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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE - CS110 –

Written & Composed BY ENGINEER SAQIB IMRAN

WhatsApp & Contact No: 0341-7549889
Email: Saqibimran43@gmail.com
Student of B.TECH(Civil) at Sarhad University of Science &
Information Technology Peshawer.

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Chapter No 01
Introduction to Computers
Computer is a device that transforms data into meaningful information. Data can be anything
like marks obtained by you in various subjects. It can also be name, age, sex, weight, height,
etc. of all the students in a class. Computer can also be defined in terms of functions it can
perform. A computer can i) accept data, ii) store data, iii) process data as desired, and iv)
retrieve the stored data as and when required and v) print the result in desired format. The
major characteristics of a computer are high speed, accuracy, diligence, versatility and storage.
Computer Organisation The computer performs basically five major operations of functions
irrespective of their size and make. These are 1) it accepts data or instruction by way of input,
2) it stores data, 3) it can process data as required by the user, 4) it gives results in the form of
output, and 5) it controls all operations inside a computer. We discuss below each of these
operations.
1. Input: this is the process of entering data and programs into the computer system.
2. Control Unit (CU): The process of input, output, processing and storage is performed under
the supervision of a unit called 'Control Unit'. It decides when to start receiving data, when to
stop it, where to store data, etc. It takes care of step -by-step processing of all operations in
side the computer.
3. Memory Unit: Computer is used to store data and instructions.
4. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): The major operations performed by the ALU are addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division, logic and comparison.
5. Output: This is the process of producing results from the data for getting useful information.
The ALU and the CU of a computer system are jointly known as the central processing unit
(CPU). You may call CPU as the brain of any computer system.
Brief History of Computers & their Application
The computer was born not for entertainment or email but out of a need to solve a serious
number-crunching crisis. By 1880, the U.S. population had grown so large that it took more
than seven years to tabulate the U.S. Census results. The government sought a faster way to get
the job done, giving rise to punch-card based computers that took up entire rooms. Today, we
carry more computing power on our smartphones than was available in these early models. The
following brief history of computing is a timeline of how computers evolved from their humble
beginnings to the machines of today that surf the Internet, play games and stream multimedia
in addition to crunching numbers.
1801: In France, Joseph Marie Jacquard invents a loom that uses punched wooden cards to
automatically weave fabric designs. Early computers would use similar punch cards.
1822: English mathematician Charles Babbage conceives of a steam-driven calculating machine
that would be able to compute tables of numbers. The project, funded by the English
government, is a failure. More than a century later, however, the world's first computer was
actually built.

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1890: Herman Hollerith designs a punch card system to calculate the 1880 census,
accomplishing the task in just three years and saving the government $5 million. He establishes
a company that would ultimately become IBM.
1936: Alan Turing presents the notion of a universal machine, later called the Turing machine,
capable of computing anything that is computable. The central concept of the modern
computer was based on his ideas.
1937: J.V. Atanasoff, a professor of physics and mathematics at Iowa State University, attempts
to build the first computer without gears, cams, belts or shafts.
1939: Hewlett-Packard is founded by David Packard and Bill Hewlett in a Palo Alto, California,
garage, according to the Computer History Museum.
1941: Atanasoff and his graduate student, Clifford Berry, design a computer that can solve 29
equations simultaneously. This marks the first time a computer is able to store information on
its main memory.
1943-1944: Two University of Pennsylvania professors, John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert,
build the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC). Considered the grandfather of
digital computers, it fills a 20-foot by 40-foot room and has 18,000 vacuum tubes.
1946: Mauchly and Presper leave the University of Pennsylvania and receive funding from the
Census Bureau to build the UNIVAC, the first commercial computer for business and
government applications.
1947: William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain of Bell Laboratories invent
the transistor. They discovered how to make an electric switch with solid materials and no need
for a vacuum.
1953: Grace Hopper develops the first computer language, which eventually becomes known as
COBOL. Thomas Johnson Watson Jr., son of IBM CEO Thomas Johnson Watson Sr., conceives
the IBM 701 EDPM to help the United Nations keep tabs on Korea during the war.
1954: The FORTRAN programming language, an acronym for FORmula TRANslation, is
developed by a team of programmers at IBM led by John Backus, according to the University of
Michigan.
1958: Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce unveil the integrated circuit, known as the computer chip.
Kilby was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2000 for his work.
1964: Douglas Engelbart shows a prototype of the modern computer, with a mouse and a
graphical user interface (GUI). This marks the evolution of the computer from a specialized
machine for scientists and mathematicians to technology that is more accessible to the general
public.
1969: A group of developers at Bell Labs produce UNIX, an operating system that addressed
compatibility issues. Written in the C programming language, UNIX was portable across
multiple platforms and became the operating system of choice among mainframes at large
companies and government entities. Due to the slow nature of the system, it never quite
gained traction among home PC users.

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1970: The newly formed Intel unveils the Intel 1103, the first Dynamic Access Memory (DRAM)
chip.
1971: Alan Shugart leads a team of IBM engineers who invent the "floppy disk," allowing data
to be shared among computers.
1973: Robert Metcalfe, a member of the research staff for Xerox, develops Ethernet for
connecting multiple computers and other hardware.
1974-1977: A number of personal computers hit the market, including Scelbi & Mark-8 Altair,
IBM 5100, Radio Shack's TRS-80 — affectionately known as the "Trash 80" — and the
Commodore PET.
1975: The January issue of Popular Electronics magazine features the Altair 8080, described as
the "world's first minicomputer kit to rival commercial models." Two "computer geeks," Paul
Allen and Bill Gates, offer to write software for the Altair, using the new BASIC language. On
April 4, after the success of this first endeavor, the two childhood friends form their own
software company, Microsoft.
1976: Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak start Apple Computers on April Fool's Day and roll out the
Apple I, the first computer with a single-circuit board, according to Stanford University.
1977: Radio Shack's initial production run of the TRS-80 was just 3,000. It sold like crazy. For the
first time, non-geeks could write programs and make a computer do what they wished.

1977: Jobs and Wozniak incorporate Apple and show the Apple II at the first West Coast
Computer Faire. It offers color graphics and incorporates an audio cassette drive for storage.
1978: Accountants rejoice at the introduction of VisiCalc, the first computerized spreadsheet
program.
1979: Word processing becomes a reality as MicroPro International releases WordStar. "The
defining change was to add margins and word wrap," said creator Rob Barnaby in email to Mike
Petrie in 2000. "Additional changes included getting rid of command mode and adding a print
function. I was the technical brains — I figured out how to do it, and did it, and documented it.
1981: The first IBM personal computer, code-named "Acorn," is introduced. It uses Microsoft's
MS-DOS operating system. It has an Intel chip, two floppy disks and an optional color monitor.
Sears & Roebuck and Computerland sell the machines, marking the first time a computer is
available through outside distributors. It also popularizes the term PC.
1983: Apple's Lisa is the first personal computer with a GUI. It also features a drop-down menu
and icons. It flops but eventually evolves into the Macintosh. The Gavilan SC is the first portable
computer with the familiar flip form factor and the first to be marketed as a "laptop."
1985: Microsoft announces Windows, according to Encyclopedia Britannica. This was the
company's response to Apple's GUI. Commodore unveils the Amiga 1000, which features
advanced audio and video capabilities.
1985: The first dot-com domain name is registered on March 15, years before the World Wide
Web would mark the formal beginning of Internet history. The Symbolics Computer Company, a

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small Massachusetts computer manufacturer, registers Symbolics.com. More than two years
later, only 100 dot-coms had been registered.
1986: Compaq brings the Deskpro 386 to market. Its 32-bit architecture provides as speed
comparable to mainframes.
1990: Tim Berners-Lee, a researcher at CERN, the high-energy physics laboratory in Geneva,
develops HyperText Markup Language (HTML), giving rise to the World Wide Web.
1993: The Pentium microprocessor advances the use of graphics and music on PCs.
1994: PCs become gaming machines as "Command & Conquer," "Alone in the Dark 2," "Theme
Park," "Magic Carpet," "Descent" and "Little Big Adventure" are among the games to hit the
market.
1996: Sergey Brin and Larry Page develop the Google search engine at Stanford University.
1997: Microsoft invests $150 million in Apple, which was struggling at the time, ending Apple's
court case against Microsoft in which it alleged that Microsoft copied the "look and feel" of its
operating system.
1999: The term Wi-Fi becomes part of the computing language and users begin connecting to
the Internet without wires.
2001: Apple unveils the Mac OS X operating system, which provides protected memory
architecture and pre-emptive multi-tasking, among other benefits. Not to be outdone,
Microsoft rolls out Windows XP, which has a significantly redesigned GUI.
2003: The first 64-bit processor, AMD's Athlon 64, becomes available to the consumer market.
2004: Mozilla's Firefox 1.0 challenges Microsoft's Internet Explorer, the dominant Web
browser. Facebook, a social networking site, launches.
2005: YouTube, a video sharing service, is founded. Google acquires Android, a Linux-based
mobile phone operating system.
2006: Apple introduces the MacBook Pro, its first Intel-based, dual-core mobile computer, as
well as an Intel-based iMac. Nintendo's Wii game console hits the market.
2007: The iPhone brings many computer functions to the smartphone.
2009: Microsoft launches Windows 7, which offers the ability to pin applications to the taskbar
and advances in touch and handwriting recognition, among other features.
2010: Apple unveils the iPad, changing the way consumers view media and jumpstarting the
dormant tablet computer segment.
2011: Google releases the Chromebook, a laptop that runs the Google Chrome OS.
2012: Facebook gains 1 billion users on October 4.
2015: Apple releases the Apple Watch. Microsoft releases Windows 10.
2016: The first reprogrammable quantum computer was created. "Until now, there hasn't been
any quantum-computing platform that had the capability to program new algorithms into their
system. They're usually each tailored to attack a particular algorithm," said study lead author
Shantanu Debnath, a quantum physicist and optical engineer at the University of Maryland,
College Park.

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2017: The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) is developing a new
"Molecular Informatics" program that uses molecules as computers. "Chemistry offers a rich set
of properties that we may be able to harness for rapid, scalable information storage and
processing," Anne Fischer, program manager in DARPA's Defense Sciences Office, said in a
statement. "Millions of molecules exist, and each molecule has a unique three-dimensional
atomic structure as well as variables such as shape, size, or even color. This richness provides a
vast design space for exploring novel and multi-value ways to encode and process data beyond
the 0s and 1s of current logic-based, digital architectures." OR
A Short History of Computers and Computing
Robert Mannell
One of the earliest machines designed to assist people in calculations was the abacus which is
still being used some 5000 years after its invention.
In 1642 Blaise Pascal (a famous French mathematician) invented an adding machine based on
mechanical gears in which numbers were represented by the cogs on the wheels.
Englishman, Charles Babbage, invented in the 1830's a "Difference Engine" made out of brass
and pewter rods and gears, and also designed a further device which he called an "Analytical
Engine". His design contained the five key characteristics of modern computers:-
1. An input device
2. Storage for numbers waiting to be processed
3. A processor or number calculator
4. A unit to control the task and the sequence of its calculations
5. An output device

Augusta Ada Byron (later Countess of Lovelace) was an associate of Babbage who has become
known as the first computer programmer.
An American, Herman Hollerith, developed (around 1890) the first electrically driven device. It
utilised punched cards and metal rods which passed through the holes to close an electrical
circuit and thus cause a counter to advance. This machine was able to complete the calculation
of the 1890 U.S. census in 6 weeks compared with 7 1/2 years for the 1880 census which was
manually counted.
In 1936 Howard Aiken of Harvard University convinced Thomas Watson of IBM to invest $1
million in the development of an electromechanical version of Babbage's analytical engine. The
Harvard Mark 1 was completed in 1944 and was 8 feet high and 55 feet long.
At about the same time (the late 1930's) John Atanasoff of Iowa State University and his
assistant Clifford Berry built the first digital computer that worked electronically, the ABC
(Atanasoff-Berry Computer). This machine was basically a small calculator.
In 1943, as part of the British war effort, a series of vacuum tube based computers (named
Colossus) were developed to crack German secret codes. The Colossus Mark 2 series (pictured)
consisted of 2400 vacuum tubes.

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Colossus Mark 2
John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert of the University of Pennsylvania developed these ideas
further by proposing a huge machine consisting of 18,000 vacuum tubes. ENIAC (Electronic
Numerical Integrator and Computer) was born in 1946. It was a huge machine with a huge
power requirement and two major disadvantages. Maintenance was extremely difficult as the
tubes broke down regularly and had to be replaced, and also there was a big problem with
overheating. The most important limitation, however, was that every time a new task needed
to be performed the machine need to be rewired. In other words, programming was carried out
with a soldering iron.
In the late 1940's John von Neumann (at the time a special consultant to the ENIAC team)
developed the EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) which pioneered the
"stored program concept". This allowed programs to be read into the computer and so gave
birth to the age of general-purpose computers.

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Tubes from a 1950s comupter

The Generations of Computers
It used to be quite popular to refer to computers as belonging to one of several "generations"
of computer. These generations are: -
The First Generation (1943-1958): This generation is often described as starting with the
delivery of the first commercial computer to a business client. This happened in 1951 with the
delivery of the UNIVAC to the US Bureau of the Census. This generation lasted until about the
end of the 1950's (although some stayed in operation much longer than that). The main
defining feature of the first generation of computers was that vacuum tubes were used as
internal computer components. Vacuum tubes are generally about 5-10 centimeters in length
and the large numbers of them required in computers resulted in huge and extremely
expensive machines that often broke down (as tubes failed).
The Second Generation (1959-1964): In the mid-1950's Bell Labs developed the transistor.
Transistors were capable of performing many of the same tasks as vacuum tubes but were only
a fraction of the size. The first transistor-based computer was produced in 1959. Transistors
were not only smaller, enabling computer size to be reduced, but they were faster, more
reliable and consumed less electricity.
The other main improvement of this period was the development of computer
languages. Assembler languages or symbolic languages allowed programmers to specify
instructions in words (albeit very cryptic words) which were then translated into a form that the
machines could understand (typically series of 0's and 1's: Binary code). Higher level
languages also came into being during this period. Whereas assembler languages had a one-to-
one correspondence between their symbols and actual machine functions, higher level
language commands often represent complex sequences of machine codes. Two higher-level
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languages developed during this period (Fortran and Cobol) are still in use today though in a
much more developed form.
The Third Generation (1965-1970): In 1965 the first integrated circuit (IC) was developed in
which a complete circuit of hundreds of components were able to be placed on a single silicon
chip 2 or 3 mm square. Computers using these IC's soon replaced transistor based machines.
Again, one of the major advantages was size, with computers becoming more powerful and at
the same time much smaller and cheaper. Computers thus became accessible to a much larger
audience. An added advantage of smaller size is that electrical signals have much shorter
distances to travel and so the speed of computers increased.
Another feature of this period is that computer software became much more powerful and
flexible and for the first time more than one program could share the computer's resources at
the same time (multi-tasking). The majority of programming languages used today are often
referred to as 3GL's (3rd generation languages) even though some of them originated during
the 2nd generation.
The Fourth Generation (1971-present): The boundary between the third and fourth
generations is not very clear-cut at all. Most of the developments since the mid 1960's can be
seen as part of a continuum of gradual miniaturisation. In 1970 large-scale integration was
achieved where the equivalent of thousands of integrated circuits were crammed onto a single
silicon chip. This development again increased computer performance (especially reliability and
speed) whilst reducing computer size and cost. Around this time the first complete general-
purpose microprocessor became available on a single chip. In 1975 Very Large Scale Integration
(VLSI) took the process one step further. Complete computer central processors could now be
built into one chip. The microcomputer was born. Such chips are far more powerful than ENIAC
and are only about 1cm square whilst ENIAC filled a large building.
During this period Fourth Generation Languages (4GL's) have come into existence. Such
languages are a step further removed from the computer hardware in that they use language
much like natural language. Many database languages can be described as 4GL's. They are
generally much easier to learn than are 3GL's.
The Fifth Generation (the future): The "fifth generation" of computers were defined by the
Japanese government in 1980 when they unveiled an optimistic ten-year plan to produce the
next generation of computers. This was an interesting plan for two reasons. Firstly, it is not at
all really clear what the fourth generation is, or even whether the third generation had finished
yet. Secondly, it was an attempt to define a generation of computers before they had come into
existence. The main requirements of the 5G machines was that they incorporate the features
of Artificial Intelligence, Expert Systems, and Natural Language. The goal was to produce
machines that are capable of performing tasks in similar ways to humans, are capable of
learning, and are capable of interacting with humans in natural language and preferably using
both speech input (speech recognition) and speech output (speech synthesis). Such goals are
obviously of interest to linguists and speech scientists as natural language and speech
processing are key components of the definition. As you may have guessed, this goal has not

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yet been fully realised, although significant progress has been made towards various aspects of
these goals.
Parallel Computing
Up until recently most computers were serial computers. Such computers had a single
processor chip containing a single processor. Parallel computing is based on the idea that if
more than one task can be processed simultaneously on multiple processors then a program
would be able to run more rapidly than it could on a single processor. The supercomputers of
the 1990s, such as the Cray computers, were extremely expensive to purchase (usually over
$1,000,000) and often required cooling by liquid helium so they were also very expensive to
run. Clusters of networked computers (eg. a Beowulf culster of PCs running Linux) have been,
since 1994, a much cheaper solution to the problem of fast processing of complex computing
tasks. By 2008, most new desktop and laptop computers contained more than one processor on
a single chip (eg. the Intel "Core 2 Duo" released in 2006 or the Intel "Core 2 Quad" released in
2007). Having multiple processors does not necessarily mean that parallel computing will work
automatically. The operating system must be able to distribute programs between the
processors (eg. recent versions of Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X can do this). An individual
program will only be able to take advantage of multiple processors if the computer language it's
written in is able to distribute tasks within a program between multiple processors. For
example, OpenMP supports parallel programming in Fortran and C/C++.

APPLICATION/USES OF COMPUTER:
Application of Computer
There are different applications of computer. Some applications are
 Computer in home
 Computer in education
 Computer in police departments
 Computer in healthcare/medical
 Computer in science and technology
 Computer in offices
 Computer in industries
Computer in homes:
In the home we play games on computer, watch movies and listen audio CDS and get
information from all over the world.
Computer in education:
We use computers to download notes from internet. We can also download books from
different libraries all over the world. Online lecture are available so that students get
education while sitting at home.
Computer in police department:
Computer is used also in police department to keep also in police department to keep the

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track records of criminals that are increasing day by day. This helps in finding the relation
of previous criminals to the new one.
Computer in healthcare/medical:
Information technology plays an important role in medical. For example: a scanner takes
a series of picture of the body by means of computerized axial topography (CAT) or
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). A computer then combines the pictures to produce
detailed three-dimensional images of the body‟s organs in addition; the MRI produces
images that show changes in body chemistry and blood flow.
Computer in science and technology:
Computer-aided design and computer aided manufacturing programs, often called
CAD/CAM, have led to improved products in many fields, especially where designs tend
to be very detailed. Computer programs make it possible for engineers to analyze
designs of complex structures such as power plants and space stations
Computer in offices:
Computer is also used in all types of offices to keep record of the organization. For
example: in college and universities computer is used to keep the records of students and
teachers. Their salary means payroll system. In libraries, computer is used to keep the
records of the books.
Computer in industries:
Computer is used in industries for keeping information about the inventory, work force,
purchasing, sailing of machinery and supplying.
Computer has played very important role in the sector of work. Without computer it is very
difficult to perform our tasks. Large number of activities are dependent on computer in our
daily life. They are used at homes, hospitals, schools etc. OR

The various application areas of computer are described below:

Banking and Financial company:
Computers are used in bank for electronic money transfer, voucher, ledger, bank sheet, etc.
Different systems are used in Financial Company such as ATM (Automatic Telling Machine),
EFTS (Electronic Fund Transfer System) etc which is computer based systems for customer
services provided by banks.

Education:

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Computer is a very effective tool which can be used for teaching and learning, result processing,
student data processing, question preparation, handouts and note preparation, etc and also
online education. Many universities provide online education through internet. The learning
materials are packed in CD-ROM with interactive multimedia. The CAL (Computer Aided
Learning), CAI (Computer Aided Instruction), multiple choice examination paper, result
processing are done through internet.

Industries:
Industrial research, budgeting, process control, all are computer based. The robotics are also
computer based. Nowadays robots are used in complicated industrial process which is
dangerous for human. CAD (Computer Aided Design) is used in manufacture sector to design
model of electrical, electronics, mechanical models of machines and it is more popular among
architect engineers also. CAM (Computer Aided Manufacture) and CADMPT (Computer Aided
Design, Process, Manufacture and Testing) are also more popular terms in industries.

Entertainments:
Different types of entertainment fields such as multimedia, film making with animation,
graphics, audio and visual design are done with the help of computer.

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Hospital:
The research in health is done with the help of computer. It is applied to medicine, surgery and
research. The multimedia kits for surgeon are also available to learn surgery on virtual patients.
The concept of expert system is also introduced in computer system which is a computer
program designed to operate at the level of expert in particular field.

Data processing:
All the types of data processing like as word, data, salary, income tax, database processing, etc
are processed through computer,
Science and Engineering:
For every branch of engineering, computer is considered as a strong tool like civil, electrical and
computer to aeronautic, ceramics, chemical, and leather technology. the study of electric
circuit, motherboard, building models, machine designs and models are taught very effectively
through computers.

Offices:

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Computers are used in small offices as well as large offices. It is used for preparing reports,
storing/deleting reports, updating reports etc. Most of the offices use word processing package,
spreadsheet package, graphics package, presentation package, database package etc.

Advertisement:
Computers are used in the different fields of advertisement such as business advertisement,
film advertisement, education advertisement etc.
Communications:
E-mail, e-fax, internet, etc are computer based communications. The computer and Internet
integration is the backbone of recent communication.

Library:
Computer software is used for management of library. It is used for keeping the records of
book, updating book records, and records of books issued or submitted. The computerized
system enables to know whether a given book is issued or not.
OR
An application, or application program, is a software program that runs on your computer. Web
browsers, e-mail programs, word processors, games, and utilities are all applications. The word
"application" is used because each program has a specific application for the user. For example,
a word processor can help a student create a research paper, while a video game can prevent
the student from getting the paper done.
In contrast, system software consists of programs that run in the background, enabling
applications to run. These programs include assemblers, compilers, file management tools, and
the operating system itself. Applications are said to run on top of the system software, since the
system software is made of of "low-level" programs. While system software is automatically

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installed with the operating system, you can choose which applications you want to install and
run on your computer.
Macintosh programs are typically called applications, while Windows programs are often
referred to as executable files. This is why Mac programs use the. APP file extension, while
Windows programs use the .EXE extension. Though they have different file extensions,
Macintosh and Windows programs serve the same purpose and can both be called applications.
Business

A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or versatility which has
made it an integrated part in all business organizations.
Computer is used in business organizations for −
 Payroll calculations
 Budgeting
 Sales analysis
 Financial forecasting
 Managing employee database
 Maintenance of stocks, etc.

Banking

Today, banking is almost totally dependent on computers.

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Banks provide the following facilities −

 Online accounting facility, which includes checking current balance, making deposits and
overdrafts, checking interest charges, shares, and trustee records.
 ATM machines which are completely automated are making it even easier for customers
to deal with banks.
Insurance

Insurance companies are keeping all records up-to-date with the help of computers. Insurance
companies, finance houses, and stock broking firms are widely using computers for their
concerns.
Insurance companies are maintaining a database of all clients with information showing −
 Procedure to continue with policies
 Starting date of the policies
 Next due installment of a policy
 Maturity date
 Interests due
 Survival benefits
 Bonus
Education

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The computer helps in providing a lot of facilities in the education system.

 The computer provides a tool in the education system known as CBE (Computer Based
Education).
 CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of learning.
 Computer education is rapidly increasing the graph of number of computer students.
 There are a number of methods in which educational institutions can use a computer to
educate the students.
 It is used to prepare a database about performance of a student and analysis is carried
out on this basis.
Marketing
In marketing, uses of the computer are following −

Advertising − With computers, advertising professionals create art and graphics, write and
revise copy, and print and disseminate ads with the goal of selling more products.
Home Shopping − Home shopping has been made possible through the use of computerized
catalogues that provide access to product information and permit direct entry of orders to be
filled by the customers.
Healthcare
Computers have become an important part in hospitals, labs, and dispensaries. They are being
used in hospitals to keep the record of patients and medicines. It is also used in scanning and
diagnosing different diseases. ECG, EEG, ultrasounds and CT scans, etc. are also done by
computerized machines.
Following are some major fields of health care in which computers are used.

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 Diagnostic System − Computers are used to collect data and identify the cause of illness.
 Lab-diagnostic System − All tests can be done and the reports are prepared by
computer.
 Patient Monitoring System − These are used to check the patient's signs for
abnormality such as in Cardiac Arrest, ECG, etc.
 Pharma Information System − Computer is used to check drug labels, expiry dates,
harmful side effects, etc.
 Surgery − Nowadays, computers are also used in performing surgery.
Engineering Design
Computers are widely used for Engineering purpose.
One of the major areas is CAD (Computer Aided Design) that provides creation and modification of
images. Some of the fields are −

 Structural Engineering − Requires stress and strain analysis for design of ships,
buildings, budgets, airplanes, etc.
 Industrial Engineering − Computers deal with design, implementation, and
improvement of integrated systems of people, materials, and equipment.
 Architectural Engineering − Computers help in planning towns, designing buildings,
determining a range of buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D drawings.
Military

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Computers are largely used in defence. Modern tanks, missiles, weapons, etc. Military also
employs computerized control systems. Some military areas where a computer has been used
are −
 Missile Control
 Military Communication
 Military Operation and Planning
 Smart Weapons
Communication
Communication is a way to convey a message, an idea, a picture, or speech that is received and
understood clearly and correctly by the person for whom it is meant. Some main areas in this
category are −

 E-mail
 Chatting
 Usenet
 FTP
 Telnet
 Video-conferencing
Government

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Computers play an important role in government services. Some major fields in this category
are −

 Budgets
 Sales tax department
 Income tax department
 Computation of male/female ratio
 Computerization of voters lists
 Computerization of PAN card
 Weather forecasting

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Chapter No 02
Classification of Computers
Computer
“The Computer is an Electronic Device which accepts the input data processing according to
their Instruction and it gives output result”.

Classification of computers: -
Computers may be classified based on the following: -
i. Operating principles (based on their construction and working)
ii. Applications
iii. Size and capability (or classification into micro, mini, mainframe and supercomputers)
iv. Number of Microprocessors
v. Word length and
vi. Number of users

i) Classification based on Operating Principles

Based on the operating principles, computers can be classified into one of the following types: -

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A. Digital Computers
B. Analog Computers
C. Hybrid Computers

A. Digital Computers: - Operate essentially by counting. All quantities are expressed as discrete or
numbers. Digital computers are useful for evaluating arithmetic expressions and manipulations of
data (such as preparation of bills, ledgers, solution of simultaneous equations etc)

B. Analog Computers: - An analog computer is a form of computer that uses the continuously
changeable aspects of physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities
to model the problem being solved. In contrast, digital computers represent varying quantities
symbolically, as their numerical values change.

C. Hybrid Computers: - are computers that exhibit features of analog

computers and digital computers. The digital component normally serves as the controller and
provides logical operations, while the analog component normally serves as a solver
of differential equations.

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Classification based on area of applications

Modern computers depending upon their applications are classified as: -
a. Special Purpose Computers
b. General Purpose Computers

a.) Special Purpose Computers: - A special purpose computer is designed only to meet the
requirements of a particular task or application. The instructions needed to perform a particular
task are permanently stored into the internal memory, so that it can perform the given task on a
single command. It therefore doesn’t posse’s unnecessary options and is less expensive.

b) General Purpose Computers: - A General Purpose computers are designed to meet the needs
of many different applications. In these computers, the instructions needed to perform a particular
task are wired permanently into the internal memory. When one job is over, instructions for another
job can be loaded into the internal memory for processing. This, a general purpose machine can
be used to prepare pay-bills, manage inventories, print sales report and so on.

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Classification digital Computer based on size and Capability

Based on size and capability, computers are broadly classified into

a. Microcomputers (Personal Computer)

A microcomputer is the smallest general purpose processing system. The older pc started 8-bit
processor with speed of 3.7MB and current pc 64-bit processor with speed of 4.66 GB.
Examples: - IBM PCs, APPLE computers

Microcomputer can be classified into 2 types:

1. Desktops
2. Portables
The difference is portables can be used while travelling whereas desktops computers cannot be
carried around.

The different portable computers are: -

1) Laptop
2) Notebooks
3) Palmtop (hand held)
4) Wearable computers

Laptop: - this computer is similar to a desktop computer but the size is smaller. They are expensive
than desktop. The weight of laptop is around 3 to 5 kg.

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Notebook: - These computers are as powerful as desktop but size of these computers are
comparatively smaller than laptop and desktop. They weigh 2 to 3 kg. They are more costly than
laptop.

Palmtop (Hand held): - They are also called as personal Digital Assistant (PDA). These
computers are small in size. They can be held in hands. It is capable of doing word processing,
spreadsheets and hand writing recognition, game playing, faxing and paging. These computers are
not as powerful as desktop computers. Ex: - 3com palmV.

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Wearable computer: - The size of this computer is very small so that it can be worn on the body.
It has smaller processing power. It is used in the field of medicine. For example pace maker to
correct the heart beats. Insulin meter to find the levels of insulin in the blood.

b). Workstations: - It is used in large, high-resolution graphics screen built in network support,
Engineering applications(CAD/CAM), software development desktop publishing
Ex: Unix and windows NT.

b) Minicomputer: - A minicomputer is a medium-sized computer. That is more

powerful than a microcomputer. These computers are usually designed to serve multiple users
simultaneously (Parallel Processing). They are more expensive than microcomputers.
Examples: Digital Alpha, Sun Ultra.

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c) Mainframe computers: - Computers with large storage capacities and very high speed of
processing (compared to mini- or microcomputers) are known as mainframe computers. They
support a large number of terminals for simultaneous use by a number of users like ATM
transactions. They are also used as central host computers in distributed data processing system.
Examples: - IBM 370, S/390.

d) Supercomputer: - Supercomputers have extremely large storage capacity and

computing speeds which are many times faster than other computers. A supercomputer is
measured in terms of tens of millions Instructions per second (mips), an operation is made up of
numerous instructions. The supercomputer is mainly used for large scale numerical problems in
scientific and engineering disciplines such as Weather analysis.
Examples: - IBM Deep Blue

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Classification based on number of microprocessors

Based on the number of microprocessors, computers can be classified into
a. Sequential computers and
b. Parallel computers
a) Sequential computers: - Any task complete in sequential computers is with one
microcomputer only. Most of the computers (today) we see are sequential computers where in any
task is completed sequentially instruction after instruction from the beginning to the end.

b) Parallel computers: - The parallel computer is relatively fast. New types of computers
that use a large number of processors. The processors perform different tasks independently and
simultaneously thus improving the speed of execution of complex programs dramatically. Parallel
computers match the speed of supercomputers at a fraction of the cost.

Classification based on word-length

A binary digit is called “BIT”. A word is a group of bits which is fixed for a computer.
The number of bits in a word (or word length) determines the representation of all characters in
these many bits. Word length leis in the range from 16-bit to 64-bitsf or most computers of today.
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Classification based on number of users

Based on number of users, computers are classified into: -

a. Single User: - Only one user can use the resource at any time.

b. Multi User: - A single computer shared by a number of users at any time.

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c. Network: - A number of interconnected autonomous computers shared by a number of users at any

time.

The Shapes of Computer

Super Computers
 Largest and powerful computer
 Capable of processing large amount of data at a tremendous speed.
 Expensive and used only for specialized purpose.
 Used for weather forecasting, weapon research, designing vehicles, aircrafts etc.
 For Example:: CRAY, PLEIADES, PARAM PADMA, IBM ROAD RUNNER, TIANHE-IA, NEC EARTH
SIMULATOR, CRAY JAGUAR, IBM BLUE GENE, STRATUS etc…..

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Mainframe Computer
Also known as BIG IRON
 Second largest, expensive and ultra fast computers
 Capable of processing millions of data at extremely high speed and also has massive storage
capacity.
 Supports upto 100 users at a time
 Used in large organization, financial data processing, universities etc
 For EXAMPLES::

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Mini Computer
 Mid range computer with slower speed, less memory capacity, limited hardware compared to
mainframe computers
 Supports up to 50 users at a time
 Used in large organization, universities, research institute etc
 Used to look out production process and stocks in industries.
 For EXAMPLES::

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Micro Computer
 Small digital computer with MICROPROCESSOR in CPU.
 Consist of RAM, suitable storage device and various input/output devices.
 Designed to be used by a single person only.
 Used in schools, home, offices, banks, hospitals etc…
 Also known as “PERSONAL COMPUTER”
 For EXAMPLES::

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Types of Micro Computers

 Desktop Computers
 Designed to be used on the desk or table
 Separate system unit (CPU), screen, keyboard, mouse, speakers etc
 Not so portable
 Consists of 2 types of models
 DESKTOP model is broad and low
 TOWER model is narrow and tall

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 Laptop Computer
 Designed to be used on the lap
 System unit (CPU), screen, keyboard, touchpad, speakers etc are integrated (combined)
 Small, portable designed for mobile use
 Comes with a rechargeable battery
 Can be used at the time of no electricity for few hours if charged sufficiently

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 Palmtop Computer
 Small, light weight, programmable computer designed to be used on the palm of hand
 Use stylus or Metal pen and touch sensitive screen
 Also known as Handheld PC
 EXAMPLES::NEC MOBILE PRO 900C, HP 320LX, HP JORNADA 720, VADEM CLIO.

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 Wearable Computer
 Computer that can be worn on the body
 Consist of voice recognition, head mounted display, wireless communication, touchpad etc.
 Used in health monitoring system, information technology, military trainings etc.
 EXAMPLES::POMA, TIMEX DATALINK etc…

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 Pocket Computer
 Small, portable handheld, calculator sized computer running on batteries.
 Data transfer can be done by connecting it to desktop or laptop or through Bluetooth as
well.
 EXAMPLES::PB-2000, PB-80, PB-100, PB-500F etc…

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Chapter No 03
Anatomy of Digital Computer
Anatomy of adigital computer is basically related to the fundamental functioning of the digital
computer system. It explains how a computer system receives an input, processes it through
some sub-components and then finally how it generates the output for display. A computer at
low level perform some functions like receiving input in the form of raw data from various input
devices connected to the computer like keyboard, mouse, etc. on receiving the raw data it has
to be processed, so as per the instruction received it process the data by performing some
arithmetic and logical operation on it. Then it produces the required output which is displayed
on the screen using monitor or printer. In addition to this, the digital computer system is also
responsible for storing the data it h as received or processed using the devices like hard disk,
CD-ROM for further use. A digital computer is a combination of certain vital components like
hardware, software Central processing unit, Arithmetic, and logic unit, Memory, Registers,
Microprocessor, and some addresses.
Major Components of Computer
The internal architectural design of computers differs from one system model to another.
However, the basic organization remains the same for all computer systems. The following five
units (also called "The functional units") correspond to the five basic operations performed by
all computer systems.

Input Unit
Data and instructions must enter the computer system before any computation can be
performed on the supplied data. The input unit that links the external environment with the
computer system performs this task. Data and instructions enter input units in forms that
depend upon the particular device used. For example, data is entered from a keyboard in a
manner similar to typing, and this differs from the way in which data is entered through a
mouse, which is another type of input device. However, regardless of the form in which they
receive their inputs, all input devices must provide a computer with data that are transformed

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into the binary codes that the primary memory of the computer is designed to accept. This
transformation is accomplished by units that called input interfaces. Input interfaces are
designed to match the unique physical or electrical characteristics of input devices to the
requirements of the computer system.
In short, an input unit performs the following functions.
1. It accepts (or reads) the list of instructions and data from the outside world.
2. It converts these instructions and data in computer acceptable format.
3. It supplies the converted instructions and data to the computer system for further
processing.
Output Unit
The job of an output unit is just the reverse of that of an input unit. It supplied information and
results of computation to the outside world. Thus it links the computer with the external
environment. As computers work with binary code, the results produced are also in the binary
form. Hence, before supplying the results to the outside world, it must be converted to human
acceptable (readable) form. This task is accomplished by units called output interfaces.
In short, the following functions are performed by an output unit.
1. It accepts the results produced by the computer which are in coded form and hence
cannot be easily understood by us.
2. It converts these coded results to human acceptable (readable) form.
3. It supplied the converted results to the outside world.
Storage Unit
The data and instructions that are entered into the computer system through input units have
to be stored inside the computer before the actual processing starts. Similarly, the results
produced by the computer after processing must also be kept somewhere inside the computer
system before being passed on to the output units. Moreover, the intermediate results
produced by the computer must also be preserved for ongoing processing. The Storage Unit or
the primary / main storage of a computer system is designed to do all these things. It provides
space for storing data and instructions, space for intermediate results and also space for the
final results.
In short, the specific functions of the storage unit are to store:
1. All the data to be processed and the instruction required for processing (received from
input devices).
2. Intermediate results of processing.
3. Final results of processing before these results are released to an output device.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

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The main unit inside the computer is the CPU. This unit is responsible for all events inside the
computer. It controls all internal and external devices, performs"Arithmetic and Logical
operations". The operations a Microprocessor performs are called "instruction set" of this
processor. The instruction set is “hard wired” in the CPU and determines the machine language
for the CPU. The more complicated the instruction set is, the slower the CPU works. Processors
differed from one another by the instruction set. If the same program can run on two different
computer brands they are said to be compatible. Programs written for IBM compatible
computers will not run on Apple computers because these two architectures are not
compatible.
The control Unit and the Arithmetic and Logic unit of a computer system are jointly known as
the Central Processing Unit (CPU). The CPU is the brain of any computer system. In a human
body, all major decisions are taken by the brain and the other parts of the body function as
directed by the brain. Similarly, in a computer system, all major calculations and comparisons
are made inside the CPU and the CPU is also responsible for activating and controlling the
operations of other units of a computer system.
Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
The arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) of a computer system is the place where the actual
execution of the instructions take place during the processing operations. All calculations are
performed and all comparisons (decisions) are made in the ALU. The data and instructions,
stored in the primary storage prior to processing are transferred as and when needed to the
ALU where processing takes place. No processing is done in the primary storage unit.
Intermediate results generated in the ALU are temporarily transferred back to the primary
storage until needed at a later time. Data may thus move from primary storage to ALU and back
again as storage many times before the processing is over. After the completion of processing,
the final results which are stored in the storage unit are released to an output device.
The arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) is the part where actual computations take place. It consists
of circuits that perform arithmetic operations (e.g. addition, subtraction, multiplication, division

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over data received from memory and capable to compare numbers (less than, equal to, or
greater than).
While performing these operations the ALU takes data from the temporary storage are inside
the CPU named registers. Registers are a group of cells used for memory addressing, data
manipulation and processing. Some of the registers are general purpose and some are reserved
for certain functions. It is a high-speed memory which holds only data from immediate
processing and results of this processing. If these results are not needed for the next
instruction, they are sent back to the main memory and registers are occupied by the new data
used in the next instruction.
All activities in the computer system are composed of thousands of individual steps. These
steps should follow in some order in fixed intervals of time. These intervals are generated by
the Clock Unit. Every operation within the CPU takes place at the clock pulse. No operation,
regardless of how simple, can be performed in less time than transpires between ticks of this
clock. But some operations required more than one clock pulse. The faster the clock runs, the
faster the computer performs. The clock rate is measured in megahertz (Mhz) or Gigahertz
(Ghz). Larger systems are even faster. In older systems the clock unit is external to the
microprocessor and resides on a separate chip. In most modern microprocessors the clock is
usually incorporated within the CPU.
Control Unit

How the input device knows that it is time for it to feed data into the storage unit? How does
the ALU know what should be done with the data once it is received? And how is it that only
the final results are sent to the output devices and not the intermediate results? All this is
possible because of the control unit of the computer system. By selecting, interpreting, and
seeing to the execution of the program instructions, the control unit is able to maintain order
and directs the operation of the entire system. Although, it does not perform any actual
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processing on the data, the control unit acts as a central nervous system for the other
components of the computer. It manages and coordinates the entire computer system. It
obtains instructions from the program stored in main memory, interprets the instructions, and
issues signals that cause other units of the system to execute them.
The control unit directs and controls the activities of the internal and external devices. It
interprets the instructions fetched into the computer, determines what data, if any,
are needed, where it is stored, where to store the results of the operation, and sends the
control signals to the devices involved in the execution of the instructions.
First, I’m going to strip this down quite a bit and list out our most essential base components.
1. CPU
2. Motherboard
3. Power Supply
4. Memory
5. Input device
6. Output Device

This is about as bare bones as a computer can get. Drop any of them and the device is
effectively useless. Modern systems take this a step further, integrating more complicated
CPUs, GPUs, and other fancy hardware, but it all boils down to these 6 items. Now let’s discuss
something a bit closer to what you’re reading this on. A computer of that caliber has the base 6
components, and quite a bit more to bring you up to par.
1. CPU
2. Motherboard
3. Power Supply
4. Memory
a. RAM
b. System Storage
c. External Storage Medium
5. Input
a. keyboard
b. Touchscreen/Trackpad/Mouse
c. Network Communication
6. Output
a. Screen
b. Speakers
c. Network Communication
7. GPU
8. Audio Driver
That list just got a lot longer. But it contains the components you will most certainly see
in a modern computer. Certain items can be left out, but at detriment to the system.
Now the fun part: Here is a quick list of 1–2 sentence summaries for the use of each
component.

1. CPU

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a. Central Processing Unit; this is the brains of the whole machine, where all the
magic happens. This component serves as the conductor of the orchestra of
components within your computer.
2. Motherboard
a. The backbone of the computer, the motherboard connects all the components
together, as well as handle some extremely low-level functions.
3. Power Supply
a. The name says it all. This component provides a steady stream of specific
voltages to the components inside your computer, ensuring optimal
performance
4. RAM
a. Random-Access-Memory, where the computer stores most of the information
relevant to the task at hand. There is a small amount of on-processor cache, but
the RAM is the primary location. This memory is automatically cleared when
the computer powers down
5. System Storage
a. This one is where the computer stores information that it either can’t fit in
RAM, or has no need of at the moment. This is typically slower than RAM, but
stays persistent even after power off
6. External Storage
a. USB drives and the like.
7. Keyboard
a. Everybody’s favorite input method that has seen use before computers were
even conceived of.
8. Touchscreen/Trackpad/Mouse
a. A more modern computer interface that gave rise to the Graphical User
Interface, or GUI (pronounced “gooey”).
9. Network
a. The Internet. Allowing you to receive and interpret input from anywhere in the
world.
10. Screen
a. If it isn’t a piece of paper, you’re probably reading this on one.
11. Speakers
a. Just about the only way for a computer to produce the sound you want that
doesn’t damage hardware in the process.
12. Network
a. If you thought the Internet was only for recieving input from the rest of the
world, you were wrong! It serves as an output device as well.
13. GPU
a. These come in two flavours: integrated and discrete; they handle most if not all
of the graphical portion of your computer. These pieces put the G(raphics) in
GUI.
14. Audio Driver
a. An often forgotten component typically integrated into your motherboard,
these devices take the string of binary code from your processor and turn it into
coherent sound you can understand.

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Hope this was helpful. If you are looking into building your own computer, the only ones
you should really need to worry about are:

1. CPU
2. GPU
3. RAM
4. Storage
5. Motherboard
6. Power Supply
7. I/O
a. Keyboard
b. Mouse
c. Monitor
8. Case
HARDWARE

1. CPU (Central Processing Unit) which acts as brain of the computer. It

does the computing and processing works of the computer; such as calculating
your data with formulas in Microsoft Excel worksheet, processing the raw data
into a usable one, etc.
2. RAM (Random Access Memory) works as volatile data memory for
programs to work. Imagine this: program works in a office workspace and
RAM is size of the cubicle. Larger cubicle means program have bigger working
space and thus could work faster if it needs to. Who determines which program
need larger or smaller cubicle? Kernel does (which is a part of OS). Data stored
in RAM won’t survive a power-off.
3. Storage drive, well… it acts as data storage where your data and program
innards reside. If RAM is the office cubicle, then storage unit is the office
storage room. Obviously, the larger it is then the more you could store your
data. Storage drive usually comes in HDD (Hard Disk Drive) which is a quite
dated but still largely used; the other one is SSD (Solid-state Disk) which is
newer and sports faster read and write operation. Data stored in storage drive
last longer than RAM (if the drive is not faulty, but it will deteriorates as aging
kicks in).
4. Optical drive reads (or write) your optical media such as CD, DVD, or BD.
Usage trend for this media is declining, so is for the usage of optical drive.

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5. GPU (Graphic Processing Unit) process any kind of graphical data. Be it

your game, the interface of a program, or the desktop. Some systems have CPU
sufficiently process the graphic - or a combo of CPU+GPU, but for more
demanding program you’ll need a discrete graphic card.
6. PSU (Power Supply Unit) supply power to components of the computer.
Without it working properly, it could impede the performance of whole system
and even broke from insufficient and fluctuating power. Higher efficiency and
quality PSU means higher quality power output for components.
7. Sound card process audio and route any input audio to proper output.
8. Motherboard is the central of those component above where circuity wonder
flows process and data to appropriate component. If it unable to works
properly, it could stop whole system to a grinding halt.
9. Input device, such as: mouse, keyboard, touch-pad, scanner, optical drive,
microphone, etc. Anything that gives input to the system, usually by user.
10. Output device, such as: monitor, printer, and speaker. Self-explanatory, it
outputs whatever data that has processed by the system.
11. Cooling system works as heat ventilation that is generated by system.
Common setup is using fans and heat-sink pipes which vents the heat from
CPU to fan. Additional cooling, if required, people use hydro-cooling system
which use liquid to transfer heat.
12. Computer case, the outer shell that protect system from elements.
SOFTWARE

1. BIOS is the most inner OS that embedded with motherboard. BIOS sets up the
starting sequence and basic working of a system. Crippled BIOS means you will
find you can’t start the system before repairing the BIOS or changing the
motherboard if it unrepairable.
2. Operating system manages the system resource so user could use the
system with its hardware and program installed. The very inner working of OS
is called kernel, which bridges software-hardware and allocates which process
should be prioritized, ran, or stopped. Corrupted kernel will make the system a
mess.

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Computer - Input Devices

Following are some of the important input devices which are used in a
computer −

 Keyboard

 Mouse

 Joy Stick

 Light pen

 Track Ball

 Scanner

 Graphic Tablet

 Microphone

 Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)

 Optical Character Reader(OCR)

 Bar Code Reader

 Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

Keyboard
Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps to
input data to the computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of
traditional typewriter, although there are some additional keys provided for
performing additional functions.

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Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with
104 keys or 108 keys are also available for Windows and Internet.

The keys on the keyboard are as follows −

S.No Keys & Description

Typing Keys
1
These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (09) which generally
give the same layout as that of typewriters.

Numeric Keypad

2 It is used to enter the numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it

consists of a set of 17 keys that are laid out in the same configuration used
by most adding machines and calculators.

Function Keys

3 The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which are arranged
in a row at the top of the keyboard. Each function key has a unique meaning
and is used for some specific purpose.

4 Control keys

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These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four directional
arrow keys. Control keys also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up,
Page Down, Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).

Special Purpose Keys

5
Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter, Shift,
Caps Lock, Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.

Mouse
Mouse is the most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control
device having a small palm size box with a round ball at its base, which senses
the movement of the mouse and sends corresponding signals to the CPU
when the mouse buttons are pressed.
Generally, it has two buttons called the left and the right button and a wheel
is present between the buttons. A mouse can be used to control the position
of the cursor on the screen, but it cannot be used to enter text into the
computer.

Advantages

 Easy to use

 Not very expensive

 Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of the keyboard.
Joystick
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Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move the cursor position
on a monitor screen. It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and
upper ends. The lower spherical ball moves in a socket. The joystick can be
moved in all four directions.

The function of the joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in

Computer Aided Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.

Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed
menu item or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell
and an optical system placed in a small tube.

When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and the pen
button is pressed, its photocell sensing element detects the screen location
and sends the corresponding signal to the CPU.

Track Ball

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Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop

computer, instead of a mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by
moving fingers on the ball, the pointer can be moved.

Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a
mouse. A track ball comes in various shapes like a ball, a button, or a square.

Scanner
Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It
is used when some information is available on paper and it is to be transferred
to the hard disk of the computer for further manipulation.

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Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into a
digital form that can be stored on the disk. These images can be edited before
they are printed.

Digitizer
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital
form. Digitizer can convert a signal from the television or camera into a series
of numbers that could be stored in a computer. They can be used by the
computer to create a picture of whatever the camera had been pointed at.

Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet as it converts graphics

and pictorial data into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for
fine works of drawing and image manipulation applications.

Microphone
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in a digital
form.

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The microphone is used for various applications such as adding sound to a

multimedia presentation or for mixing music.

Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)

MICR input device is generally used in banks as there are large number of
cheques to be processed every day. The bank's code number and cheque
number are printed on the cheques with a special type of ink that contains
particles of magnetic material that are machine readable.

This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR).

The main advantages of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.

Optical Character Reader (OCR)

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OCR is an input device used to read a printed text.

OCR scans the text optically, character by character, converts them into a
machine readable code, and stores the text on the system memory.

Bar Code Readers

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in the
form of light and dark lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling
goods, numbering the books, etc. It may be a handheld scanner or may be
embedded in a stationary scanner.

Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric
value, which is then fed to the computer that the bar code reader is connected
to.

Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

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OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark
made by pen or pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be
selected and marked.

It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having

multiple choice questions.

Computer - Output Devices

Following are some of the important output devices used in a computer.

 Monitors

 Graphic Plotter

 Printer
Monitors
Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main
output device of a computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels
that are arranged in a rectangular form. The sharpness of the image depends
upon the number of pixels.

There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.

 Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

 Flat-Panel Display
Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor
The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The
smaller the pixels, the better the image clarity or resolution. It takes more

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than one illuminated pixel to form a whole character, such as the letter ‘e’ in
the word help.

A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The

screen can be divided into a series of character boxes - fixed location on the
screen where a standard character can be placed. Most screens are capable
of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25 lines vertically.

There are some disadvantages of CRT −

 Large in Size

 High power consumption

Flat-Panel Display Monitor

The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced
volume, weight and power requirement in comparison to the CRT. You can
hang them on walls or wear them on your wrists. Current uses of flat-panel
displays include calculators, video games, monitors, laptop computer, and
graphics display.

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The flat-panel display is divided into two categories −

 Emissive Displays − Emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy
into light. For example, plasma panel and LED (Light-Emitting Diodes).

 Non-Emissive Displays − Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert

sunlight or light from some other source into graphics patterns. For example, LCD
(Liquid-Crystal Device).

Printers
Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper.

There are two types of printers −

 Impact Printers

 Non-Impact Printers
Impact Printers
Impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon, which is
then pressed on the paper.

Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following −

 Very low consumable costs

 Very noisy

 Useful for bulk printing due to low cost

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 There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image

These printers are of two types −

 Character printers

 Line printers

Character Printers

Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.

These are further divided into two types:

 Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)

 Daisy Wheel

Dot Matrix Printer

In the market, one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These
printers are popular because of their ease of printing and economical price.
Each character printed is in the form of pattern of dots and head consists of
a Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which come out to form a
character which is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.

Advantages

 Inexpensive

 Widely Used

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 Other language characters can be printed

Disadvantages

 Slow Speed

 Poor Quality

Daisy Wheel

Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals
of Daisy (flower) which is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers
are generally used for word-processing in offices that require a few letters to
be sent here and there with very nice quality.

Advantages

 More reliable than DMP

 Better quality

 Fonts of character can be easily changed

Disadvantages

 Slower than DMP

 Noisy

 More expensive than DMP

Line Printers
Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.

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These are of two types −

 Drum Printer

 Chain Printer
Drum Printer
This printer is like a drum in shape hence it is called drum printer. The surface
of the drum is divided into a number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to the
size of the paper, i.e. for a paper width of 132 characters, drum will have 132
tracks. A character set is embossed on the track. Different character sets
available in the market are 48-character set, 64 and 96 characters set. One
rotation of drum prints one line. Drum printers are fast in speed and can print
300 to 2000 lines per minute.

Advantages

 Very high speed

Disadvantages

 Very expensive

 Characters fonts cannot be changed

Chain Printer
In this printer, a chain of character sets is used, hence it is called Chain
Printer. A standard character set may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.

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Advantages

 Character fonts can easily be changed.

 Different languages can be used with the same printer.

Disadvantages

 Noisy

Non-impact Printers
Non-impact printers print the characters without using the ribbon. These
printers print a complete page at a time, thus they are also called as Page
Printers.

These printers are of two types −

 Laser Printers

 Inkjet Printers

Characteristics of Non-impact Printers

 Faster than impact printers

 They are not noisy

 High quality

 Supports many fonts and different character size

Laser Printers
These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots
needed to form the characters to be printed on a page.

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Advantages

 Very high speed

 Very high quality output

 Good graphics quality

 Supports many fonts and different character size

Disadvantages

 Expensive

 Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing

Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new
technology. They print characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper.
Inkjet printers produce high quality output with presentable features.

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They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many
styles of printing modes available. Color printing is also possible. Some
models of Inkjet printers can produce multiple copies of printing also.

Advantages

 High quality printing

 More reliable

Disadvantages

 Expensive as the cost per page is high

 Slow as compared to laser printer

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Chapter No 04 & 05

Number System
Computer - Number System
When we type some letters or words, the computer translates them in
numbers as computers can understand only numbers. A computer can
understand the positional number system where there are only a few symbols
called digits and these symbols represent different values depending on the
position they occupy in the number.

The value of each digit in a number can be determined using −

 The digit

 The position of the digit in the number

 The base of the number system (where the base is defined as the total number of
digits available in the number system)

Decimal Number System

The number system that we use in our day-to-day life is the decimal number
system. Decimal number system has base 10 as it uses 10 digits from 0 to
9. In decimal number system, the successive positions to the left of the
decimal point represent units, tens, hundreds, thousands, and so on.

Each position represents a specific power of the base (10). For example, the
decimal number 1234 consists of the digit 4 in the units position, 3 in the
tens position, 2 in the hundreds position, and 1 in the thousands position. Its
value can be written as

(1 x 1000) + (2 x 100) + (3 x 10) + (4 x l)

(1 x 103) + (2 x 102) + (3 x 101) + (4 x l00)
1000 + 200 + 30 + 4
1234
As a computer programmer or an IT professional, you should understand the
following number systems which are frequently used in computers.

S.No. Number System and Description

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Binary Number System

1
Base 2. Digits used : 0, 1

Octal Number System

2
Base 8. Digits used : 0 to 7

Hexa Decimal Number System

3
Base 16. Digits used: 0 to 9, Letters used : A- F

Binary Number System

Characteristics of the binary number system are as follows −

 Uses two digits, 0 and 1

 Also called as base 2 number system

 Each position in a binary number represents a 0 power of the base (2). Example
20

 Last position in a binary number represents a x power of the base (2). Example
2x where x represents the last position - 1.

Example

Binary Number: 101012

Calculating Decimal Equivalent −

Step Binary Number Decimal Number

Step 1 101012 ((1 x 24) + (0 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) + (1 x 20))10

Step 2 101012 (16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1)10

Step 3 101012 2110

Note − 101012 is normally written as 10101.

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Octal Number System

Characteristics of the octal number system are as follows −

 Uses eight digits, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7

 Also called as base 8 number system

 Each position in an octal number represents a 0 power of the base (8). Example
80

 Last position in an octal number represents a x power of the base (8). Example
8x where x represents the last position - 1

Example

Octal Number: 125708

Calculating Decimal Equivalent −

Step Octal Number Decimal Number

Step 1 125708 ((1 x 84) + (2 x 83) + (5 x 82) + (7 x 81) + (0 x 80))10

Step 2 125708 (4096 + 1024 + 320 + 56 + 0)10

Step 3 125708 549610

Note − 125708 is normally written as 12570.

Hexadecimal Number System

Characteristics of hexadecimal number system are as follows −

 Uses 10 digits and 6 letters, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F

 Letters represent the numbers starting from 10. A = 10. B = 11, C = 12, D = 13,
E = 14, F = 15

 Also called as base 16 number system

 Each position in a hexadecimal number represents a 0 power of the base (16).

Example, 160
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 Last position in a hexadecimal number represents a x power of the base (16).

Example 16x where x represents the last position - 1

Example

Hexadecimal Number: 19FDE16

Calculating Decimal Equivalent −

Step Binary Decimal Number

Number

Step 1 19FDE16 ((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (F x 162) + (D x 161) + (E x 160))10

((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (15 x 162) + (13 x 161) + (14 x

Step 2 19FDE16
160))10

Step 3 19FDE16 (65536+ 36864 + 3840 + 208 + 14)10

Step 4 19FDE16 10646210

Note − 19FDE16 is normally written as 19FDE.

Basics of Computers - Number System

The technique to represent and work with numbers is called number
system. Decimal number system is the most common number system.
Other popular number systems include binary number system, octal
number system, hexadecimal number system, etc.

Decimal Number System

Decimal number system is a base 10 number system having 10 digits from
0 to 9. This means that any numerical quantity can be represented using
these 10 digits. Decimal number system is also a positional value system.
This means that the value of digits will depend on its position. Let us take an
example to understand this.

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Say we have three numbers – 734, 971 and 207. The value of 7 in all three
numbers is different−

 In 734, value of 7 is 7 hundred or 700 or 7 × 100 or 7 × 102

 In 971, value of 7 is 7 tens or 70 or 7 × 10 or 7 × 101
 In 207, value 0f 7 is 7 units or 7 or 7 × 1 or 7 × 100
The weightage of each position can be represented as follows −

In digital systems, instructions are given through electric signals; variation is

done by varying the voltage of the signal. Having 10 different voltages to
implement decimal number system in digital equipment is difficult. So, many
number systems that are easier to implement digitally have been developed.
Let’s look at them in detail.

Binary Number System

The easiest way to vary instructions through electric signals is two-state
system – on and off. On is represented as 1 and off as 0, though 0 is not
actually no signal but signal at a lower voltage. The number system having
just these two digits – 0 and 1 – is called binary number system.

Each binary digit is also called a bit. Binary number system is also positional
value system, where each digit has a value expressed in powers of 2, as
displayed here.

In any binary number, the rightmost digit is called least significant bit
(LSB) and leftmost digit is called most significant bit (MSB).

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And decimal equivalent of this number is sum of product of each digit with its
positional value.

110102 = 1×24 + 1×23 + 0×22 + 1×21 + 0×20

= 16 + 8 + 0 + 2 + 0

= 2610

Computer memory is measured in terms of how many bits it can store. Here
is a chart for memory capacity conversion.

 1 byte (B) = 8 bits

 1 Kilobytes (KB) = 1024 bytes
 1 Megabyte (MB) = 1024 KB
 1 Gigabyte (GB) = 1024 MB
 1 Terabyte (TB) = 1024 GB
 1 Exabyte (EB) = 1024 PB
 1 Zettabyte = 1024 EB
 1 Yottabyte (YB) = 1024 ZB
Octal Number System
Octal number system has eight digits – 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7. Octal number
system is also a positional value system with where each digit has its value
expressed in powers of 8, as shown here −

Decimal equivalent of any octal number is sum of product of each digit with
its positional value.

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7268 = 7×82 + 2×81 + 6×80

= 448 + 16 + 6

= 47010

Hexadecimal Number System

Octal number system has 16 symbols – 0 to 9 and A to F where A is equal
to 10, B is equal to 11 and so on till F. Hexadecimal number system is also a
positional value system with where each digit has its value expressed in
powers of 16, as shown here −

Decimal equivalent of any hexadecimal number is sum of product of each

digit with its positional value.

27FB16 = 2×163 + 7×162 + 15×161 + 10×160

= 8192 + 1792 + 240 +10

= 1023410

Number System Relationship

The following table depicts the relationship between decimal, binary, octal
and hexadecimal number systems.

HEXADECIMAL DECIMAL OCTAL BINARY

0 0 0 0000

1 1 1 0001

2 2 2 0010

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3 3 3 0011

4 4 4 0100

5 5 5 0101

6 6 6 0110

7 7 7 0111

8 8 10 1000

9 9 11 1001

A 10 12 1010

B 11 13 1011

C 12 14 1100

D 13 15 1101

E 14 16 1110

F 15 17 1111

ASCII
Besides numerical data, computer must be able to handle alphabets,
punctuation marks, mathematical operators, special symbols, etc. that form
the complete character set of English language. The complete set of
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characters or symbols are called alphanumeric codes. The complete

alphanumeric code typically includes −

 26 upper case letters

 26 lower case letters
 10 digits
 7 punctuation marks
 20 to 40 special characters
Now a computer understands only numeric values, whatever the number
system used. So all characters must have a numeric equivalent called the
alphanumeric code. The most widely used alphanumeric code is American
Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII). ASCII is a 7-bit code
that has 128 (27) possible codes.

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ISCII
ISCII stands for Indian Script Code for Information Interchange. IISCII
was developed to support Indian languages on computer. Language
supported by IISCI include Devanagari, Tamil, Bangla, Gujarati, Gurmukhi,
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Tamil, Telugu, etc. IISCI is mostly used by government departments and

before it could catch on, a new universal encoding standard
called Unicode was introduced.

Unicode
Unicode is an international coding system designed to be used with different
language scripts. Each character or symbol is assigned a unique numeric
value, largely within the framework of ASCII. Earlier, each script had its own
encoding system, which could conflict with each other.

In contrast, this is what Unicode officially aims to do − Unicode provides a

unique number for every character, no matter what the platform, no matter
what the program, no matter what the language.

Computer - Number Conversion

There are many methods or techniques which can be used to convert
numbers from one base to another. In this chapter, we'll demonstrate the
following −

 Decimal to Other Base System

 Other Base System to Decimal

 Other Base System to Non-Decimal

 Shortcut method - Binary to Octal

 Shortcut method - Octal to Binary

 Shortcut method - Binary to Hexadecimal

 Shortcut method - Hexadecimal to Binary

Decimal to Other Base System
Step 1 − Divide the decimal number to be converted by the value of the new
base.

Step 2 − Get the remainder from Step 1 as the rightmost digit (least
significant digit) of the new base number.

Step 3 − Divide the quotient of the previous divide by the new base.

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Step 4 − Record the remainder from Step 3 as the next digit (to the left) of
the new base number.

Repeat Steps 3 and 4, getting remainders from right to left, until the quotient
becomes zero in Step 3.

The last remainder thus obtained will be the Most Significant Digit (MSD) of
the new base number.

Example
Decimal Number: 2910

Calculating Binary Equivalent −

Step Operation Result Remainder

Step 1 29 / 2 14 1

Step 2 14 / 2 7 0

Step 3 7/2 3 1

Step 4 3/2 1 1

Step 5 1/2 0 1

As mentioned in Steps 2 and 4, the remainders have to be arranged in the

reverse order so that the first remainder becomes the Least Significant Digit
(LSD) and the last remainder becomes the Most Significant Digit (MSD).

Decimal Number: 2910 = Binary Number: 111012.

Other Base System to Decimal System

Step 1 − Determine the column (positional) value of each digit (this depends
on the position of the digit and the base of the number system).

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Step 2 − Multiply the obtained column values (in Step 1) by the digits in the
corresponding columns.

Step 3 − Sum the products calculated in Step 2. The total is the equivalent
value in decimal.

Example
Binary Number: 111012

Calculating Decimal Equivalent −

Step Binary Number Decimal Number

Step 1 111012 ((1 x 24) + (1 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) + (1 x 20))10

Step 2 111012 (16 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1)10

Step 3 111012 2910

Binary Number: 111012 = Decimal Number : 2910

Other Base System to Non-Decimal System

Step 1 − Convert the original number to a decimal number (base 10).

Step 2 − Convert the decimal number so obtained to the new base number.

Example
Octal Number: 258

Calculating Binary Equivalent −

Step 1 - Convert to Decimal

Step Octal Number Decimal Number

Step 1 258 ((2 x 81) + (5 x 80))10

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Step 2 258 (16 + 5)10

Step 3 258 2110

Octal Number: 258 = Decimal Number: 2110

Step 2 - Convert Decimal to Binary

Step Operation Result Remainder

Step 1 21 / 2 10 1

Step 2 10 / 2 5 0

Step 3 5/2 2 1

Step 4 2/2 1 0

Step 5 1/2 0 1

Decimal Number: 2110 = Binary Number: 101012

Octal Number: 258 = Binary Number: 101012

Shortcut Method ─ Binary to Octal

Step 1 − Divide the binary digits into groups of three (starting from the
right).

Step 2 − Convert each group of three binary digits to one octal digit.

Example
Binary Number: 101012

Calculating Octal Equivalent −

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Step Binary Number Octal Number

Step 1 101012 010 101

Step 2 101012 28 5 8

Step 3 101012 258

Binary Number: 101012 = Octal Number: 258

Shortcut Method ─ Octal to Binary

Step 1 − Convert each octal digit to a 3-digit binary number (the octal digits
may be treated as decimal for this conversion).

Step 2 − Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 3 digits each) into a
single binary number.

Example
Octal Number: 258

Calculating Binary Equivalent −

Step Octal Number Binary Number

Step 1 258 210 510

Step 2 258 0102 1012

Step 3 258 0101012

Octal Number: 258 = Binary Number: 101012

Shortcut Method ─ Binary to Hexadecimal

Step 1 − Divide the binary digits into groups of four (starting from the right).

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Step 2 − Convert each group of four binary digits to one hexadecimal

symbol.

Example
Binary Number: 101012

Calculating hexadecimal Equivalent −

Step Binary Number Hexadecimal Number

Step 1 101012 0001 0101

Step 2 101012 110 510

Step 3 101012 1516

Binary Number: 101012 = Hexadecimal Number: 1516

Shortcut Method - Hexadecimal to Binary

Step 1 − Convert each hexadecimal digit to a 4-digit binary number (the
hexadecimal digits may be treated as decimal for this conversion).

Step 2 − Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 4 digits each) into a
single binary number.

Example
Hexadecimal Number: 1516

Calculating Binary Equivalent −

Step Hexadecimal Number Binary Number

Step 1 1516 110 510

Step 2 1516 00012 01012

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Step 3 1516 000101012

Hexadecimal Number: 1516 = Binary Number: 101012

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Chapter No 06

Introduction to Computer Software

Computer - Software
Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-defined
function. A program is a sequence of instructions written to solve a particular
problem.

There are two types of software −

 System Software
 Application Software
System Software
The system software is a collection of programs designed to operate, control,
and extend the processing capabilities of the computer itself. System
software is generally prepared by the computer manufacturers. These
software products comprise of programs written in low-level languages,
which interact with the hardware at a very basic level. System software
serves as the interface between the hardware and the end users.

Some examples of system software are Operating System, Compilers,

Interpreter, Assemblers, etc.

Here is a list of some of the most prominent features of a system software −

 Close to the system

 Fast in speed
 Difficult to design
 Difficult to understand

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 Less interactive
 Smaller in size
 Difficult to manipulate
 Generally written in low-level language
Application Software
Application software products are designed to satisfy a particular need of a
particular environment. All software applications prepared in the computer
lab can come under the category of Application software.

Application software may consist of a single program, such as Microsoft's

notepad for writing and editing a simple text. It may also consist of a
collection of programs, often called a software package, which work together
to accomplish a task, such as a spreadsheet package.

Examples of Application software are the following −

 Payroll Software
 Student Record Software
 Inventory Management Software
 Income Tax Software
 Railways Reservation Software
 Microsoft Office Suite Software
 Microsoft Word
 Microsoft Excel
 Microsoft PowerPoint

Features of application software are as follows −

 Close to the user

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 Easy to design
 More interactive
 Slow in speed
 Generally written in high-level language
 Easy to understand
 Easy to manipulate and use
 Bigger in size and requires large storage space
Purpose of Information System
The basic role of the information system is to provide information and satisfy the information
needs of decision-makers in organizations.
Other goals and tasks of the information system in organizations, can be also presented, e.g:
 Management information system
 Strategic information system
 Logistics information system
 Marketing information system
 Accounting information systems

It should be emphasized that the term "information system" should not be confused with the
concept of an IT system (software and hardware only). Apart from the IT technology, the
information system also includes:

 information sources,
 information needs
 system entities (users, employees, managers, customers, etc.),
 goals and structure
 functions and processes, etc.
All these elements play an important role for the proper functioning of the information system
of the organization.
General Purpose vs. Specialized Information Systems
There are some general types of information systems. For example, a database management
system (DBMS) is a combination of software and data that makes it possible to organize and
analyze data. DBMS software is typically not designed to work with a specific organization or a
specific type of analysis. Rather, it is a general-purpose information system. Another example is
anelectronic spreadsheet. This is a tool for basic data analysis based on formulas that define
relationships among the data. For example, you can use a spreadsheet to calculate averages for
a set of values or to plot the trend of a value over time.

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In contrast, there are a number of specialized information systems that have been specifically
designed to support a particular process within an organization or to carry out very specific
analysis tasks. For example, enterprise resource planning (ERP) is an information system used
to integrate the management of all internal and external information across an entire
organization. Another example is a geographic information system (GIS), which is used to
manage and analyze all types of geographical data. Expert systems are another example of
information systems. An expert’s system is designed to solve complex problems by following
the reasoning of an expert.
Typical Components of Information Systems
While information systems may differ in how they are used within an organization, they
typically contain the following components:

1. Hardware: Computer-based information systems use computer hardware, such as

processors, monitors, keyboard and printers.
2. Software: These are the programs used to organize, process and analyze data.
3. Databases: Information systems work with data, organized into tables and files.
4. Network: Different elements need to be connected to each other, especially if many
different people in an organization use the same information system.
5. Procedures: These describe how specific data are processed and analyzed in order to
get the answers for which the information system is designed.

The first four components are part of the general information technology (IT) of an
organization. Procedures, the fifth component, are very specific to the information needed to
answer a specific question.

Types of Information System

Formal Information System: It is based on organizational chart represented by the
organization.
Informal Information System: it is an employee based system designedto meet
personal and vocational needs and to help in the solution of workrelatedproblems. It also
funnels information upward through indirectchannels. It works within the framework of the
business and its stated policies.
Computer Based Information System (CBIS): This category of information system
depends mainly on the computer for handling business applications. System analyst
develops different types of information systems to meet variety of business needs. There
is a class of system collectively known as computer based information system. They can
be classified as
• Transaction Processing System (TPS)
• Management Information System(MIS)
• Decision Support System (DSS)
• Office Automation System (OAS)
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Transaction Processing System (TPS): The most fundamental computer based system
in an organization pertains to the processing of business transactions. A transaction
processing system can be defined as a system that captures, classifies, stores, maintains,
updates and retrieves transaction data for record keeping and input to the other types of
CBIS.
Transaction Processing System is aimed at improving the routine business activities. A
transaction is any event or activity that affects the whole organization. Placing order,
billing customers, hiring of employees and depositing cheques are some of the common
transactions.
Types of transactions that occur vary from organization to organization but this is true that
all organizations process transaction as a major part of their daily business activities.
Transaction Processing System provides speed and accuracy and can be programmed
to follow routines without any variance.
Management Information System (MIS): Data processing by computers has been
extremely effective because of several reasons. The main reason is that huge amount of
data relating to accounts and other transactions can be processed very quickly. MIS are
more concerned with levels of management with information essential to the running of
smooth business. This Information must be as relevant, timely, accurate, complete and
concise as is economically feasible.
Decision Support System (DSS): It is an information system that offers the kind of
information that may not be predictable. Business professionals may need such
information only once. These systems do not produce regularly scheduled management
reports. Instead, they are designed to respond to wide range of requests. It is true that all
the decisions in an organization are not of a recurring nature. Decision support systems
assist managers, who make decisions that are not highly structured, often called
unstructured or semi structured decision. The decision support systems support, but do
not replace, judgments of managers.
Office Automation System (OAS): Office Automation Systems are among the newest
and most rapidly expanding computer based information systems. They are being
developed with the hope and expectation that they will increase the efficiency and
productivity of office workers, typists, secretaries, administrative assistants, staff
professionals, managers and others.
Office Automation System and Tools
The term office automation refers to all tools and methods that are applied to office activities
which make it possible to process written, visual, and sound data in a computer-aided manner.
Office automation is intended to provide elements which make it possible to simplify, improve,
and automate the organization of the activities of a company or a group of people
(management of administrative data, synchronization of meetings, etc.).
Considering that company organizations requires increased communication, today, office
automation is no longer limited to simply capturing handwritten notes. In particular, it also
includes the following activities:

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 exchange of information
 management of administrative documents
 handling of numerical data
 meeting planning and management of work schedules
Office suite tools
The term "office suite" refers to all software programs which make it possible to meet office
needs. In particular, an office suite therefore includes the following software programs:
 word processing
 a spreadsheet
 a presentation tool
 a database
 a scheduler
The main office suites are:

 OpenOffice (freeware)
 AppleWorks
 Corel WordPerfect
 IBM/Lotus SmartSuite
 Microsoft Office
 Sun StarOffice

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Chapter No 07 & 08

Operating Systems
The Operating System is a program with the following features −

 An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the software

and the computer hardware.

 It is an integrated set of specialized programs used to manage overall resources

and operations of the computer.

 It is a specialized software that controls and monitors the execution of all other
programs that reside in the computer, including application programs and other
system software.

Objectives of Operating System

The objectives of the operating system are −

 To make the computer system convenient to use in an efficient manner.

 To hide the details of the hardware resources from the users.

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 To provide users a convenient interface to use the computer system.

 To act as an intermediary between the hardware and its users, making it easier
for the users to access and use other resources.

 To manage the resources of a computer system.

 To keep track of who is using which resource, granting resource requests, and
mediating conflicting requests from different programs and users.

 To provide efficient and fair sharing of resources among users and programs.

Characteristics of Operating System

Here is a list of some of the most prominent characteristic features of
Operating Systems −

 Memory Management − Keeps track of the primary memory, i.e. what part of
it is in use by whom, what part is not in use, etc. and allocates the memory when
a process or program requests it.

 Processor Management − Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process and

deallocates the processor when it is no longer required.

 Device Management − Keeps track of all the devices. This is also called I/O
controller that decides which process gets the device, when, and for how much
time.

 File Management − Allocates and de-allocates the resources and decides who
gets the resources.

 Security − Prevents unauthorized access to programs and data by means of

passwords and other similar techniques.

 Job Accounting − Keeps track of time and resources used by various jobs and/or
users.

 Control Over System Performance − Records delays between the request for
a service and from the system.

 Interaction with the Operators − Interaction may take place via the console
of the computer in the form of instructions. The Operating System acknowledges
the same, does the corresponding action, and informs the operation by a display
screen.
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 Error-detecting Aids − Production of dumps, traces, error messages, and other

debugging and error-detecting methods.

 Coordination Between Other Software and Users − Coordination and

assignment of compilers, interpreters, assemblers, and other software to the
various users of the computer systems.

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Chapter No 09

Programming Languages
Computer Program is a way of communicating with the computer, that‟s how we give
instructions to computer hardware to act accordingly, all types of software are
developed used computer languages.
Machine Language is the only language the computer understands. Under it
instructions are written as strings of binary 1s and 0s.
Difficult to write programs
Difficult to understand programs
Not portable
Difficult to modify
Assembly language is one level above the machine language. It uses certain
predefined symbolic codes instead of binary codes. These symbolic codes are called
mnemonics. (Both Machine and Assembly language are considered low level language)
High-Level Language Overcomes the limitation of writing a program in Machine and
Assembly language as it is difficult and time consuming. In High-Level Language, the
programs can be written using simple English words. Examples of High-Level Language
are BASIC, Fortran, COBOL, C, C++.
Easy to write programs
Portable and compatible
Easy to modify and enhance programs

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Chapter No 10 & 11

Introduction to DBMS
DBMS stands for Database Management System. We can break it like this
DBMS = Database + Management System. Database is a collection of data and
Management System is a set of programs to store and retrieve those data.
Based on this we can define DBMS like this: DBMS is a collection of inter-
related data and set of programs to store & access those data in an easy and
effective manner.

What is the need of DBMS?

Database systems are basically developed for large amount of data. When
dealing with huge amount of data, there are two things that require
optimization: Storage of data and retrieval of data.

Storage: According to the principles of database systems, the data is stored in

such a way that it acquires lot less space as the redundant data (duplicate data)
has been removed before storage. Let’s take a layman example to understand
this:
In a banking system, suppose a customer is having two accounts, one is saving
account and another is salary account. Let’s say bank stores saving account data
at one place (these places are called tables we will learn them later) and salary
account data at another place, in that case if the customer information such as
customer name, address etc. are stored at both places then this is just a wastage
of storage (redundancy/ duplication of data), to organize the data in a better way
the information should be stored at one place and both the accounts should be
linked to that information somehow. The same thing we achieve in DBMS.

Fast Retrieval of data: Along with storing the data in an optimized and
systematic manner, it is also important that we retrieve the data quickly when
needed. Database systems ensure that the data is retrieved as quickly as
possible.

Database Applications – DBMS

Applications where we use Database Management Systems are:

 Telecom: There is a database to keeps track of the information regarding

calls made, network usage, customer details etc. Without the database
systems it is hard to maintain that huge amount of data that keeps updating
every millisecond.
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 Industry: Where it is a manufacturing unit, warehouse or distribution centre,

each one needs a database to keep the records of ins and outs. For
example, distribution centre should keep a track of the product units that
supplied into the centre as well as the products that got delivered out from
the distribution centre on each day; this is where DBMS comes into picture.
 Banking System: For storing customer info, tracking day to day credit and
debit transactions, generating bank statements etc. All this work has been
done with the help of Database management systems.
 Sales: To store customer information, production information and invoice
details.
 Airlines: To travel though airlines, we make early reservations, this
reservation information along with flight schedule is stored in database.
 Education sector: Database systems are frequently used in schools and
colleges to store and retrieve the data regarding student details, staff
details, course details, exam details, payroll data, attendance details, fees
details etc. There is a hell lot amount of inter-related data that needs to be
stored and retrieved in an efficient manner.
 Online shopping: You must be aware of the online shopping websites such
as Amazon, Flipkart etc. These sites store the product information, your
addresses and preferences, credit details and provide you the relevant list
of products based on your query. All this involves a Database management
system.

I have mentioned very few applications; this list is never going to end if we start
mentioning all the DBMS applications.

Advantages of DBMS over file system

Drawbacks of File system:

 Data Isolation: Because data are scattered in various files, and files may be
in different formats, writing new application programs to retrieve the
appropriate data is difficult.
 Duplication of data – Redundant data

Dependency on application programs – Changing files would lead to change in application programs.

Advantage of DBMS over file system

There are several advantages of Database management system over file
system. Few of them are as follows:

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 No redundant data – Redundancy removed by data normalization

 Data Consistency and Integrity – data normalization takes care of it too
 Secure – Each user has a different set of access
 Privacy – Limited access
 Easy access to data
 Easy recovery
 Flexible

Disadvantages of DBMS:

 DBMS implementation cost is high compared to the file system

 Complexity: Database systems are complex to understand
 Performance: Database systems are generic, making them suitable for
various applications. However, this feature affects their performance for
some applications

DBMS languages
Database languages are used to read, update and store data in a database.
There are several such languages that can be used for this purpose; one of them
is SQL (Structured Query Language).

Types of DBMS languages:

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Data Definition Language (DDL)

DDL is used for specifying the database schema. It is used for creating tables,
schema, indexes, constraints etc. in database. Let’s see the operations that we
can perform on database using DDL:

 To create the database instance – CREATE

 To alter the structure of database – ALTER
 To drop database instances – DROP
 To delete tables in a database instance – TRUNCATE
 To rename database instances – RENAME
 To drop objects from database such as tables – DROP
 To Comment – Comment

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All of these commands either defines or update the database schema that’s why
they come under Data Definition language.

Data Manipulation Language (DML)

DML is used for accessing and manipulating data in a database. The following
operations on database comes under DML:

 To read records from table(s) – SELECT

 To insert record(s) into the table(s) – INSERT
 Update the data in table(s) – UPDATE
 Delete all the records from the table – DELETE

Data Control language (DCL)

DCL is used for granting and revoking user access on a database –

 To grant access to user – GRANT

 To revoke access from user – REVOKE

In practical data definition language, data manipulation language and data

control languages are not separate language, rather they are the parts of a
single database language such as SQL.

Transaction Control Language(TCL)

The changes in the database that we made using DML commands are either
performed or rollbacked using TCL.

 To persist the changes made by DML commands in database – COMMIT

 To rollback the changes made to the database – ROLLBACK

Data models in DBMS

Data Model is a logical structure of Database. It describes the design of
database to reflect entities, attributes, relationship among data, constrains etc.

Types of Data Models

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There are several types of data models in DBMS. We will cover them in detail in
separate articles (Links to those separate tutorials are already provided below).
In this guide, we will just see a basic overview of types of models.

Object based logical Models – Describe data at the conceptual and view levels.

1. E-R Model
2. Object oriented Model

Record based logical Models – Like Object based model, they also describe
data at the conceptual and view levels. These models specify logical structure of
database with records, fields and attributes.

1. Relational Model
2. Hierarchical Model
3. Network Model – Network Model is same as hierarchical model except that
it has graph-like structure rather than a tree-based structure. Unlike
hierarchical model, this model allows each record to have more than one
parent record.

Physical Data Models – These models describe data at the lowest level of
abstraction.

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Chapter No 12 & 13

Introduction to Telecommunications
Telecommunications refers to the exchange of information by electronic and electrical means
over a significant distance. A complete telecommunication arrangement is made up of two or
more stations equipped with transmitter and receiver devices. A single co-arrangement of
transmitters and receivers, called a transceiver, may also be used in many telecommunication
stations.
Telecommunications devices include telephones, telegraph, radio, microwave communication
arrangements, fiber optics, satellites and the Internet. Telecommunications is also known as
telecom. OR
Telecommunications has been defined as a technology concerned with communicating from a
distance, and we can categorize it in various ways. Figure 1.1 shows one possible view of the
different sections of telecommunications. It includes mechanical communication and electrical
communication because telecommunications has evolved from a mechanical to an electrical
form using increasingly more sophisticated electrical systems. This is why many authorities such
as the national post, telegraph, and telephone (PTT) companies are involved in
telecommunications using both forms. Our main concern here is electrical and bidirectional
communication, as shown in the upper part of Figure 1.1. The share of mechanical
telecommunications such as conventional mail and press is expected to decrease, whereas
electrical, especially bidirectional, communication will increase and take the major share of
telecommunications in the future. Hence, major press corporations are interested in electrical
telecommunications as a business opportunity.

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Chapter No 14

Computer Networks
A computer network is a system in which multiple computers are
connected to each other to share information and resources.

Characteristics of a Computer Network

 Share resources from one computer to another.

 Create files and store them in one computer, access those files from the other
computer(s) connected over the network.

 Connect a printer, scanner, or a fax machine to one computer within the network
and let other computers of the network use the machines available over the
network.

Following is the list of hardware's required to set up a computer network.

 Network Cables

 Distributors

 Routers

 Internal Network Cards

 External Network Cards

Network Cables

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Network cables are used to connect computers. The most commonly used
cable is Category 5 cable RJ-45.

Distributors
A computer can be connected to another one via a serial port but if we need
to connect many computers to produce a network, this serial connection will
not work.

The solution is to use a central body to which other computers, printers,

scanners, etc. can be connected and then this body will manage or distribute
network traffic.

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Router
A router is a type of device which acts as the central point among computers
and other devices that are a part of the network. It is equipped with holes
called ports. Computers and other devices are connected to a router using
network cables. Now-a-days router comes in wireless modes using which
computers can be connected without any physical cable.

Network Card
Network card is a necessary component of a computer without which a
computer cannot be connected over a network. It is also known as the
network adapter or Network Interface Card (NIC). Most branded computers
have network card pre-installed. Network cards are of two types: Internal
and External Network Cards.

Internal Network Cards

Motherboard has a slot for internal network card where it is to be inserted.
Internal network cards are of two types in which the first type uses Peripheral

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Component Interconnect (PCI) connection, while the second type uses

Industry Standard Architecture (ISA). Network cables are required to provide
network access.

External Network Cards

External network cards are of two types: Wireless and USB based. Wireless
network card needs to be inserted into the motherboard, however no network
cable is required to connect to the network.

Universal Serial Bus (USB)

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USB card is easy to use and connects via USB port. Computers automatically
detect USB card and can install the drivers required to support the USB
network card automatically.

Chapter No 14

Internet and WWW

The Internet
The Internet is a massive network of networks, a networking infrastructure. It connects millions
of computers together globally, forming a network in which any computer can communicate
with any other computer as long as they are both connected to the Internet. Information that
travels over the Internet does so via a variety of languages known as protocols.
Quick Points about The Internet:

 It is a global network connecting millions of computers.

 The Internet is decentralized.
 Each Internet computer is independent.
 There are a variety of ways to access the Internet.
 There are more than 3,700,000,000 Internet Users in the world.
The World Wide Web (WWW)

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The World Wide Web, or simply Web, is a way of accessing information over the medium of the
Internet. It is an information-sharing model that is built on top of the Internet. The Web uses
the HTTP protocol, only one of the languages spoken over the Internet, to transmit data. Web
services, which use HTTP to allow applications to communicate in order to exchange business
logic, use the the Web to share information. The Web also utilizes browsers, such as Internet
Explorer or Firefox, to access Web documents called Web pages that are linked to each other
via hyperlinks. Web documents also contain graphics, sounds, text and video.
Quick Points about The Web:

 It is a system of Internet servers that support specially formatted documents.

 Documents are formatted in a markup language that supports links to other documents.
 You can jump from one document to another simply by clicking on hot spots
(hyperlinks).
 Applications called Web browsers that make it easy to access the World Wide Web.
 There are more than 1,275,000,000 Websites.
OR

What is The Internet?

The internet is a massive network of networks, a networking infrastructure. It

connects millions of computers together globally, forming a network in which any computer can
communicate with any other computer as long as they are both connected to the internet.
Information that travels over the internet does so via a variety of languages known as protocols.
Quick Points about The Internet:

 It is a global network connecting millions of computers.

 The internet is decentralized.

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 Each internet computer is independent.

 There are a variety of ways to access the internet.
 There are more than 3.5 billion internet users in the world.

What is The Web (World Wide Web)?

The World Wide Web, or simply web, is a way of accessing information over the
medium of the internet. It is an information-sharing model that is built on top of the internet. The
web uses the HTTP protocol, only one of the languages spoken over the internet, to transmit
data. Web services, which use HTTP to allow applications to communicate in order to exchange
business logic, use the the web to share information. The web also utilizes browsers, such
as Internet Explorer or Firefox, to access Web documents called webpages that are linked to
each other via hyperlinks. Web documents also contain graphics, sounds, text and video.
Quick Points about The Web:

 It is a system of internet servers that support specially formatted documents.

 Documents are formatted in a markup language that supports links to other documents.
 You can jump from one document to another simply by clicking on hot spots
(hyperlinks).
 Applications called web browsers that make it easy to access the World Wide Web.
 There are more than 1,275,000,000 websites.

The Web is a Portion of the Internet

The web is just one of the ways that information can be disseminated over the internet. The
internet, not the web, is also used for email, which relies on SMTP, Usenet news
groups, instant messaging and FTP. So the web is just a portion of the Internet, albeit a large
portion, but the two terms are not synonymous and should not be confused.

Internet
It is a worldwide/global system of interconnected computer networks. It uses the standard
Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). Every computer in Internet is identified by a unique IP address. IP
Address is a unique set of numbers (such as 110.22.33.114) which identifies a computer’s
location.
A special computer DNS (Domain Name Server) is used to provide a name to the IP Address so
that the user can locate a computer by a name. For example, a DNS server will resolve a
name https://www.tutorialspoint.com to a particular IP address to uniquely identify the
computer on which this website is hosted.

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Internet is accessible to every user all over the world.

Intranet
Intranet is the system in which multiple PCs are connected to each other. PCs
in intranet are not available to the world outside the intranet. Usually each
organization has its own Intranet network and members/employees of that
organization can access the computers in their intranet.

Each computer in Intranet is also identified by an IP Address which is unique

among the computers in that Intranet.

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Similarities between Internet and Intranet

 Intranet uses the internet protocols such as TCP/IP and FTP.

 Intranet sites are accessible via the web browser in a similar way as websites in
the internet. However, only members of Intranet network can access intranet
hosted sites.

 In Intranet, own instant messengers can be used as similar to yahoo

messenger/gtalk over the internet.

Differences between Internet and Intranet

 Internet is general to PCs all over the world whereas Intranet is specific to few
PCs.

 Internet provides a wider and better access to websites to a large population,

whereas Intranet is restricted.

 Internet is not as safe as Intranet. Intranet can be safely privatized as per the
need.

The Internet & Online Resources

In the Internet basics/Web Help tutorial we are going to cover the basics of the internet or web.
I want to start by defining the terms internet and web, then move through
explaining browsers, search engines, webmail, and anti-virus programs. These topics will give
you a thorough understanding of finding your way around the web.
Many people use the terms Internet and World Wide Web (aka. the Web) interchangeably, but
they are not the same. The Internet and the Web are two separate but related things.
The Internet is a massive network of networks. It connects millions of computers together
globally, forming a network in which any computer cancommunicate with any other computer
as long as they are both connected to the Internet.
The World Wide Web, or simply Web, is a way of accessing information over the medium of the
Internet. It is an information-sharing model that is built on top of the Internet. The Web utilizes
browsers, such as Internet Explorer or Firefox, to access Web documents called Web pages
that are linked to each other via hyperlinks. Web documents also contain graphics, sounds, text
and video.
Now that you know the difference between an internet and the Web we can start walking
through the basics for using the Web. Most senior or beginner computer users want to use the
Web to search for information on their favorite topics, do some banking, play games book
travel arrangements, or shop online. In order to do these things, you need to use some sort of
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web browser. There are many different browsers to choose from. I like using either IE, or Fire
Fox.
OR

Introduction
The Internet is an increasingly important part of everyday life for people around the world. But
if you've never used the Internet before, all of this new information might feel a bit confusing at
first.
Throughout this tutorial, we'll try to answer some basic questions you may have about the
Internet and how it's used. When you're done, you'll have a good understanding of how the
Internet works, how to connect to the Internet, and how to browse the Web.
What is the Internet?
The Internet is a global network of billions of computers and other electronic devices. With the
Internet, it's possible to access almost any information, communicate with anyone else in the
world, and do much more.
You can do all of this by connecting a computer to the Internet, which is also called
going online. When someone says a computer is online, it's just another way of saying it's
connected to the Internet.

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What is the Web?

The World Wide Web—usually called the Web for short—is a collection of
different websites you can access through the Internet. A website is made up of related text,
images, and other resources. Websites can resemble other forms of media—like newspaper
articles or television programs—or they can be interactive in a way that's unique to computers.
The purpose of a website can be almost anything: a news platform, an advertisement, an online
library, a forum for sharing images, or an educational site like us!

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Once you are connected to the Internet, you can access and view websites using a type of
application called a web browser. Just keep in mind that the web browser itself is not the
Internet; it only displays websites that are stored on the Internet.

How does the Internet work?

At this point you may be wondering, how does the Internet work? The exact answer is pretty
complicated and would take a while to explain. Instead, let's look at some of the most
important things you should know.
It's important to realize that the Internet is a global network of physical cables, which can
include copper telephone wires, TV cables, and fiber optic cables. Even wireless connections
like Wi-Fi and 3G/4G rely on these physical cables to access the Internet.
When you visit a website, your computer sends a request over these wires to a server. A server
is where websites are stored, and it works a lot like your computer's hard drive. Once the
request arrives, the server retrieves the website and sends the correct data back to your
computer. What's amazing is that this all happens in just a few seconds!
Chapter No 16

E-commerce
Ecommerce, also known as electronic commerce or internet commerce, refers to the buying
and selling of goods or services using the internet, and the transfer of money and data to
execute these transactions. Ecommerce is often used to refer to the sale of physical products
online, but it can also describe any kind of commercial transaction that is facilitated through the
internet.

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Whereas e-business refers to all aspects of operating an online business, ecommerce refers
specifically to the transaction of goods and services.
The history of ecommerce begins with the first ever online sale: on the August 11, 1994 a man
sold a CD by the band Sting to his friend through his website NetMarket, an American retail
platform. This is the first example of a consumer purchasing a product from a business through
the World Wide Web—or “ecommerce” as we commonly know it today.
Since then, ecommerce has evolved to make products easier to discover and purchase through
online retailers and marketplaces. Independent freelancers, small businesses, and large
corporations have all benefited from ecommerce, which enables them to sell their goods and
services at a scale that was not possible with traditional offline retail.
Global retail ecommerce sales are projected to reach $27 trillion by 2020.

Types of Ecommerce Models

There are four main types of ecommerce models that can describe almost
every transaction that takes place between consumers and businesses.

1. Business to Consumer (B2C):

When a business sells a good or service to an individual consumer (e.g. You
buy a pair of shoes from an online retailer).

2. Business to Business (B2B):

When a business sells a good or service to another business (e.g. A business
sells software-as-a-service for other businesses to use)

3. Consumer to Consumer (C2C):

When a consumer sells a good or service to another consumer (e.g. You sell
your old furniture on eBay to another consumer).

4. Consumer to Business (C2B):

When a consumer sells their own products or services to a business or
organization (e.g. An influencer offers exposure to their online audience in
exchange for a fee, or a photographer licenses their photo for a business to
use).

Examples of Ecommerce
Ecommerce can take on a variety of forms involving different transactional

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relationships between businesses and consumers, as well as different objects

being exchanged as part of these transactions.

1. Retail:
The sale of a product by a business directly to a customer without any
intermediary.

2. Wholesale:
The sale of products in bulk, often to a retailer that then sells them directly to
consumers.

3. Dropshipping:
The sale of a product, which is manufactured and shipped to the consumer by
a third party.

4. Crowdfunding:
The collection of money from consumers in advance of a product being
available in order to raise the startup capital necessary to bring it to market.

5. Subscription:
The automatic recurring purchase of a product or service on a regular basis
until the subscriber chooses to cancel.

6. Physical products:
Any tangible good that requires inventory to be replenished and orders to be
physically shipped to customers as sales are made.

7. Digital products:
Downloadable digital goods, templates, and courses, or media that must be
purchased for consumption or licensed for use.

8. Services:
A skill or set of skills provided in exchange for compensation. The service
provider’s time can be purchased for a fee.

Computers in Offices
Some of the popular uses of computers in offices include preparation of word documents such
as letters, reports, processing of work documents such as work orders and financial reports,
presentation of reports and proposals to and behalf of executive and higher level office
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personnel, management of email services to maintain and sustain business and communication
services, filing, storage and retrieval of business information and support for internal and
external business services that require messaging, faxes, printing, photocopying, video and
electronic transmissions.
For some of the processes described above, computers enable the use of “productive” office
software tools that facilitate effective management of: word processing documentation,
extensive numerical calculations and outputs that are useful in decision making, and quite
complex but highly organized collections of various types of data, which may be alphabetical,
numerical, or both. Again the latter functions allow for quick and easy management, of
business data, that facilitate quick office operations thereby producing useful business
information such as billing and invoices. In this regard, office software tools, such as the
Microsoft Software Suite of productive tools, are a basic feature of almost every modern office
computer software system.
Modern computer networks facilitate business interactions among offices in small and large
businesses and also promote productive two way or multi-path business flows with other
remote business, governmental, legal, commercial and almost any other relevant or related
business concerns. As such they extend and augment the reach and capability of the office
enterprise.
The office computer has therefore leapt forward from being a mere facilitator of platforms for
word processing, spreadsheets, databases, and powerpoint presentations to being a dynamic
and interactive business instrument for offices in contemporary times.
In the school I work at, teachers and clerks use computers to store, retrieve, display and print
student records. For example, when a student gets a grade in an assignment it’s entered into a
computer, the computer then calculates the aggregate grade for that course. If the student or
parent then inquires what the grade is, it can be calculated, displayed and printed by a
computer.
Other info that’s stored in the computer include: student medical conditions; special ed
instructions; whether they go home by bus, walk, or ride; their guardian’s email and phone
number, and more. The advantage of this over paper record keeping is that if any of this info
must be updated, the up-to-date info is immediately promulgated by the computers to all who
may have interest in it.
Computers are also used to send inter-office memos via email. Those are essential at my school
since intercom communications are disturbing and ungainly, and my classroom phone’s ringer
is disabled so as not to disturb the class.

Computers in Industry

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With all due respect, this question is virtually unanswerable. What industry? What
kind(s) of computer? Even some more context might help.

The generic answer is that computers do a myriad of things for many different
industries. Some industries need specialized computers; some use generalized
processors of varying types and sizes; some industries restrict the kinds of computers,
and computer processing, that are allowed.

As far as specific uses, the list is endless but includes such diverse (depending on
industry) simple document editing; corporate accounting and payroll; hydrodynamic
modeling; disease cure research; astronomical data analysis; security and threat testing;
practice and improvement of gaming theory; (I hope you can tell I’m just throwing out
things because, to a large degree, computers can be used for “almost” anything.

Computers in Education
Technology continues to evolve over the years, and integrating it into classrooms as a teaching
tool can be very beneficial for students as well as teachers.
Computers in education enable us to:

Teach more effectively.

With computers we can individualize instruction, grant students autonomy, and empower
students to learn at their own pace, rather than wait for the teacher’s personal Attention. Each
learner benefits from having an omnipresent tutor to individually tailor schoolwork.
Reach and teach more students.
Computers and internet access can expand the educational horizons of children in isolated rural
communities, children with limited community resources, or those children who are
homebound because of disability or illness.
Make the world our classroom.
Students with internet access can directly tap resources in their communities or venture
beyond the neighborhoods. Students can draw from limitless books, articles, pictures and
sound clips; follow links to experts or virtual field trips; and participate in real time
communications across the globe.

Turn latchkey kids into connected kids.

Too many youngster have no one to talk to and are hesitant to asks questions of adults or
teachers. The internet offers a homework helper, a companion at the end of the school day, or
a chat room of friends so that no one needs to be home alone.

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Get ready for the future.

Technology encourages interdisciplinary and collaborative work, facilitates problem-learning
and provides an outlet for students to express their creativity. Students at ease with technology
will be assets to future employer.

The Negative Effects of Computers in Education

• Effective teaching all but disappears. Good teaching requires a personal connection. A teacher
gazing at a student who is gazing at a computer screen is not teaching effectively. The
internet is unmonitored, filled with erroneous information, political propaganda, and phony
research.
• The digital world remains divided. Technology amplifies economic disparities, awarding clear
advantage to children from wealthy high-tech homes attending wealthy hightech schools. Poor
students soon discover technology’s unwelcome mat tripping them up at the door of most
career options.
• Students risk becoming antisocial. Too many today’s youngster can surf the internet, but are
unable to form personal connections. The internet is home to countless narrow-internet groups
that fragment society instead of unifying it.
Computers are a health risk.
Computer use is associated with increased eyestrain, repetitive motion injury, and the obesity
that comes from a sedentary lifestyle.
Fundamental skills are sidelined.
As spelling and grammar tools correct student writing and computer screens replace
engagement with books, real learning is compromised. Tomorrow’s workers may become
powerless automatons.
“Technology is just a tool. In terms of getting the kids working together and motivating them,
the teacher is most important.” Bill Gates.

Chapter No 17
Introduction to Multimedia
Derived from the word “Multi” and “Media”
– Multi
• Many, Multiple,
– Media
• Distribution tool & information presentation – text,
graphic, voice, images, music and etc.
Multimedia is a combination of text, graphic, sound, animation, and video that is delivered
interactively to the user by electronic or digitally manipulated means.

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5 Elements of Multimedia
1. Text
A broad term for something that contains words to express something.
Text is the most basic element of multimedia.
A good choice of words could help convey the intended message to the users (keywords).
Used in contents, menus, navigational buttons.

2. Graphics
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Two-dimensional figure or illustration

Could be produced manually (by drawing, painting, carving, etc.) or by computer graphics
technology.
Used in multimedia to show more clearly what a particular information is all about (diagrams,
picture).
A Picture means a thousand words.

3. Audio
Produced by vibration, as perceived by the sense of hearing.
In multimedia, audio could come in the form of speech, sound effects and also music score.

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4. Animation
The illusion of motion created by the consecutive display of images of static elements.
In multimedia, animation is used to further enhance / enriched the experience of the user to
further understand the information conveyed to them.

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5. Video
Is the technology of capturing, recording, processing, transmitting, and reconstructing moving
pictures.
Video is more towards photo realistic image sequence / live recording as in comparison to
animation.
Video also takes a lot of storage space. So plan carefully before you are going to use it.

What Is Computer Graphic Design?

Computer graphic design combines skills in technology, business and art, using computer-
generated images and words to create unique concepts and messages for publishing and
advertising. To learn more about opportunities in this field, education programs and career
information, read on. Schools offering 3D Animation degrees can also be found in these
popular choices.
Computer Graphic Design
Computer graphic design is everywhere in the modern world. You see it on street signs and in
restaurants, television programs and magazines. You're seeing it right now as you read this.
Computer graphic designers use technology to manipulate and combine words, images, color,

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typography and sound in order to elicit emotions and deliver messages to viewers. Continue
reading for information about specific aspects of computer graphic design.
Important Facts About Graphic Designers

Entry-level
Education Bachelor's degree

On-the-job None required but work experience and training can help with
Training advancement

Artistic ability, creativitiy, analytical skills, communication skills, time-

Key Skills management skills, and computer skills

Work
Environment Work independently, in a team, or at a firm in visual arts studios

Digital Design
Whenever you see an image that has been manipulated or changed, that is digital design in
action. In this subspecialty, you focus on the aesthetics and perception of the image you create.
Artwork and images created for an advertising campaign or a billboard are often the work of a
digital designer.
Multimedia Design
The presentation of information and images on a website is encompassed in multimedia design.
Multimedia design can be used to combine timing and sound with text and images to grab your
attention and explain a concept. Computer software programs such as QuickTime can be used
to create animations or videos, which are a form of computer graphic design.
Type Design
Often you might skim over the words in an ad or just read the text for its direct meaning,
without noticing the typeface that was used. The formal construction of the words in an
advertisement or design may not receive much notice by the reader, but it has an impact on
how the image is perceived. By working in type design, you draw and present letters and words
in ways that are aesthetically pleasing or unique in order to draw more attention to your
message.
Education

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Undergraduate programs are available in computer graphic design at many universities,

community colleges and trade schools, and graduates can qualify for entry-level design
positions. If you're interested in teaching or managerial positions, a graduate degree might be
necessary. Classes you might complete in a computer graphic design program include graphic
communication, documentary production, broadcasting, illustrating, art fundamentals, mass
media and critical thinking.
Portfolio
Building up a great portfolio can be crucial to getting hired. Using completed school projects is
an easy way to flesh out your portfolio. You can also add computer graphic designs you have
created in your off time to your portfolio and show your work to an instructor for some
feedback. Additionally, participating in internship or externship opportunities may provide you
with some practical experience in the field as well as the opportunity to build up your portfolio.
Career Opportunities
As a computer graphic designer, you have several career options to choose from. If you are
solely interested in expressing yourself creatively, you might want to become an artist.
If you're more interested in helping a company, business or organization convey a message to
an audience, then you might want to pursue a career as a graphic designer. In this career, you'd
consult with your clients to understand the message they want to send and identify the target
audience and then create appropriate media. According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics
(BLS), the expected overall job growth rate for graphic designers from 2012-2022 was 7%,
though opportunities should vary widely by industry. For example, jobs as computer systems
analysts were forecast to increase by 25%. As of 2014, graphic designers earned a median salary
of $45,900.
If you're more interested in organizing and formatting existing information and images, then
you may want to consider a career as a desktop publisher. These professionals decide on the
arrangement of text and images for brochures, calendars, newsletters, newspapers, books and
magazines. However, you should be aware that a 5% decrease in employment is predicted for
the 2012-2022 decade. In 2014, desktop publishers earned a median annual wage of $38,200,
all per the BLS.
Working with Images
What is an image?
An image is the graphical and visual representation of some information that can be displayed
on a computer screen or printed out
Images come in a variety of forms:
Photographs
Drawings

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Paintings
Television and motion pictures
Semantics
Maps etc.

Images can be generally divided into two formats:

• Bitmapped or raster images
• Vector graphics or Metafile images
Bitmapped images are stored as an array of pixels
Vector graphics are stored as the set of graphic primitives required to represent the image.
Bitmaps Image
A pixel is the smallest element of resolution on a computer screen (Screen Resolution).
A pixel is the basic unit of a digital images. Digital image is a picture that may be stored in,
displayed on, processed by a computer.
As mentioned, bitmap is composed of a matrix elements called pixels
Each pixel can be in a specific colour and each pixel consists of two or more colors.
The range of these colours is known as the colour depth.
The color depth determined “How much data in bits used to determined the number of colors”.
Colour depth is measured in bits per pixel
Remember: a bit (binary digit) is either 1 or 0 and that there are eight bits in a byte.
Colour depth
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1 bit per pixel = 2 colours (monochrome)

2 bits per pixel = 4 colours
4 bits per pixel = 16 colours
8 bits per pixel = 256 colours
Generally good enough for colour images
16 bits per pixel = 65536 colours
Better quality for photograph-like images, also known as high colour
24 bits per pixel = >16 million possible colours
Used to recreate photo realistic images, also known as true colour.
The more colours that are allowed per pixel, the greater the size of the image
The number of pixels is related to the size of file that required to store an image.
Remember, two factors effect the size file bitmap are:
• Resolution
• Color Depth

width × height × colour depth

Size in bytes =
8
Where:
 Width of the images measured in pixels
 Height of the images measured in pixels
 Colour depth is the number of bits used for color measured in bits per pixel.

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Remember:
 1024 bytes = 1 kilobyte (KB)
 1024 kilobytes = 1 megabyte (MB).
Example: A 640 x 480 pixel image in 24-bit colour would require how much disk space?
640 𝑋 480 𝑋 24 7372800
Solution: Size in Bytes = =
8 8
= 921600 Bytes. 921600 / 1024 = 900 KB.
Popular bitmap formats
 Microsoft bitmap (.bmp)
 Used in microsoft windows
 TIFF - Tagged Image File Format (.tif)
 Used for faxing images (amongst other things)
 JPEG - Joint Photographic Expert Group (.jpg)
 Useful for storing photographic images
GIF - Graphics Interchange Format (.gif)
 Used a lot on web sites
 PNG - Portable Network Graphics (.png)
 A new format for web graphics
 PCD – Kodak photo CD
 A new format for store image in a compressed form on a CD.
Software to create bitmap images
 Popular PC packages include:
Microsoft Paint
 Included with microsoft windows
Microsoft PhotoDraw 2000
 http://www.microsoft.com/office/photodraw/
Adobe Photoshop
 http://www.adobe.com/products/photoshop/main.html
Paint Shop Pro
 http://www.jasc.com/psp6.html
Macromedia Fireworks
 http://www.macromedia.com/software/fireworks/productinfo/.
Vector images
Vector images are stored as the set of graphic primitives required to represent the image
 A graphic primitive is a simple graphic based on drawing elements or objects such as shape
 e.g. square, line, ellipse, arc, etc.
 The image consists of a set of commands (mathematical equations) that are drawn the object
when needed.
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Storing and representing images by mathematical equations is called vector graphics or Object
Oriented graphics.
 Each primitive object has various attributes that go to make up the entire image
 e.g. x-y location, fill colour, line colour, line style, etc.
Example:
 RECTANGLE : rectangle top, left, width, height, color is ( 0, 0, 200, 200, red)
CIRCLE : circle top, left, radius, color
 LINE : Line x1, y1, x2, y2, color
 Vector image or vector graphics can be resized without losing the integrity of the original
image.
 Scaling a vector is a mathematical operation - only the attributes change, the image is
unaffected.
Q: Could you defined what the different between a digital image and Computer Graphics or
graphics?
Primitive geometric drawing objects

Scaling vector graphics

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Software to create vector images

 Graphics programs are tools that allow an artist to create and edit designs used in multimedia
applications. Generally, graphics programs can be categorized as:
• Drawing programs
– Creating draw type graphics
– Provide freehand. Example geometric shape
– Example : Adobe Illustrator, Corel Draw,
Macromedia Freehand
http://www.adobe.com/products/illustrator/main.html
 Paint programs
- Those creating bitmaps
- useful in creating original art
- Example: Paint Shop Pro
http://www.jasc.com/psp6.html
 Image editing programs
- Making changes to existing images, such as manipulating the brightness or contrast, applying
textures, patterns. - Examples: Adobe Photoshop, Adobe Page Maker,
Vector formats
 Windows metafile (.wmf)
 Used by Microsoft Windows
 SVG - Scalable Vector Graphics (.svg)
 A new format devised for the web

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 CGM - Computer Graphics Metafile (.cgm)

 Older format commonly used for clip art
 Adobe PostScript (.ps)
 A page description language used to control printers

 Adobe Portable Document Format (.pdf)

 A page description language common on the web
 Drawing Exchange Format (.dfx)
 Store 3D image created by design program AutoCAD
 Encapsulated PostScript (.epf)
 Professional printing: Illustration program, Adobe Systems,
Desktop Publishing programs.

Hardware used to acquire images

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Hardware used to create / edit images

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Converting image formats

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Working With Graphics

 Considerations and guidelines when we are working with graphics:
 Choose the graphic depend on your work
 Choose the correct software
 Use minimum color depth
 Delivery Systems
How graphics/images can be used effectively

 Different types of graphics are used in different ways:

 Line drawing are graphical representations of physical objects. There are 3 kinds of line
drawings:
 Isometric - represent 3-D objects without realistic perspective
 Orthographic - are 2-D representations of objects
 Perspective - represent objects in their most realistic form.
Graphs and Tables
In just a glance, graphs can provide specific data, show general trends in data or depict the
relationships between data and data trends
Diagrams
Help users conceptualize a process, flow or interrelationship. Examples of diagrams include:
Flow charts, Schematic Drawings and Block Diagrams.
Advantages and Disadvantages of using images
 Advantages
 Convey a lot of information quickly
 Add visual simulation and colour
 Can communicate across language borders
 Enhance other media
Disadvantages
 Do not provide in-depth explanations
 Graphics rarely suffice to convey a whole message in business, technical or safety settings
 Can be misinterpreted
 Graphics should be used carefully to make sure the message is not ambiguous or cryptic.

Graphics software: - Graphics software refers to a program and collection of programs that
enable a person to manipulate images or models visually on a computer. graphic software is
used to create images and to edit and convert graphic files of different formats. Most products
are categorized by function. Examples are Photoshop, Cinema 4D etc.

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Graphic designing software used by graphic designer to create images in different way to edit
images to create video, audio, images. Graphic software helps user to give visual effects in all
form. Basically graphic software uses by graphic designer to create marketing material for
company which include image, video, audio, logo, packaging material.
There is two type of graphic designing software one is pixel and another is vector based graphic
software.
1. Diagram designing software
2. Photoshop
3. Web designing software
4. Image viewer and management software

This are the different type of graphic designing software use by graphic designer on basis of
requirement. All the graphic software has different function and features.

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