Article gastroenterology

Gastrointestinal Bleeding in
Infants and Children
John T. Boyle, MD*
Objectives After completing this article, readers should be able to:

1. Develop a differential diagnosis based on the clinical presentation of gastrointestinal

Author Disclosure (GI) blood loss.
Dr Boyle did not 2. Discuss the age-related causes of upper and lower GI bleeding.
disclose any financial 3. Delineate the sequence of evaluation and decision process in a child who has GI
relationships relevant bleeding.
to this article. 4. Describe new medical therapies and endoscopic maneuvers to control GI bleeding.

Case Study
A previously well 3-week-old female infant presented with a 2-day history of rectal bleeding.
Her parents described three to five loose stools per day mixed with bright and dark red blood and
mucus. Associated symptoms included episodic nonbilious, nonbloody emesis and an erythem-
atous rash on her arms and legs. The infant was receiving standard cow milk formula. Her
weight gain and linear growth were excellent. The abdominal examination revealed no
tenderness or organomegaly, and there were no anal fissures. Stool was guaiac-positive. The
complete blood count (CBC) revealed normal hematocrit, mean corpuscular volume (MCV),
platelet count, and white blood cell count. The total eosinophil count was mildly increased at
0.55⫻10 3/mm3. The stool culture was negative. Clostridium difficile toxin was present. Three
days after having been switched to a protein hydrolysate formula, the infant’s bowel frequency
decreased to twice a day. Although the baby continued to appear well, with good weight gain
and growth, her stools still contained gross strands of blood and mucus intermittently over the
next 3 weeks. Flexible sigmoidoscopy at that time revealed moderate nodular lymphoid
hyperplasia in the rectosigmoid region (Fig. 1). The colonic mucosa appeared normal other-
wise. Biopsies from the sigmoid and rectum showed six eosinophils per high-power field, normal
crypt architecture, and lymphoid nodules. The infant continued to receive the protein hydro-
lysate formula, and gross bleeding gradually resolved over the next 2 weeks.

Determining Severity of Gastrointestinal (GI) Bleeding

GI bleeding may present as bright red blood on toilet tissue after passage of a hard bowel
movement, strands or small clots of blood mixed within emesis or normal stool, bloody
diarrhea, vomiting of gross blood (hematemesis), grossly bright or dark red bloody stools
(hematochezia), or tarry black stools (melena). In cases of occult bleeding, the clinical
presentation may be unexplained fatigue, pallor, or iron deficiency anemia. The treatment
sequence for a child who has GI bleeding is to assess (and stabilize if necessary) the
hemodynamic status of the patient, establish the level of bleeding, and generate a list of
likely diagnoses based on clinical presentation and age of the patient.
Severity of the acute presentation is determined by the physical appearance and
hemodynamic status of the patient, the estimated volume of blood lost, and the color of
the blood lost. Worrisome signs and symptoms include pallor, diaphoresis, restlessness,
lethargy, and abdominal pain. The best indicator of significant blood loss is orthostatic
changes in heart rate and blood pressure. Orthostatic change is defined as an increase in
pulse rate by 20 beats/min or a decrease in systolic blood pressure of 10 mm Hg or more
on moving the patient from the supine to the sitting position.
Fresh blood quickly changes color to brown in an acid environment. Intestinal bacteria

*Clinical Professor of Pediatrics, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pa; Division of Pediatric
Gastroenterology, Hepatology & Nutrition, Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pa.

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gastroenterology gastointestinal bleeding

indication to passage of an NG tube. Persistent red or

pink aspirate suggests ongoing bleeding and the need for
more emergent diagnostic evaluation.

Is It Blood?
Chemical testing of the vomitus or stool is essential to
verify the presence of blood. A number of substances may
simulate bright red blood (food coloring, colored gelatin
or children’s drinks, red candy, beets, tomato skins,
antibiotic syrups) or melena (bismuth or iron prepara-
tions, spinach, blueberries, grapes, licorice). The widely
available guaiac test is the current recommended quali-
tative method for confirming the presence of gross or
occult blood in vomitus or stool. Guaiac is a naturally
occurring phenolic compound that can be oxidized to
quinine by hydrogen peroxide in hemoglobin with de-
Figure 1. Nodular lymphoid hyperplasia: multiple submucosal tectable color change. Rarely, hemoglobin and myoglo-
nodules in the rectosigmoid area against a background of bin in meat or ascorbic acid in uncooked fruits and
normal colonic mucosa. vegetables give false-positive test results. With newer
guaiac test kits, exogenous iron preparations no longer
give false-positive reactions. The newer method uses a
oxidize hemoglobin to hematin, giving blood a tarry
buffered stabilized hydrogen peroxide solution to im-
appearance. Coffee-ground emesis or melena suggests a
prove detection of blood in gastric aspirate or vomitus.
lower rate of bleeding; bright red blood may indicate
Immunochemical tests that detect only human blood
either a low or a very high rate of upper GI bleeding. The
have been proposed to improve sensitivity and specificity
hematocrit is an unreliable index of the severity of acute
of detecting fecal occult blood in adults being screened
GI bleeding because of the delay in compensatory he-
for colon cancer. Immunochemical tests are the method
modilution after acute blood loss. A low MCV of red
cells on an automated CBC suggests a more chronic of choice to confirm that red or tarry intestinal secretions
duration of bleeding, although the clinical presentation are, indeed, human blood. However, the high sensitivity
may appear as an acute GI hemorrhage. of these tests may be a problem in pediatric patients, in
whom minute blood loss associated with passage of stool
Upper Versus Lower GI Bleeding or perianal dermatitis may yield a positive test, leading to
Upper GI bleeding refers to bleeding above the ligament unnecessary diagnostic procedures. Additional studies
of Treitz; lower GI bleeding is defined as bleeding distal are needed to determine the sensitivity and specificity of
to the ligament of Treitz. In most patients, the clinical immunochemical tests compared with the guaiac-based
presentation indicates the level of bleeding. Hemateme- tests as screens for occult blood loss in the evaluation of
sis is the classic presentation of upper GI bleeding. children who have chronic GI complaints such as chronic
Bloody diarrhea and bright red blood mixed or coating abdominal pain, vomiting, and failure to thrive.
normal stool are the classic presentations of lower GI
bleeding. Hematochezia, melena, or occult GI blood
loss could represent upper or lower GI bleeding. In cases Differential Diagnosis Based on Clinical
of acute-onset hematochezia or melena, the level of Presentation
bleeding can be confirmed by passage of a nasogastric Most reviews of GI bleeding in children have focused on
(NG) tube. Not only is the presence of blood in the the differential diagnosis by age group, but causative
stomach diagnostic of upper GI bleeding (including disorders overlap considerably between age groups. This
significant duodenal hemorrhages that usually reflux into review focuses on the differential diagnosis based on
the stomach), but clearing of aspirated fluid during re- clinical presentation (Table 1). Table 2 lists common
peated NG lavage suggests that bleeding has stopped. causes of GI bleeding based on age group and clinical
Suspicion of bleeding esophageal varices is not a contra- appearance of the child.

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 gastroenterology gastointestinal bleeding

Differential Diagnosis of Gastrointestinal (GI) Bleeding Based

Table 1.

on Clinical Presentation
Hematemesis
● Swallowed blood
Epistaxis, sore throat, breast feeding, dental work, or tonsillectomy
● Vitamin K deficiency in neonate
● Erosive esophagitis
● Mallory-Weiss tear
● Hemorrhagic gastritis
Trauma, surgery, burns, or severe systemic stress (patients in intensive care units)
● Reactive gastritis
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID gastropathy), alcoholic gastritis, cocaine ingestion, ingestion of caustic
substances, stress, mechanical trauma, viral infection, Crohn disease, vasculitis (Henoch-Schönlein), radiation, bile
reflux, bezoar, hiatal hernia, prolapse of the gastroesophageal junction, or congestive gastropathy (associated with
portal hypertension)
● Peptic ulcer
● Variceal bleeding: associated with portal hypertension
● Submucosal masses
Lipoma, stromal tumors, duplication
● Vascular malformation
Angiodysplasia, hemangioma, Dieulafoy lesion
● Hemobilia
Hematochezia, Melena
● Intestinal ischemia
Complicating intussusception, mid-gut volvulus, incarcerated hernia, or mesenteric thrombosis
● Meckel diverticulum
● Upper GI source: see hematemesis
● Vasculitis
Henoch-Schönlein purpura
● Sloughed polyp
● Intestinal or colonic ulcer
NSAID gastropathy, Crohn disease
● Ulcerative colitis
● Vascular malformation
Rectal Bleeding With Signs of Colitis (Bloody Diarrhea, Tenesmus, Nighttime Stooling)
● Infectious colitis
Consider Salmonella, Shigella, Yersinia enterocolitica, Campylobacter jejuni, Escherichia coli O157:H7, Aeromonas
hydrophilia, Klebsiella oxytoca, Clostridium difficile, Neisseria gonorrhea, cytomegalovirus, Entamoeba histolytica,
Trichuris trichiura
● Hemolytic-uremic syndrome
● Necrotizing enterocolitis
● Eosinophilic proctocolitis
● Inflammatory bowel disease
Ulcerative colitis, Crohn disease
Rectal Bleeding With Normal Stool Pattern
● Juvenile polyp
● Nodular lymphoid hyperplasia
● Eosinophilic colitis
● Inflammatory bowel disease
● Vascular malformation
(continued)

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gastroenterology gastointestinal bleeding

Differential Diagnosis of Gastrointestinal (GI) Bleeding Based

Table 1.

on Clinical Presentation—Continued
Bright Red Blood Coating Normal or Hard Stool
● Anal fissure
● Beta-hemolytic streptococcal cryptitis
● Ulcerative proctitis
● Rectal prolapse
● Solitary rectal ulcer
● Internal hemorrhoids
Occult GI Blood Loss
● Esophagitis
● Reactive gastritis
● Acid peptic disease
● Eosinophilic gastroenteritis, colitis
● Celiac disease
● Inflammatory bowel disease
● Polyposis
● Meckel diverticulum
● Vascular malformation

Hematemesis surgery, burns, or severe medical problems requiring

CAUSES. Hematemesis (or acute hematochezia or hospitalization in an intensive care unit. Associated co-
melena with positive NG aspirate for blood) may result agulopathy is not uncommon. Localized reactive gastritis
from swallowed blood, upper GI mucosal lesions, is more common and may be associated with nonsteroi-
variceal bleeding, or rarely, hemobilia (hemorrhage into dal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID gastropathy), alco-
the biliary tract). Swallowed blood may be seen in con- holic gastritis, cocaine ingestion, ingestion of caustic
junction with epistaxis, sore throat, or breastfeeding or substances, Helicobacter pylori infection, viral infection,
may follow dental work or tonsillectomy. Mucosal le- Crohn disease, vasculitis (Henoch-Schönlein purpura),
sions include esophagitis, Mallory-Weiss tear, reactive radiation exposure, bile reflux, bezoar, hiatal hernia,
gastritis, stress ulcer, and peptic ulcer. A history of prolapse of the gastroesophageal junction, or congestive
chronic heartburn, chest pain, epigastric abdominal pain,
gastropathy (associated with portal hypertension). Reac-
vomiting, oral regurgitation, or dysphagia suggests reflux
tive gastritis may coexist with duodenal erosive lesions.
esophagitis or peptic ulcer disease. Persistent vomiting,
Bleeding from localized gastritis usually manifests as
as seen in infants who have pyloric stenosis or older
coffee-ground emesis.
children who have cyclical vomiting, pancreatitis, or
Peptic ulcers are rare in children, perhaps related to
postviral gastroparesis, may result in acute erosive esoph-
agitis. Infectious esophagitis, pill esophagitis, and eosin- the current liberal use of acid reduction therapy in this
ophilic esophagitis rarely present with GI bleeding. population. Helicobacter pylori gastritis (Fig. 2) is an
A Mallory-Weiss tear is an acute mucosal laceration of important cause of peptic ulcer in both children and
the gastric cardia or the gastroesophageal junction. The adults, but bleeding from the gastritis alone is rare.
classic presentation is hematemesis following repeated Ulcers bleed when they erode into the lateral wall of a
forceful retching, vomiting, or coughing. Abdominal vessel. Foreign body ingestion is a rare cause of traumatic
pain is uncommon and, if present, more likely to be ulcer. A more common cause of gastric mucosal trauma is
musculoskeletal in origin due to forceful emesis. Such ulceration or erosions caused by tips of indwelling gas-
vomiting episodes usually are linked to a concurrent viral trostomy tubes or NG tubes.
illness. Rare mucosal lesions that may present with hemate-
Reactive gastritis may be diffuse or localized in the mesis or melena include submucosal masses that extend
stomach. Significant hemorrhage may be seen with dif- into and erode the mucosal surface (lipoma, stromal
fuse hemorrhagic stress gastritis associated with trauma, tumors, gastroduodenal duplication), hemangioma, and

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 gastroenterology gastointestinal bleeding

Differential Diagnosis of Gastrointestinal Bleeding Based on Age,

Table 2.

Appearance of Child, and Rate of Bleeding

Well-appearing Child
Ill-appearing Child High Rate of Bleeding Low Rate of Bleeding
Infant Upper Tract
Hemorrhagic gastritis Reflux esophagitis
Stress ulcer Reactive gastritis
Vitamin K deficiency
Lower Tract
Infectious colitis Anal fissure
Necrotizing enterocolitis Eosinophilic proctocolitis
Hirschsprung enterocolitis Infectious colitis
Volvulus Nodular lymphoid hyperplasia
2 to 5 years Upper Tract
of age Esophageal varices (liver disease) Esophageal varices Mallory-Weiss tear
Hemorrhagic gastritis Gastric/Duodenal ulcer Gastritis
Stress ulcer Reflux esophagitis
Lower Tract
Intussusception Meckel diverticulum Infectious colitis
Volvulus Sloughed juvenile polyp Juvenile polyp
Henoch-Schönlein purpura Ulcerative colitis Nodular lymphoid hyperplasia
Hemolytic-uremic syndrome Ulcerative colitis/Crohn disease
Perianal streptococcal cellulitis
Rectal prolapse/rectal ulcer
Older child Upper Tract
Esophageal varices Esophageal varices Mallory-Weiss tear
Hemorrhagic gastritis Bleeding ulcer Reflux esophagitis
Dieulafoy lesion Reactive gastritis
Hemobilia
Lower Tract
Infectious colitis Ulcerative colitis Infectious colitis
Ulcerative colitis Meckel diverticulum Ulcerative colitis/Crohn disease
Henoch-Schönlein purpura Juvenile polyp
Intestinal ischemia Hemorrhoid
Rare causes of bleeding: vascular malformation, hemobilia, intestinal duplication, submucosal mass, neutropenic colitis (typhlitis).

Dieulafoy lesion (a submucosal artery that aberrantly transfusion, chronic right heart failure, or disorders asso-
protrudes through a minute defect in the mucosa). ciated with extrahepatic portal vein thrombosis (history
Gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GIST) are mesen- of abdominal surgery or neonatal sepsis, shock, exchange
chymal tumors arising from the GI wall, mesentery, transfusion, omphalitis, umbilical vein catheterization).
omentum, or retroperitoneum. Most GIST tumors are
found in the stomach (60% to 70%) and should be ASSESSMENT. Most previously well children who
considered in a patient who has neurofibromatosis. He- present with hematemesis are hemodynamically stable
mobilia is a rare complication of abdominal trauma, and usually describe hematemesis as coffee ground-like
biliary tumor, or parasitic infection (Ascaris). or bright red-tinged vomitus, again indicating a low rate
Upper gastrointestinal bleeding may be the initial of bleeding. Bleeding from mucosal lesions usually stops
presentation of esophageal varices. Variceal bleeding spontaneously. The initial laboratory evaluation reveals a
caused by portal hypertension should be considered in normal hematocrit, MCV, platelet count, coagulation
any child who has hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, ascites, profile, total and direct bilirubin, liver enzymes, total
jaundice, or scleral icterus. For the patient who has no protein, and albumin. Affected patients can be prescribed
previous history of liver disease, variceal bleeding is sug- oral inhibitors of gastric acid secretion and followed as
gested by a past history of jaundice, hepatitis, blood outpatients. A bleeding mucosal lesion can be diagnosed

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gastroenterology gastointestinal bleeding

requirement). Most centers use general anesthesia and

control of the airway in children who have active upper
GI hemorrhage. Upper endoscopy during active bleed-
ing usually can identify the site of bleeding, distinguish
variceal from mucosal bleeding, and identify diffuse gas-
tritis. Esophageal varices run upward from the gastro-
esophageal junction (Fig. 3). The surface tends to have a
blue tint, and the outline usually is beaded. The greater
their diameters, the more prominent they appear. A clot
or cherry-red spot on a varix supports the occurrence of
recent variceal bleeding.
The quality of the stomach examination during active
bleeding, particularly the ability to see ulcers and vessels
within the ulcers or to identify a Dieulafoy lesion, may be
hampered by the presence of residual blood and clots in
the upper GI tract. The characteristic endoscopic appear-
ance of a Dieulafoy lesion is blood spurting from a
Figure 2. Multiple duodenal ulcers in a 12-year-old child who pinpoint mucosal defect without surrounding exudates,
has Helicobacter pylori gastritis. inflammation, or ecchymosis. Gastric varices seldom oc-
cur in the absence of esophageal varices.
presumptively on the basis of the history and physical The combination of gastric lavage and intravenous
examination; stool guaiac test usually is negative. erythromycin prior to endoscopy improves stomach
Generally, infants younger than 1 year of age or any cleansing. Erythromycin, a macrolide antibiotic, acts as a
patient who has a history of significant upper GI blood motilin receptor agonist that accelerates gastric emptying
loss, acute hematemesis associated with heme-positive by inducing gastric contractions within a few minutes
stool, or physical or biochemical evidence of possible after infusion. For optimal diagnostic results, endoscopy
portal hypertension should be hospitalized for observa- should be performed soon after active bleeding has
tion. If blood in the emesis of a well-appearing breastfed stopped. Elective upper endoscopy is indicated following
infant can be determined to be of maternal origin, ad- significant hematemesis; for a patient who has recurrent
mission is not indicated. The Apt-Downey test is based hematemesis, unexplained biochemical evidence of iron
on an infant’s blood containing more than 60% fetal deficiency, or presumed persistent peptic disease while
hemoglobin that is alkali-resistant. Blood of maternal
origin that may be swallowed during delivery or comes
from a fissure in the mother’s nipple contains adult
hemoglobin, which converts to brownish-yellow alkaline
hematin upon mixing with alkali. All neonates who have
hematemesis should be screened for coagulopathy due to
vitamin K deficiency from failure to administer prophy-
laxis postdelivery, maternal thrombocytopenic purpura,
hemophilia, and von Willebrand disease. However, co-
agulopathy in the absence of mucosal lesions or varices is
a rare cause of gross GI blood loss in older infants and
children.
Upper endoscopy is the test of choice for evaluating
hematemesis. The goals of endoscopy in upper GI bleed-
ing are to identify the site of the bleeding, diagnose the
specific cause of the bleeding, and initiate therapeutic
interventions when indicated. Emergency endoscopy is
necessary only when the patient continues to bleed at a
rate considered to be life-threatening (ongoing hemate-
mesis, hemodynamic instability, continuous transfusion Figure 3. Esophageal varices in the distal esophagus.

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 gastroenterology gastointestinal bleeding

receiving acid reduction therapy; and for any patient in purpura and may antedate skin lesions by up to 1 week.
whom portal hypertension is suspected, as indicated by a A more chronic history of abdominal pain antedating
history of liver disease, jaundice, hepatomegaly, spleno- hematochezia raises the possibility of inflammatory
megaly, elevated transaminases, hyperbilirubinemia, hy- bowel disease, Meckel diverticulum (with associated ul-
poalbuminemia, coagulopathy, or signs of hyper- cer), or GI tuberculosis.
splenism, including thrombocytopenia and leukopenia. Painless passage of blood per rectum suggests a
Meckel diverticulum, polyp, intestinal duplication, intes-
Hematochezia tinal submucosal mass (GIST), angiodysplasia/vascular
CAUSES. The differential diagnosis of hematochezia, malformation, or superior mesenteric artery aneurysm.
the passage of gross blood or melena per rectum, de- A Meckel diverticulum is a vestigial remnant of the
pends on the clinical presentation. The color of the omphalomesenteric duct located on the antimesenteric
blood, the age of the patient, the presence of abdominal border in the distal ileum that occurs in 1.5% to 2.0% of
pain or tenderness, and a history of altered bowel pattern the general population. A Meckel diverticulum that con-
are important factors in assessing a child who has hema- tains gastric mucosa may present as painless acute lower
tochezia. Although rare, blood from the upper GI tract GI bleeding. Bleeding from a Meckel diverticulum, 50%
may appear unchanged in the stool due to rapid intestinal of which occurs before the child is 2 years of age, some-
transit. Approximately 10% to 15% of mucosal or variceal times is severe. The passage of a large amount of bright to
hemorrhages from the upper GI tract may present with dark red blood by a well child should be considered
melena alone, without hematemesis. In children, the bleeding from a Meckel diverticulum until proven oth-
acute passage of melena or dark blood usually indicates erwise.
bleeding originating from the stomach, duodenum, Anemia and severe bleeding rarely occur from a juve-
small bowel, or proximal colon. In such cases, an NG nile polyp. Autoamputation of a juvenile polyp that has
tube should be passed to distinguish upper from lower outgrown its blood supply may cause significant hema-
GI bleeding, taking care not to mistake a small amount of tochezia. Parents may observe tissue in the blood. Rarely,
fresh clotted blood caused by passing the NG tube for painless bleeding from deep ulceration of the terminal
active upper GI hemorrhage. ileum or colon may be the initial presentation of Crohn
Acute hematochezia in an ill-appearing child (either disease. It also is important to remember that NSAIDs
extreme irritability or lethargy) who has acute abdominal may cause ulcerations in the small bowel and colon in
pain and tenderness suggests intestinal ischemia as a addition to the upper GI tract.
complication of intussusception, mid-gut volvulus (asso-
ciated with malrotation, mesenteric cyst, intestinal dupli- ASSESSMENT. All infants who experience acute he-
cation, or internal hernia), incarcerated hernia, or mes- matochezia should undergo abdominal flat plate and
enteric thrombosis. Intestinal bleeding is a late sign of either upright or cross-table lateral radiography to screen
acute intestinal obstruction that subsequently led to ve- for intestinal obstruction or pneumatosis intestinalis (gas
nous congestion, ischemia, and hemorrhagic necrosis of in the bowel wall, a radiologic finding in ischemic bowel
the affected area of bowel. Idiopathic intussusception disease). Several modalities are available to diagnose the
should be the working diagnosis for any child younger patient who is suspected of having intussusception. With
than 2 years of age in whom abdominal pain or tender- a high degree of suspicion in infants younger than 2 years
ness is associated with lower GI blood loss. The sudden of age, an air or water-soluble contrast enema is not only
onset of colicky abdominal pain and vomiting in the diagnostic, but also potentially therapeutic. The classic
setting of an antecedent viral illness followed by passage contrast enema finding is a “coiled spring,” which results
of “currant jelly” stool is an intussusception until proven when contrast coats the crevices between crowded haus-
otherwise. tra. When a contrast enema is performed for a suspected
Beyond age 2 years, intussusception is more likely to intussusception, a pediatric surgeon should be available
be associated with a lead point such as a Meckel divertic- in case complications occur. In the older child, the
ulum, polyp, nodular lymphoid hyperplasia, foreign differential diagnosis of intestinal ischemia may be
body, intestinal duplication, intramural hematoma, lym- broader. Therefore, abdominal computed tomography
phoma, or bowel wall edema in the presence of Henoch- (CT) scan or abdominal ultrasonography may be the
Schönlein purpura. Obvious hematochezia or melena in initial diagnostic choice after consultation with the pedi-
association with abdominal pain and distention occurs in atric surgical staff.
15% to 25% of children who have Henoch-Schönlein After excluding intestinal ischemia due to intussus-

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gastroenterology gastointestinal bleeding

ception and other causes, the next step in the evaluation retention is the most serious complication. To prevent
of hematochezia is to perform a Meckel scan (99Tc- this complication, patients routinely should undergo a
pertectnetate nuclear scan) to look for a Meckel divertic- contrast small bowel enteroclysis prior to the capsule
ulum. The radionuclide binds rapidly to gastric mucosa study to rule out mass lesions or intestinal stricture.
within the diverticulum, resulting in a well-demarcated When no exact bleeding source can be identified and
focus, usually in the right lower quadrant. The radionu- melena or hematochezia continue, laparoscopy may be
clide also may be taken up by gastric heterotopia in the useful in ruling out missed Meckel diverticulum, intesti-
small bowel mucosa or enteric duplications. Some have nal duplication, or an abnormal-appearing gallbladder
advocated pretreatment with a histamine2-receptor an- suggesting possible hemobilia. Before proceeding with
tagonist prior to the Meckel scan to stimulate technetium laparoscopy in a patient who has obscure GI bleeding,
uptake by gastric mucosa. repeat upper endoscopy and colonoscopy should be con-
After excluding obstruction or Meckel diverticulum, sidered. In adults, approximately 30% of upper lesions
the algorithm to investigate hematochezia and melena and 3% of colonic lesions are missed during initial endos-
can be exhaustive and can include upper endoscopy, copy.
colonoscopy, nuclear medicine scans, contrast enterocly-
sis (radiologic procedure that uses modified contrast Rectal Bleeding With Signs of Colitis
agents to enhance visibility of the small bowel mucosa), CAUSES. Symptoms of colitis include bloody diar-
capsule endoscopy, push enteroscopy, angiography, rhea, tenesmus (urgency to defecate), nighttime stool-
laparoscopy, and intraoperative enteroscopy. ing, and abdominal pain. Acute onset of bloody diarrhea
Upper endoscopy and colonoscopy should be per- suggests an infectious colitis. In a well infant younger
formed at the same time. The diagnostic role of upper than 6 months of age, the cause of acutely bloody stools
endoscopy has been discussed. Colonoscopy can detect most likely is infectious colitis or eosinophilic proctoco-
polyps, angiodysplasia, and ulcers in the terminal ileum, litis. Late-onset necrotizing enterocolitis or Hirsch-
colon, and ileocolonic anastomotic site in patients who sprung disease with enterocolitis also must be considered
have had previous surgical ileocolostomy as well as vas- in an ill-appearing infant. The latter consideration is
culitis and inflammatory bowel disease. Endoscopic bi- especially important if there has been a preceding history
opsy from areas of bleeding or from ulcerations may be of constipation dating to early infancy.
diagnostic of vasculitis associated with Henoch- Beyond infancy, the two common causes of bloody
Schönlein purpura. The colon must be inspected for diarrhea are infectious colitis, which can be associated
vascular lesions during insertion of the endoscope be- with hemolytic-uremic syndrome in the case of Esche-
cause endoscopic manipulation often causes petechial richia coli and Shigella infections, and inflammatory
hemorrhage, which can be mistaken for angiodysplasias bowel disease. In 70% to 80% of children who have
on withdrawal. hemolytic-uremic syndrome, bloody diarrhea precedes
When bleeding persists and endoscopy fails to identify the recognition of hemolytic anemia, thrombocytopenia,
a bleeding site, radioisotope-tagged red blood cell scans and renal insufficiency by 3 to 16 days. Because most
using technetium 99m-sulfur colloid may be capable of bacterial colitis is self-limiting and resolves spontaneously
detecting the location of bleeding if the rate exceeds within 2 weeks, any patient who has a history of bloody
0.1 mL/min. Unfortunately, this modality has signifi- diarrhea for more than 2 weeks should be referred to a
cant false localization and false-negative rates. Angiogra- pediatric gastroenterologist for evaluation of inflamma-
phy is technically difficult in children but can be useful tory bowel disease. The presence of fever, fatigue, weight
when there is 1 to 2 mL/min of active bleeding. loss, arthralgia, or arthritis supports the diagnosis of
If bleeding has stopped, complete radiologic evalua- inflammatory bowel disease.
tion of the small bowel with barium contrast or CT Ischemic colitis or vasculitis should be considered in
enteroclysis may detect small structural mucosal, but not patients who have collagen vascular disease, a history of
vascular, lesions. Wireless capsule endoscopy has revolu- recent anesthesia, cardiac failure, uremia, or a history of
tionized evaluation of the GI tract and now is being taking birth control medications or digitalis. Radiation
applied in pediatrics. Adult studies have described this enterocolitis also must be considered in selected oncol-
technique as providing the highest diagnostic yield in ogy patients. Typhlitis is an acute inflammation or necro-
ongoing, overt, small bowel bleeding of obscure origin sis of the cecum, appendix, and terminal ileum associated
(⬃ 90%), with a lesser diagnostic yield in patients who with profound neutropenia and is seen most commonly
have heme-positive stools and anemia (⬃ 40%). Capsule in children who have leukemia being treated with cyto-

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 gastroenterology gastointestinal bleeding

toxic drugs, although it also is associated with aplastic tention, abdominal pain, and sometimes fever or shock),
anemia, lymphoma, acquired immunodeficiency syn- or might have a condition requiring surgery or a surgical
drome, and immunosuppression following transplanta- complication.
tion.
Rectal Bleeding in Which Blood is Mixed With
ASSESSMENT. Stool studies should include smear for Normal-appearing Stool
polymorphonuclear leukocytes; bacterial culture for Sal- CAUSES. Many times a parent or child reports blood
monella, Shigella, Yersinia enterocolitica, Campylobacter mixed within normal stool with or without mucus. It is
jejuni, Escherichia coli O157:H7, Aeromonas hydro- important to realize that colitis does not always present
philia, and Klebsiella oxytoca; and toxin assay for Clostrid- with diarrhea. In a well infant younger than 6 months of
ium difficile (both toxin A and B). In an adolescent, a age, blood mixed within stool may be a sign of eosino-
perianal culture for Neisseria gonorrhea should be ob- philic proctocolitis or nodular lymphoid hyperplasia. Be-
tained. Cytomegalovirus (CMV) colitis can present with tween 2 and 6 years of age, a well child who passes small
bloody diarrhea and should be considered in an immu- amounts of bright-to-dark red blood mixed within a
nocompromised patient. CMV can be cultured from the stool or coated on the outside of a stool most likely has a
stool. Rotavirus rarely is associated with blood-tinged juvenile polyp. Juvenile polyps, which account for more
diarrhea. Enzyme immunoassay for rotavirus is indicated than 95% of all polyps found in children, are inflamma-
only in the clinical context of acute watery diarrhea, tory hamartomas that carry a very low, if any, malignant
which may be blood-tinged in a child 6 months to 3 years potential. Seventy percent of juvenile polyps occur in the
of age who has the associated symptoms of vomiting, left side of the colon and are solitary. Multiple polyps are
colicky abdominal pain, and low grade fever. associated with Peutz-Jeghers syndrome and multiple
If indicated by geography or recent travel, stool sam- juvenile polyposis coli. Peutz-Jeghers syndrome should
ples for Entamoeba histolytica and Trichuris trichiura be suspected when mucocutaneous pigmentation is
should be obtained. It is not unreasonable to obtain a noted during physical examination. Adenomatous polyp-
CBC with platelet count, blood urea nitrogen (BUN) osis syndromes are less likely to present with rectal bleed-
measurement, creatinine assessment, and urinalysis for all ing in the pediatric age range.
patients presenting with acute bloody diarrhea to screen Painless rectal bleeding in young children also can be
for hemolytic-uremic syndrome. Because bloody diar- caused by nodular lymphoid hyperplasia of the colon. In
rhea may precede renal manifestations of hemolytic- most children, such nodules are self-limiting and associ-
uremic syndrome by 3 to 16 days, repeat CBC with ated with preceding viral infection or eosinophilic
platelet count, BUN and creatinine measurements, and proctocolitis, but they may be associated with immuno-
urinalysis should be considered 14 days from the onset of deficiency (selective immunoglobulin A deficiency or
GI symptoms for patients who have culture-proven bac- hypogammaglobulinemia). The mechanism for the
terial colitis. bleeding is believed to be thinning of the surface of the
Colonoscopy is indicated for patients who show evi- mucosa over the enlarged hyperplastic submucosal lym-
dence of significant inflammation (greater than five phatic tissue, with subsequent small mucosal ulceration
grossly bloody stools per day, nighttime stooling, ane- and bleeding. Bleeding is most common when nodules
mia, tachycardia, hypoalbuminemia) or well-appearing are present in the sigmoid and rectum, suggesting fria-
patients who have persistent bloody diarrhea in excess of bility of the stretched mucosa unmasked by passage of a
2 weeks. Colonoscopy allows collection of colonic secre- bowel movement.
tions for culture and assay that are not contaminated with
urine, which might affect test results. Characteristic ASSESSMENT. Colonoscopy is indicated for any child
pseudomembranes may be seen with C difficile and Shi- who has unexplained rectal bleeding that is documented
gella infection. The goals for colonoscopy in patients either visually or by chemical testing. Juvenile polyps
who have inflammatory bowel disease are to define the occur most commonly in the left colon on a stalk and
extent of the inflammation, obtain biopsies to try to may be removed by snare and cautery. Endoscopic
distinguish Crohn disease from ulcerative colitis, and polypectomy of large colonic polyps (⬎2 cm) increases
subjectively aid in planning initial therapy. Colonoscopy the risk of perforation because thermal energy delivered
is contraindicated if a child appears toxic, has signs of for polyp removal can traverse the thin muscular layer of
peritonitis, has toxic megacolon (a life-threatening con- the colon, resulting in tissue necrosis. Nodular lymphoid
dition characterized by a dilated colon, abdominal dis- hyperplasia has the gross appearance of multiple 1- to

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gastroenterology gastointestinal bleeding

4-mm umbilicated submucosal nodules that may be hard toms (weight loss, growth retardation, arthralgia, fever);
to distinguish from aphthous ulcers. or unexplained iron deficiency anemia. The causes of
occult bleeding in children are similar to those of clini-
cally apparent GI bleeding discussed previously. The
Bright Red Blood Coating a Normal-appearing most common causes are inflammatory disorders (in-
Stool or Associated With Constipation cluding esophagitis), acid peptic disease, reactive gastri-
CAUSES. Bright red blood coating a normal- tis, eosinophilic gastroenteritis, celiac disease, Henoch-
appearing stool is suggestive of a perianal disorder, most Schönlein purpura, Crohn disease, ulcerative colitis,
commonly an anal fissure, cryptitis, or proctitis. Anal polyps, and Meckel diverticulum. Rare causes of occult
fissures typically occur before age 1 year and usually are bleeding are vascular anomalies, infection, and neoplasia.
associated with a history of constipation or recent acute Infectious causes of occult GI blood loss include hook-
diarrhea. The blood almost always is of small amount and worm, ascariasis, amoebic infection, Strongyloides infec-
red and appears most often as a strip on the outside of the tion, and tuberculosis.
stool. The fissure usually starts when passage of hard
stool tears the sensitive squamous lining of the anal canal. ASSESSMENT. A patient who has occult GI blood loss
In a patient who has perianal erythema and an anal should undergo investigations directed toward identify-
fissure, beta-hemolytic streptococcal cellulitis should be ing pathologic processes that can explain both the symp-
considered and the anal canal cultured before applying toms and the blood loss. For example, it is reasonable to
bacteriostatic lubricant to perform a rectal examination. perform upper endoscopy alone in a 14-year-old patient
Beyond infancy, perianal disease or recurrent anal who has chronic epigastric abdominal pain, episodic
fissures should raise suspicion of inflammatory bowel vomiting, occult positive stool, and positive H pylori
disease or sexual abuse. A foreign body inserted into the serology. However, if symptoms suggest the possibility
rectum also may traumatize the rectal mucosa and pro- of Crohn disease (growth deceleration, diarrhea, arthral-
duce bleeding. Rectal prolapse, most often due to con- gia or arthritis, perianal skin tags or fistula) or if a patient
stipation and excessive straining, forces the anterior rec- has no symptoms other than occult-positive stool and
tal mucosa into the anal canal, causing congestion, iron deficiency anemia, it is reasonable to perform both
edema, and occasionally, ulceration. A solitary rectal upper endoscopy and colonoscopy.
ulcer is rare in childhood but can be a complication of
mucosal congestion and edema. Symptoms include dys- Therapeutic Considerations
chezia (difficult defecation), tenesmus, discharge of mu- Supportive Measures
cus, and rectal bleeding. External hemorrhoids are asso- Supportive measures include stabilization of hemody-
ciated with recurrent anal fissures and proctitis, but rarely namic status, correction of any coagulation or platelet
are a cause of bleeding unless irritated by excessive clean- abnormalities, blood transfusion if necessary, and iron
ing after bowel movements. Internal hemorrhoids are supplementation. Because both intravascular and ex-
rare in children and adolescents. travascular volumes are reduced in acute GI bleeding,
crystalloid (normal saline, Ringer lactate) is the solution
ASSESSMENT. In most cases, anal fissure can be diag- of choice for initial intravenous resuscitation. Colloid
nosed by careful examination of the perianal area. All solutions or blood are used only when blood loss is
patients who have perianal excoriation, multiple anal massive, in which case the patient is at risk for developing
fissures, or fissure resistant to conservative management respiratory insufficiency or shock lung because of a sig-
should have perianal culture for beta-hemolytic Strepto- nificant decrease in plasma oncotic pressure. Blood trans-
coccus. Anal trauma, internal hemorrhoids, proctitis, and fusion is the only method of restoring oxygen-carrying
solitary rectal ulcer may be diagnosed by proctosigmoid- capacity during active GI bleeding.
oscopy with retroflexion in the rectum. Intravenous acid suppression has been shown to im-
prove ulcer healing in adults. In children, pharmacoki-
netic studies have been performed with intravenous
Occult GI Blood Loss histmine2-receptor antagonists (Table 3). Tachyphylaxis
CAUSES. Occult blood in the stool is detected most to intravenous ranitidine is a significant problem if more
commonly by chemical testing during the evaluation of than 2 weeks of continuous therapy is required. Recent
chronic GI symptoms such as abdominal pain, vomiting, studies in adults have demonstrated improved outcomes
diarrhea, and constipation; unexplained systemic symp- after peptic ulcer bleeding by using an intravenous pro-

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 gastroenterology gastointestinal bleeding

Table 3. Pharmacologic Therapy of Gastrointestinal Bleeding

Indication Category of Drug Dosage*
Active Bleeding
Intravenous Inhibitors of
Gastric Acid Secretion
Ranitidine Histamine2 antagonist Continuous infusion, 1 mg/kg followed by
infusion of 2 to 4 mg/kg per day
Bolus infusions, 3 to 5 mg/kg per day
divided every 8 hours
Pantoprazole Proton pump inhibitor Children <40 kg: 0.5 to 1 mg/kg per day
IV once daily
Children >40 kg: 20 to 40 mg once daily
(maximum, 40 mg/d)
Intravenous Vasoactive Agents
Octreotide Somatostatin analog 1 mcg/kg IV bolus (maximum, 50 mcg)
followed by 1 mcg/kg per hour
May increase infusion rate every 8 hours
to 4 mcg/kg per hour (maximum,
250 mcg per 8 hours)
When bleeding is controlled, taper 50%
every 12 hours
May stop when at 25% of starting dose
Vasopressin Antidiuretic hormone 0.002 to 0.005 units/kg per
minuteⴛ12 hours, then taper over 24 to
48 hours (maximum, 0.2 units/min)
Prevention of Rebleeding
Oral Inhibitors of Gastric Acid
Secretion
Ranitidine Histamine2 antagonist 2 to 3 mg/kg per dose twice or three times
a day (maximum, 300 mg/d)
Famotidine Histamine2 antagonist 0.5 mg/kg per dose twice daily (maximum,
40 mg/d)
Lansoprazole Proton pump inhibitor 1 to 1.5 mg/kg per day once to twice daily
(maximum, 30 mg twice daily)
Omeprazole Proton pump inhibitor 1 to 1.5 mg/kg per day once to twice daily
(maximum, 20 mg twice daily)
Oral Adhesive Protection of
Ulcerated Mucosa
Sucralfate Local adhesive paste 40 to 80 mg/kg per day in 4 divided doses
(maximum, 1,000 mg/dose in 4 divided
doses)
Oral Prevention of Variceal
Rebleeding
Propranolol Reduced mesenteric 1 mg/kg per day in 2 to 4 divided doses
blood flow (beta- May increase every 3 to 7 days to
adrenergic blocker) maximum of 8 mg/kg per day to achieve
a 25% reduction from baseline pulse rate
*Evidence-based standard of care pediatric dosages for these medications are not well established. Dosages listed are taken from Pediatric Lexi Drug online
formulary. They do not necessarily apply to neonates or infants younger than 3 months of age. Higher doses may be used by individual pediatric
gastroenterologists based on peer-reviewed published case series and personal experience. Major adverse effects are listed in the text. Ranitidine and famotidine
dosages must be adjusted downward for patients who have renal impairment.

ton pump inhibitor (PPI). Dosing in children has been Control of Active Upper GI Bleeding
extrapolated from adult literature, although available There is no evidence that gastric lavage has any therapeu-
data suggest faster drug clearance and significant interin- tic role in controlling hemorrhage, and there is no benefit
dividual variability in pediatric patients (Table 3). to continuous lavage beyond 10 minutes if the NG

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gastroenterology gastointestinal bleeding

return is not clearing. In fact, continued NG lavage in the has fewer complications, lower costs, and higher rates of
face of active bleeding might be deleterious by not allow- survival. With the development of multiband ligation de-
ing fibrin clots to form at the site of hemorrhage. Vaso- vices, which allow application of up to six bands per session,
active agents, including octreotide and vasopressin, are pediatric experience with this technique is encouraging.
used for both mucosal and variceal bleeding, usually as The inability to pass the band ligation apparatus in infants
adjunctive therapy to endoscopic hemostasis. Published and small children is the only limiting factor. When a child
experience in pediatric patients is limited to case reports is bleeding and hemodynamically unstable, both sclerother-
and small case series. These drugs decrease portal pres- apy and band ligation can be technically difficult. In such
sure by decreasing splanchnic blood flow. Octreotide is a cases, it is best to monitor the child in an intensive care unit,
synthetic octapeptide that has pharmacologic actions protect the airway with an endotracheal tube, sedate the
similar to those of the endogenous hormone somatosta- patient, and temporarily control the bleeding by passing a
tin. Octreotide has fewer hemodynamic adverse effects Sengstaken-Blakemore tube or Linton tube. These tubes
than vasopressin and is the drug of choice. Vasopressin allow mechanical balloon tamponade at the gastroesopha-
can cause disturbing peripheral vasoconstriction and may geal junction to stop bleeding before proceeding with ther-
trigger renal failure. The major adverse effect of oct- apeutic endoscopy.
reotide is hyperglycemia. Octreotide is initiated as a Angiography is employed most often when an addi-
bolus injection of 1 mcg/kg (up to a maximum of tional therapeutic component is needed, such as place-
50 mcg) followed immediately by continuous infusion of ment of a transjugular portosystemic shunt, selective
1 mcg/kg per hour, which may be increased hourly by infusion of a vasoactive agent into a bleeding vessel, or
1 mcg/kg per hour up to 4 mcg/kg per hour (Table 3). embolization of a bleeding vessel with gel foam or coils.
Endoscopic hemostasis of mucosal lesions includes
injection and thermal methods. Among the mucosal Control of Active Lower GI Bleeding
lesions amenable to endoscopic therapy are ulcers with Lower GI bleeding rarely is life-threatening. Meckel diver-
active bleeding, oozing from a clot overlying an ulcer, or ticulum is treated by surgical resection. Endoscopy can treat
an ulcer that has a visible vessel at its base. The injection colonic lesions such as polyps, bleeding ulcers, telangiecta-
method used most commonly in pediatric patients is sias, or small hemangiomas. Juvenile polyps are removed by
injection of 1:10,000 epinephrine in normal saline into snare polypectomy. As with upper GI bleeding, endoscopic
and near the periphery of an oozing lesion. Injection hemostasis of mucosal lesions includes injection and ther-
therapy may slow or stop active bleeding, but it should be mal methods. Because of the thin wall of the colon, the total
followed by contact thermal coagulation. Contact ther- number of joules applied to a bleeding colonic lesion should
mal methods achieve hemostasis by local tamponade and be lower than that used in the stomach.
coaptive coagulation, which involves fusing the walls of
blood vessels up to 2 mm in size. Common contact Prevention of Rebleeding
thermal methods are heater probe, bipolar probes, and For conditions that have a significant rate of rebleeding
BICAP cautery. The heater probe allows tamponade (variceal bleeding, chronic NSAID therapy, angiodyspla-
with firm direct pressure on a bleeding site, followed by sia), the goal is to decrease the rebleeding rate. Medical
delivery of two to four pulses of 15 to 30 J to coagulate therapy includes acid suppression with antacids,
the lesion. In adults, perforation has been reported in histamine2-receptor antagonists, or PPIs. In addition,
approximately 1% of patients and rebleeding in 18% of binding agents such as sucralfate have been shown to
patients after thermal methods. Endoscopic clip place- increase ulcer healing. Sucralfate is particularly effective
ment is a newer technique to capture and compress the for esophageal bleeding due to caustic or mechanical
tissue surrounding a bleeding vessel. forms of mucosal damage (Table 3).
The endoscopic therapies for acute variceal bleeding
include injection sclerotherapy and variceal band ligation Secondary Prophylaxis in Variceal Bleeding
therapy. Sclerotherapy in pediatrics employs 25-gauge nee- The risk of rebleeding following the initial episode of
dles to inject volumes of sclerosant based on patient weight. hemorrhage due to the rupture of esophageal varices is
The most common significant complication of injection 80%. Such rebleeding occurs most commonly within the
sclerotherapy is esophageal ulceration leading to stricture first 6 weeks after initial bleeding. Secondary prophylaxis
formation, which occurs in 15% of all children treated. to prevent variceal rebleeding is indicated for patients
Several controlled studies in adults have shown that band who have cirrhosis or cavernous transformation of the
ligation has a higher efficacy in preventing rebleeding and portal vein. Patients who have portal hypertension due to

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 gastroenterology gastointestinal bleeding

cavernous transformation of the portal vein have rela- In this case, the patient was treated for a working
tively normal liver parenchyma and function and tend to diagnosis of allergic colitis. For patients who have allergic
develop spontaneous portosystemic shunts over time. colitis, evidence of gross bleeding should resolve in
Thus, secondary prophylaxis bridges the time from pre- 3 weeks, although heme-positive stools may persist for
sentation until spontaneous shunts form or until the 6 to 12 weeks. Sigmoidoscopy is indicated if gross bleed-
patient’s age and radiographic evaluation predict success ing does not resolve in 3 weeks or occult bleeding does
from shunt surgery. not resolve by 12 weeks. Nodular lymphoid hyperplasia is
Secondary prophylaxis combines endoscopic and the most common cause of persistent visible blood in the
pharmacologic modalities. The endoscopic options in- stool of an infant who has allergic colitis.
clude injection sclerotherapy and variceal band ligation.
Successful obliteration of esophageal varices has been Summary
reported in 75% to 90% of pediatric patients following GI bleeding can occur in any area of the GI tract, from
multiple sessions of sclerotherapy. Several controlled the mouth to the anus. For severe bleeding, the sequence
studies in adults have shown that band ligation has a of management is first to stabilize the patient (including
higher efficacy in preventing rebleeding, fewer complica- establishing intravenous access), followed by identifying
tions, lower costs, and higher rates of survival. Pediatric the source of bleeding. The differential diagnosis is priori-
experience with this technique is encouraging. Case se- tized by addressing the clinical presentation of the bleeding
ries in children have reported ablation of esophageal and the age of the patient. Best outcomes are achieved by a
varices in fewer sessions compared with injection sclero- timely multidisciplinary approach, using the combined skills
therapy. Medical therapy for secondary prevention of of a pediatric gastroenterologist, radiologist, and surgeon.
variceal rebleeding includes nonselective beta blockers to With the availability of a broad array of endoscopic and
reduce cardiac output and splanchnic and portal blood radiologic techniques for accurate diagnosis and the advent
flow, leading to reduced portal pressure. Several studies of innovative methods for controlling GI bleeding, the
in adults show benefits of combined endoscopic and major challenge in the coming years will be to determine
medical therapies in patients who have cirrhosis without the optimal approach to the individual patient based on
increasing the risk of ascites or impaired renal function. assessment of risk status. As described in the case study,
Prophylactic use of beta blockers has not been studied management based on empiric diagnosis remains an accept-
rigorously in children. able approach for many of the conditions that cause GI
bleeding in children.
Case Study Summary
The presented case illustrates the evaluation and man-
agement of rectal bleeding in a healthy infant who has Suggested Reading
Allison JE, Tekawa IS, Ransom LJ, Adrian AL. A comparison of
altered bowel histology. In the absence of an anal fissure,
fecal occult-blood tests for colorectal– cancer screening. N Engl
significant skin hemangioma, and evidence of pathogens J Med. 1996;334:155–159
in the stool, the conventional approach to this infant is to Donta ST, Myers MG. Clostridium difficile toxin in asymptomatic
make a presumptive diagnosis of allergic colitis and initi- neonates. J Pediatr. 1982;100:431– 434
ate therapy with a hypoallergenic formula (or eliminate Eroglu Y, Emerick KM, Whitington PF, Alonso EM. Octreotide
therapy for control of acute gastrointestinal bleeding in chil-
all cow milk protein from a breastfeeding mother’s diet).
dren. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2004;38:41– 47
The presence of C difficile toxin can be a confounding McKiernan PJ, Beath SV, Davison SM. A prospective study of
variable; C difficile toxin has been found in the stool in endoscopic esophageal variceal ligation using a multiband liga-
10% of healthy neonates. Most infants who have C tor. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2002;34:207–211
difficile toxin in the stool are healthy, indicating the Melmed GY, Lo SK. Capsule endoscopy: practical applications.
Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2005;3:411– 422
coexistence of some protective antitoxic substance or
Shashidhar H, Langhans N, Grand RJ. Propranolol in prevention of
lack of appropriate toxin receptors in young infants. portal hypertensive hemorrhage in children: a pilot study. J Pe-
When a physician orders a test, he or she must have a clear diatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 199;29:12–17
idea of what to do with the information. In this case, the Xanthakos SA, Schwimmer JB, Melin-Aldana H, Rothenberg ME,
infant was healthy-appearing and feeding well, and Witte DP, Cohen MB. Prevalence and outcome of allergic
colitis in healthy infants with rectal bleeding: a prospective
screening blood study results were normal. Patients who
cohort study. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2005;41:16 –22
have pseudomembranous colitis associated with C diffi- Zargar SA, Javid G, Khan BA, et al. Endoscopic ligation compared
cile appear ill and frequently present with high fever, with sclerotherapy for bleeding esophageal varices in children with
leukocytosis, and hypoalbuminemia. extrahepatic portal hypertension. Hepatology. 2002;36:666 – 672

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gastroenterology gastointestinal bleeding

PIR Quiz
Quiz also available online at www.pedsinreview.org.

1. A previously healthy 2-year-old girl has been retching and vomiting for the past 12 hours. On the last
occasion, streaks of bright red blood were noted in the pale yellow emesis. Findings on her examination are
unremarkable. The most likely explanation of her hematemesis is:
A. Esophageal varices.
B. Hemorrhagic stress gastritis.
C. Mallory-Weiss tear.
D. Peptic ulcer.
E. Vitamin K deficiency.
2. A previously healthy 5-year-old boy presents with the acute onset of maroon-colored hematochezia.
Physical examination reveals a pale child who exhibits tachycardia. His mother reports that he has had
occasional unexplained abdominal discomfort in the past that did not affect his activity. The most likely
explanation of his symptoms is:
A. Henoch-Schönlein purpura.
B. Infectious colitis.
C. Juvenile polyp.
D. Meckel diverticulum.
E. Superior mesenteric aneurysm.
3. A previously well 8-year-old boy has had diarrhea for the past 5 weeks, with occasional bright red and dark
red blood mixed with the stool. Associated symptoms include episodic vomiting, decreased appetite, and a
4-lb weight loss. He has not taken any antibiotics in the past 6 months and has had no recent travel.
Findings on physical examination include mild pallor and a small effusion in his right knee joint. His
hemoglobin is 9.2 g/dL (92 g/L) and mean corpuscular volume is 72 fL (normal, 78 to 102 fL). Of the
following, the most likely diagnosis is:
A. Allergic colitis.
B. Bacterial infectious colitis.
C. Cytomegalovirus colitis.
D. Pseudomembranous colitis.
E. Ulcerative colitis.
4. A previously healthy 6-year-old girl has had small amounts of bright red blood mixed with her otherwise
normal stools for the past 3 weeks. She generally has one soft stool each day. She has had no other
symptoms. She has no known allergies to medications. You have seen her twice. On both occasions, findings
on her examination have been normal. Her hemoglobin is 11.3 g/dL (113 g/L). Effective treatment most
likely will involve:
A. A 10-day course of oral penicillin.
B. An oral proton pump inhibitor.
C. Removal of milk from her diet.
D. Resection of a Meckel diverticulum.
E. Snare polypectomy.
5. A previously healthy 9-year-boy’s conjunctivae appear pale during a health supervision visit. His mother
reports that he has had episodic blood in his stool over the past 2 to 3 months, which she assumed had
been caused by hard stool associated with constipation. He has no other symptoms. Physical examination
reveals brown-black 1- to 2-mm macules on his lips. His hemoglobin is 9.1 g/dL (91 g/L). Indices are
consistent with iron deficiency anemia. A normal-appearing stool is guaiac-positive. The most likely cause
of the gastrointestinal blood loss is:
A. Colon polyp.
B. Hemangioma.
C. Intestinal neurofibroma.
D. Rectal prolapse.
E. Solitary rectal ulcer.
52 Pediatrics in Review Vol.29 No.2 February 2008
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 Gastrointestinal Bleeding in Infants and Children
John T. Boyle
Pediatrics in Review 2008;29;39
DOI: 10.1542/pir.29-2-39

Updated Information & including high resolution figures, can be found at:
Services http://pedsinreview.aappublications.org/content/29/2/39
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 Gastrointestinal Bleeding in Infants and Children
John T. Boyle
Pediatrics in Review 2008;29;39
DOI: 10.1542/pir.29-2-39

The online version of this article, along with updated information and services, is
located on the World Wide Web at:
http://pedsinreview.aappublications.org/content/29/2/39

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