Cyclic Groups and Dihedral Groups

Chapter 4
Cyclic groups and dihedral

groups
Consider the group Cn of rotational symmetries of a regular n-gon. If we label

the vertices consecutively by 1, 2 . . . , n. Then we can view
Cn = {I, R, R2 , . . . Rn 1
} ⇢ Sn
where I = id and
R = (123 . . . n)
n
A bit of thought shows that R = I. We won’t need to multiply permutations
explicitly, we just use this rule: Rj Rk = Rj+k and if j + k n, we “wrap
around” to Rj+k n . We will encounter other groups with a similar structure.
Definition 4.1. A finite group G is called cyclic if there exists an element

g 2 G, called a generator, such that every element of G is a power of g.
Cyclic groups are really the simplest kinds of groups. In particular:
Lemma 4.2. A cyclic group is abelian.
Proof. g j g k = g j+k = g k g j .
Let us give a second example. Let
Zn = {0, 1, 2 . . . n 1}
We modify addition using the same wrap around rule as before.

(
x+y if x + y 2 Zn
x y=
x + y n otherwise
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This is usually called modular addition. It is not completely obvious that this
is a group but we will show this later. Here is the table for n = 2
0 1
0 0 1
1 1 0
This is the simplest nonzero abelian group. A somewhat more complicated case
is n = 4
0 1 2 3
0 0 1 2 3
1 1 2 3 0
2 2 3 0 1
3 3 0 1 2
Zn with this addition rule is also cyclic with generator 1.
We can see that µ2 = {1, 1} is a cyclic group under multiplication. More
generally, the group of nth roots of unity.
⇢ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
2⇡ik 2⇡ik
µn = e2⇡ik/n = cos + i sin | k = 0, 1, . . . n 1
n n
This is a subgroup of the group of nonzero complex numbers C⇤ under multi-

plication. µn is generated by e2⇡i/n , so it is cyclic.
Although these examples are superficially di↵erent, they are the same in
some sense. If we associate k 7! Rk or k 7! e2⇡ik/n and compare addi-
tion/multiplication tables, they will match. Here is the precise definition.
Definition 4.3. If (G, ⇤, e) and (H, , e0 ) are groups. A function f : G ! H is
called a homomorphism if f (e) = e0 and f (g1 ⇤ g2 ) = f (g1 ) f (g2 ). A one to
one onto homomorphism is called an isomorphism. Two groups are isomorphic
if there is a homomorphism from one to the other. In symbols, we write G ⇠ = H.
The function f : Zn ! Cn defined by f (k) = Rk is an isomorphism. The
function f : Z ! µn defined by f (k) = e2⇡ik/n is a homomorphism which is not
an isomorphism because it is not one to one. The order of a finite group is the
number of elements in it.
Theorem 4.4. A cyclic group of order n is isomorphic to Zn .
Proof. Let G be the cyclic group in question with generator g. Since G is finite,
the sequence g n must repeat itself. That is g n1 = g n2 for n1 > n2 . Taking
n = n1 n2 > 0 implies that g n = e. Let us assume that n is the smallest such
number (this is called the order of g). We claim that G = {e, g, . . . , g n 1 } and
that all the elements as written are distinct. By distinctness we mean that if
m1 > m2 lie in {0, 1, . . . n 1} then g m1 6= g m2 . If not then g m1 m2 = e would
contradict the fact that n is the order of g.
So now the function f (i) = g i is easily seen to given an isomorphism from
Zn to G.
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We need to come back and check that Zn is actually a group. We make
use of a result usually called the “division algorithm”. Although it’s not an
algorithm in the technical sense, it is the basis of the algorithm for long division
that one learns in school.
Theorem 4.5. Let x be an integer and n positive integer, then there exists a
unique pair of integers q, r satisfying
x = qn + r, 0  r < n
Proof. Let
R = {x q 0 n |, q 0 2 Z and q 0 n  x}
Observe that R ✓ N, so we can choose a smallest element r = x qn 2 R.
Suppose r n. Then x = qn + r = (q + 1)n + (r n) means that r n lies in
R. This is a contradiction, therefore r < n.
Suppose that x = q 0 n + r0 with r0 < n. Then r0 2 R so r0 r. Then
qn = q 0 n + (r0 r) implies that n(q q 0 ) = r0 r. So r0 r is divisible by n. On
the other hand 0  r0 r < n. But 0 is the only integer in this range divisible
by n is 0. Therefore r = r0 and qn = q 0 n which implies q = q 0 .
We denote the number r given above by x mod n; mod is read “modulo” or

simply “mod”. When x 0, this is just the remainder after long divison by n.
Lemma 4.6. If x1 , x2 , n are integers with n > 0, then
(x1 + x2 ) mod n = (x1 mod n) (x2 mod n)
Proof. Set ri = xi mod n. Then xi = qi n + ri for appropriate qi . We have

x1 + x2 = (q1 + q2 )n + (r1 + r2 ). We see that
(
r 1 + r2 = r 1 r 2 if r1 + r2 < n
(x1 + x2 ) mod n =
r1 + r2 n = r1 r2 otherwise
This would imply that f (x) = x mod n gives a homomorphism from Z ! Zn

if we already knew that Zn were a group. Fortunately, this can be converted
into a proof that it is one.
Lemma 4.7. Suppose that (G, ⇤, e) is a group and f : G ! H is an onto map
to another set H with an operation ⇤ such that f (x ⇤ y) = f (x) ⇤ f (y). Then H
is a group with identity f (e).
In the future, we usually just write + for modular addition.
The dihedral group Dn is the full symmetry group of regular n-gon which
includes both rotations and flips. There are 2n elements in total consisting
20
of n rotations and n flips. Label the vertices consecutively by 1, 2, 3 . . .. Let
R = (123 . . . n) be the basic rotation. This generates a cyclic subgroup Cn ⇢ Dn .
The reflection around the line through the midpoint of 1n and opposite side or
vertex is
F = (1 n)(2 n 1)(3 n 2) . . .
One can calculate that
✓ ◆✓ ◆
1 2 ... n 1 2 ... n
FR =
n n 1 ... 1 2 3 ... 1
= (1 n 1)(2 n 2) . . .
is another flip, and furthermore that

✓ ◆✓ ◆
1 2 ... n 1 2 ... n
F RF =
n 1 n 2 ... n n n 1 ... 1
✓ ◆
1 2 ... n
=
n 1 ... n 1
1
=R
Here’s the point. We will eventually see that the elements of Dn are given by
I, R, R2 . . . , F, F R, F R2 . So we say that these elements generate the group. (In
general, to say that a set elements generates a group, means that we have to take
products in every possible way such as F R2 F 3 .) We have three basic relations
among the generators
F 2 = I, Rn = I, F RF = R 1
Everything else about Dn follows from this. In particular, we won’t have to

multiply any more permutations. For instance, let us check that (F R)2 = I
using only these relations
(F R)2 = (F RF )R = R 1
R=I
4.8 Exercises
1. Determine all the generators of Z6 and Z8 . Is there an obvious pattern?
2. Let Z⇤7 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} with an operation defined by x y = (x·y) mod 7.
Assume that it is associative, and check that Z⇤7 is a cyclic group.
3. Given a finite group G and g 2 G, prove that {e, g, g 2 , . . .} is a cyclic
subgroup. This called the subgroup generated by G. The order of this
group is called the order of g. Prove that the order is the smallest positive
integer n such that g n = e.
4. Given a function f : H ! G such that f (x ⇤ y) = f (x) ⇤ f (y), prove that
f takes the identity to the identity and is therefore a homomorphism.
21
5. Complete the proof of lemma 4.7.
6. Let us say that an infinite group is cyclic if it isomorphic to Z. Prove that
the set of even integers is cyclic.
7. Let G ✓ Z be nonzero subgroup. Let d 2 G be the smallest positive
element. Prove that if x 2 G, then x = qn for some integer q. Conclude
that G is cyclic.
8. Let F, R 2 Dn be as above.
(a) For any i > 0, show that F Ri F = R i , where R i
is the inverse of
Ri .
(b) Show that for any i, j > 0, (F Ri )(F Rj ) is a rotation.
(c) Show every element of Dn is either Ri or F Ri with i = 0, 1, . . . , n.
9. Assuming the previous exercise, show that f : Dn ! Z2 given by f (Ri ) =
0 and f (F Ri ) = 1 is a homomorphism.
10. Let G ⇢ O(2) be the set of matrices

⇢
cos ✓ ± sin ✓ 2⇡k
|✓= , k = 0, 1, . . . n 1
sin ✓ ⌥ cos ✓ n
Let ✓ ◆ 
2⇡ 1 0
R=R ,F =
n 0 1
Check that G is generated by these two elements, and that they satisfy
the same relations as the generators of the Dn . Use these facts to prove
that Dn is isomorphic to G.
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Chapter 4

Cyclic groups and dihedral

Consider the group Cn of rotational symmetries of a regular n-gon. If we label

Definition 4.1. A finite group G is called cyclic if there exists an element

We modify addition using the same wrap around rule as before.

This is a subgroup of the group of nonzero complex numbers C⇤ under multi-

We denote the number r given above by x mod n; mod is read “modulo” or

(x1 + x2 ) mod n = (x1 mod n) (x2 mod n)

Proof. Set ri = xi mod n. Then xi = qi n + ri for appropriate qi . We have

This would imply that f (x) = x mod n gives a homomorphism from Z ! Zn

is another flip, and furthermore that

Everything else about Dn follows from this. In particular, we won’t have to

10. Let G ⇢ O(2) be the set of matrices

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