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Energy Conversion and Management: Chen LV, Junzhi Zhang, Yutong Li, Ye Yuan

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Energy Conversion and Management 106 (2015) 520–529

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy Conversion and Management


journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enconman

Novel control algorithm of braking energy regeneration system


for an electric vehicle during safety–critical driving maneuvers
Chen Lv a, Junzhi Zhang a,b,⇑, Yutong Li a, Ye Yuan a
a
State Key Laboratory of Automotive Safety and Energy, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
b
Collaborative Innovation Center of Electric Vehicles in Beijing, Beijing 100084, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper mainly focuses on control algorithm of the braking energy regeneration system of an electric
Received 5 July 2015 bus under safety–critical driving situations. With the aims of guaranteeing vehicle stability in various
Accepted 23 September 2015 types of tyre–road adhesion conditions, based on the characteristics of electrified powertrain, a novel
Available online 23 October 2015
control algorithm of regenerative braking system is proposed for electric vehicles during anti-lock brak-
ing procedures. First, the models of vehicle dynamics and main components including braking energy
Keywords: regenerative system of the case-study electric bus are built in MATLAB/Simulink. Then, based on the
Regenerative braking
phase-plane method, the optimal brake torque is calculated for ABS control of vehicle. Next, a novel
Electric vehicle
Safety–critical driving maneuvers
allocation strategy, wherein the target optimal brake torque is divided into two parts that are handled
Control algorithm separately by the regenerative and friction brakes, is developed. Simulations of the proposed control
Hardware-in-the-loop validation strategy are conducted based on system models built using MATLAB/Simulink. The simulation results
demonstrate that the developed strategy enables improved control in terms of vehicle stability and
braking performance under different emergency driving conditions. To further verify the synthesized
control algorithm, hardware-in-the-loop tests are also performed. The experimental results validate
the simulation data and verify the feasibility and effectiveness of the developed control algorithm.
Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Among different kinds of safety–critical driving maneuvers,


including vehicle longitudinal and lateral dynamics, anti-lock brak-
The use of various types of electrified vehicles, including hybrid ing is a typical and important emergency situation. Hence, in this
electric vehicle, pure electric vehicle, and fuel cell electric vehicle, paper, we make the anti-lock braking system (ABS) as the study
is an effective way to save energy and protect the environment [1]. focus of the vehicle safety control.
Therefore, many scholars worldwide have carried out comprehen- For the commercialized electric vehicles with regenerative
sive and in-depth research on electrified vehicles and electrical braking, when the vehicle enters an emergency braking situation,
systems from different aspects [2–4]. the regenerative brake force is removed quickly, and only the fric-
For an electric vehicle, during deceleration process, the electric tion brake takes over the ABS control [11,12]. This is an easy and
motor can work as a generator, exerting regenerative braking tor- mature way to guarantee the brake safety by using the conven-
que on the axle and charging battery simultaneously. In this way, tional ABS, and practical applications show the effectiveness of this
the kinetic energy of vehicles can be recaptured by regenerative simplification. However, these applications do not fully utilize the
braking system (RBS) during deceleration procedures, thereby effi- potential benefits from the regenerative brake of electric motor for
ciently improving vehicle’s energy efficiency [5,6]. In an electric improving vehicle’s dynamics control performance. Taking advan-
vehicle, brake torque can be generated using regenerative and fric- tage of the rapid response and accurate control of motor torque,
tion brakes, either together or individually. Therefore, for vehicle researchers worldwide have explored various ways to introduce
control in safety–critical driving maneuvers, cooperation between regenerative braking torque into ABS control, expecting improved
regenerative and frictional braking systems of electrified vehicles control. In [13], a method employing proportional–integral–
is worthwhile studying and has received much attention [7–10]. derivative (PID) control that utilized only regenerative brake force
during ABS operation was proposed. The simulation results based
⇑ Corresponding author at: State Key Laboratory of Automotive Safety and
on a quarter-vehicle model show that ‘‘regenerative ABS” is
Energy, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China. beneficial during the critical braking process. However, the
E-mail address: jzhzhang@mail.tsinghua.edu.cn (J. Zhang). regeneration capabilities are limited by the operating conditions

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2015.09.062
0196-8904/Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
C. Lv et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 106 (2015) 520–529 521

Nomenclature

A frontal area c ratio of the specific heats


Ap cross-sectional area of the valve opening S slip ratio of the wheel
BF width of the front track S⁄ ideal value of slip ratio of the wheel
BR width of the rear track d steering angle of the front wheels
CD coefficient of the air resistance sm time constant of the electric motor
Cd discharge coefficient compensating for the losses during Tb total brake torque of wheel
the flow T b optimal brake torque of wheel
Fx longitudinal force of the wheel Td driving torque exerted on wheel
Fy lateral force of the wheel T b fric friction braking torque on a driven wheel
Fz vertical force of the wheel T b regen regenerative braking torque on a driven wheel
I wheel’s inertia Tc temperature of the control volume
ig transmission ratio of the gearbox Tsteady steady part of the optimal brake torque
i0 final drive ratio Tdyna dynamical part of the optimal brake torque
Jpt moment of inertia of the powertrain TM real value of motor torque
Jw moment of inertia of tyre TM,ref reference value of motor torque
k positive gain v velocity along OY
L wheelbase u longitudinal velocity of vehicle
m overall mass of the vehicle uc velocity of air entering the control volume
m_c time rate of change of the air mass in the control volume Vb volume of the control volume
mt wheel’s vertical load x rotational speed of the wheel
Pb pneumatic pressure in the brake chamber
q density of air inside the control volume Subscripts
r nominal radius of the tyre ij ij = 11 front left wheel; ij = 12 front right wheel; ij = 21
R gas constant for air rear left wheel; ij = 22 rear right wheel

of electric motors and batteries. Hence, the friction brake is also 2. System dynamics modeling
required to supplement the overall brake demand. In [14], an
electrically-controlled regenerative braking system based on the 2.1. System layout of the case-study vehicle
conventional hydraulic ABS techniques was developed, and a con-
trol algorithm coordinating the braking energy regeneration and Fig. 1 illustrates the diagram of the proposed electric vehicle
ABS control functions was designed. In [15], three executive con- equipped with regenerative braking system and pneumatic brake
trol strategies, namely, the ‘‘PQ-method,” ‘‘frequency selection by system. A brake control unit takes over the control of all the four
filter,” and ‘‘model following control” strategies were proposed. modulating valves, and communicates with the motor control unit
As the electric motor responds more accurately and rapidly than and vehicle control unit via controller area network (CAN) bus.
the friction brake, optimal ABS control is expected. Simulations During normal decelerations, the electric motor works as a gener-
and road tests validated the control performance of the proposed ator, generating electrical energy and charging the battery [18]. In
method. the meantime, the electric motor provides regenerative braking
Nevertheless, all the existing research is mainly based on pas- torque, which is transmitted by the drivetrain, and finally exerted
senger cars equipped with hydraulic ABS, and the coordinated con- on wheel, decelerating the vehicle.
trol of regenerative brake and pneumatic ABS under vehicle’s However, when the vehicle enters a critical driving situation, if
emergency braking conditions has rarely been studied. Since the the wheel has a locked tendency which is detected by the wheel
dynamic behavior of a pneumatic braking system is quite distin-
guished from a hydraulic one [16,17], the cooperation of regenera-
tive braking system and pneumatic ABS is worthwhile researching
for improving advanced control technologies of electric vehicles.
In this paper, a novel control algorithm coordinating the regen-
erative braking system and pneumatic braking system for an elec-
trified bus under ABS control procedures has been proposed. In
Section 2, the system layout of an electrified bus equipped with a
regenerative brake system has been introduced. And the models
of vehicle dynamics and main components related to the regener-
ative and the frictional brakes of the case-study electric bus have
been built in MATLAB/Simulink. In Section 3, the target brake tor-
que of antilock braking control was obtained based on the phase
plane theory. And then, according to the different system charac-
teristics of regenerative and friction brakes, a novel ABS control
algorithm was designed wherein the brake torque command is
divided into steady and dynamical parts that are handled sepa-
rately by the pneumatic and regenerative brakes. In Sections 4
and 5, the control strategy was evaluated using simulations and
hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) tests and compared with two baseline
control strategies. Finally, some concluding remarks are provided. Fig. 1. System layout of the electric vehicle equipped with regenerative braking.
522 C. Lv et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 106 (2015) 520–529

Table 1 the on-board electric motor during deceleration processes. The


Key parameters of the electrified vehicle. electric motor is modelled based on the data of an electric motor
Parameter Value Unit that are product of the Zhuzhou Electric Locomotive Research
Vehicle Total mass (m) 16,500 kg Institute. The overall efficiency of the motor system including the
Overall length/width/height 11,400/2550/3150 mm electric motor and its controller while driving is illustrated as an
Frontal area (A) 7.5 m2 efficiency map in Fig. 2. The outer characteristic of the electric
Occupant capacity 70 persons motor system is also shown in the figure. The efficiency map in
Maximum speed P80 km/h
0–50 km/h 625 s
the regenerative braking mode has almost the same symmetry as
acceleration time that in the driving mode with respect to the axis of rotational
Electric motor Rated power 60 kW
speed.
Peak power 105 kW Regarding the effect of the electric system dynamics, the motor
Maximum torque 1000 Nm torque is modelled as a first-order reaction with a small time con-
Battery pack Voltage 320–450 V stant sM being taken into consideration [19], which can be
Capacity 60 Ah expressed as follows:

sM T_ M þ T M ¼ T M;ref ð1Þ
speed sensor, then the presented safety control program will be
activated. The brake control unit will regulate the pneumatic where TM is the actual value of motor torque, and TM,ref is the motor
pressure by controlling the modulating valves and gives out a reference torque.
motor torque command to motor control unit in the meantime. The output torque of electric motor will then transmitted by the
The motor control unit controls the electric motor working as a gearbox, distributed by the differential and final drive unit, and
generator, exerting regenerative braking torque via transmission finally exerted on the two driven wheel. Thus, during a regenera-
on the drive-axle as required. Thus, brake blending is carried out tive deceleration process, the regenerative braking torque on a dri-
by combining the regenerative and pneumatic braking torques. ven wheel can be calculated by [20]:
These hybrid brakes work cooperatively with each other to avoid
i0 ig
wheel locking and to maintain the stability of the vehicle, and Tb regen ¼  TM ð2Þ
the regeneration efficiency is not the first priority under those cir-
2
cumstances. Some key parameters of the case-study electrified where ig is the transmission ratio of the gearbox, and i0 is the final
vehicle are listed in Table 1. drive ratio.

2.2. Braking energy regeneration system model 2.3. Battery model

In the case-study electric vehicle, the regenerative braking The battery model is based on the model of the nickel–metal
torque of the braking energy regeneration system is provided by hydride (NiMH) batteries of a General Motors electric vehicle in

Fig. 2. Efficiency map of the electric motor system.


C. Lv et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 106 (2015) 520–529 523

ADVISOR. Its original capacity was 60 Ah with look-up tables based


on previous SOC and temperature data, thereby producing the
charging–discharging internal resistance of the battery. The look-
up tables are updated with data from the battery utilized in the
real vehicle. The model’s input is the power required by the electric
motor. Its output includes the SOC, the voltage at the output port of
battery, the current, and the temperature of the battery.

2.4. Pneumatic brake system

The friction brake torque is generated by the pneumatic brake


system. The friction brake torque Tb_fric applied on the wheel is
positively correlated to the pneumatic pressure Pb in the brake
chamber.
Tb fric ¼ K pb Pb ð3Þ
where Kpb is a conversion ratio.
Therefore, in the pneumatic brake system, modeling of the pres-
sure Pb in the brake chamber is of great importance. The control
volume shown in Fig. 3 contains the brake chamber and a part of
the hose. Applying mass balance to the control volume yields [12]:
Fig. 4. Vehicle model with of the OXYZ coordinate system.
_ c ¼ quc Ap
m ð4Þ

where m _ c is the time rate of change of the air mass in the control
volume, and q is the density of air inside the control volume. uc is 2.5. Vehicle model
the velocity of air at the exit section of the nozzle, which is the
velocity of air entering the control volume, and Ap is the cross- The model of vehicle dynamics has been built in MATLAB-
sectional area of the valve opening. Simulink, and has been validated by experiments [12]. The OXYZ
The velocity of air can be expressed as [21]: coordinate system and the vehicle model, shown in Fig. 4, have
  "  ððc1Þ=cÞ #!1=2 its origin at the center of gravity of the vehicle.
2c Po  Pb  The longitudinal motion of the vehicle is expressed as
uc ¼ C d  1  sgnðPo  Pb Þ ð5Þ
c  1 qo  Po 
mðu_  v cÞ ¼ ðF x11 þ F x12 Þ cos d  ðF y11 þ F y12 Þ sin d þ F x21
where Cd is a discharge coefficient compensating for the losses dur- CDA
þ F x22  ð3:6uÞ2 ð8Þ
ing the flow and taken as 0.7. 21:15
The signum function above is defined as: where m is the overall mass of the vehicle, CD is the coefficient of
Po  Pb the air resistance, A is the frontal area. d is the steering angle of
sgnðPo  Pb Þ ¼ ð6Þ the front wheels, u is the velocity along OX, and v is the velocity
jP o  Pb j
along OY, Fx is the longitudinal force of the wheel, Fy is the trans-
Regard the air in the control volume as ideal gas, a function as verse force of the wheel, Fz is the vertical force of the wheel.
follows can be obtained by: The motion of the tyre of a drive wheel can be expressed as
 _  
1 Pb V c Pb V_ c 1
_c¼
m þ ð7Þ J w þ J pt x_ ij ¼ T dij  T bij þ F xij r; ði ¼ 2; j ¼ 1; 2Þ ð9Þ
c RT c RT c 2
where Vb is the volume of the control volume, Tc is the temperature where Jw is the moment of inertia of tyre, Jpt is the moment of iner-
of the control volume, R is the gas constant for air, and c is the ratio tia of the powertrain which is shared by the two drive wheels, xij is
of the specific heats. the rotational speed of the wheel, r is the nominal radius of the tyre,
Tdij and Tbij are the driving and braking torques exerted on wheel
respectively, ij = 11 for the front left wheel, ij = 12 for the front right
wheel, ij = 21 for the rear left wheel, and ij = 22 for the rear right
wheel.

3. Design of regenerative braking control for safety–critical


driving maneuvers

3.1. Phase-plane method based ideal slip ratio of the wheel

The slip ratio S of the braking wheel is the key parameter for
vehicle control under safety–critical driving situations, and conver-
gence to an ideal slip ratio S⁄ would lead to the maximum brake effi-
ciency and brake stability of the vehicle. To achieve the ideal slip
ratio, a first-order system is built based on the phase plane theory
_ as shown in Eq. (10):
using the wheel slip ratio S and its derivative S,

S_ ¼ kðS  S Þ ð10Þ
Fig. 3. Diagram of the control volume of the pneumatic brake system.
524 C. Lv et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 106 (2015) 520–529

The slip ratio while braking is described by Eq. (13):


u  rx
S¼ ð13Þ
u
By differentiating S, the expression for S_ is obtained as follows:
_
_  SÞ  r x
uð1
S_ ¼ ð14Þ
u
The target brake torque based on the phase plane theory is
Fig. 5. Phase plane of the first-order system. obtained by combining Eqs. (9)–(13). This torque drives the wheel
slip ratio to converge to the ideal value rapidly and with high sta-
bility, as shown in Eq. (15):
where k is a positive gain.   
Based on the phase-plane theory [22], the phase locus of this uI   u  xr  u_ xr r2 mt
T b ¼ k S  þ þ ð15Þ
system is obtained, as shown in Fig. 5, and it presents the following r u u u I
characteristics:

(1) S ultimately converges to S⁄. 3.3. Control allocation between regenerative and friction brakes

When S > S⁄, the locus is on the upper half-plane. The locus In an electric bus equipped with a regenerative braking system,
moves toward the right and S increases until S = S⁄. Conversely, the deceleration command can be executed through the coopera-
on the opposite side, when S < S⁄, the locus moves toward the left tive operation of the regenerative and friction brakes. Therefore,
until S = S⁄. the distribution of the target brake torque between the motor
and friction torques should be studied.
(2) The system responses rapidly and with minimal oscillation. The characteristics of the regenerative and pneumatic brakes
are far distinguished according to their system dynamics.
_ is large
_ is positively correlated with |S  S⁄|. jSj The motor torque can satisfy the high frequency demand of the
In the system, jSj
target brake torque of the vehicle owing to its rapid response and
when S is far from S⁄, thereby quickly driving S toward S⁄. When S
accurate control. Additionally, the electric motor can operate in
_ become small, and hence, S gradually converges
approaches S⁄, jSj either the brake or drive mode, which provides much more flexibil-
to S⁄. ity than the pneumatic brake in dynamics control.
In conclusion, for the system described by Eq. (1), the wheel slip While in the pneumatic brake system, solenoid valves are used
ratio converges to the ideal value at a high speed and with minimal to regulate the braking pressure during the ABS control procedure.
oscillation. As a result, the available tyre–road adhesion is fully Brake pressure can be increased, decreased, or held through the
used to achieve the maximum brake force possible. pulse width modulation of the valves. The brake force cannot be
modulated quickly and accurately enough owing to the existing
3.2. Optimal braking torque time delay between the valve action and the pressure variation
in the brake line. Therefore, the pneumatic brake is unsuitable
To achieve the expected relationship between S and S⁄ pre- for supplying the high frequency demand of the brake torque.
sented in Eq. (10), the optimal brake torque of the wheel needs Based on the different dynamics of the pneumatic and regener-
to be figured out. Considering the drive wheel as the control object ative brakes analyzed above, the target optimal brake torque T b is
on which regenerative and pneumatic brake forces are applied, the divided into two parts, as shown in Eq. (16). They are Tsteady and
dynamic model restricted to longitudinal motion is illustrated in Tdyna, which are the steady and dynamical parts, respectively, of
Fig. 6. the braking torque command.
The governing equations for the motions of the drive wheel can
T b ¼ T steady þ T dyna ð16Þ
be given by:
The steady part of the brake torque demand is calculated based
Fx
u_ ¼ ð11Þ on the current wheel–road adhesion that keeps the slip ratio
mt stable. Defining that, when the brake torque equals Tsteady, S will
remain unchanged, as shown in Eq. (17).
1
x_ ¼ ðr  F x þ T b Þ ð12Þ _
_  SÞ  r x
uð1
I S_ ¼ ¼0 ð17Þ
u
where mt is the wheel’s vertical load, r is the wheel radius, and I is
Combining Eqs. (11), (12), (16) and (17), the steady part of the brake
the wheel’s inertia.
demand Tsteady, which the friction braking system is required to be
in charge of, can be expressed as follows:
Iu_
Tb fric ¼ T steady ¼ ð1  SÞ þ mt r  u_ ð18Þ
r
When S departs from S⁄, Tdyna is required to provide the dynam-
ical part of the brake torque demand. It combines with Tsteady,
enabling the total torque to achieve the target value and the slip
ratio to converge to the ideal value.
Therefore, by combining Eqs. (15)–(18), the target regenerative
braking torque, which is provided by the electric motor and should
take over the dynamical part of the overall brake demand, can be
Fig. 6. Longitudinal dynamical model of the wheel during deceleration. expressed as follows:
C. Lv et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 106 (2015) 520–529 525

uIðS  SÞ The simulation results of a brake process on an ice road are


Tb regen ¼ T dyna ¼ ð19Þ
rk shown in Fig. 7. At the beginning of the brake operation, when
the brake pedal is fully depressed, the brake pressure increases
to about 0.35 MPa, and the wheel speed drops rapidly at about
4. Simulation and analysis 0.5 s. This results in a sharp increase of the slip ratio, presenting
a significant lock up tendency and also activating the hybrid ABS
To evaluate the effect of the developed hybrid antilock brake control program. Based on the proposed strategy, a steady part of
control strategy, simulations were performed in a MATLAB/ the brake torque demand is calculated and assigned to the pneu-
Simulink environment. matic braking system. The solenoid valves are modulated, which
leads to the pneumatic brake pressure decreases to about
4.1. Simulation scenarios 0.05 MPa at 1 s. Simultaneously, the regenerative brake takes over
the dynamical part of the brake demand, which utilizes the fast
The simulation scenario is described as follows: The initial response of electric motor. During 1–2 s, the electric motor works,
velocity of the vehicle is 60 km/h; the brake pedal is fully changing frequently in drive and brake modes, and provides a
depressed; and the bus, which is driven by an electric motor on high-frequency torque ranging from 500 Nm (drive) to 400 Nm
the rear axle, starts to decelerate. Since the maximum deceleration (brake) on the axle. After the slip ratio converges to the ideal level
permissible for a city bus is approximately 0.6 g (6 m/s2) to at 2 s, both the pneumatic pressure and electric motor torque
ensure the lock-up tendency of the wheels, the maximum adhesion remain stable. After the vehicle speed decreases below 5 km/h,
coefficient of the roads used in the simulations are set at 0.6, 0.2, the ABS control withdraws, and the wheel speed reduces to zero
and 0.1 for gravel, snow, and ice roads, respectively. immediately. The cooperation between the pneumatic and regen-
To highlight the advantage of the developed novel control strat- erative brakes allows the blending brake torque to regulate the
egy, two existing control strategies, namely, the pure pneumatic ABS wheel speed quickly and accurately, driving the wheel slip ratio
control of WABCO [23] and the integrated control of regenerative to converge to the ideal slip ratio rapidly. The effective and efficient
braking control with ABS [21], are taken as baselines. Through sim- antilock brake operation enables full utilization of the road
ulations on ice, snow, gravel, and split-l roads (with one side on a adhesion.
gravel road and the other on a snow road), both of the two baseline In addition to the simulations of the single-adhesion type of
control strategies have been proved to be effective [21]. To examine road illustrated above, the developed control is validated for other
the control effect and compare with the existing approaches, the complex scenarios: jump-l road and split-l road. The results for
proposed strategy is also simulated in the same scenarios. these types of road are shown in Figs. 8 and 9. Based on the simu-
lation results, with the intervention of the braking control, the
wheel speed decreases smoothly and the slip ratio remains at the
4.2. Simulation results and analysis of proposed control
ideal value during deceleration. Therefore, road adhesion is fully
utilized, and the braking performance and stability of the vehicle
As the ABS is more easily activated on slippery roads, the results
of the brake simulation on an ice road are analyzed in detail.

Fig. 7. Simulation results of a brake process on an ice road. Fig. 8. Simulation results of a brake process on a jump-l road.
526 C. Lv et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 106 (2015) 520–529

on the gravel road. The mean deceleration and stopping distance


on the ice road are 0.83 m/s2 and 150.9 m respectively. The perfor-
mance improvement of the vehicle’s mean deceleration have been
improved by 16.90% and 12.16% compared with pure pneumatic
ABS control and integrated ABS control individually, which is con-
siderable progress.

5. Hardware-in-the-loop tests

Hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) test is an easy and effective way to


verify the performance of automotive control system in real time
[24,25]. Since the parameters of the pneumatic braking system
exert a great influence on system dynamics, HIL test is performed
to validate the control effect of the developed control strategy.

5.1. HIL test system

Fig. 10 illustrates the configuration of the bench test system,


covering phases from the control algorithm prototyping to the cal-
ibration and validation of the control unit. The entire system is
comprised of a real-time simulation system, an interface/socket,
and a pneumatic test bench. The real-time simulation system is
AutoBox from dSPACE. The pneumatic test bench includes a com-
pressor, an air reservoir, solenoid valves, and wheel cylinders iden-
tical to the ones installed on a real case-study vehicle. The control
strategy can be embedded in either the brake control unit or the
real-time simulation system.
The functional diagram of the experimental brake control unit is
Fig. 9. Simulation results of a brake process on a split-l road.
shown in Fig. 11. The controller consists of the digital core and
some processing/driving circuits. The digital core is a microcon-
are guaranteed, demonstrating the feasibility and effectiveness of troller with peripheral circuits. The microcontroller chosen is the
the proposed control strategy. Freescale MC9S12XDP512, which has the function modules of an
enhanced capture timer (ECT), pulse-width-modulation (PWM)
output and controller area network communication. The most
4.3. Comparison of three simulated control strategies important processing circuit is the pneumatic pressure signal-
processing circuit, while the most important driving circuit is the
Two baseline control strategies, namely: the conventional pure solenoid valve driving circuit with a diagnosing function. The
pneumatic ABS control and the integrated RBS and ABS are com- driving circuit for the solenoid-modulating valves is simply a
pared with the proposed control in simulation on five different power-amplifying circuit with a diagnosing function. A twin-
types of roads. The simulation results are shown in Table 2. channel high-side switch with open-drain diagnostic port for each
According to the results, it can be clearly concluded that the channel from Infineon is chosen. In addition, the inputs and
proposed control strategy of regenerative braking system is more outputs for regenerative braking control, namely, the transition
advantageous than the two baseline strategies with respect to of the brake pedal, the scope of the electric motor torque, and
mean deceleration and stopping distance. The superiority of the the demanded regenerative brake force, are realized by using
hybrid strategy is more apparent on the snow and ice roads than CAN bus. ‘‘ABS Switch” and ‘‘Regen Switch” are two signals, which

Table 2
Comparison of three control strategies in simulation.

Road condition Strategy Mean deceleration (m/s2) Stopping distance (m) Performance improvement (%)
Ice Conventional ABS 0.71 170.8 16.90
Integrated RBS/ABS 0.74 165.7 12.16
Proposed control 0.83 150.9 –
Snow Conventional ABS 1.40 86.1 16.43
Integrated RBS/ABS 1.47 84.5 10.88
Proposed control 1.63 78.0 –
Gravel Conventional ABS 5.03 28.9 3.38
Integrated RBS/ABS 5.10 27.9 1.96
Proposed control 5.20 26.7 –
Jump-l Conventional ABS 1.60 66.9 15.63
Integrated RBS/ABS 1.81 59.5 2.21
Proposed control 1.85 58.7 –
Split-l Conventional ABS 2.35 57.8 8.94
Integrated RBS/ABS 2.37 56.2 8.02
Proposed control 2.56 53.6 –
C. Lv et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 106 (2015) 520–529 527

Fig. 10. The configuration of the bench test system.

Fig. 11. Structure of the experimental brake control unit.

are sent from vehicle control unit, indicating that the ABS function HIL-tested separately on the ice, snow, gravel, jump-l road and
or regenerative braking function is activated, respectively. Fig. 12 is split-l road, using same scenarios and procedures by the present
a photograph of the developed HIL bench test system. authors [21]. And the HIL test results of the newly developed con-
trol on the ice, jump-l road, and split-l are shown as follows in
Fig. 13, Fig. 14 and Fig. 15, respectively.
5.2. Test results and analysis
Under the proposed control, when the wheel tends to lock, the
brake controller regulates the pressure in the wheel cylinder with a
Two existing approaches, i.e. the pure pneumatic ABS control
low frequency. Additionally, the motor switches in between the
and the integrated regenerative braking control have been
regenerative and the drive modes and quickly provides a regener-
ative braking torque or a driving torque as required. The overall
requirements of ABS control are satisfied. No wheel lock occurs
during the entire deceleration process. From the above experimen-
tal results, it is observed that the angular speed of the locked wheel
recovers rapidly enough. Thus, the deceleration of the vehicle is
maintained appropriately.

5.3. Comparison of HIL test results under different control strategies

The advantage of the proposed control strategy can be also


observed in the comparison with two existing approaches, namely
the conventional ABS control and the integrated RBS and ABS con-
trol [21], in HIL tests. The HIL test results of the three control
strategies are listed in Table 3. The mean deceleration and stopping
distance on the ice road are 0.82 m/s2 and 137.01 m respectively.
The performance improvement of the vehicle’s mean deceleration
Fig. 12. Photograph of the developed HIL bench test system. have been improved by 13.89% and 9.33% compared to the two
528 C. Lv et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 106 (2015) 520–529

Fig. 13. HIL test results of a brake process on an ice road.


Fig. 15. HIL test results of a brake process on a split-l road.

Table 3
HIL test results of the proposed control with two conventional strategies.

Road Strategy Mean Stopping Performance


condition deceleration distance improvement
(m/s2) (m) (%)
Ice Conventional ABS 0.72 160.17 13.89
Integrated RBS/ABS 0.75 153.67 9.33
Proposed control 0.82 137.01 –
Snow Conventional ABS 1.39 96.52 12.23
Integrated RBS/ABS 1.46 91.89 6.85
Proposed control 1.56 86.00 –
Gravel Conventional ABS 4.66 30.46 3.22
Integrated RBS/ABS 4.68 30.33 2.78
Proposed control 4.81 29.46 –
Jump-l Conventional ABS 1.52 68.9 17.11
Integrated RBS/ABS 1.71 62.3 4.09
Proposed control 1.78 60.8 –
Split-l Conventional ABS 2.35 44.69 9.36
Integrated RBS/ABS 2.37 44.31 8.44
Proposed control 2.57 41.02 –

benchmarks. On split-l roads, which is the most complex one of


the selected scenarios, the braking performance improvements of
the case-study vehicle is 9.36% and 8.44% respectively.
Based on the results of the simulations and the HIL tests, it is
encouraging to observe that the proposed hybrid control of regen-
erative and pneumatic braking under critical driving situations is
able to ensure superior brake stability and performance in the case
of an electric bus as compared to the two existing strategies. The
results for the gravel, snow, and ice roads, as well as the complex
symmetric road, also indicate that proposed control strategy of
the regeneration braking system owns good robustness in different
Fig. 14. HIL test results of a brake process on a jump-l road. scenarios, verifying the its feasibility and effectiveness.
C. Lv et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 106 (2015) 520–529 529

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