Joan Arreola – GE Ethics Midterm Exam

1. Based on its etymology, how does the view of ethics as a systematic study of a good act connect
with its Greek etymology and the view that it is a way of life?

-Ethics live within ourselves and we use it for our everyday lives. Whatever we do everyday, is based
upon our ethical principles. In this sense, it is in our way of living that we promote good life by choosing
to do what is right under the laws and customs that are built in our lands.

2. Discuss the overarching characteristics of the preconventional level in contrast to the conventional
level in Kohlberg’s theory of moral development.

-In the pre-conventional level, the individual is aware that there are rules but one’s action is solely
decided upon whether the result is going to be beneficial to him or not. The First stage explains that if
one’s action goes uncaught, even if it is against the norm, then it can be deemed right or if an action
resulted in having to deal with punishment then it is wrong. Stage 2 explains that there must be some
kind of a win/win situation whereas both parties will benefit from the action itself while in the
conventional level, one’s action is based from the norms of the social group or community where the
decision to consider an action good or bad lies within the society itself.

3. What are the stages in the postconventional level of moral development? In your own view, why
can these stages be regarded as a mature stage?

-Stages 5 and 6 which are social contract and universal principles respectively. In my opinion, these
stages are regarded as mature stages because it recognizes the power of the law but also makes
compromise for whenever necessary or whenever the need arises to make sure that the rules are
followed and to maintain balance between all that is governed by it.

4. For Kohlberg, what are the ideal characteristics of a morally mature person? What are the possible
objections to such an idea of the human person?

5. From a Christian perspective, how can one know that there is freedom?

-In a Christian’s perspective, when an individual has multiple options in deriving a decision, that is when
there is moral freedom. There is not one option in making a right decision. Some people would come up
with a multitude of ideas and seek several suggestions however, if the person fails to stick with his
decision therefore, he is ethically responsible.

6. For Sartre, is the human person free? If so, explain how such freedom works?

-Sartre views that mankind is absolutely free in this world. He explained that men are thrown into this
world totally free to choose whatever he sees fit to his morality. There are no certain rules or criteria in
general to gauge how moral a person can be without God. For Sartre, it is in our hands to decide what
we want to become so we are free to choose our decisions.

7. Differentiate cultural ethical relativism from subjective (ethical) relativism. What are the arguments
that favour ethical relativism?

-Cultural relativism is are the values that differ from one group of people to another. For instance, the
tribes here in the Philippines differ from beliefs and traditions. Subjective relativism is the morality in
oneself that differ from another person. For example, what may be good to another person may be bad
to another.

8. What is the role of freedom in human action? How does an action become morally or ethically
imputable?

-The role of freedom in human action is to relieve a person from restraints to act upon a certain
situation. Being free to do whatever you want without boundaries can sometimes result in careless
actions and these actions can be associated with ethics and morality since this is where we determine if
these actions are within the rules and regulations of the society.

9. Differentiate character from personality? How do the two impact on the ethics of human action?

-Character is the true nature of an individual and is something innate within one’s self contrary to
personality which is a public display that does not reflect one’s real self. Character and personality are
combined traits. Although personality is an inaccurate measure of one’s action, these two work hand in
hand in the action of person towards ethical gestures. Character and Personality will help an individual
to lean towards his decision of making an ethical action.

10. What is the notion of moral courage? In your view, what is its role in the pursuit of societal change
or reform?

-Moral courage is the willingness to act regardless of circumstances. The individual must have a good
intention and willingness otherwise it would be useless. In my opinion, moral courage is the foundation
to any societal reforms in the presence of fear. It starts with the intention to do good, then an individual
gathers his courage and prepares himself step forward to make the first move in order to achieve
change. Without moral courage, one would simply not push through with any changes in the society.

11. How does Aristotle’s understanding of the human person connect to the ultimate goal of ethics?

-Aristotle’s comprehension of a human person views as striving for a good life. In the process of doing
so, an individual must use his reason in order to know what a good life is and how to live it. He also
viewed that man cannot live alone so he must be with a companion. He must make connections with
other individual for the genuine purpose of making friends and eventually look after the welfare of the
community as a whole. With the right motivation, approach, and emotion a person will create a positive
energy to function well and to achieve the ultimate goal in ethics.

12. For St. Thomas, what is the natural law? How does St. Thomas justify the view that ethics, the
right action, can be known through the use of reason?

-For St. Aquinas, natural law is something appointed by reason and the natural law only exists because
there is reason. Reason is the driving force of a human being to decide whether to do something or not.
In this case, we should always do good and must always avoid evil.

13. Explain how the notion of causes can lead to the idea of the good.

-All things created by man serve a purpose. These specific things are thought of first prior creating them
and reason why these things are built is because they were of good intention. Without a good cause
then these objects would fail to serve their purpose.
14. Discuss the argument of utilitarianism as regards the bases of ethics. By what principle does
utilitarianism abide? What are justifications for such ethical principle?

15. For Jeremy Bentham, how can an act be determined as ethical? What makes an act ethical?
Discuss the criteria for evaluating such an ethical act.

-Jeremy Bentham determines the act of a person by the use of utilitarianism. This is the highest amount
of benefits produced by a single action. It is considered ethical when it has resulted in more pleasure
than more pain. There are seven criteria that evaluates if whether an act is ethical or not – intensity
refers to strength of pleasure/pain inflicted, duration refers to how long the pleasure/pain lasts,
certainty or uncertainty refers to the possibility of infliction of pleasure or pain, remoteness refers to the
soonest time it can be inflicted, fecundity refers to the act of successive infliction of similar sensation,
purity refers to the disruption of the act (pain followed by pleasure), extent refers to the number of
people affected by the act.

16. For John Stuart Mill, what are the possible limits of the felicific calculus? What solutions did he
offer to address such limitation?

17. What is an ethical ought or categorical imperative? For Kant, why is such an imperative necessary
in attaining the ethical life? Explain your answer.

18. Discus at least two formulations of the categorical imperative. Explain why one is duty-bound to
follow the categorical imperatives.

19. For three days, Dr. Magsayao had been trying to understand the plague that put the city at a
standstill, where many had been afflicted. He was trying to develop a vaccine that would prevent
further spread of the virus. Unfortunately, he can only extract samples from the afflicted patients who
were unluckily unable to give consent. And Dr Magsayao had no time to spare and must extract the
samples from the patient himself. And so he did. Did Dr Magsayao perform an ethical act? Explain
your answer by discussing the fundamental views of Kant.

-In the view of Kant, this is an ethical act since it is done out of good will. Dr. Magsayao had no other
option but to draw samples from those afflicted patients who were unable to give consent. This action is
to understand the plague and develop a vaccine that will neutralize the virus preventing it from
spreading. In connection to Kant’s view, Dr. Magsayao acted upon the situation not only because it is his
duty to do so but because he had good intentions and furthermore, he did it for the sole purpose of
containing the plague and ending it and not because he had other intentions like for example, gaining
profit and popularity.

20. Discuss how the nature of the human person connect with to the types of virtues in ethics?
Explain how the role of this essential nature in determining a virtuous?

21. Explain the criticism against virtue ethics.

-Virtue ethics has an inability to guide actions and has no definite rules for moral behavior. In its sense,
that people will not follow a certain rule unless given the reason to do so. For example the situation that
we are currently experiencing right now is the community quarantine, if not for the concern to spread
the covid19 would we do stay at home and not travel? Just by merely declaring a travel ban by the
government would not guarantee the citizen’s submission unless given a proper reason. Another
criticism is that virtue ethics is self-centered and focuses on the benefit of the individual and not the
benefit of another person. It is gaining virtues for the agent itself and not by other people.

22. How do care ethicists develop their ethical theory? Discuss their justifications for the care-based
theory of ethics?

23. Compare the stages of moral development articulated by Giligan vis-à-vis Kohlberg’s.

24. What are the key characteristics found in the two types of care as developed by Nodding? Explain
each of these.