How Soils Form: Soil Pro Le Showing The Different Layers or Horizons

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How soils form
Soil is the thin layer of material covering the earth’s surface and is formed from the weathering of
rocks. It is made up mainly of mineral particles, organic materials, air, water and living organisms—
all of which interact slowly yet constantly.
Most plants get their nutrients from the soil and they are the main source of food for humans,
animals and birds. Therefore, most living things on land depend on soil for their existence.
Soil is a valuable resource that needs to be carefully managed as it is easily damaged, washed or
blown away. If we understand soil and manage it properly, we will avoid destroying one of the
essential building blocks of our environment and our food security.
Soil pro le showing the different layers or

horizons.
The soil pro le
As soils develop over time, layers (or horizons) form a soil pro le.
Most soil pro les cover the earth as 2 main layers—topsoil

(https://www.qld.gov.au/environment/land/management/soil/soil-testing/soil-terms) and subsoil
(https://www.qld.gov.au/environment/land/management/soil/soil-testing/soil-terms).
Soil horizons are the layers in the soil as you move down the soil pro le. A soil pro le may have soil
horizons that are easy or dif cult to distinguish.
Most soils exhibit 3 main horizons:
A horizon—humus-rich topsoil where nutrient, organic matter and biological activity are
highest (i.e. most plant roots, earthworms, insects and micro-organisms are active). The A
horizon is usually darker than other horizons because of the organic materials.
B horizon—clay-rich subsoil. This horizon is often less fertile than the topsoil but holds more
moisture. It generally has a lighter colour and less biological activity than the A horizon.
Texture may be heavier than the A horizon too.
C horizon—underlying weathered rock (from which the A and B horizons form).
Some soils also have an O horizon mainly consisting of plant litter which has accumulated on the
soil surface.
The properties of horizons are used to distinguish between soils and determine land-use potential.
Factors affecting soil formation

Soil forms continuously, but slowly, from the gradual breakdown of rocks through weathering.
Weathering can be a physical, chemical or biological process:
physical weathering—breakdown of rocks from the result of a mechanical action.

Temperature changes, abrasion (when rocks collide with each other) or frost can all cause
rocks to break down.
chemical weathering—breakdown of rocks through a change in their chemical makeup. This
can happen when the minerals within rocks react with water, air or other chemicals.
biological weathering—the breakdown of rocks by living things. Burrowing animals help water
and air get into rock, and plant roots can grow into cracks in the rock, making it split.
The accumulation of material through the action of water, wind and gravity also contributes to soil
formation. These processes can be very slow, taking many tens of thousands of years. Five main
interacting factors affect the formation of soil:
parent material—minerals forming the basis of soil

living organisms—in uencing soil formation
climate—affecting the rate of weathering and organic decomposition
topography—grade of slope affecting drainage, erosion and deposition
time—in uencing soil properties.
Interactions between these factors produce an in nite variety of soils across the earth’s surface.
Parent materials
Soil minerals form the basis of soil. They are produced from rocks (parent material) through the
processes of weathering and natural erosion. Water, wind, temperature change, gravity, chemical
interaction, living organisms and pressure differences all help break down parent material.
The types of parent materials and the conditions under which they break down will in uence the
properties of the soil formed. For example, soils formed from granite are often sandy and infertile
whereas basalt under moist conditions breaks down to form fertile, clay soils.
Organisms
Soil formation is in uenced by organisms (such as plants), micro-organisms (such as bacteria or
fungi), burrowing insects, animals and humans.
As soil forms, plants begin to grow in it. The plants mature, die and new ones take their place. Their
leaves and roots are added to the soil. Animals eat plants and their wastes and eventually their
bodies are added to the soil.
This begins to change the soil. Bacteria, fungi, worms and other burrowers break down plant litter
and animal wastes and remains, to eventually become organic matter. This may take the form of
peat, humus or charcoal.
Climate
Temperature affects the rate of weathering and organic decomposition. With a colder and drier
climate, these processes can be slow but, with heat and moisture, they are relatively rapid.
Rainfall dissolves some of the soil materials and holds others in suspension. The water carries or
leaches these materials down through the soil. Over time this process can change the soil, making it
less fertile.
Topography
The shape, length and grade of a slope affects drainage. The aspect of a slope determines the type of
vegetation and indicates the amount of rainfall received. These factors change the way soils form.
Soil materials are progressively moved within the natural landscape by the action of water, gravity
and wind (for example, heavy rains erode soils from the hills to lower areas, forming deep soils). The
soils left on steep hills are usually shallower. Transported soils include:
alluvial (water transported)
colluvial (gravity transported)
aeolian (wind transported) soils.
Read more about soil erosion

(https://www.qld.gov.au/environment/land/management/soil/erosion).
Time
Soil properties may vary depending on how long the soil has been weathered.
Minerals from rocks are further weathered to form materials such as clays and oxides of iron and
aluminium.
Queensland (and Australia) is a very old weathered landscape with many ancient soils.
Last updated: 8 October 2013 (//creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)

Last reviewed: 14 March 2016
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 COVID-19 Unite against COVID-19. Learn more (https://www.covid19.qld.gov.au).

Soil pro le showing the different layers or

Most soil pro les cover the earth as 2 main layers—topsoil

Most soils exhibit 3 main horizons:

Factors affecting soil formation

physical weathering—breakdown of rocks from the result of a mechanical action.

parent material—minerals forming the basis of soil

Read more about soil erosion

Last updated: 8 October 2013 (//creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)

Right to information (https://www.qld.gov.au/about/rights-accountability/right-to-information)

© The State of Queensland 1995–2020

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