’ explora- of the idea that people somehow need ‘value’ or
tion. ‘esteem’.
The client is, instead, urged to (1) aim for un-
• REBT is brief and time-limited. It commonly
conditional self-acceptance – irrespective of their
involves five to thirty sessions over one to
traits and behaviours or how other people see
eighteen months. The pace of therapy is brisk.
them; (2) acknowledge that they simply exist –
A minimum of time is spent on acquiring
and choose to stay alive, seek joy, and avoid pain;
background and historical information: it is
and (3) instead of rating their self, to concentrate
task-oriented and focuses on problem-solving
on rating their actions or traits (and the effects of
in the present.
these) in terms of how they help achieve the cli-
• REBT is a method of psychotherapy, so the ent’s goals.
emphasis is on helping people change how
they feel and behave in reaction to life events. Secondary disturbances
However, such personal change may be a As mentioned earlier, REBT points out that hu-
prelude to enabling a person to more effec- man beings frequently develop problems about
tively seek environmental change. Conse- their problems. By creating these ‘secondary’
quently, REBT helps people change them- problems, they complicate their emotional and
selves and their unwanted circumstances. behavioural difficulties.
• A common criticism of psychotherapy is that it Guilt is a common secondary disturbance: for
may encourage people to become self-centred. instance, people with anger problems may down
REBT avoids this by teaching several princi- themselves because they have trouble controlling
ples, for example ‘enlightened self-interest’ their rage. Sufferers of chronic anxiety frequently
that encourage individuals to attend to both get anxious about getting anxious (the ‘fear of
their own interests and those of other people. fear’). Clients in therapy may become despondent
• REBT tends to be humanistic, anti-moralistic, because they are not overcoming their problems
and scientific. Human beings are seen as the as quickly as they think they ‘should’ be able to.
arbiters of what is right or wrong for them. Sometimes, for therapy to be effective, the
Behaviour is viewed as functional or dysfunc- secondary disturbance needs to be addressed be-
tional, rather than as good or evil. REBT is fore the primary problem becomes accessible to
based on research and the principles of logic change.
and empiricism, and encourages scientific Discomfort Disturbance v. Ego Disturbance
rather than ‘magical’ ways of thinking.
As noted above, REBT suggests that global
• Finally, the emphasis is on profound and last- evaluation of the ‘self’ will often lead to emo-
ing change in the underlying belief system of tional disturbance. This is referred to as ‘ego
the client, rather than simply eliminating the disturbance’ – a concept that exists (in various
presenting symptoms. The client is left with forms) in probably most other therapeutic orienta-
self-help techniques that enable coping in the tions, under such terms as ‘low self-esteem’,
long-term future. ‘poor self-image’ and the like.
REBT, however, uniquely argues that there is
UNIQUE FEATURES OF REBT another type of disturbance of equal or even
REBT has a number of characteristics that are greater significance: ‘discomfort disturbance’,
original to the approach – here is a selection: usually referred to as ‘low discomfort-tolerance’
(LDT), or ‘low frustration-tolerance’ (LFT). This
Absence of Self-Evaluation concept explains why people may overreact to
REBT has a unique approach to the common unpleasant life experiences, to frustration, and to
therapeutic problem of ‘low self-esteem’. their own bad feelings (thus developing ‘secon-
Many therapists would try to help people with dary’ problems); or will sabotage their therapy
low self-esteem by encouraging them to regard

Page 9 of 15
because they consciously or subconsciously per- Primary Certificate in REBT program is the usual
ceive it as ‘too hard’. starting point). It can also be observed by reading
verbatim records of interviews or from audio or
LEARNING TO USE REBT video tapes of interviews conducted by REBT
practitioners.
To practise REBT it is important to have a good
The most effective way to learn how to help
understanding of irrational thinking. This can be
clients uncover and dispute irrational beliefs is to
gained by a critical reading of the substantial lit-
practice REBT on oneself, for example by using
erature available.
written ‘self-analysis’ exercises (see the last page
The use of REBT in the interview situation is of this article for an example).
best learned by attending a training course (the
_________________________________________________________

READING LIST
There are hundreds of books and articles based on REBT. Here is a selection.

Self-Help Books Ellis, A. (1977). Anger - How to Live With and

(Many of the self-help books listed here are available in New Without It. New York. Carol Publishing Group
Zealand bookshops. Some would need to be ordered). Ellis, A. (1988). How To Stubbornly Refuse To
Bernard, M. E. (1986). Staying Rational In an Make Yourself Miserable About Anything. New
Irrational World: Albert Ellis and Rational- York. Lyle Stuart
Emotive Therapy. New York. Lyle Stuart Ellis, A. & Abrams, M. (1994). How to Cope
Calabro, L. E. (1991). Living with Disability. New With a Fatal Illness: the rational management of
York. Institute for Rational-Emotive Therapy death and dying. New York. Barricade Books, Inc.
Clark, L. (1995). SOS Help for Parents: A Practi- Ellis, A. & Harper, R. A. (1975). A New Guide to
cal Guide for Handling Common Everyday Be- Rational Living. Hollywood. Wilshire Book Co.
havior Problems (2nd Edition). Berkeley, CA. Ellis, A. & Lange, A. (1994). How to Keep Peo-
Parents Press
ple From Pushing Your Buttons. New York. Cita-
Clark, L. (2001). SOS Help for Emotions: Manag- del Press
ing Anxiety, Anger and Depression. Berkeley, Ellis, A., Abrams, M. & Dengelegi, L. (1992).
CA. Parents Press The Art and Science of Rational Eating. Fott Lee,
Cooper, C.L. & Palmer, S. (2000). Conquer Your NJ. Barricade Books
Stress. London. Chartered Institute of Personnel Ellis, A., Wolfe, J. & Moseley, S. (1980). How to
and Development
Raise an Emotionally Healthy, Happy Child. Hol-
Dryden, W. (2001). Reason to change: A rational lywood. Wilshire Book Co
emotive behaviour therapy (REBT) workbook.
Froggatt, W. (1997). GoodStress: The life that
Hove. Brunner/Routledge
can be yours. Auckland. HarperCollins
Dryden, W. (1996). Overcoming Anger. London.
Froggatt, W. (2003). Choose to be Happy: Your
Sheldon Press
step-by-step guide (Second Edition). Auckland.
Dryden, W. (1997). Overcoming Shame. London. HarperCollins
Sheldon Press
Froggatt, W. (2003). FearLess: Your guide to
Dryden, W. (1998). Overcoming Jealousy. Lon- overcoming anxiety. Auckland. HarperCollins
don. Sheldon Press
Hauck, P. (1977). Making Marriage Work. Lon-
Dryden, W. & Gordon, J. (1993). Beating the don. Sheldon Press
Comfort Trap. London. Sheldon Press
Hauck, P. (1981). How To Stand Up For Yourself.
Dryden, W. & Matweychuk, W. (2000). Over- London. Sheldon Press
coming Your Addictions. London. Sheldon Press
Hauck, P. (1983). How to Love and be Loved.
Ellis, A. (1972). How to Master Your Fear of Fly- London. Sheldon Press
ing. New York. Institute for Rational Living

Page 10 of 15
Hauck, P.A. (1992). Overcoming the Rating Dryden, W. (2002). Fundamentals of Rational
Game: Beyond Self-Love - Beyond Self-Esteem. Emotive Behaviour Therapy: A Training Hand-
Louisville, KY. Westminster/John Knox book. London. Whurr.
Jakubowski, P., & Lange, A.J. (1978). The Asser- Dryden, W. (2003). Rational Emotive Behaviour
tive Option: Your Rights & Responsibilities. Therapy: Theoretical developments. Brunner-
Champaign,Il. Research Press Routledge.
Ellis, A. & Dryden W. (1997). The Practice of
Klarreich, S. H. (1990). Work Without Stress.
REBT (Second edition). London. Free Association
New York. Brunner/Mazel
Books.
Knaus, W. (2002). The Procrastination Work- Ellis, A. (1999). Early theories and practices of
book. Oakland, CA. New Harbinger Publications Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy and how
Oliver, R. & Bock, F. (1987). Coping with Alz- they have been augmented and revised during the
heimer's: A Caregiver's Emotional Survival Guide. last three decades. Journal of Rational-Emotive
North Hollywood. Wilshire Book Company and Cognitive-Behavior Therapy. 17(2), 69-93
Robb, H. (1988). How to Stop Driving Yourself Ellis, A. (2003). Reasons why Rational Emotive
Crazy with Help from the Bible. New York. Insti- Behavior Therapy is relatively neglected in the
professional and scientific literature. Journal of
tute for Rational Emotive Therapy
Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behaviour
Robb, H.B. (1988). How to Stop Driving Yourself Therapy. 21,3/4: 245-252
Crazy With Help From the Bible. New York. In- Ellis, A. (2004). Why Rational Emotive
stitute for Rational-Emotive Therapy Behaviour Therapy is the Most Comprehensive
Robin, M.W. & Balter, R. (1995). Performance and Effective Form of Behaviour Therapy.
Anxiety. Holbrook, Massachusetts. Adams Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-
Publishing Behaviour Therapy. 22:2, 85-92
Steinberg, D. & Dryden, W. (2003). How to Stick Ellis, Gordon, Neenan & Palmer. (1997). Stress
to a Diet. London. Sheldon Press Counselling: A Rational Emotive Behavioural
Approach. London. Cassell.
Wolfe, J.L. (1992). What to Do When He Has a
Headache: How to rekindle your man's desire. Neenan, M. & Dryden, W. (2001). Learning from
Errors in Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy.
London. Thorson's
London. Whurr.
Nelson-Jones, R. (1999). Towards Cognitive-
Professional Literature Humanistic Counselling. Counselling. 10(1), 49-54
(Many, but not all, of the books and journal articles listed are
Palmer, S. (2000). The Future of REBT in the
available through the New Zealand Library Interloan system).
New Millenium. The Rational Emotive Behaviour
REBT practice in general Therapist. 8(1), 3-4
Bond, F.W. & Dryden, W. (2002). Handbook of Still, A. & Dryden, W. (2003). Ellis and
Brief Cognitive Behaviour Therapy. Chichester. Epictetus: Dialogue vs. method in psychotherapy.
John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-
Behaviour Therapy. 21:2, 37-56
DiGiuseppe, R. (1996). The nature of irrational
and rational beliefs: Progress in Rational Emotive Ziegler, D.J. (2002). Freud, Rogers, and Ellis: A
Behaviour Therapy. Journal of Rational-Emotive comparative theoretical analysis. Journal of
& Cognitive Behaviour Therapy. 14(1), 5-28 Rational-Emotive and Cognitive-Behavior
Therapy. 20(2)
Dryden, W. (1995). Brief Rational Emotive
Behaviour Therapy. Chichester. John Wiley & Special issues in REBT
Sons. Ellis, A. (2003). Discomfort Anxiety: A New
Dryden, W. (1996). Inquiries in Rational Emotive Cognitive-Behavioral Construct. Journal of Ra-
Behaviour Therapy. London. Sage Publications. tional-Emotive & Cognitive-Behaviour Therapy.
Dryden, W. (1999). Rational Emotive 21:3/4, 183-202
Behavioural Counselling in Action. London. Sage Garfield, S. L. (1995). The Client-Therapist Rela-
Publications.
tionship in Rational-Emotive Therapy. Journal of
Dryden, W. (2001). Reason to change: A rational Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy.
emotive behaviour therapy (REBT) workbook. 13(2), 101-116
Hove. Brunner/Routledge.

Page 11 of 15
Johnson, W. B. & Nielson, S. L. (1998). Rational- Kodish, S.P. (2002). Rational Emotive Behaviour
Emotive Assessment with Religious Clients. Coaching. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cogni-
Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive- tive-Behaviour Therapy. 20:3/4, 235-246
Behaviour Therapy. 16(2), 101-123 Mas-Bag. (2000). REBT in a therapeutic commu-
Kwee, M. (1998). The Interface Between Rational nity: REBTC. Journal of Rational-Emotive and
Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT) and Zen. Cognitive-Behavior Therapy. 18:3, 154-164
Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive- Mathews, T. J. (2000). The Cross and the Chris-
Behaviour Therapy. 16(1), 5-43 tian Client. The Rational Emotive Behaviour
Nelson-Jones, R. (1999). Towards Cognitive- Therapist. 8(1), 10-14
Humanistic Counselling. Counselling. 10(1), 49-54 Palmer, S., Ellis, A., Gordon, J. & Neenan, M.
Reinhard, J. (2000). Limitations of Mental Health (1998). Group Stress Counselling. The Rational
Case Management: A Rational Emotive and Cog- Emotive Behaviour Therapist. 6(1), 4-17
nitive Therapy perspective. J. of Rational- Woods, P.J. & Ellis, A. (1996). Supervision in
Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy. 18(2), Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy. Journal of
103-118
Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy.
Weinrach, S.G. et al. (1995). Rational emotive be- 14(2), 135-151
haviour therapy after Ellis: Predictions for the fu-
ture. J. of Mental Health Counseling. 17, 413-427 Techniques
Ziegler, D.J. (1999). The Construct of Personality Beal, D.; Kopec, A. Marie & DiGiuseppe, R.
in Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT) (1996). Disputing Client's Irrational Beliefs.
Theory. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cogni- Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-
Behaviour Therapy. 14(4), 215-229
tive-Behaviour Therapy. 17(1), 19-32
Bernard, M. E. & Wolfe, J. L. (2000). The REBT
Ziegler, D.J. (2000). Basic Assumptions Concern- Resource Book for Practitioners - Second edition.
ing Human Nature Underlying Rational Emotive New York. Albert Ellis Institute.
Behaviour Therapy (REBT) Personality Theory.
Borcherdt, B. (2002). Humor and its contributions
J. of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior
to mental healh. Journal of Rational-Emotive &
Therapy. 18(2), 67-85
Cognitive-Behaviour Therapy. 20:3/4, 247-257
Ziegler, D.J. (2002). Freud, Rogers, and Ellis: A Macaskill, N. D. (1996). Improving Clinical
comparative theoretical analysis. Journal of Ra- Outcomes in REBT/CBT: The Therapeutic Uses
tional-Emotive and Cognitive-Behavior Therapy. of Tape-Recording. Journal of Rational-Emotive
20(2) & Cognitive Behaviour Therapy. 14(3), 199-207
Ziegler, D.J. (2003). The concept of psychologi- Neenan, M. & Dryden, W. (1996). The Intricacies
cal health in Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy. of Inference Chaining. Journal of Rational-Emotive
Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive- & Cognitive-Behaviour Therapy. 14(4), 231-243
Behaviour Therapy. 21:1, 21-36 Neenan, M. and Dryden, W. (1999). When
laddering and the downward arrow can be used as
Specific modalities
adjuncts to inference chaining in REBT
Anderson, J.P. (2002). Executive Coaching: Some assessment. Journal of Rational-Emotive and
comments from the field. Journal of Rational- Cognitive-Behavior Therapy. 17(2), 95-104
Emotive & Cognitive-Behaviour Therapy. 20:3/4, Nelson-Jones, R. (1998). Using the Whiteboard in
223-234 Lifeskills Counselling. The Rational Emotive
Dryden, W. (1995). Brief Rational Emotive Be- Behaviour Therapist. 6(2), 77-88
haviour Therapy. Chichester. John Wiley & Sons. Palmer, S. & Neenan, M. (1998). Techniques and
Dryden, W. & Neenan, M. (Eds.). (2002). Ra- Strategies: Double-Imagery Procedure. The
tional Emotive Behaviour Group Therapy. Lon- Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapist. 6(2), 89-92
don. Whurr. Specific applications of REBT
Free, M. L. (1999). Cognitive Therapy in Groups: Addis, E. & Bernard, M. (2002). Marital Adjust-
Guidelines and resources for practice. Chiches- ment and Irrational Beliefs. J. of Rational-Emotive
ter, England. John Wiley & Sons Ltd. & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy. 20(1), 3-13
Johnson, B.W., Huwe, J.M. & Lucas, J.L. (2000). Aeschleman, S. R. & Imes, C. (1999). Stress In-
Rational Mentoring. Journal of Rational-Emotive oculation Training for Impulsive Behaviours in
and Cognitive-Behavior Therapy. 18(1), 39-54 Adults with Traumatic Brain Injury. Journal of

Page 12 of 15
Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behaviour Ther- Cowan, D., & Brunero, S. (1997). Group therapy
apy. 17(1), 51-65 for anxiety disorders using rational emotive be-
Aguilar N. (1997). Counseling the patient with haviour therapy. Australian and New Zealand
chronic illness: strategies for the health care pro- Journal of Mental Health Nursing. 6, 164-168
vider. J Am Acad Nurse Pract. 9(4), 171-5 DiGiuseppe, R. & Froh, J. J. (2002). What cogni-
Altrows, I.F. (1995). The Practice of Rational tions predict state anger?. Journal of Rational-
Emotive and Cognitive Behaviour Therapy with Emotive and Cognitive-Behavior Therapy. 20(2),
Offenders. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cogni- 133-150
tive-Behavior Therapy. 13(4), 225-241 DiMattia, D. & Ijzermans, T. (1996). Reaching
Altrows, Irwin F. (2002). Rational Emotive and Their Minds: A trainer's manual for rational ef-
Cognitive Behavior Therapy with Adult Male Of- fectiveness training. New York. Institute for Ra-
fenders. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cogni- tional-Emotive Therapy.
tive-Behaviour Therapy. 20:3/4, 201-222 Flett, G.L., Madorsky, D., Hewitt, P.L. & Heisel,
Balter, R. & Unger, P. (1997). REBT Stress Man- M.J. (2002). Perfectionism Cognitions, Rumina-
agement with Patients with Chronic Fatigue Syn- tion, and Psychological Distress. J. of Rational-
drome. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive- Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy. 20(1),
Behaviour Therapy. 15(3), 223-230 33-48
Beal, D. & DiGiuseppe, R. (1998). Training su- Friedberg, R.A., Miller, R., Perymon, A., Bot-
pervisors in Rational Emotive Behaviour Ther- toms, J. & Aatre, G. (2004). Using a Session
apy. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy. 12, Feedback form in Cognitive Therapy with Chil-
127-137 dren. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-
Behaviour Therapy. 22:3, 219-230
Bernard, M. E. (Ed.). (1997). Special Issue: Self-
Acceptance and Beyond: How to Feel Good With- Froggatt, W. (2002). The Rational Treatment of
out Rating Yourself. Journal of Rational-Emotive Anxiety: An outline for cognitive-behavioural in-
& Cognitive Behaviour Therapy. 15(1), (all) tervention with clinical anxiety disorders. Hast-
ings. Rational Training Resources.
Bishop, F.M. (2001). Managing Addictions: Cog-
nitive, Emotive, and Behavioral Techniques. Greaves, D. (1997). The Effect of Rational-
Northvale, NJ. Jason Aronson. Emotive Parent Education of the Stress of Moth-
ers of Young Children with Down Syndrome.
Bishop, F.M. (2000). Helping clients manage ad-
Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-
dictions with REBT. Journal of Rational-Emotive
Behaviour Therapy. 15(4), 249-267
and Cognitive-Behavior Therapy. 18(3), 127-151
Horvath, A.T. & Velten, E. (2000). Smart Recov-
Blackburn, J. (2001). Anger, Chronic Pain and ery: Addiction recovery from a cognitive-
Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy. The Ra- behavioural perspective. Journal of Rational-
tional Emotive Behaviour Therapist. 9(1), 23-28 Emotive and Cognitive-Behavior Therapy. 18(3),
Byrne, J. (2002). Some innovations in the teach- 181-191
ing of unconditional self-acceptance and uncondi- Johnson, M. & Kazantzis, N. (2004). Cognitive
tional other-acceptance. The Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy for Chronic Pain: Strategies
Behaviour Therapist. 10(1), 22-36 for the Successful Use of Homework Assign-
Calabro, L. E. (1997). "First Things First": ments. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-
Maslow's Hierarchy as a Framework for REBT in Behaviour Therapy. 22:3, 189-218
Promoting Disability Adjustment During Reha- Jone, J. & Trower, P. (2004). Irrational and
bilitation. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cogni- Evaluative Beliefs in Individuals with Anger
tive-Behaviour Therapy. 15(3), 193-213 Problems. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cogni-
Chadwick, P. Birchwood, M. & Trower, P. tive-Behaviour Therapy. 22;3, 153-170
(1996). Cognitive Therapy for Delusions, Voices Kinsella, P. (2002). Food for thought: REBT and
and Paranoia. Chichester. Wiley. other approaches to obesity. The Rational Emo-
Chen, C. P. (1995). Counselling Applications of tive Behaviour Therapist. 10(1), 37-44
RET in a Chinese Cultural Context. Journal of Kopec, A. M. (1995). Rational Emotive Behav-
Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy. iour Therapy in a Forensic Setting: Practical Is-
13(2), 117-129 sues. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-
Behavior Therapy. 13(4), 243-253

Page 13 of 15
Malkinson, R. (1996). Cognitive Behavioural Rob, H. B. (2001). Can Rational Emotive Behav-
Grief Therapy. Journal of Rational-Emotive & ior Therapy Lead to Spiritual Transformation?
Cognitive Behaviour Therapy. 14(3), 155-171 Yes, sometimes!. J. of Rational-Emotive & Cog-
Misc. (2004). Perfectionism: Special Issure of nitive-Behavior Therapy. 19(3), 153-161
Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive- Robb, H.B. (2002). Practicing Rational Emotive
Behaviour Therapy. Journal of Rational-Emotive Behavior Theory and Religious Clients. Journal
& Cognitive-Behaviour Therapy. 22:4 of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behaviour
Moller, A.T., Nortje, C. & Helders, S.B. (1998). Therapy. 20:3/4, 169-200
Irrational Cognitions and the Fear of Flying. Sapp, M. (1996). Irrational beliefs that can lead to
Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive- academic failure for African American middle
Behaviour Therapy. 16(2), 135-148 school students who are academically at risk.
Nauth, L. L. (1995). Power and control in the Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-
male antisocial personality. Journal of Rational- Behavior Therapy. 14(2), 123-134
Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy. 13(4), Shortall, T. (1996). Cognitive-behavioural treat-
215-224 ment of recurrent headache. The Rational Emotive
Neenan, M. (1996). Tackling Suicidal Clients. The Behaviour Therapist. 4(1), 27-33
Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapist. 4(1), 8-11 Shortall, T. (1996). A Consideration of the role of
Neenan, M. (2001). Understanding and Overcom- validation in the application of REBT to Personal-
ing Procrastination. The Rational Emotive Behav- ity Disorder Clients. The Rational Emotive Be-
iour Therapist. 9(1), 17-22 haviour Therapist. 4(1), 12-17

Nucci, C. (2002). The Rational Teacher: Rational Smith, R.R. & Lombardo, V.S. (1995). Rational
Emotive Behaviour Therapy in teacher education. Cognitive Therapy with Public Offenders. Jour-
J. of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior nal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior
Therapy. 20(1), 15-32 Therapy. 13(4), 255-260

Olevitch, B.A. (1995). Using Cognitive Ap- Whitford, R. & Parr, V. (1995). Uses of Rational
proaches with the Seriously Mentally Ill: Dialogue Emotive Behaviour Therapy with Juvenile Sex
across the barrier. Westport, Connecticut. Praeger. Offenders. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cogni-
tive-Behavior Therapy. 13(4), 273-282
Palmer, S. (2000). Coping Imagery for Flying
Stress. The Rational Emotive Behaviour Thera- Wilde, J. (1995). Anger Management in Educa-
pist. 8(1), 24-29 tion: Alternatives to Student Violence. Lancaster,
Penn. Technomic Publishing Co.
Palmer, S. & Burton, T. (1996). Dealing with Peo-
Wilde, J. (2001). Interventions for Children with
ple Problems at Work. Maidenhead. Mcgraw-Hill.
Anger Problems. J. of Rational-Emotive & Cogni-
Rieckert, J. & Möller, A. (2000). Rational-Emotive tive-Behavior Therapy. 19(3), 191-197
Behaviour Therapy in the Treatment of Adult Victims
of Childhood Sexual Abuse. J. of Rational-Emotive & Wolfe, J.L. (1995). Rational Emotive Behaviour
Therapy Women's Groups: A Twenty Year Retro-
Cognitive-Behavior Therapy. 18(2), 87-102
spective. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cogni-
Seasock, J. P. (1995). Identification of Adolescent tive-Behavior Therapy. 13(3), 153-170
Sex Offenders: A REBT Model. Journal of Ra-
Yankura, J. & Dryden, W. (Eds.). (1997). Special
tional-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy.
Applications of REBT: A therapist's casebook.
13(4), 261-271
New York. Springer Publishing Company.
Secker, L., Kazantzis, N. & Pachana, N. (2004).
Cognitive Behavior Therapy for Older Adults: Zaborowski, B. (1997). Adjustment to Vision
Practical Guidelines for Adapting Therapy Struc- Loss and Blindness: A process of reframing and
ture. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive- retraining. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cogni-
Behaviour Therapy. 22:2, 93-110 tive-Behaviour Therapy. 15(3), 215-221
Shannon, S. D. & Allen, T. W. (1998). The Effec-
tiveness of a REBT Training Program in Increas- Obtaining REBT literature
ing the Performance of High School Students in As indicated above, some books (mainly the self-
Mathematics. Journal of Rational-Emotive & help ones) can be purchased in New Zealand
Cognitive-Behaviour Therapy. 16(3), 197-209 bookshops. Some professional books and many
articles are available through library interloan.

Page 14 of 15
 To purchase professional books, you can either: ww.springeronline.com
• order through a book retailer who will obtain subscriptions@springer-sbm.com
the item from the publisher
• purchase via the internet – some of the more REBT on the Internet
popular books are to be found at The Rational There are numerous internet sites related to
BookShop at: http://www.rational.org.nz REBT. A good place to start would be the New
To subscribe to the Journal of Rational-Emotive and Zealand Centre for Rational Emotive Behaviour
Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, contact: Springer Dis- Therapy website at: http://www.rational.org.nz
tribution Center GmbH, Customer Service Journals, (go to the ‘Links’ page).
Haberstr. 7, 69126 Heidelberg, Germany Tel: +49-
6221-345-0 Fax: +49-6221-345-4229
_________________________________________________________
Rational Self-Analysis
REBT emphasises teaching clients to be their own therapists. A useful technique to aid this is Rational Self-
Analysis which involves writing down an emotional episode in a structured fashion. Here is an example of
such an analysis using the example described at the beginning of this article:

A. Activating Event.
The event: Friend passed me in the street without acknowledging me.
My inferences about this event: He’s ignoring me and doesn’t like me. I could end up without friends for
ever. I’m not acceptable as a friend.
C. Consequence (how I reacted):
Feelings: worthless, depressed.
Behaviour: avoiding people generally.
B. Beliefs (My evaluative thinking about the ‘A’):
1. It would be terrible to end up without friends for ever.
2. Because I’m not acceptable as a friend I must be worthless as a person.
3. To feel worthwhile and be happy, I must be liked and approved by everyone significant to me. (core belief)
E. New Effect (how I would prefer to feel/behave):
Disappointed but not depressed.
D. Disputing (new rational beliefs to help me achieve this new reaction):
1. There’s nothing to prove I’ll never have friends again – but, even if this did happen, it would be un-
pleasant rather than a source of ‘terror’.
2. There’s no proof I’m not acceptable as a friend – but even if I were, this proves nothing about the total
‘me’, or my ‘worthwhileness’. (And, anyway, what does ‘worthwhile’ mean?).
3. Love and approval are highly desirable. But, they are not absolute necessities. Making them so is not
only illogical, but actually screws me up when I think they may not be forthcoming. Better I keep
them as preferences rather than demands.
F. Further Action (what I’ll do to avoid repeating the same irrational/thoughts reactions):
1. Go and see my friend, check out how things really are.
2. If he doesn’t want me as a friend, I’ll start looking elsewhere.
3. Re-read the handout on catastrophising and self-rating.
4. Challenge my irrational demand for approval by doing one thing each day (for the next week) that I
would normally avoid doing because of fear it may lead to disapproval.

Copyright Notice: This document is copyright © to the author (2005). Single copies (which must include this notice) may be
made for therapeutic or training purposes. To use in any other way, please contact: Wayne Froggatt, PO Box 2292,
Stortford Lodge, Hastings, New Zealand. Fax 64-6-870-9964. E-mail: wayne@rational.org.nz Comments are welcomed.

Page 15 of 15
View publication stats