PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 Modular Approach

PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 Modular Approach
1. (QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH) Compiled by: EVELYN C. BIAY,Ed.D. SHIAHARI I. CORTEZ,R.N., M.Ed.

Module in PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2
2. Introduction As a researcher and a human being we have always asked ourselves questions, as much
about the phenomena we observe on a daily basis as the deepest mysteries of nature. When curiosity
and intuition are applied in a systematic approach to find the answers to questions like these, when we
draw on experience and the knowledge we‘ve already acquired, then we‘re doing research. All of us in
our daily lives explore, investigate, invent, solving problems at work, trying out new recipes in the
kitchen, finding the best way to prune a plant, or simply playing with the kids. Dedicating our lives to
research means making study and experiment our profession, and leads these activities to the
acquisition of new knowledge. In this module, all the information was gathered through the use of the
different internet websites including different books in order to get the information needed to give an
essential knowledge and skills of the young researcher like you! Unlock your imaginations and creativity,
spread your eyes around you, and make research as your baseline in making decision. You can change
the world by your own simple discovery. Come on! Join us in this adventure and let us see the treasure
that we discover.
3. Acknowledgment “In everything, Give Thanks…” 1 Thes. 5:18 The researcher wishes to express
profound gratitude and sincere on the following persons who were behind the realization to made this
compilation of this module made possible. To their beloved Parents, for undying love they have given
them, also for the full support and guidance. They never left them; they were always there to encourage
and never stop believing in them. To Dr. Evelyn Corpuz-Biay, thank Prof. for all the support and sharing
your expertise regarding research and being one of the best contributor of this compiled module. To all
the students serves as inspirations of this module, thank you so much! ii
4.
TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Introduction…………………………………………………………. i
Acknowledgment……………………………………………………. ii
Table of Contents……………………………………………………. iii
Module 1: Nature of Inquiry and Research
Lesson 1: The characteristics, Strengths, Weaknesses, and kinds of Quantitative

Research……………................... 1
Inquiry-Based Learning…………………….. 2
The Nature of Research…………………….. 2
Characteristics of Quantitative Research……………………………………. 2
Strengths and Weaknesses…………………. 4
Lesson 2: The Nature of Variables…………………… 5
Variables…………………………………… 5
Types of Variables…………………………. 6
Categorical and Continuous Variables…….. 8
Module 2: Identifying the Inquiry and stating the problem…… 13
Lesson 3: Research in our daily life…………………… 14
Quantitative vs Qualitative…………………. 15
Sources of Research Problems……………… 15
Guidelines in choosing a Research Topic………………………………………... 16
5. Research topic to be avoided………………… 16
Writing a Research Title…………………….. 17
Scope and Delimitation……………………… 18
Lesson 4: Hypothesis…………………………………… 19
Module 3: Learning from other and Reviewing the Literature…. 25
Lesson 5: Review of Related Literature (RRL)………… 26
Purpose of Review of Related Literature…..... 26
Styles or approaches of RRL or Review of Related Literature………………………… 27
Lesson 6: Referencing…………………………………. 28
Lesson 7: Research Ethics…………………………….. 39
Lesson 8: Conceptual Framework…………………….. 41
Module 4: Understanding Data and ways to systematically Collect data…………………………………………… 50

Lesson 9: Quantitative Data Research Design……….. 51
Lesson 10: Instrument Development…………………... 55
Usability…………………………………… 57
Validity……………………………………. 58
Reliability…………………………………. 58
Lesson 11: Guidelines in Writing Research Methodology……………………………… 59
6. Module 5: Finding Answers through Data Collection…….. 66
Lesson 12: Quantitative Data Analysis………………... 66
Using Software for statistical analysis…….. 68
Sampling…………………………………… 68
Steps in Quantitative data analysis………… 69 Lesson 13: Statistical Methods………………………… 73

Statistical Methodologies………………….. 74 Types of Statistical Data Analysis………… 74 Measure of
Correlations………………….. 76 Lesson 14: Sampling Procedure……………………… 93 Sampling
techniques……………………... 97 Sample size………………………………. 97 Under-sized samples………………………
99 Module 6: Report and Sharing Findings………………………. 104 Lesson 15: Draws
Conclusions……………………….. 104 Suggestions Based Upon the Conclusions... 106 Summary-The
Strengths of the Results…… 106 Formulates Recommendation……………… 107 List
References……………………………. 107 Finalizes and present best research design…. 111 v
7. Introduction An inquiry and research are two terms are almost the same in meaning. Both of them
involved investigative work and any process that has the aim of augmenting knowledge, resolving doubt,
or solving a problem. A theory of inquiry is an account of the various types of inquiry and a treatment of
the ways that each type of inquiry achieves its aim while research is to discover truths by investigating
on your chosen topic scientifically. Intended Learning Outcomes After this lesson, you should be able to:
1. describes characteristics, strengths, weaknesses, and kinds of quantitative research; 2. use some new
terms you have learned in expressing their world views freely; 3. understanding the kinds of quantitative
research; 4. infer about the strengths and weaknesses of quantitative research; 5. illustrate the
importance of quantitative research across fields; and 6. differentiates kinds of variables and their uses.
PERFORMANCE STANDARD The learner is able to; decide on suitable quantitative research in different
areas of interest. INQUIRY-BASED LEARNING What is Inquiry? Inquiry is a learning process that motivates
you to obtain knowledge or information about people, things, places, or events. (Baraceros 2016) It
requires you to collect data, meaning, facts, and information about the object of your inquiry, and
examine such data carefully. On other hand, in your analysis, you execute varied thinking strategies that
range from lower-order to higher-order thinking skills such as inferential, critical, integrative, creative
thinking. Module 1 NATURE OF INQUIRY AND RESEARCH THE CHARACTERISTICS, STRENGTHS,
WEAKNESSES, AND KINDS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH LESSON 1
8. Furthermore, according to Badke cited by Baraceros, solving a problem, especially social issues, does
not only involved yourself but other members of the society too. Whatever knowledge you have about
world bears the influence of your cultural, sociological, institutional, or ideological understanding of the
world. (Badke 2012) THE NATURE OF RESEARCH The research process is, for many of us, just the way we
do things. We research the best buys in cars and appliances, we research book reviews before shopping
for books, we research the best schools for our children and ourselves, and we probably perform some
kind of research in our jobs. Our search for information may lead us to interview friends or other
knowledgeable people; read articles in magazines, journals, or newspapers; listen to the radio; search an
encyclopedia on CD-ROM; and even explore the Internet and World Wide Web for information. We use
our local public libraries and our school libraries. Research can be a way of life; it is the basis for many of
the important decisions in our lives. Without it, we are deluged with information, subjected to the
claims of advertisers, or influenced by hearsay in making sense of the world around us. This informal,
experiential research helps us decipher the flood of information we encounter daily. Formal academic
research differs from experiential research and may be more investigative in nature. For example, it may
require us to learn about an area in which we have little knowledge or inclination to learn. It may be
library-oriented or field-oriented, depending on the nature of the research. CHARACTERISTICS OF
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH Your goal in conducting quantitative research study is to determine the
relationship between one thing (an independent variable) and another (a dependent or outcome
variable) within a population. Quantitative research designs are either descriptive (subjects usually
measured once) or experimental (subjects measured before and after a treatment). A descriptive study
establishes only associations between variables; an experimental study establishes causality.
Quantitative research deals in numbers, logic, and an objective stance. Quantitative research focuses on
numeric and unchanging data and detailed, convergent reasoning rather than divergent 2
9. reasoning (i.e., the generation of a variety of ideas about a research problem in a spontaneous, free-
flowing manner). Its main characteristics are: 1. The data is usually gathered using structured research
instruments. 2. The results are based on larger sample sizes that are representative of the population. 3.
The research study can usually be replicated or repeated, given its high reliability. 4. Researcher has a
clearly defined research question to which objective answers are sought. 5. All aspects of the study are
carefully designed before data is collected. 6. Data are in the form of numbers and statistics, often
arranged in tables, charts, figures, or other non-textual forms. 7. Project can be used to generalize
concepts more widely, predict future results, or investigate causal relationships. 8. Researcher uses
tools, such as questionnaires or computer software, to collect numerical data. The overarching aim of a
quantitative research study is to classify features, count them, and construct statistical models in an
attempt to explain what is observed. Things to keep in mind when reporting the results of a study using
Quantitative methods:  Explain the data collected and their statistical treatment as well as all relevant
results in relation to the research problem you are investigating. Interpretation of results is not
appropriate in this section.  Report unanticipated events that occurred during your data collection.
Explain how the actual analysis differs from the planned analysis. Explain your handling of missing data
and why any missing data does not undermine the validity of your analysis.  Explain the techniques you
used to "clean" your data set.  Choose a minimally sufficient statistical procedure; provide a rationale
for its use and a reference for it. Specify any computer programs used.  Describe the assumptions for
each procedure and the steps you took to ensure that they were not violated. 3
10.  When using inferential statistics, provide the descriptive statistics, confidence intervals, and
sample sizes for each variable as well as the value of the test statistic, its direction, the degrees of
freedom, and the significance level [report the actual p value].  Avoid inferring causality, particularly in
nonrandomized designs or without further experimentation.  Use tables to provide exact values; use
figures to convey global effects. Keep figures small in size; include graphic representations of confidence
intervals whenever possible.  Always tell the reader what to look for in tables and figures. STRENGTHS
AND WEAKNESSES Quantitative method Quantitative data are pieces of information that can be counted
and which are usually gathered by surveys from large numbers of respondents randomly selected for
inclusion. Secondary data such as census data, government statistics, health system metrics, etc. are
often included in quantitative research. Quantitative data is analyzed using statistical methods.
Quantitative approaches are best used to answer what, when and who questions and are not well suited
to how and why questions. Strengths Weaknesses Findings can be generalized if selection process is
well-designed and sample is representative of study population Related secondary data is sometimes
not available or accessing available data is difficult/impossible Relatively easy to analyze Difficult to
understand context of a phenomenon Data can be very consistent, precise and reliable Data may not be
robust enough to explain complex issues IMPORTANCE OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH 1. More reliable
and objective 2. More reliable and objective 3. Can use statistics to generalize a finding 4. Often reduces
and restructures a complex problem to a limited number of variables 4
11. 5. Looks at relationships between variables and can establish cause and effect in highly controlled
circumstances 6. Tests theories or hypotheses 7. Assumes sample is representative of the population 8.
Subjectivity of researcher in methodology is recognized less 9. Less detailed than qualitative data and
may miss a desired response from the participant 10. 11. All experiments examine some kind of
variable(s). A variable is not only something that we measure, but also something that we can
manipulate and something we can control for. To understand the characteristics of variables and how
we use them in research, this guide is divided into three main sections. First, we illustrate the role of
dependent and independent variables. Second, we discuss the difference between experimental and
non-experimental research. Finally, we explain how variables can be characterized as either categorical
or continuous. VARIABLES – A variable is a label of name that represents a concept or characteristic that
varies (e.g., gender, weight, achievement, attitudes toward inclusion, etc.) – Conceptual and operational
definitions of variables Conceptual and operational definitions of variables – Conceptual (i.e.,
constitutive) definition: the use of words or concepts to define a variable Achievement: what one has
learned from formal instruction Aptitude: one‘s capability for performing a particular task or skill –
Operational definition: an indication of the meaning of a variable through the specification of the
manner by which it is measured, categorized, or controlled A test score Income levels above and below
$45,000 per year The use of holistic or phonetic language instruction THE NATURE OF VARIABLES
LESSON 2 5
12. TYPES OF VARIABLE Dependent and Independent Variables An independent variable, sometimes
called an experimental or predictor variable, is a variable that is being manipulated in an experiment in
order to observe the effect on a dependent variable, sometimes called an outcome variable. Imagine
that a tutor asks 100 students to complete a math test. The tutor wants to know why some students
perform better than others. Whilst the tutor does not know the answer to this, she thinks that it might
be because of two reasons: (1) some students spend more time revising for their test; and (2) some
students are naturally more intelligent than others. As such, the tutor decides to investigate the effect of
revision time and intelligence on the test performance of the 100 students. The dependent and
independent variables for the study are: Dependent Variable: Test Mark (measured from 0 to 100)
Independent Variables: Revision time (measured in hours) Intelligence (measured using IQ score) The
dependent variable is simply that, a variable that is dependent on an independent variable(s). For
example, in our case the test mark that a student achieves is dependent on revision time and
intelligence. Whilst revision time and intelligence (the independent variables) may (or may not) cause a
change in the test mark (the dependent variable), the reverse is implausible; in other words, whilst the
number of hours a student spends revising and the higher a student's IQ score may (or may not) change
the test mark that a student achieves, a change in a student's test mark has no bearing on whether a
student revises more or is more intelligent (this simply doesn't make sense). Therefore, the aim of the
tutor's investigation is to examine whether these independent variables - revision time and IQ - result in
a change in the dependent variable, the students' test scores. However, it is also worth noting that
whilst this is the main aim of the experiment, the tutor may also be interested to know if the
independent variables - revision time and IQ - are also connected in some way. In the section on
experimental and non-experimental research that follows, we find out a little more about the nature of
independent and dependent variables. 6
13. Three types of variables defined by the context within which the variable is discussed – Independent
and dependent variables – Extraneous and confounding variables – Continuous and categorical variables
1. Independent and dependent (i.e., cause and effect) – Independent variables act as the ―cause‖ in
that they precede, influence, and predict the dependent variable – Dependent variables act as the effect
in that they change as a result of being influenced by an independent variable – Examples The effect of
two instructional approaches (independent variable) on student achievement (dependent variable) The
use of SAT scores (independent variable) to predict freshman grade point averages (dependent variable)
2. Extraneous and confounding variables – Extraneous variables are those that affect the dependent
variable but are not controlled adequately by the researcher Not controlling for the key-boarding skills
of students in a study of computer- assisted instruction – Confounding variables are those that vary
systematically with the independent variable and exert influence of the dependent variable Not using
counselors with similar levels of experience in a study comparing the effectiveness of two counseling
approaches 3. Continuous and categorical variables – Continuous variables are measured on a scale that
theoretically can take on an infinite number of values Test scores range from a low of 0 to a high of 100
Attitude scales that range from very negative at 0 to very positive at 5 Students‘ ages – Categorical
variables are measured and assigned to groups on the basis of specific characteristics Examples 
Gender: male and female 7
14.  Socio-economic status: low middle, and high The term level is used to discuss the groups or
categories  Gender has two levels - male and female  Socio-economic status has three levels - low,
middle, and high. – Continuous variables can be converted to categorical variables, but categorical
variables cannot be converted to continuous variables IQ is a continuous variable, but the researcher
can choose to group students into three levels based on IQ scores - low is below a score of 84, middle is
between 85 and 115, and high is above 116 Test scores are continuous, but teachers typically assign
letter grades on a ten point scale (i.e., at or below 59 is an F, 60 to 69 is a D, 70 to 79 is a C, 80-89 is a B,
and 90 to 100 is an A Categorical and Continuous Variables Categorical variables are also known as
discrete or qualitative variables. Categorical variables can be further categorized as nominal, ordinal or
dichotomous. 1. Nominal variables are variables that have two or more categories, but which do not
have an intrinsic order. For example, a real estate agent could classify their types of property into
distinct categories such as houses, condos, co-ops or bungalows. So "type of property" is a nominal
variable with 4 categories called houses, condos, co-ops and bungalows. Of note, the different
categories of a nominal variable can also be referred to as groups or levels of the nominal variable.
Another example of a nominal variable would be classifying where people live in the USA by state. In this
case there will be many more levels of the nominal variable (50 in fact). 2. Dichotomous variables are
nominal variables which have only two categories or levels. For example, if we were looking at gender,
we would most probably categorize somebody as either "male" or "female". This is an example of a
dichotomous variable (and also a nominal variable). Another example might be if we asked a person if
they owned a mobile phone. Here, we may categorize mobile phone ownership as either "Yes" or "No".
In the real estate agent example, if type of property had been classified as either residential or
commercial then "type of property" would be a dichotomous variable. 8
15. 3. Ordinal variables are variables that have two or more categories just like nominal variables only
the categories can also be ordered or ranked. So if you asked someone if they liked the policies of the
Democratic Party and they could answer either "Not very much", "They are OK" or "Yes, a lot" then you
have an ordinal variable. Why? Because you have 3 categories, namely "Not very much", "They are OK"
and "Yes, a lot" and you can rank them from the most positive (Yes, a lot), to the middle response (They
are OK), to the least positive (Not very much). However, whilst we can rank the levels, we cannot place a
"value" to them; we cannot say that "They are OK" is twice as positive as "Not very much" for example.
Continuous variables are also known as quantitative variables. Continuous variables can be further
categorized as either interval or ratio variables. o Interval variables are variables for which their central
characteristic is that they can be measured along a continuum and they have a numerical value (for
example, temperature measured in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit). So the difference between 20C and
30C is the same as 30C to 40C. However, temperature measured in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit is NOT
a ratio variable. o Ratio variables are interval variables, but with the added condition that 0 (zero) of the
measurement indicates that there is none of that variable. So, temperature measured in degrees Celsius
or Fahrenheit is not a ratio variable because 0C does not mean there is no temperature. However,
temperature measured in Kelvin is a ratio variable as 0 Kelvin (often called absolute zero) indicates that
there is no temperature whatsoever. Other examples of ratio variables include height, mass, distance
and many more. The name "ratio" reflects the fact that you can use the ratio of measurements. So, for
example, a distance of ten meters is twice the distance of 5 meters. Ambiguities in classifying a type of
variable In some cases, the measurement scale for data is ordinal, but the variable is treated as
continuous. For example, a Likert scale that contains five values - strongly agree, agree, neither agree
nor disagree, disagree, and strongly disagree - is ordinal. However, where a Likert scale contains seven
or more value - strongly agree, moderately agree, agree, neither agree nor disagree, disagree,
moderately disagree, and strongly disagree - the underlying scale is sometimes treated as continuous
(although where you should do this is a cause of great dispute). 9
16. Name: ____________________________________ Score: _____________ Strand/Section/Grade:

______________________ Date: ______________ CHECK YOUR KNOWLEDGE (Short Answer Question)
(2 POINTS EACH) DIRECTIONS: Read the question carefully. Write your answer on the space provided.
_______________________1. Is a learning process that motivates you to obtain knowledge or
information about people, things, places, or events? _______________________2. Can be a way of life;
it is the basis for many of the important decisions in our lives. _______________________3. Focuses on
numeric and unchanging data and detailed, convergent reasoning rather than divergent reasoning (i.e.,
the generation of a variety of ideas about a research problem in a spontaneous, free- flowing manner).
_______________________4. This data are the pieces of information that can be counted and which are
usually gathered by surveys from large numbers of respondents randomly selected for inclusion.
_______________________5. Sometimes called an experimental or predictor variable.
_______________________6. The aim is to manipulate an independent variable(s) and then examine
the effect that this change has on a dependent variable(s). _______________________7. The
relationships between two variables. _______________________8. Design involves selecting groups,
upon which a variable is tested without any random pre-selection process.
_______________________9. Statement to be proven or disproved. _______________________10.
Uses interviews, questionnaires, and sampling polls to get a sense of behavior with intense precision.
_______________________11. Variables that have two or more categories, but which do not have an
intrinsic order. _______________________12. Nominal variables which have only two categories or
levels. _______________________13. Variables for which their central characteristic is that they can be
measured along a continuum and they have a numerical value _______________________14. Interval
variables, but with the added condition that 0 (zero) of the measurement indicates that there is none of
that variable. _______________________15. The researcher does not manipulate the independent
variable(s). 10

______________________ Date: ______________ Directions: INDIVIDUAL WORK. Complete the
concept map by writing words associated with the middle word. Be guided by the clues in the sentence
below each graph. The detectives need more time to inquire about the case. The witness‘ statement is
crucial to the solution of the case. INQUIRE CRUCIAL GUARANTEEE 11
18. The continuous presence of your name on the Dean‘s list guarantee a good future for you. EDD-904
Understanding & Using Data: Characteristics of Quantitative Research
http://spalding.libguides.com/c.php?g=461133&p=3153088
https://coursedev.umuc.edu/WRTG999A/chapter4/ch4-01.html What is the nature of research? |
Insights Association www.insightsassociation.org/faq/what-nature-research
http://betterthesis.dk/research-methods/lesson-1different-approaches-to-research/strengths-and-
limitations Baraceros, Esther L., PRACTICAL RESEARCH 1,First Edition 2016, Rex Book Store, 856 Nicanor,
Sr. St., Manila, Philippines. 12
19. Introduction This module discusses the topics that will help the learners to develop the ability to
formulate a research problem and find answers towards these inquiries or questions. Inquiry or research
pushes you to a thorough or a detailed investigation of a certain subject matter. This kind of study
involves several stages that require much time and effort. The learners need more time to think in
finalizing its decision about a particular topic to research on or in determining the appropriateness of
such topic by obtaining the background information of the study, and formulating some questions that
you want to answer. Intended Learning Outcomes After this module, the learner demonstrates
understanding of: 1. the range of research topics in the area of inquiry; 2. the value of research in the
area of interest; 3. the specificity of the problem posed; 4. distinguish a researchable from a non-
researchable research problem; 5. narrow down a general topic into a smaller one; 6. explain the
meaning of a quantitative research problem; 7. use prose and non-prose means of comparing-
contrasting the approaches and types of research question; and 8. apply the guidelines in stating a
quantitative research problem and research question. PERFORMANCE standard The learner is able to:
formulate clearly the statement of the problem. Module 2 IDENTIFYING THE INQUIRY AND STATING THE
PROBLEM 13
20. RESEARCH IN OUR DAILY LIFE Guidelines in making a Research Problems 1. One or more sentences
indicating the goal, purpose, or overall direction of the study 2. General characteristics – Implies the
possibility of empirical investigation – Identifies a need for the research – Provides focus – Provides a
concise overview of the research 3. Two ways of stating the problem  Research problems: typically a
rather general overview of the problem with just enough information about the scope and purpose of
the study to provide an initial understanding of the research  Research statements and/or questions:
more specific, focused statements and questions that communicate in greater detail the nature of the
study 4. A general research problem  (e.g.) The purpose of this study is to investigate the attitudes of
high school students to mandated drug testing programs 5. Specific statements and questions  (e.g.)
This study examines the differences between males‘ and females‘ attitudes toward mandated high
school drug testing programs.  (e.g.) What are the differences between freshmen, sophomore, junior,
and senior students‘ attitudes toward mandated high school drug testing programs? 6. Researchable
and non-researchable problems  Researchable problems imply the possibility of empirical investigation
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH PROBLEMLESSON 3 14
21.  What are the achievement and social skill differences between children attending an academically
or socially oriented pre-school program?  What is the relationship between teachers‘ knowledge of
assessment methods and their use of them? 7. Researchable and non-researchable problems  Non-
researchable problems include explanations of how to do something, vague propositions, and value-
based concerns - Is democracy a good form of government? - Should values clarification be taught in
public schools? - Can crime be prevented? - Should physical education classes be dropped from the high
school curriculum? QUANTITATIVE VS QUALITATIVE Quantitative problems Qualitative problems –
Specific - General – Closed - Open – Static - Evolving – Outcome oriented - Process oriented – Use of
specific variables (Copyright, Allyn & Bacon 2008) SOURCES OF RESEARCH PROBLEMS – Personal
interests and experiences  The use of formative tests in a statistics class  The use of technology in a
research class – Deductions from theory  The effectiveness of math manipulative  The effectiveness of
a mastery approach to learning research – Replication of studies  Checking the findings of a major
study  Checking the validity of research findings with different subjects  Checking trends or changes
over time 15
22.  Checking important findings using different methodologies  Clarification of contradictory results
Quantitative Research Problems Identifies three specific elements – The type of research design – The
variables of interest and the relationships between or among these variables – The subjects involved in
the study Guidelines in Choosing a Research Topic 1. Interest in the Subject Matter 2. Availability of
information 3. Timeliness and relevance of the topic 4. Limitation on the subject 5. Personal resources
Research Topics to be avoided 1. Controversial topics - These are topics that depend greatly on the
writer‘s opinion, which tend to be biased or prejudicial. Facts cannot support topics like these. 2. Highly
technical subjects - For a beginner, researching on topics that require an advance study, technical
knowledge, and vast experience is a very difficult. 3. Hard-to-investigate subjects - A topic or a subject is
hard to investigate if there is no available data or reading materials about it and if such materials are
not-up-date or obsolete. 4. Too broad subjects - A subject or a topic that are too broad will prevent the
researcher from giving a concentrated or in –depth analysis of the subject matter of the research paper.
5. Too narrow subjects - The subjects are so limited or specific that an extensive or thorough searching
or reading for information about the subject is necessary. 6. Vague subjects - Choosing topics like these
will prevent you from having a clear insights or focus on your study. For instance, titles beginning with
indefinite adjectives such as several, many, some, etc., as in ―Some Remarkable Traits of a Ilocano‖
Several People‘s Comments on 16
23. the Extra Judicial Killings,‖ are vague enough to decrease the readers‘ interest and curiosity.
WRITING A RESEARCH TITLE When writing a research paper title, authors should realize that despite
being repeatedly warned against it, most people do indeed fall prey to ―judging a book by its cover.‖
This cognitive bias tends to make readers considerably susceptible to allowing the research paper title to
function as the sole factor influencing their decision of whether to read or skip a particular paper.
Although seeking the professional assistance of a research paper writing service could help the cause,
the author of the paper stands as the best judge for setting the right tone of his/her research paper.
Readers come across research paper titles in searches through databases and reference sections of
research papers. They deduce what a paper is about and its relevance to them based on the title.
Considering this, it is clear that the title of your paper is the most important determinant of how many
people will read it. A good research paper title:  Condenses the paper‘s content in a few words 
Captures the readers‘ attention  Differentiates the paper from other papers of the same subject area
Three basic tips to keep in mind while writing a title: o Keep it simple, brief and attractive: The primary
function of a title is to provide a precise summary of the paper‘s content. So keep the title brief and
clear. Use active verbs instead of complex noun-based phrases, and avoid unnecessary details.
Moreover, a good title for a research paper is typically around 10 to 12 words long. A lengthy title may
seem unfocused and take the readers‘ attention away from an important point. Avoid: Drug XYZ has an
effect of muscular contraction for an hour in snails of Achatina fulcia species Better: Drug XYZ induces
muscular contraction in Achatina fulcia snails 17
24. o Use appropriate descriptive words: A good research paper title should contain key words used in
the manuscript and should define the nature of the study. Think about terms people would use to
search for your study and include them in your title. Avoid: Effects of drug A on schizophrenia patients:
study of a multicenter mixed group Better: Psychosocial effects of drug A on schizophrenia patients: a
multicenter randomized controlled trial o Avoid abbreviations and jargon: Known abbreviations such as
AIDS, NATO, and so on can be used in the title. However, other lesser-known or specific abbreviations
and jargon that would not be immediately familiar to the readers should be left out. Avoid: MMP
expression profiles cannot distinguish between normal and early osteoarthritic synovial fluid Better:
Matrix metalloproteinase protein expression profiles cannot distinguish between normal and early
osteoarthritic synovial fluid Always write down the hypothesis and then take into consideration these
simple tips. This would help you in composing the best title for your research paper. SCOPE AND
DELIMITATIONS It is important to narrow down your thesis topic and limit the scope of your study. The
researcher should inform the reader about limits or coverage of the study. The scope identifies the
boundaries of the study in term of subjects, objectives, facilities, area, time frame, and the issues to
which the research is focused. Sample phrases that help express the scope of the study: The coverage of
this study………. The study consists of …….. The study covers the ………. This study is focus on…….. 18
25. The delimitation of the study is delimiting a study by geographic location, age, sex, population traits,
population size, or other similar considerations. Delimitation is used to make study better and more
feasible and not just for the interest of the researcher. It also identifies the constraints or weaknesses of
your study which are not within the control of the researcher. Sample phrases that expressed the
delimitations of the study The study does not cover the…… The researcher limited this research to……
This study is limited to……… A hypothesis is a specific statement of prediction. It describes in concrete
(rather than theoretical) terms what you expect will happen in your study. Not all studies have
hypotheses. Sometimes a study is designed to be exploratory. There is no formal hypothesis, and
perhaps the purpose of the study is to explore some area more thoroughly in order to develop some
specific hypothesis or prediction that can be tested in future research. A single study may have one or
many hypotheses. Actually, whenever the researcher talks about hypothesis, the researcher really
thinking simultaneously about two hypotheses. Let's say that you predict that there will be a
relationship between two variables in your study. The way we would formally set up the hypothesis test
is to formulate two hypothesis statements, one that describes your prediction and one that describes all
the other possible outcomes with respect to the hypothesized relationship. Your prediction is that
variable A and variable B will be related (you don't care whether it's a positive or negative relationship).
Then the only other possible outcome would be that variable A and variable B are not related. Usually,
we call the hypothesis that you support (your prediction) the alternative hypothesis, and we call the
hypothesis that describes the remaining possible outcomes the null hypothesis. Sometimes we use a
notation like HA or H1 to represent the alternative hypothesis or your prediction, and HO or H0 to
represent the null case. You have to be careful here, though. In some studies, your prediction might very
well be that there will be no HYPOTHESESLESSON 4 19
26. difference or change. In this case, you are essentially trying to find support for the null hypothesis
and you are opposed to the alternative. If your prediction specifies a direction, and the null therefore is
the no difference prediction and the prediction of the opposite direction, we call this a one-tailed
hypothesis. For instance, let's imagine that you are investigating the effects of a new employee training
program and that you believe one of the outcomes will be that there will be less employee absenteeism.
Your two hypotheses might be stated something like this: The null hypothesis for this study is: HO: As a
result of the XYZ company employee training program, there will either be no significant difference in
employee absenteeism or there will be a significant increase. which is tested against the alternative
hypothesis: HA: As a result of the XYZ company employee training program, there will be a significant
decrease in employee absenteeism. In the figure on the left, we see this situation illustrated graphically.
The alternative hypothesis -- your prediction that the program will decrease absenteeism -- is shown
there. The null must account for the other two possible conditions: no difference, or an increase in
absenteeism. The figure shows a hypothetical distribution of absenteeism differences. We can see that
the term "one-tailed" refers to the tail of the distribution on the outcome variable. When your
prediction does not specify a direction, we say you have a two-tailed hypothesis. For instance, let's
assume you are studying a new drug treatment for depression. The drug has gone through some initial
animal trials, but has not yet been tested on humans. You believe (based on theory and the previous
research) that the drug will have an effect, but you are not confident enough to hypothesize a direction
and say the drug will reduce depression (after all, you've seen more than enough promising drug
treatments come along that eventually were shown to have severe side effects that actually worsened
symptoms). In this case, you might state the two hypotheses like this: The null hypothesis for this study
is: 20
27. HO: As a result of 300mg./day of the ABC drug, there will be no significant difference in depression.
which is tested against the alternative hypothesis: HA: As a result of 300mg./day of the ABC drug, there
will be a significant difference in depression. The figure on the right illustrates this two-tailed prediction
for this case. Again, notice that the term "two-tailed" refers to the tails of the distribution for your
outcome variable. The important thing to remember about stating hypotheses is that you formulate
your prediction (directional or not), and then you formulate a second hypothesis that is mutually
exclusive of the first and incorporates all possible alternative outcomes for that case. When your study
analysis is completed, the idea is that you will have to choose between the two hypotheses. If your
prediction was correct, then you would (usually) reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative. If
your original prediction was not supported in the data, then you will accept the null hypothesis and
reject the alternative. The logic of hypothesis testing is based on these two basic principles: the
formulation of two mutually exclusive hypothesis statements that, together, exhaust all possible
outcomes the testing of these so that one is necessarily accepted and the other rejected
(https://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/hypothes.php) 21

_______________________1. typically a rather general overview of the problem with just enough
information about the scope and purpose of the study to provide an initial understanding of the
research _______________________2. more specific, focused statements and questions that
communicate in greater detail the nature of the study _______________________3. include
explanations of how to do something, vague propositions, and value-based concerns.
_______________________4. These are topics that depend greatly on the writer‘s opinion, which tend
to be biased or prejudicial. Facts cannot support topics like these.. _______________________5. For a
beginner, researching on topics that require an advance study, technical knowledge, and vast
experience is a very difficult. _______________________6. A topic or a subject is hard to investigate if
there is no available data or reading materials about it and if such materials are not-up-date or obsolete.
_______________________7. A subject or a topic that are too broad will prevent the researcher from
giving a concentrated or in –depth analysis of the subject matter of the research paper.
_______________________8. Choosing topics like these will prevent you from having a clear insights or
focus on your study. _______________________9. It describes in concrete (rather than theoretical)
terms what you expect will happen in your study. _______________________10. If your prediction
specifies a direction, and the null therefore is the no difference prediction and the prediction of the
opposite direction, we call this a . Guidelines in Choosing a Research Topic _______________________1.
_______________________2. _______________________3. _______________________4. 22

______________________ Date: ______________ GROUP WORK List down at least three major
problems and with the statement of the problems. (Discus it within the group) Write down the reason
behind why you choose that research topic. INDIVIDUAL WORK: Let you imagination do it! What
immediately comes to your mind the moment you hear these two words: PROBLEM and QUESTION?
How would you compare and contrast the two? In the space below, make an appropriate diagram to
show their similarities and differences. 23
30. http://universalteacher.com/1/criteria-for-selecting-a-research-problem/
https://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/hypothes.php http://www.editage.com/insights/3-basic-
tips-on-writing-a-good-research-paper-title What is the nature of research? | Insights Association
www.insightsassociation.org/faq/what-nature-research http://betterthesis.dk/research-
methods/lesson-1different-approaches-to-research/strengths-and- limitations Baraceros, Esther L.,
PRACTICAL RESEARCH 1,First Edition 2016, Rex Book Store, 856 Nicanor, Sr. St., Manila, Philippines. 24
31. Introduction A literature review is an evaluative report of information found in the literature related
to your selected area of study. The review should describe, summarize, evaluate and clarify this
literature. It should give a theoretical base for the research and help you (the author) determine the
nature of your research. Works which are irrelevant should be discarded and those which are peripheral
should be looked at critically. A literature review is more than the search for information, and goes
beyond being a descriptive annotated bibliography. All works included in the review must be read,
evaluated and analyzed (which you would do for an annotated bibliography), but relationships between
the literature must also be identified and articulated, in relation to your field of research. "In writing the
literature review, the purpose is to convey to the reader what knowledge and ideas have been
established on a topic, and what their strengths and weaknesses are. The literature review must be
defined by a guiding concept (e.g. your research objective, the problem or issue you are discussing or
your argumentative thesis). It is not just a descriptive list of the material available, or a set of
summaries. Intended Learning Outcomes After this lesson, you should be able to: 1. Enumerate the
purposes of review of related literature; 2. Familiarize themselves with the review or related literature
in a quantitative research; 3. Make a graphical presentation of the systematic review of related
literature; 4. Trace the steps of systematic review of literature; 5. Differentiate meta-analysis from other
Literature-review methods; 6. Compare and contrast these two referencing styles: APA and MLA; 7.
Document their research paper with their chosen referencing style; and 8. Practice the ethical standards
in writing their literature-review results. Module 3 LEARNING FROM OTHERS AND REVIEWING THE
LITERATURE 25
32. PERFORMANCE STANDARD The learner demonstrates understanding to: 1. Select, cite, and
synthesize judiciously related literature and use sources according to ethical standards. 2. Formulate
clearly conceptual framework, research hypotheses (if appropriate), and define terms used in study. 3.
Present objectively written review of related literature and conceptual framework. 4. 5. 6. What is
Review of Related Literature? While the research problem is still being conceptualized, the researcher
must already start reviewing literature. In identifying and defining the research problem, the researcher
must be able to show evidences that the problem really exists and is worth investigating. It is important
that the researcher knows what is already known about the problem or what earlier researchers have
found about it and what questions still need to be answered before the research questions or objectives
are finalized. Theories which the researchers use to explain the existence of a research problem and
used as bases in analyzing relationships between variables can be generated from reference books on
theories or from related studies. The researcher therefore, must have already read adequate literature
at the start of the research activity. Purpose of Review of Related Literature (RRL) 1. It helps the
researcher identify and define a research problem 2. It helps justify the need for studying a problem. 3.
It prevents unnecessary duplication of a study 4. It can be a source of a theoretical basis for the study 5.
It enables the researcher to learn how to conceptualize a research problem and properly identify and
operationally define study variables 6. It helps formulate and refine research instruments 7. It provides
lesson for data analysis and interpretation. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE (RRL)LESSON 5 26
33. Styles or Approaches of RRL or Review of Related Literature 1. Traditional Review of Literature A
"traditional" literature review provides an overview of the research findings on particular topics. A
traditional literature is written by examining a body of published work, then writing a critical summary
(an impressionistic overview) of the body of literature. The purpose of a literature review is making clear
for a reader what the research collectively indicates with regard to a particular issue or question.
Traditional review is of different types that are as follows: 1. Conceptual review – analysis of concepts or
ideas to give meaning to some national or world issues. 2. Critical review – focuses on theories or
hypotheses and examines meanings and results of their application to situation. 3. State-of-the-Art
review – makes the researcher deal with the latest research studies on the subject. 4. Expert review –
encourages a well-known expert to do the RRL because of the influence of certain ideology, paradigm,
or belief on him/her. 5. Scoping review – prepares a situation for a future research work in the form of
project making about community development, government policies, and health services, among
others. 2. Systematic Review of Literature Systematic reviews aim to find as much as possible of the
research relevant to the particular research questions, and use explicit methods to identify what can
reliably be said on the basis of these studies. Methods should not only be explicit but systematic with
the aim of producing varied and reliable results. Such reviews then go on to synthesize research findings
in a form which is easily accessible to those who have to make policy or practice decisions. In this way,
systematic reviews reduce the bias which can occur in other approaches to reviewing research evidence.
The following table shows the way several books on RRL. Compare and contrast the two styles of RRL.
Standards Traditional Review Systematic Review Purpose To have a thorough and clear understanding of
the field To meet a certain objective based on specific research questions Scope Comprehensive, wide
picture Restricted focus Review Design Indefinite plan, permits creative and exploratory plan Viewable
process and paper trail Choice of studies Purposeful selection by the reviewer Prepared standards for
studies selection 27
34. Standards Traditional Review Systematic Review Nature of studies Inquiry-based techniques
involving several studies Wide and thorough search for all studies Quality appraisal Reviewers views
Assessment checklists Summary Narrative Graphical and short summary answers Referencing is
important 1. It shows where you got information from (you are not making up) 2. It acknowledges the
contribution of other people. 3. It helps other people find source you found if they want more detail. 4.
It stops you being accused of plagiarism 5. It allows people to check the accuracy of your interpretation
of other people‘s work It is not just referencing that is important it is also the accuracy of the
referencing and the consistent use of a style. There are two places in research chapter where
referencing is placed: as cited in Chapter I and in the Reference List or Bibliography.
REFERENCINGLESSON 6 28
35. References Cited or Reference List 29
36. 30
37. 31
38. 32
39. Reference List: Basic Rules Your references should begin on a new page separate from the text of the
essay; label this page References (with no quotation marks, underlining, etc.), centered at the top of the
page. It should be double-spaced just like the rest of your essay. Basic Rules 1. All lines after the first line
of each entry in your reference list should be indented or make hanging 0.5 inch from the left margin. 2.
Authors' names are inverted (last name first); give the last name and initials for all authors of a
particular work unless the work has more than six authors. If the work has more than six authors, list the
first six authors and then use et al. after the sixth author's name to indicate the rest of the authors. 3.
Reference list entries should be alphabetized by the last name of the first author of each work. 4. If you
have more than one article by the same author, single- author references or multiple-author references
with the exact same authors in the exact same order are listed in order by the year of publication,
starting with the earliest. 5. When referring to any work that is NOT a journal, such as a book, article, or
Web page, capitalize only the first letter of the first word of a title and subtitle, the first word after a
colon or a dash in the title, and proper nouns. Do not capitalize the first letter of the second word in a
hyphenated compound word. 6. Capitalize all major words in journal titles. 7. Italicize titles of longer
works such as books and journals. 8. Do not italicize, underline, or put quotes around the titles of
shorter works, such as journal articles or essays in edited collections. The following rules for handling
works by a single author or multiple authors apply to all APA- style references in your reference list,
regardless of the type of work (book, article, electronic resource, etc.) Single Author Last name first,
followed by author initials. Berndt, T. J. (2002). Friendship quality and social development. Current
Directions in Psychological Science, 11, 7-10. 33
40. Two Authors List by their last names and initials. Use the ampersand instead of "and." Wegener, D.
T., & Petty, R. E. (1994). Mood management across affective states: The hedonic contingency hypothesis.
Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 66, 1034-1048. Three to Six Authors List by last names and
initials; commas separate author names, while the last author name is preceded again by ampersand.
Kernis, M. H., Cornell, D. P., Sun, C. R., Berry, A., & Harlow, T. (1993). There's more to self-esteem than
whether it is high or low: The importance of stability of self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 65, 1190-1204. More Than Six Authors If there are more than six authors, list the first six as
above and then "et al.," which stands for "and others." Remember not to place a period after "et" in "et
al." Harris, M., Karper, E., Stacks, G., Hoffman, D., DeNiro, R., Cruz, P., et al. (2001). Writing labs and the
Hollywood connection. Journal of Film and Writing, 44(3), 213-245. Two or More Works by the Same
Author in the Same Year If you are using more than one reference by the same author (or the same
group of authors listed in the same order) published in the same year, organize them in the reference
list alphabetically by the title of the article or chapter. Then assign letter suffixes to the year. Refer to
these sources in your essay as they appear in your reference list, e.g.: "Berdnt (1981a) makes similar
claims...― Berndt, T. J. (1981a). Age changes and changes over time in prosocial intentions and behavior
between friends. Developmental Psychology, 17, 408-416. Berndt, T. J. (1981b). Effects of friendship on
prosocial intentions and behavior. Child Development, 52, 636-643. Reference List: Articles in Periodicals
Basic Form APA style dictates that authors are named last name followed by initials; publication year
goes between parentheses, followed by a period. The title of the article is in sentence-case, meaning
only 34
41. the first word and proper nouns in the title are capitalized. The periodical title is run in title case, and
is followed by the volume number which, with the title, is also italicized or underlined. Author, A. A.,
Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (Year). Title of article. Title of Periodical, volume number (issue number),
pages. Article in Journal Paginated by Volume Journals that are paginated by volume begin with page
one in issue one, and continue numbering issue two where issue one ended, etc. Harlow, H. F. (1983).
Fundamentals for preparing psychology journal articles. Journal of Comparative and Physiological
Psychology, 55, 893-896. Article in Journal Paginated by Issue Journals paginated by issue begin with
page one every issue; therefore, the issue number gets indicated in parentheses after the volume. The
parentheses and issue number are not italicized or underlined. Scruton, R. (1996). The eclipse of
listening. The New Criterion, 15(30), 5-13. Article in a Magazine Henry, W. A., III. (1990, April 9). Making
the grade in today's schools. Time, 135, 28-31. Article in a Newspaper Unlike other periodicals, p. or pp.
precedes page numbers for a newspaper reference in APA style. Single pages take p., e.g., p. B2;
multiple pages take pp., e.g., pp. B2, B4 or pp. C1, C3-C4. Schultz, S. (2005, December 28). Calls made to
strengthen state energy policies. The Country Today, pp. 1A, 2A. Letter to the Editor Moller, G. (2002,
August). Ripples versus rumbles [Letter to the editor]. Scientific American, 287(2), 12. Review
Baumeister, R. F. (1993). Exposing the self-knowledge myth [Review of the book The self- knower: A
hero under control ]. Contemporary Psychology, 38, 466-467. 35
42. Multivolume Work Wiener, P. (Ed.). (1973). Dictionary of the history of ideas (Vols. 1-4). New York:
Scribner's. Encyclopedia Americana (2008) Electricity (Vol. 3) New York: Phoenix Pub. An Entry in An
Encyclopedia with author Bergmann, P. G. (1993). Relativity. In The New Encyclopedia Britannica (Vol.
26, pp. 501-508). Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica. Thesis / Dissertation Abstract Yoshida, Y. (2001).
Essays in urban transportation (Doctoral dissertation, Boston College, 2001). Dissertation Abstracts
International, 62, 7741A. Government Document National Institute of Mental Health. (1990). Clinical
training in serious mental illness (DHHS Publication No. ADM 90-1679). Washington, DC: U.S.
Government Printing Office. Report From a Private Organization American Psychiatric Association.
(2000). Practice guidelines for the treatment of patients with eating disorders (2nd ed.). Washington,
D.C.: Author. Conference Proceedings Schnase, J.L., & Cunnius, E.L. (Eds.). (1995). Proceedings from CSCL
'95: The First International Conference on Computer Support for Collaborative Learning. Mahwah, NJ:
Erlbaum. Reference List: Electronic Sources Article From an Online Periodical Online articles follow the
same guidelines for printed articles. Include all information the online host makes available, including an
issue number in parentheses. 36
43. Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article. Title of Online Periodical, volume
number(issue number if available). Retrieved month day, year, from
http://www.someaddress.com/full/url/ Bernstein, M. (2002). 10 tips on writing the living Web. A List
Apart: For People Who Make Websites, 149. Retrieved May 2, 2006, from
http://www.alistapart.com/articles/writeliving Online Scholarly Journal Article Author, A. A., & Author,
B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article. Title of Journal, volume number. Retrieved month day, year,
from http://www.someaddress.com/full/url/ Kenneth, I. A. (2000). A Buddhist response to the nature of
human rights. Journal of Buddhist Ethics, 8. Retrieved February 20, 2001, from
http://www.cac.psu.edu/jbe/twocont.html Reference List: Other Non-Print Sources Interviews, Email,
and Other Personal Communication No personal communication is included in your reference list;
instead, parenthetically cite the communicators name, the fact that it was personal communication, and
the date of the communication in your main text only. (E. Robbins, pers. comm., January 4, 2001). A. P.
Smith also claimed that many of her students had difficulties with APA style (pers. comm., November 3,
2002). Motion Picture Basic reference list format: Producer, P. P. (Producer) & Director, D.D. (Director).
(Date of publication). Title of motion picture [Motion picture]. Country of origin: Studio or distributor.
Note: If a movie or video tape is not available in wide distribution, add the following to your citation
after the country of origin: (Available from Distributor name, full address and zip code). A Motion Picture
or Video Tape with International or National Availability Smith, J.D. (Producer) & Smithee, A.F.
(Director). (2001). Really big disaster movie [Motion picture]. United States: Paramount Pictures. 37
44. A Motion Picture or Video Tape with Limited Availability Harris, M. (Producer), & Turley, M. J.
(Director). (2002). Writing labs: A history [Motion picture]. (Available from Purdue University Pictures,
500 Oval Drive, West Lafayette, IN 47907) Television Broadcast or Series Episode Producer, P. P.
(Producer). (Date of broadcast or copyright). Title of broadcast [Television broadcast or Television
series]. City of origin: Studio or distributor. Single Episode of a Television Series Writer, W. W. (Writer),
& Director, D.D. (Director). (Date of publication). Title of episode [Television series episode]. In P.
Producer (Producer), Series title. City of origin: Studio or distributor. A Television Series Bellisario, D.L.
(Producer). (1992). Exciting action show [Television series]. Hollywood: American Broadcasting
Company. Music Recording Songwriter, W. W. (Date of copyright). Title of song [Recorded by artist if
different from song writer]. On Title of album [Medium of recording]. Location: Label. (Recording date if
different from copyright date). Taupin, B. (1975). Someone saved my life tonight [Recorded by Elton
John]. On Captain fantastic and the brown dirt cowboy [CD]. London: Big Pig Music Limited. 38
45. 1. Introduction Research Ethics is the highest ethical standards shall be applied to basic education
research. Whether or not human subjects are involved, researchers must ensure that the study will not
cause people harm. Research participants should have informed consent, must be cognizant about the
general purpose of the study and should not be exposed to unusual risk. Consistent with the principle of
excellence, integrity also requires honesty and accuracy in the collection, analysis and reporting of data.
How do you know if it’s ethical or unethical? Webster‘s New World Dictionary defines ‗ethical‘
(behavior) as ‗conforming to the standards of conduct of a given profession or group.’ What researchers
consider to be ethical, therefore, is largely a matter of agreement among them. Three very important
research ethical issues (1) Protecting participants from harm Meaning: Participants in a research study
are protected from physical or psychological harm, discomfort, or danger that may arise Logic: Any sort
of study that is likely to cause lasting, or even serious harm or discomfort to any participant should not
be conducted unless it has great benefits Tip: Obtain the consent of the participants if they may be
exposed to any risk through a form Role of DO: ‗Almost all educational research involves activities that
are within the customary, usual procedures of schools or other agencies and as such involve little or no
risk‘ (2) Ensuring confidentiality of data Meaning: Researchers should make sure that no one else (other
than perhaps a few key research assistants) has access to the data RESEARCH ETHICSLESSON 7 39
46. Logic: All subjects should be assured that any data collected from or about them will be held in
confidence Tips: (a) Whenever possible, remove all names from all data collection forms. How? Assign
numbers to forms, or answer anonymously. (b) Do not use the names of the participants from any
publications that describe the research. (c) Allow the participants to withdraw, or information about
them not be used. Warning: ‗Sometimes, however, it is important for a study to identify individual
subjects.‘ Role of DO: ‗Almost all educational research involves activities that are within the customary,
usual procedures of schools or other agencies and as such involve little or no risk‘ (3) Subject deception
Meaning: ‗no full or erroneous information‘ Logic: It is often difficult to find naturalistic situations in
which certain behaviors occur frequently Warning: Many studies cannot be carried out unless some
deception of subjects take place; but it would bring questions on the reputation of the scientific
community, or to the researcher himself. Tip: a. Whenever possible, do not deceive. b. If no alternatives
are possible, weigh the study‘s benefits to prospective scientific, educational and applied value c. If
participants are deceived, ensure sufficient explanation as soon as possible. Other unethical activities in
research 1. Publishing an article in two different journals without informing the editor 2. Failing to
inform your collaborator that your are filing a patent of the research 40
47. 3. Writing the name of your colleague as one of the writers even though he did not participate in any
part of the conduct of the research 4. Discussing with your colleagues data from the paper that you are
reviewing for a journal 5. Trimming outlines from a data set without providing sufficient justification 6.
Using inappropriate statistical techniques in order to obtain favorable results 7. Making the results of a
study publicly known without first giving the peers the opportunity to review the work 8. Failing to
acknowledge the contributions of other people in the field (RRL) 9. Making derogatory comments and
personal attacks in your review of author‘s submission 10. A conceptual framework is an analytical tool
with several variations and contexts. It is used to make conceptual distinctions and organize ideas.
Strong conceptual frameworks capture something real and do this in a way that is easy to remember
and apply. • Present a schematic diagram of the paradigm of the research and discuss the relationships
of the elements/variables therein • Identify and discuss the variables related to the problem • Can use
the Input-Process-Output (IPO) Model or the Dependent-Independent-Moderator Model • The
conceptual framework serves as basis for the research paradigm and objectives of the project
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKLESSON 8 41
48. In other words, the conceptual framework is the researcher‘s understanding of how the particular
variables in his study connect with each other. Thus, it identifies the variables required in the research
investigation. It is the researcher‘s ―map‖ in pursuing the investigation. As McGaghie et al. (2001) put
it: The conceptual framework ―sets the stage‖ for the presentation of the particular research question
that drives the investigation being reported based on the problem statement. The problem statement of
a thesis presents the context and the issues that caused the researcher to conduct the study. The
conceptual framework lies within a much broader framework called theoretical framework. The latter
draws support from time-tested theories that embody the findings of many researchers on why and how
a particular phenomenon occurs. Step by Step Guide on How to Make the Conceptual Framework
Before you prepare your conceptual framework, you need to do the following things: 1. Choose your
topic. Decide on what will be your research topic. The topic should be within your field of specialization.
42
49. 2. Do a literature review. Review relevant and updated research on the theme that you decide to
work on after scrutiny of the issue at hand. Preferably use peer-reviewed and well-known scientific
journals as these are reliable sources of information. 3. Isolate the important variables. Identify the
specific variables described in the literature and figure out how these are related. Some abstracts
contain the variables and the salient findings thus may serve the purpose. If these are not available, find
the research paper‘s summary. If the variables are not explicit in the summary, get back to the
methodology or the results and discussion section and quickly identify the variables of the study and the
significant findings. Read the TSPU Technique on how to skim efficiently articles and get to the
important points without much fuss. 4. Generate the conceptual framework. Build your conceptual
framework using your mix of the variables from the scientific articles you have read. Your problem
statement serves as a reference in constructing the conceptual framework. In effect, your study will
attempt to answer a question that other researchers have not explained yet. Your research should
address a knowledge gap. Example Fig. 1: The research paradigm illustrating the researcher‘s conceptual
framework. Notice that the variables of the study are explicit in the paradigm presented in Figure 1. In
the illustration, the two variables are 1) number of hours devoted in front of the computer, and 2) 43
50. number of hours slept at night. The former is the independent variable while the latter is the
dependent variable. Both of these variables are easy to measure. It is just counting the number of hours
spent in front of the computer and the number of hours slept by the subjects of the study. Assuming
that other things are constant during the performance of the study, it will be possible to relate these
two variables and confirm that indeed, blue light emanated from computer screens can affect one‘s
sleeping patterns. (Please read the article titled ―Do you know that the computer can disturb your
sleeping patterns?‖ To find out more about this phenomenon) A correlation analysis will show whether
the relationship is significant or not. Again, review the abstracts carefully. Keep careful notes so that you
may track you‘re thought processes during the research process. 44

_______________________1. A literature review is more than the search for information, and goes
beyond being a descriptive _____________. _______________________2. review provides an overview
of the research findings on particular topics. _______________________3. analysis of concepts or ideas
to give meaning to some national or world issues. _______________________4. focuses on theories or
hypotheses and examines meanings and results of their application to situation.
_______________________5. makes the researcher deal with the latest research studies on the subject.
_______________________6. encourages a well-known expert to do the RRL because of the influence
of certain ideology, paradigm, or belief on him/her. _______________________7. prepares a situation
for a future research work in the form of project making about community development, government
policies, and health services, among others. _______________________8. It aim to find as much as
possible of the research relevant to the particular research questions, and use explicit methods to
identify what can reliably be said on the basis of these studies. _______________________9. The
highest ethical standards shall be applied to basic education research. _______________________10.
Research participants should have informed _______, must be cognizant about the general _______, of
the study and should not be exposed to unusual _______. 45

______________________ Date: ______________ APA Citation Activity Directions : If you are unfamiliar
with APA citation styles, you may find it helpful to review the material inside the "Citing sources using
APA citation style" folder before beginning this assessment. Question 1 Choose the citation that is in
proper APA citation format for a book. a. Jenkins, Henry. Fans, bloggers, and gamers: exploring
participatory cultures. New York: New York University Press, 2006. b. Jenkins, H. Fans, bloggers, and
gamers: exploring participatory cultures. New York University Press, New York. 2006. c. Jenkins, H.
(2006). Fans, bloggers, and gamers: exploring participatory culture. New York: New York University
Press. d. Jenkins, Henry. (2006). Fans, Bloggers, and Gamers: Exploring Participatory Culture. New York
UP: New York. Question 2 Choose the citation that is in proper APA citation for a chapter from a book
(no named author of chapter). a. Cook, V.J.(2004). "Flava'N Gorillaz: Pop Group Names." In
Accomodating Brocolli in the Cemetary, (pp. 21-22). Simon and Schuster: New York. b. Flava 'n Gorillaz:
Pop group names. (2004). In V.J. Cook, Accomodating Brocolli in the Cemetary (pp. 21-22). New York:
Simon and Schuster. c. Flava 'n Gorillaz: Pop group names. In Cook, V.J. Accomodating Brocolli in the
Cemetary (pp. 21-22). New York: Simon and Schuster, 2004. d. V.J. Cook. 2004. "Flava'n Gorillaz: Pop
group names." In Accomodating Brocolli in the Cemetary, pp. 21-22. Simon and Schuster: New York. 46
53. Question 3 Choose the correct APA citation for a newspaper article. a. Yonke, D. (2008, September
13). Monks on the road for peace: Tibetan Buddhists bring message that 'happiness is an internal event'.
The Blade (Toledo, OH), p. B7. b. Yonke, David. (2008). "Monks on the road for peace: Tibetan Buddhists
bring message that 'happiness is an internal event'." The Blade (Toledo, OH), pp. B7. c. Yonke, David.
Monks on the road for peace: Tibetan Buddhists bring message that 'happiness is an internal event'. The
Blade, September 13, 2008. p. B7. d. Yonke, David. "Monks on the road for peace: Tibetan Buddhists
bring message that 'happiness is an internal event'." The Blade 13 Sept. 2008: B7. Question 4 Choose the
correct APA citation for an article from a library research database. a. Weickgenannt, Nicole. (2008). The
Nation's Monstrous Women: Wives, Widows and Witches in Salman Rushdie's Midnight's Children. In
Journal of Commonwealth Literature. 43.2, pp. 65-83. Retrieved October 31, 2008, from Humanities
International Complete http:// 0-search.ebscohost.com.maurice.bgsu.edu/ login.aspx?
direct=true&db=hlh&AN=32541323&loginpage=login.asp&site=ehost- live&scope=site b. Weickgenannt,
Nicole. "The nation's monstrous women: Wives, widows and witches in Salman Rushdie's Midnight's
Children." Journal of Commonwealth Literature 43.2 (June 2008): 65-83. Humanities International
Complete. EBSCO. Bowling Green State University Libraries, Bowling Green, Oh.. 31 Oct. 2008 <http:// 0-
search.ebscohost.com.maurice.bgsu.edu/ login.aspx?
direct=true&db=hlh&AN=32541323&loginpage=login.asp&site=ehost- live&scope=site>. c.
Weickgenannt, N. The Nation's Monstrous Women: Wives, Widows and Witches in Salman Rushdie's
Midnight's Children. Journal of Commonwealth Literature. 43.2: pp.65- 83. Retrieved October 31, 2008,
from Humanities International Complete. (2008, June). d. Weickgenannt, N. (2008, June). The nation's
monstrous women: Wives, widows and witches in Salman Rushdie's Midnight's Children. Journal of
Commonwealth Literature, 43(2), 65-83. Retrieved October 31, 2008, from Humanities International
Complete. 47
54. Question 5 Create an APA citation for this publication: Article Title: Truly, Madly, Depp-ly Author:
Frank DeCaro Publication: Advocate Volume number: 906 Date: January 20, 2004 Pages: 76-77 Source:
Gender Studies Database Date of access: October 31, 2008 hyperlink: <http://0-
search.ebscohost.com.maurice.bgsu.edu/ login.aspx?direct=true&db=fmh&AN=GSD0048 Developed by
Amy Fyn, Bowling Green State University Libraries, 2008, for LIB225: Information Seeking and
Management in Contemporary Society 48
55. http://libguides.uwf.edu/c.php?g=215199&p=1420520
http://simplyeducate.me/2015/01/05/conceptual-framework-guide/
http://universalteacher.com/1/criteria-for-selecting-a-research-problem/
https://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/hypothes.php http://www.editage.com/insights/3-basic-
tips-on-writing-a-good-research-paper-title What is the nature of research? | Insights Association
www.insightsassociation.org/faq/what-nature-research http://betterthesis.dk/research-
methods/lesson-1different-approaches-to-research/strengths-and- limitations Baraceros, Esther L.,
PRACTICAL RESEARCH 1,First Edition 2016, Rex Book Store, 856 Nicanor, Sr. St., Manila, Philippines.
Teaching ACRL‘s 5th Information Literacy Competency Standard: APA Citation Practice Activity
http://libguides.bgsu.edu/c.php?g=227185&p=1507882 49
56. Introduction These information‘s are a compiled, resources gathered from an extensive literature
review; much of the information is verbatim from the various web sites. The objective is to familiarize
the readers in terms with the data collection tools, methodology, and sampling. It is important to note
that while quantitative and qualitative data collection methods are different (cost, time, sample size,
etc.), each has value. Most often uses deductive logic, in which researchers start with hypotheses and
then collect data which can be used to determine whether empirical evidence to support that
hypothesis exists. Intended Learning Outcomes After this lesson, you should be able to: 1. Choose
appropriate quantitative research design; 2. Describes sampling procedure and the sample; 3. Plans data
collection procedure; 4. Plans data analysis using statistics and hypothesis testing ; 5. Presents written
research methodology; and 6. Implements design principles to produce creative work. PERFORMANCE
STANDARD The learner demonstrates understanding to: 1. Describes adequately quantitative research
designs, sample, instrument used, intervention, data collection, and analysis procedures. 2. Apply
imaginatively art/design principles to create artwork. Module 4 UNDERSTANDING DATA AND WAYS TO
SYSTEMATICALLY COLLECT DATA 50
57. 7. 8. 9. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH If the researcher views quantitative design as a continuum, one
end of the range represents a design where the variables are not controlled at all and only observed.
Connections amongst variable are only described. At the other end of the spectrum, however, are
designs which include a very close control of variables, and relationships amongst those variables are
clearly established. In the middle, with experiment design moving from one type to the other, is a range
which blends those two extremes together. TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH Quantitative research is
a type of empirical investigation. That means the research focuses on verifiable observation as opposed
to theory or logic. Most often this type of research is expressed in numbers. A researcher will represent
and manipulate certain observations that they are studying. They will attempt to explain what it is they
are seeing and what affect it has on the subject. They will also determine and what the changes may
reflect. The overall goal is to convey numerically what is being seen in the research and to arrive at
specific and observable conclusions. (Klazema 2014) Non-Experimental Research Design Non-
experimental research means there is a predictor variable or group of subjects that cannot be
manipulated by the experimenter. Typically, this means that other routes must be used to draw
conclusions, such as correlation, survey or case study. (Kowalczyk 2015) QUANTITATIVE DATA RESEARCH
DESIGNLESSON 9 51
58. Types of Non-Experimental Research 1. Survey Research Survey research uses interviews,
questionnaires, and sampling polls to get a sense of behavior with intense precision. It allows
researchers to judge behavior and then present the findings in an accurate way. This is usually expressed
in a percentage. Survey research can be conducted around one group specifically or used to compare
several groups. When conducting survey research it is important that the people questioned are
sampled at random. This allows for more accurate findings across a greater spectrum of respondents.
Remember!  It is very important when conducting survey research that you work with statisticians and
field service agents who are reputable. Since there is a high level of personal interaction in survey
scenarios as well as a greater chance for unexpected circumstances to occur, it is possible for the data to
be affected. This can heavily influence the outcome of the survey.  There are several ways to conduct
survey research. They can be done in person, over the phone, or through mail or email. In the last
instance they can be self- administered. When conducted on a single group survey research is its own
category. 2. Correlational Research Correlational research tests for the relationships between two
variables. Performing correlational research is done to establish what the effect of one on the other
might be and how that affects the relationship. Remember!  Correlational research is conducted in
order to explain a noticed occurrence. In correlational research the survey is conducted on a minimum
of two groups. In most correlational research there is a level of manipulation involved with the specific
variables being researched. Once the information is compiled it is then 52
59. analyzed mathematically to draw conclusions about the effect that one has on the other. 
Correlation does not always mean causation. For example, just because two data points sync doesn‘t
mean that there is a direct cause and effect relationship. Typically, you should not make assumptions
from correlational research alone. 3. Descriptive As stated by Good and Scates as cited by Sevilla (1998),
the descriptive method is oftentimes as a survey or a normative approach to study prevailing conditions.
Remember!  Descriptive method involves the discretion, recognition, analysis and interpretation of
condition that currently exist. Moreover, according to Gay (2007) Descriptive research design involves
the collection of the data in order to test hypotheses or to answer questions concerning the current
status of the subject of the study. It determines and reports the way things are. 4. Comparative
Comparative researchers examine patterns of similarities and differences across a moderate number of
cases. The typical comparative study has anywhere from a handful to fifty or more cases. The number of
cases is limited because one of the concerns of comparative research is to establish familiarity with each
case included in a study. (Ragin, Charles 2015)  Like qualitative researchers, comparative researchers
consider how the different parts of each case - those aspects that are relevant to the investigation - fit
together; they try to make sense of each case. Thus, knowledge of cases is considered an important goal
of comparative research, independent of any other goal. 53
60. 5. Ex Post Facto According to Devin Kowalczyk, that Ex post facto design is a quasi-experimental
study examining how an independent variable, present prior to the study, affects a dependent variable.
Remember!  A true experiment and ex post facto both are attempting to say: this independent variable
is causing changes in a dependent variable. This is the basis of any experiment - one variable is
hypothesized to be influencing another. This is done by having an experimental group and a control
group. So if you're testing a new type of medication, the experimental group gets the new medication,
while the control group gets the old medication. This allows you to test the efficacy of the new
medication. . (Kowalczyk 2015) Experimental Research Though questions may be posed in the other
forms of research, experimental research is guided specifically by a hypothesis. Sometimes experimental
research can have several hypotheses. A hypothesis is a statement to be proven or disproved. Once that
statement is made experiments are begun to find out whether the statement is true or not. This type of
research is the bedrock of most sciences, in particular the natural sciences. Quantitative research can be
exciting and highly informative. It can be used to help explain all sorts of phenomena. The best
quantitative research gathers precise empirical data and can be applied to gain a better understanding
of several fields of study. (Williams 2015) Types of Experimental research 1. Quasi-experimental
Research Design involves selecting groups, upon which a variable is tested without any random pre-
selection process. For example, to perform an educational experiment, a class might be arbitrarily
divided by alphabetical selection or by seating arrangement. The division is often convenient especially
in an educational situations cause a little disruption as possible. 54
61. 2. True Experimental Design According to Yolanda Williams (2015) that a true experiment is a type of
experimental design and is thought to be the most accurate type of experimental research. This is
because a true experiment supports or refutes a hypothesis using statistical analysis. A true experiment
is also thought to be the only experimental design that can establish cause and effect relationships. So,
what makes a true experiment? There are three criteria that must be met in a true experiment 1.
Control group and experimental group 2. Researcher-manipulated variable 3. Random assignment 4. 5.
Developing a research instruments Before the researchers collect any data from the respondents, the
young researchers will need to design or devised new research instruments or they may adopt it into the
other researches (the tools they will use to collect the data). If the researcher/s is planning to carry out
interviews or focus groups, the young researchers will need to plan an interview schedule or topic guide.
This is a list of questions or topic areas that all the interviewers will use. Asking everyone the same
questions means that the data you collect will be much more focused and easier to analyze. If the group
wants to carry out a survey, the young researchers will need to design a questionnaire. This could be on
paper or online (using free software such as Survey Monkey). Both approaches have advantages and
disadvantages. If the group is collecting data from more than one ‗type‘ of person (such as young
people and teachers, for example), it may well need to design more than one interview schedule or
INSTRUMENT DEVELOPMENTLESSON 10 55
62. questionnaire. This should not be too difficult as the young researchers can adapt additional
schedules or questionnaires from the original. When designing the research instruments ensure that: 
they start with a statement about.  the focus and aims of the research project  how the person‘s data
will be used (to feed into a report?)  confidentiality  how long the interview or survey will take to
complete.  Usage of appropriate language  every question must be brief and concise.  any
questionnaires use appropriate scales. For young people ‗smiley face‘ scales can work well REMEMBER!
Any questionnaires ask people for any relevant information about themselves, such as their gender or
age, if relevant. Don‘t ask for so much detail that it would be possible to identify individuals though, if
you have said that the survey will be anonymous. The Instrument Instrument is the generic term that
researchers use for a measurement device (survey, test, questionnaire, etc.). To help distinguish
between instrument and instrumentation, consider that the instrument is the device and
instrumentation is the course of action (the process of developing, testing, and using the device).
Instruments fall into two broad categories, researcher-completed and subject-completed, distinguished
by those instruments that researchers administer versus those that are completed by participants.
Researchers chose which type of instrument, or instruments, to use based on the research question.
Examples are listed below: Researcher-completed Instruments Subject-completed Instruments Rating
scales Questionnaires 56
63. Interview schedules/guides Self-checklists Tally sheets Attitude scales Flowcharts Personality
inventories Performance checklists Achievement/aptitude tests Time-and-motion logs Projective devices
Observation forms Sociometric devices Usability Usability refers to the ease with which an instrument
can be administered, interpreted by the participant, and scored/interpreted by the researcher. Example
usability problems include: Students are asked to rate a lesson immediately after class, but there are
only a few minutes before the next class begins (problem with administration). Students are asked to
keep self-checklists of their after school activities, but the directions are complicated and the item
descriptions confusing (problem with interpretation). Teachers are asked about their attitudes regarding
school policy, but some questions are worded poorly which results in low completion rates (problem
with scoring/interpretation). Validity and reliability concerns (discussed below) will help alleviate
usability issues. For now, we can identify five usability considerations: How long will it take to
administer? Are the directions clear? How easy is it to score? Do equivalent forms exist? Have any
problems been reported by others who used it? 57
64. Validity Validity is the extent to which an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure and
performs as it is designed to perform. It is rare, if nearly impossible, that an instrument be 100% valid, so
validity is generally measured in degrees. As a process, validation involves collecting and analyzing data
to assess the accuracy of an instrument. There are numerous statistical tests and measures to assess the
validity of quantitative instruments, which generally involves pilot testing. The remainder of this
discussion focuses on external validity and content validity. External validity is the extent to which the
results of a study can be generalized from a sample to a population. Establishing eternal validity for an
instrument, then, follows directly from sampling. Recall that a sample should be an accurate
representation of a population, because the total population may not be available. An instrument that is
externally valid helps obtain population generalizability, or the degree to which a sample represents the
population. Content validity refers to the appropriateness of the content of an instrument. In other
words, do the measures (questions, observation logs, etc.) accurately assess what you want to know?
This is particularly important with achievement tests. Consider that a test developer wants to maximize
the validity of a unit test for 7th grade mathematics. This would involve taking representative questions
from each of the sections of the unit and evaluating them against the desired outcomes. Reliability
Reliability can be thought of as consistency. Does the instrument consistently measure what it is
intended to measure? It is not possible to calculate reliability; however, there are four general
estimators that you may encounter in reading research: Inter-Rater/Observer Reliability: The degree to
which different raters/observers give consistent answers or estimates. Test-Retest Reliability: The
consistency of a measure evaluated over time. Parallel-Forms Reliability: The reliability of two tests
constructed the same way, from the same content. Internal Consistency Reliability: The consistency of
results across items, often measured with Cronbach‘s Alpha. 58
65. 1. 2. Methodology is the systematic, theoretical analysis of the methods applied to a field of study. It
comprises the theoretical analysis of the body of methods and principles associated with a branch of
knowledge. Methodology section is one of the parts of a research paper. This part is the core of your
paper as it is a proof that you use the scientific method. Through this section, your study‘s validity is
judged. So, it is very important. Your methodology answers two main questions: Guided Question to
start writing a research methodology:  How did you collect or generate the data?  How did you
analyze the data? While writing this section, be direct and precise. Write it in the past tense. Include
enough information so that others could repeat the experiment and evaluate whether the results are
reproducible the audience can judge whether the results and conclusions are valid. The explanation of
the collection and the analysis of your data are very important because;  Readers need to know the
reasons why you chose a particular method or procedure instead of others.  Readers need to know
that the collection or the generation of the data is valid in the field of study.  Discuss the anticipated
problems in the process of the data collection and the steps you took to prevent them.  Present the
rationale for why you chose specific experimental procedures.  Provide sufficient information of the
whole process so that others could replicate your study. You can do this by: giving a completely accurate
description of the data collection equipment and the techniques. Explaining how you collected the data
and analyzed them. GUIDELINES IN WRITING RESEARCH METHODOLOGY LESSON 11 59
66. Specifically;  Present the basic demographic profile of the sample population like age, gender, and
the racial composition of the sample. When animals are the subjects of a study, you list their species,
weight, strain, sex, and age.  Explain how you gathered the samples/ subjects by answering these
questions: - Did you use any randomization techniques? - How did you prepare the samples?  Explain
how you made the measurements by answering this question.  What calculations did you make? 
Describe the materials and equipment that you used in the research.  Describe the statistical
techniques that you used upon the data. The order of the methods section; 1. Describing the samples/
participants. 2. Describing the materials you used in the study 3. Explaining how you prepared the
materials 4. Describing the research design 5. Explaining how you made measurements and what
calculations you performed 6. Stating which statistical tests you did to analyze the data. 60

_______________________1. there is a predictor variable or group of subjects that cannot be
manipulated by the experimenter. _______________________2. the research focuses on verifiable
observation as opposed to theory or logic. _______________________3. uses interviews,
questionnaires, and sampling polls to get a sense of behavior with intense precision.
_______________________4. tests for the relationships between two variables. Performing
correlational research is done to establish what the effect of one on the other might be and how that
affects the relationship. _______________________5. It is conducted in order to explain a noticed
occurrence. In correlational research the survey is conducted on a minimum of two groups.
_______________________6. This research method involves the discretion, recognition, analysis and
interpretation of condition that currently exist. _______________________7. This research examine
patterns of similarities and differences across a moderate number of cases
_______________________8. Though questions may be posed in the other forms of research,
experimental research is guided specifically by a hypothesis. Sometimes experimental research can have
several hypotheses. _______________________9. It is a statement to be proven or disproved. Once that
statement is made experiments are begun to find out whether the statement is true or not.
_______________________10. This research can be exciting and highly informative.
_______________________11. This research design that can establish cause and effect relationships.
_______________________12. the extent to which an instrument measures what it is supposed to
measure and performs as it is designed to perform. _______________________13. refers to the
appropriateness of the content of an instrument. 61

______________________ Date: ______________ DIRECTIONS: Make a reflection Relating Reliability
and Validity at least 250 words. (25 poits) Relating Reliability and Validity Reliability is directly related to
the validity of the measure. There are several important principles. First, a test can be considered
reliable, but not valid. Consider the SAT, used as a predictor of success in college. It is a reliable test
(high scores relate to high GPA), though only a moderately valid indicator of success (due to the lack of
structured environment – class attendance, parent-regulated study, and sleeping habits – each
holistically related to success). Second, validity is more important than reliability. Using the above
example, college admissions may consider the SAT a reliable test, but not necessarily a valid measure of
other quantities colleges seek, such as leadership capability, altruism, and civic involvement. The
combination of these aspects, alongside the SAT, is a more valid measure of the applicant‘s potential for
graduation, later social involvement, and generosity (alumni giving) toward the alma mater. Finally, the
most useful instrument is both valid and reliable. Proponents of the SAT argue that it is both. It is a
moderately reliable predictor of future success and a moderately valid measure of a student‘s
knowledge in Mathematics, Critical Reading, and Writing. 62

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1. (QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH) Compiled by: EVELYN C. BIAY,Ed.D. SHIAHARI I. CORTEZ,R.N., M.Ed.

Table of Contents……………………………………………………. iii

Module 1: Nature of Inquiry and Research

Lesson 1: The characteristics, Strengths, Weaknesses, and kinds of Quantitative

The Nature of Research…………………….. 2

Characteristics of Quantitative Research……………………………………. 2

Strengths and Weaknesses…………………. 4

Lesson 2: The Nature of Variables…………………… 5

Categorical and Continuous Variables…….. 8

Module 2: Identifying the Inquiry and stating the problem…… 13

Lesson 3: Research in our daily life…………………… 14

Sources of Research Problems……………… 15

Guidelines in choosing a Research Topic………………………………………... 16

5. Research topic to be avoided………………… 16

Writing a Research Title…………………….. 17

Scope and Delimitation……………………… 18

Module 3: Learning from other and Reviewing the Literature…. 25

Lesson 5: Review of Related Literature (RRL)………… 26

Purpose of Review of Related Literature…..... 26

Styles or approaches of RRL or Review of Related Literature………………………… 27

Lesson 8: Conceptual Framework…………………….. 41

Module 4: Understanding Data and ways to systematically Collect data…………………………………………… 50

Lesson 10: Instrument Development…………………... 55

Lesson 11: Guidelines in Writing Research Methodology……………………………… 59

6. Module 5: Finding Answers through Data Collection…….. 66

Lesson 12: Quantitative Data Analysis………………... 66

Using Software for statistical analysis…….. 68

Steps in Quantitative data analysis………… 69 Lesson 13: Statistical Methods………………………… 73

16. Name: ____________________________________ Score: _____________ Strand/Section/Grade:

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28. Name: ____________________________________ Score: _____________ Strand/Section/Grade:

29. Name: ____________________________________ Score: _____________ Strand/Section/Grade:

35. References Cited or Reference List 29

51. Name: ____________________________________ Score: _____________ Strand/Section/Grade:

52. Name: ____________________________________ Score: _____________ Strand/Section/Grade:

67. Name: ____________________________________ Score: _____________ Strand/Section/Grade:

68. Name: ____________________________________ Score: _____________ Strand/Section/Grade:

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