Direct Use Values of Climate-Dependent Ecosystem Services in Isiolo County, Kenya
Direct Use Values of Climate-Dependent Ecosystem Services in Isiolo County, Kenya
Direct Use Values of Climate-Dependent Ecosystem Services in Isiolo County, Kenya
climate-dependent
ecosystem services in
Isiolo County, Kenya
Caroline King-Okumu, Oliver Vivian Wasonga,
Ibrahim Jarso and Yasin Mahadi S Salah
Direct use values of climate-dependent ecosystem services in Isiolo County
www.iied.org
Direct use values of
climate-dependent
ecosystem services in
Isiolo County, Kenya
Caroline King-Okumu, Oliver Vivian Wasonga,
Ibrahim Jarso and Yasin Mahadi S Salah
www.iied.org 1
contents
Contents
Lists of figures, tables, boxes 5
Executive summary 7
Acknowledgements9
1 Introduction 10
4 Research methods 21
4.1 Overview of the study approach 21
4.2 Calculating ecosystem service flow volumes 22
4.2.1 Water 22
4.2.2 Livestock 23
4.2.3 Vegetation 24
4.3 Identifying economic values for direct use of services 28
5 Assessment of direct use values 32
5.1 Water supply 32
5.2 Energy and plant products 36
5.3 Recreation 40
6 Total values: Summary and discussion 42
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Direct use values of climate-dependent ecosystem services in Isiolo County
8 Conclusion 46
References47
Related reading 57
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List of figures, tables and boxes
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Direct use values of climate-dependent ecosystem services in Isiolo County
Abbreviations and
acronyms
Ada Adaptation (Consortium)
CIDP County Integrated Development Plan
IIED International Institute for Environment and Development
ILRI International Livestock Research Institute
IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature
LARMAT Land Resource Management and Agricultural Technology
MID-P Merti Integrated Development Programme
NDMA National Drought Management Authority
NDVI normalized difference vegetation index
NRT Northern Rangeland Trust
RAP Resources Advocacy Programme
RUA Rangeland Users Association
TEV total economic valuation
WRMA Water Resources Management Authority
Note regarding currency conversions: We used the official exchange rate of Ksh 87.92 to
US$1, calculated as an annual average for 2014 based on monthly averages. See: http://
data.worldbank.org/indicator/PA.NUS.FCRF
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executive summary
Executive summary
The county government of Isiolo, Kenya, faces a significant challenge – to maximise
the value of local services, including those already provided by the ecosystem under
conditions of increasing climate variability and change. This report describes a research
approach to support this endeavour, exploring the development of a generic profile of the
current ecosystem service values in the county economy through a framework for total
economic valuation (TEV). Our approach differs from previous TEV studies conducted in
the region because we give greater consideration to service values achieved per cubic
metre of water. The availability of water is sensitive to climatic variations, which affect
its spatial and temporal distribution. Many other essential services in Arid and Semi Arid
(ASAL) environments are also dependent on climate and water availability.
Our research focuses on compiling and synthesing ‘direct use values’ associated with
the main climate-dependent provisioning services – water, energy, fibres and foods – for
the year 2013–14. Based on consultation with partners in Isiolo County and a series
of research activities that took place over 2012–2015, we explore the flows of these
services and a range of market and non-market values that can be associated with
them. In this assessment, we estimate the direct use value of a cubic metre of water for
domestic uses at US$0-17 (market value) or around US$90 (non-market value), whereas
the same volume used for livestock water provisioning would generate a direct use value
of US$13–22 (market value of meat offtake and milk production). But in case of direct
use for irrigated agriculture and tourism, the values that we could identify per cubic metre
of water were US$0-4 (market value). Those for water used in tourism enterprises were
even less.
Overall, in this study we identify climate-dependent ecosystem service values produced
during 2013-14 that were worth almost a quarter of a billion US$ per year to the county.
However, this total includes values that some may consider controversial or overlapping,
and we acknowledge that our assessment of the services and their values was still
very far from exhaustive. To improve the assessment and management of ecosystem
service flow volumes and values, we recommend that the county government enhance
its systems for mapping and monitoring them. Since many of these flows and values are
sensitive to seasonal and inter-annual variations in climate, it would also be desirable to
quantify the extent of this sensitivity.
Through the TEV framework, we can further supplement the assessment of direct use
values by considering other indirect use, option and non-use values. A discussion of
the possible effects of these value types highlights that, where services such as water,
firewood and grazing resources are over-extracted, we must weigh the positive direct use
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Direct use values of climate-dependent ecosystem services in Isiolo County
value against the negative (indirect) loss of ecosystem value to society. The spatial and
temporal context in which the direct uses occur determines the extent to which they will
be affected by these indirect values. Option values are related to direct use values, and
also heavily depend on spatial and temporal context.
Although areas for further research and data collection remain, we conclude that the
assessment framework is ready enough to explore a practical test-case application in
Isiolo County. Under the current County Integrated Development Plan (CIDP) 2013-7, a
series of investments have been made and could be evaluated. However, it is also worth
noting that the effects of any given investment decision might be anticipated to accrue
over a timeframe e.g. of at least 10 years. The profile of direct use values over a single
year that we have developed so far could be extended to explore longer-term decision
scenarios that could take into account the likely effects of climate change and variability.
An iterative process involving stakeholders and allowing space for debate would enable
public review and progressive refinement of the framework and assessment of direct use
patterns and values identified through this research.
Kulamawe before the rains, Isiolo County. Photo credit: Caroline King-Okumu
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acknowledgements
Acknowledgements
The development of this research report was supported by an accountable grant
from the UK’s Department for International Development. We collected much of the
underlying data in the context of a CORDAID-funded project, ‘Securing pastoral land and
resources in Isiolo County, Kenya’. We got additional support and knowledge exchange
from a collaborative brainstorming activity on sustainable dryland landscapes, led by
the International Union for the Conservation of Nature’s Eastern and Southern Africa
Regional Office, with support from Danida.
The authors would like to thank the Isiolo County government, participants in the
brainstorming workshop and others who have provided encouragement during the
preparation of the report. They include Laura Mukhwana, Ced Hesse at IIED, Daoud Tari
at the Resources Advocacy Program, Abdullahi Shandey at MID-P, Yazan Elhadi at the
Ada Consortium and Andrew Harfoot and Homme Zwaagstra at the GeoData Institute,
University of Southampton. We are also grateful for advice and discussion provided by
Philip Osano and Stacey Noel from the Stockholm Environment Institute, Silvia Silvestri
and Grace Miano at the International Livestock Research Institute, Jan de Leeuw at
the World Agroforestry Centre and Nicola Favretto at the United Nations University
International Institute for Water, Environment and Health.
The views expressed in this report are the opinions of the authors, and do not reflect any
institutional policies. We thank Lucy Southwood for editing this report, Patrick Morrison for
graphic design, Teresa Sarroca and Morgan Williams for coordination.
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1
Direct use values of climate-dependent ecosystem services in Isiolo County
Introduction
Arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs) may have higher potential for economic growth and
development than more humid areas (GoK 2012, based on evidence presented by Fan
and Hazell 2001). This is because ASALs start from a lower base in terms of pre-existing
economic activities and therefore have more room for growth. ASAL county governments,
including Isiolo’s, have the challenge of leading and prioritising public and private
sector investments to maximise returns in terms of improving living standards for their
resident populations.
Understanding the material differences that development projects could make – to
various sections of the population and over the longer term – is complex and can be
contentious. Despite growing interest in the use of decision support tools (Shepherd et
al. 2015), there is no definitive framework for assessing anticipated returns to current
patterns of (predominantly communal pastoralist) land use in northern Kenya under
anticipated climate changes (King-Okumu 2015a). Although Kenya is drafting its national
Green Economy Strategy and Implementation Plan (GoK 2015), this intended green
agenda does not yet take into account the significance of increasing water scarcity and
variability for the ASALs’ natural resource-based economies (King-Okumu 2015b).
Without systematically considering the interdependence between the climate,
environment and economy in the ASAL context, it is impossible to assess the merits
of various investment options. There is therefore a risk that some proposed changes
that appear progressive could reduce, rather than increase, benefits to the economy
and society from the existing ecosystem. This loss of benefits is likely to occur over the
long term, but could also be in the shorter term. There is also a chance of overlooking
investments that could generate a higher return over either or both timeframes.
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Introduction
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2
Direct use values of climate-dependent ecosystem services in Isiolo County
Assessing the
economic value of
ecosystem services
From an economic point of view, we can understand ecosystems as ‘natural capital’ and
the flow of ecosystem services as the ‘interest’ on that capital that society receives (Unai
Pascual and Muradian 2010, Costanza et al. 1997). A range of previous studies have
explored ecosystem services associated with pastures or grasslands (Costanza et al.
1997, White et al. 2000, Havstad et al. 2007, Knight et al. 2011, McGahey et al. 2014,
Favretto et al. 2014, 2016, Petz et al. 2014, Reed et al. 2015).
The main ecosystem services influenced by climate in dryland pastoral systems include
the provisioning services that humans need – water, plant products, wildlife and livestock.1
The dryland ecosystems also carry out regulating and cultural services that are essential
for resilience to climate change through their hydrological, geochemical and biotic
processes. These services are not usually quantified or priced because they do not
require extraction or other intervention by humans. Renewable energy supplies provided
by ecosystems can also be harnessed.
Rain-fed vegetation often responds directly to rainfall and temperature, whereas land-
use decisions and technologies mediate the effects of climate on livestock and human
wellbeing. Watershed models can integrate land-use conditions to simulate effects on
these aspects of pastoralist systems and human settlements under different climate
1 Other important natural resources provided by the environment such as minerals are affected by
the climate over long-term timescales. We do not explore these in this report.
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Assessing the economic value of ecosystem services
scenarios (Droogers and Bouma 2014, Droogers et al. 2012). These models need
information on hydro-climatic conditions, land characteristics and management regimes.
Where these are not available, decision makers must rely on resource users’ observations
of the effect of climate on productivity.
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Direct use values of climate-dependent ecosystem services in Isiolo County
STEP 1:
Specification
of system
boundaries CLIMATE LAND USE
STEP 2:
Assessment
PROVISIONING REGULATING CULTURAL
of ecosystem Water supplies Water storage and Wildlife and
services in Minerals regulation landscape
biophysical terms Plant products, Carbon storage
including crops Waste removal/
Livestock and livestock treatment
products
STEP 3:
Valuation using DIRECT INDIRECT
OPTION NON-USE
monetary or USE USE
other indicators
STEP 4:
Aggregation and TOTAL STRATEGIC
review VALUE REVIEW
(aggregation) (sensitivity: social
and generational
inequality)
Figure 1 shows a brief overview of the steps towards a TEV assessment of ecosystem
service values. This framework includes consideration of different value types, including
direct use and others. In the remainder of this section, we summarise these value types
and the relationships between them. Although this report focuses on the direct use values
of ecosystem services, it is important to understand that these direct use values often
interact with other indirect and option use values.
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Assessing the economic value of ecosystem services
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Direct use values of climate-dependent ecosystem services in Isiolo County
Ecosystem resilience value refers to the benefit that humans derive indirectly from
ecosystem regulation services, which create and sustain conditions that we value – such
as the quality of the climate, hydrological cycle and land productivity. Options for valuing
these indirect services include establishing a market to assign value through a system
of payments for environmental services, or assessing the costs of replacement after
depletion or degradation.
It is possible to find the value of the regulating service by working out the value of the
direct uses that depend on it – based on an anticipated future cost of their loss – and the
comparative value of avoiding these costs. In such cases, we would not need to aggregate
the value of the ecosystem and the direct use values it was derived from, because we
would effectively be counting the same value twice. For example, if we have already fully
valued and counted the present and future human water use values, we may not need to
also count the value of storing this water before its use. But if depleting water storage
causes negative effects other than reducing the volume to be used, we should also
deduct these negative values from the TEV of the resource use. Such negative effects
are sometimes called externalities. Examples might include reduced water quality due to
extraction and use patterns.
Induced economic value refers to additional benefits that accrue from directly using
natural resources. This creates a value chain involving a series of additional (dis)benefits
that depend on the initial availability of the produced good or service. Previous studies
identified value chains for livestock products in Isiolo – such as milk and meat – that
involve middlemen or women, traders and transporters (Hesse and Macgregor 2006),
which the government has consequently targeted in their agricultural sector development
strategy (GoK 2011). Further studies explored the market price and distribution of
benefits of Isiolo’s pastoral livestock value chains (Gituku et al. 2015, Iruata et al. 2015,
Mwaura et al. 2015) and the value chains of a range of other products from Isiolo’s
ecosystems, such as gums and resins (Mwongela 2012, CARE 2010). But none of these
studies consider the additional and altered demands for ecosystem services that the value
chains create through their demand for water and energy.
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Assessing the economic value of ecosystem services
time. But the timing and flexibility of the option may increase the overall value obtained
either from the option alone or option plus direct use.
Mineral options – in the form of rights to exploration and extraction – will often have a
present market value that will not detract from the eventual market value for the direct
use of the minerals. Other ecosystem services – for example, a plant species – may not
have a current market value, but society may decide to conserve the diversity of this
plant species to benefit from potential future medicinal or other uses that have yet be
fully recognised and commercialised. In pastoral societies, livestock traditionally provides
a value similar to that of an insurance policy that can be considered as additional to the
value their owners will derive from selling them (Behnke and Muthami 2011).
For some commodities, such as trees, both direct use and option values can continue
to rise as time passes. For others, such as livestock, these values tend to peak and then
decline. Option values for land can be sensitive to ecosystem conditions such as water
availability and can be influenced by other factors, including accessibility of transportation
networks and security.
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3
Direct use values of climate-dependent ecosystem services in Isiolo County
Isiolo County is located in the heart of Kenya (Figure 2). The vision of the Isiolo County
Integrated Development Plan (CIDP) is for a developed, just, cohesive county where
everyone enjoys a good quality of life (GoK 2013a). The county government’s overall
mission is to improve people’s livelihoods through participatory engagement and to create
an environment that enables the sustainable use of available resources. They will do
this by providing basic services, maximising production with appropriate technology and
ensuring the sustainable exploitation of resources for a better quality of life.
The 2009 census confirmed that Isiolo County’s population already had a longer life
expectancy than the national average, despite having relatively few public healthcare
institutions. Pastoral production systems provide protein intake, income, employment,
mobility and outdoor life skill training for youths, retirement income for the elderly and
marketable assets for 80 per cent of the population (GoK 2013a). Rural households
combine livestock raising, herding and marketing with other small trading, hospitality,
family duties and local environmental protection. The quality of the county’s air, water and
locally produced foods is high, and pollution, noise, stress, crime and insecurity levels are
relatively low compared to other parts of the country.
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Isiolo’s climate and ecosystems
NORTH
r
MARSABIT
Inyafaraka Rive
WAJIR
Riv nor
Da
er o
ISIOLO SAMBURU ISIOLO
Ewas
o Ng’
iro
Ewaso Ng’iro
LAIKIPIA GARISSA
’iro
MERU
o Ng
Ewas
Bisana
di River
TANARIVER
KITUI
The county covers an area of about 25,700 square kilometers. Average rainfall may be
close to 580 milimetres a year (GoK 2013a), but distribution and storage is uneven
and often difficult to predict. Current projections for future water availability foresee
an increasing imbalance between water supply and demand during both drought and
normal conditions (GoK 2013c, WRMA 2013). The county will depend on boreholes to
be sunk into the Merti and Garbatulla-Modogashe aquifer system to meet identified and
unidentified water supply needs over coming decades. We can expect a rise in water
demand for economic uses; this will compete with domestic and livestock needs (GoK
2013b).
The CIDP (GoK 2013a) reflects on the likely exacerbation of climatic variability the
country has already experienced – drought, unpredictable rainfall patterns and floods – as
a cross-cutting challenge affecting all sectors of the economy. Increasing temperatures,
evapotranspiration, water scarcity and ongoing climatic variability limit human
consumption, health and productive activities that require water, deplete groundwater
reserves to buffer future droughts, reduce vegetative cover and threaten biodiversity. All of
this constrains prospects for development.
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Direct use values of climate-dependent ecosystem services in Isiolo County
Livestock are considered the main source of livelihoods in Isiolo and the main products
are also from agriculture – particularly livestock and livestock products. The CIDP
highlights the opportunity to develop processing industries as a value addition for these
products that could increase farmers’ and pastoralists’ income and provide employment
for local people (GoK 2013a). Isiolo is a growing centre for transport, trade and tourism:
agriculture and its associated processing industries provide the products, amenities and
social safety nets that drive and sustain each of these sectors.
Improving roads, energy and communications infrastructure and realising the Lamu
Port Southern Sudan-Ethiopia Transport Corridor project should help reduce the costs
of doing business in Isiolo, increasing external and internal investment (GoK 2013a). A
tarmac road between Isiolo and Moyale is expected to increase trade between Kenya
and Ethiopia fivefold. New jobs in construction material and service provision, plumbing,
electrification, vehicle maintenance, IT support and other services will accompany
the planned expansion of infrastructure. The Isiolo County government also plans to
upgrade existing informal trading activities, and increase industrial processing of local
raw materials – including hides and skins, milk and forest products – to raise pastoralist
households’ income and provide additional employment opportunities.
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4
Research methods
Research methods
4.1 Overview of the study approach
For this study, we collaborated with the Ada consortium2 and the Isiolo County Adaptation
Planning Committee in their participatory monitoring of adaptation and resilience at ward
and community levels. IIED held two workshops in Isiolo County with key stakeholders
in the Isiolo economy – on 6 August 2012 (Lunduka 2012) and 6 August 2015 (Jarso
2015). These workshops identified the principal provisioning services – water, food, wood
and other services – that people get from Isiolo’s ecosystem. Workshop participants
described other aspects of the economy —the non-farm (retail shops and small-scale
business), transport and services sectors – in addition to the land-based sectors.
We held periodic meetings and consultations with key individuals at the Resources
Advocacy Programme (RAP), the Merti Integrated Development Programme (MID-P)
and the Isiolo County government over 2014–15. A desk review of available literature
identified economic uses of Isiolo’s ecosystems and current and future scenarios for
economic development, population growth, water demand and availability. A review
of institutional arrangements for green growth in the water and rangeland sectors in
May 2015 identified additional key informants and secondary data sources (King-
Okumu 2015b). In April–August 2015, a series of participatory workshops by RAP and
researchers from the University of Nairobi’s Department of Land Resource Management
and Agricultural Technology (LARMAT) identified economic uses of plants found in a
series of rangeland vegetation types in the rural Isiolo (Wasonga et al. 2016).
Engaging with the international scientific community was an essential part of our study
approach. This was done through a collaborative brainstorming and knowledge exchange
in 2015 with researchers participating in an initiative on sustainable dryland landscapes
led by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature’s (IUCN’s) Eastern and
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Direct use values of climate-dependent ecosystem services in Isiolo County
Discussion held under a tree during a visit to Cherab ward. Photo credit: Caroline King-Okumu
Southern Africa Regional Office. We held two consultative meetings with researchers
from the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) in 2014 and several informal
knowledge exchanges with researchers from the Stockholm Environment Institute.
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Research methods
The estimates are based on the understanding that human water demand in the county
is around 40 litres per capita per day, except for Isiolo Town, where it is closer to 70 litres
per capita per day (WRMA 2013). This estimated household water demand is far higher
than survey reports on water consumption in the rural areas, which indicate daily per
capita rates of around 7 to 10 litres (NDMA 2014, 2015a 2016a). Estimates for livestock
water demand are based on herd size estimates and generic assumptions concerning
daily livestock water requirements (Table 1).
Table 1: Livestock water requirements
Cattle 23.25
Camel 33.5
These approximated daily consumption estimates do not take into consideration inevitable
variations due to species, breed, age, gender, lactation, pregnancy, water quality, climate
and seasonal effects, animal activity diet, or watering regimes (see discussions in King
1983, Herlocker et al. 1993).
In addition to these problems concerning the consumption rates for humans and livestock,
there are also issues relating to the assumed numbers of consumers. The human
population numbers are based on households identified during the 2009 population
census (KNBS 2009). However, in pastoral areas, households and livestock from other
counties also migrate in and consume water. These will not have been included in the
census counts.
4.2.2 Livestock
To prepare for this study, we explored and compared a range of approaches that have
been used to assess livestock numbers in Isiolo, including participatory assessments
with rangeland users (as reported in Tari et al. 2015) and the county livestock services’
use of an annual increment to adjust census data on livestock owned by households in
the county3.
From this review, it was apparent that the livestock numbers we used to generate the
estimates of water demand (as in WRMA 2013) were lower than those that appeared
in the national census, and subsequent calculations of the Isiolo livestock department.
3 From a previous study by Silvestri et al. (2013), we also identified aerial surveys by the
Department of Remote Sensing and Resource Surveys, including flyovers conducted during 2013
and 2015 as an additional possible source of data on livestock numbers. However, this dataset and
information concerning methods used to generate it were not available for use in this study.
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Direct use values of climate-dependent ecosystem services in Isiolo County
Furthermore, the national census estimates still excluded livestock that migrate into the
county from surrounding areas.
Our estimates of livestock value produced are therefore likely to be highly conservative.
We focused on a limited set of domestic livestock types, and only considered two of the
many products that can be derived from them. We did not attempt to include wildlife and
wildlife products in our calculations.
To calculate the volume of livestock milk production and offtake for meat, we used the
following rates in relation to herd numbers in arid areas, as identified by Behnke and
Muthami (2011):
For milk production:
●● cattle: 59 litres per head for cattle herds (McPeak and Doss 2004)
●● camels: 186 litres per head (Musinga et al. 2008, who estimated 34 per cent of the
total herd lactating and 547 litres per lactating camel per year)
●● shoats: 51.2 litres per head (Field 1985, assuming 40 per cent of flock are does or
adult females, each producing 0.351 litres per day).
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4.2.3 Vegetation
Vegetation in Isiolo transitions from woody bush grasslands, bushland and bush
grasslands in the southwest, to shrubland, shrub grassland and shrub annual grasslands
in the north and east (see Table 2).
In an interview in March 2015, Turo Buke, treasurer of the Merti and Sericho Rangeland
Users Association, identified classes of vegetation in order of preference for grazing.
Ibrahim Jarso from RAP supplemented this information in April 2015. Preliminary findings
from fieldwork by LARMAT and RAP researchers (Wasonga et al. 2016) provided further
information on vegetation uses in selected parts of the county. Using this data, we
identified various direct uses of vegetation in the Garbatulla grazing unit – characterised
as Commiphora-Acacia tortilis deciduous bushland – which covers the present Kinna and
Garbatulla wards (Table 3).
Since Isiolo County has a broad diversity of vegetation types, species and economic
uses, we were only able to assess the value of a few key species identified by RAP and
LARMAT as having high economic value during this study. To estimate the rate of wood
fuel use across the county, we used WRMA’s estimates for 2013 population numbers
(updated from the 2009 census). Assuming that households include an average of eight
persons and using the information from local resource users, we estimated that each
household would consume one backload of firewood every five days, amounting to 72
loads per year.
Table 3 indicates that the highest-value plant products in Garbatulla on a volumetric basis
were gums and resins, including opoponax (Box 1).
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Direct use values of climate-dependent ecosystem services in Isiolo County
Vegetation type
Name Area Main type Other Other
(km2)
Former Garbatulla district
Nyambeni 1,220 Bush grassland - -
(100%)
Garbatulla 2,970 Bushland (80%) Shrub grassland (5%) Unsurveyed (15%)
Mado Gashe 1,600 Shrubland (50%) Shrub annual Shrub grassland (20%)
grassland (30%)
Subtotal 5,790
Former Isiolo district
Ewaso Ng’iro 2,225 Annual grassland Deciduous woodland Annually flooded
(drought reserve) (40%) (30%) grassland (30%)
Hadado West 810 Shrub annual Bush grassland (20%)
grassland (80%)
Yamicha 1,670 Shrub annual Dwarf shrub annual
grassland (70%) grassland (20%)
Matokone 2,320 Shrubland (95%) Shrub annual Wooded grassland
grassland (5%) (small areas)
Barchuma 1,950 Shrub grassland (70%) Perennial grassland Shrub annual
(25%) grassland (5%)
Kom 1,330 Shrubland (50%) Bushland (30%) Dwarf shrub grassland
(20%)
Isiolo w 1,925 Bush grassland (40%) Bushland (20%) Bush annual grassland
Wooded grassland (10%)
(20%) Shrub grassland (10%)
Mado Ketu 75 Unsurveyed
Subtotal 12,305
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Direct use values of climate-dependent ecosystem services in Isiolo County
These products can be obtained from the Acacia, Commiphora and Boswellia species.
They include myrrh and frankincense (Chikamai and Gachathi 1994, Wekesa et al.
2013, Gachathi and Eriksen 2011). Gums are mainly produced by Acacia species;
gum resins are extracted from Commiphora (Salah 2014). The most common gum
found in the Garbatulla area is gum arabic, extracted from Acacia senegal (L.), Willd.
var. kerensis or Acacia seyal Del. var. seyal. Resins include myrrh from Commiphora
myrrha (Nees) Engl., opoponax, or sweet myrrh from Commiphora holtziana Engl. and
frankincense from Boswellia neglecta S. Moore.
Opoponax is locally referred to as hur in the Borana language or hagar in Somali. A
recent study of its collection and uses in Garbatulla (Salah 2014) indicated that it is
mainly used as a pesticide against ticks or to treat snake and scorpion bites, footrot
and mange in animals, chest congestion, common colds, amoebas and lymph node
swelling. It can also be used as an appetiser. The same study observed that the amount
of opoponax individual Commiphora holtziana Engl. trees produce in Garbatulla ranges
from 40 grams to 2 kilograms. The yield depends on the season, the age of the tree
and whether or not the tree is damaged by making a cut on the stem or branches.
Old trees produce more than young trees. 59 per cent of households in four surveyed
villages in Garbatulla collected opoponax, collecting an average of 38 kilograms
per month.
To find out how much opoponax is collected in Garbatulla as a whole, we assumed that
59 per cent of all 2,383 rural households in the division collected 38kg every month
(after Salah 2014). To compare the total volume collected versus the potential, we
estimated the density of trees, productivity and offtake rates. We then multiplied these by
the extent of the vegetation type, as indicated in the Rangeland management handbook
(Herlocker et al. 1993).
We used estimates for present and future irrigated production from available literature
(WRMA 2013, Ocra 2014). Based on advice from the County Irrigation Officers, we
assumed that irrigation is applied for eight hours every seven days throughout the six
month long dry season.
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Direct use values of climate-dependent ecosystem services in Isiolo County
We identified market values for irrigated crop production in Isiolo from a recent study
(Ocra 2014). Other studies mentioning an economic value per hectare were identified
(Silvestri et al. 2013 and Niemi and Manyindo (2010).
We used field studies by RAP and LARMAT for updated information on local market
values for other climate-dependent services provided by vegetation and recreational uses
– for example, based on information from local resource users, RAP estimated that each
backload of firewood would fetch US$3.41 (Ksh300).
Table 4: Comparison of information from different sources on livestock prices per head in Isiolo County, 2013-14
Source: based on Tari et al (2015), NDMA (2016a&b) and unpublished data provided by ILRI.
We supplemented this information from the literature, where price information was
available for other services, such as the price paid for opoponax per kilo:
●● agents and traders pay gum and resin collectors in Garbatulla US$0.68–1.14
(KSh60–100) (Salah 2014)
●● agents sell on to traders at US$1.14–1.36 (KSh100–120) (Salah 2014)
●● traders who transport the goods to Nairobi or Mombasa sell to exporters for
US$2.05–2.84 (KSh180–250) (Salah 2014)
●● exporters sell the bulk of opoponax to China for US$3.41–5.12 (KSh300–450)
(Salah 2014)
●● Ethiopian exporters to the Middle East sell the same products for around US$15.66
(Ksh1,377) (Aboud et al. 2012).
This suggested that our estimated value for opoponax of US$ 5.69 (Ksh 500) per kg
(see Table 3) was higher than the local market prices. In 2013–14, however, it was still
lower than the international export value.
We used a range of published sources to calculate income streams from tourism. In
2014, the Northern Rangeland Trust (NRT) in Isiolo reported an income of US$23,320
(KSh2,050,298) from tourism (Table 5). This includes conservancy entrance fees, and
fees paid to the conservancies by the hotels. The latter are usually a small proportion of
the price of accommodation, negotiated by NRT with the hotel companies.
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Research methods
We calculated the value of recreational uses of the ecosystems for tourism in Isiolo per
unit of water, based on the total numbers of visitors, type and duration of their stay in the
ASALs and estimated water consumption rates. We assumed that tourists in high class
hotels use 600 litres each a day, those in medium class use 300 and those in low class
hotels use 50 (after GoK 2005).
For services such as water, some studies (Favretto et al. 2014, Myint and Westerberg
2014) rely on the market price and/or the price that users are willing to pay. Water
has a range of different prices: some get it free from source, others pay to pump it
from boreholes, and others to transport it via truck. We used summaries of survey data
published by NDMA to identify the price of water and selected foodstuffs (for example,
NDMA 2014, 2015a, 2016a), together with internal monitoring and evaluation reports
from the Ada Consortium for additional reflections on the price of water and water
infrastructure. From these sources, we concluded that market prices for these services
are affected by public or donor assistance and subsidies for infrastructure, fuel and other
operating costs associated with water supply and treatment.
For our study, we used an alternative non-market route to valuing water provisioning
services that focuses on the value of the intended use rather than the market cost of
the water. It is important to assign a value to human water use that we can compare to
the values of other uses, such as irrigation and livestock, because without these values,
previous studies have concluded that upstream water extractions for irrigation and
intensive livestock production are more valuable than downstream uses in extensive
pastoral systems (Silvestri et al. 2013). This partial economic analysis overlooks the point
that in the remote areas, livestock water use fees cover the costs of pumping the water
that humans use for their domestic needs.
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Direct use values of climate-dependent ecosystem services in Isiolo County
Since economic assessment plays a role in justifying water management and allocation
decisions for economic uses, is very important to be able to understand the full value of
these uses. If excluding consideration of the economic value of water supply to humans
from the calculation results in a higher priority given to economic uses upstream than
downstream, decision-makers might mistakenly consider this finding to justify the
absence of effective measures to prevent continued increases in extractions for economic
uses in the upstream areas of the catchment. This is already believed to be affecting the
volume of water supplies reaching the downstream areas of the catchment, not only for
livestock, but also for humans (WRMA 2013).
We took a generic value from Kenya’s per capita gross domestic product (GDP) –
US$1,337.90 (KSh117,628) (IBRD 2015) – to reflect an average member of society’s
contribution to the economy, irrespective of age and wealth. This contribution to society
and the economy is dependent on the individual receiving sufficient water supplies to
maintain health, lead an active life and achieve their full potential contribution to the
economy (Hutton 2015). Assuming that in order to lead a healthy life, each person
requires 40 litres of water a day, 365.25 days a year, they will use 14.61 cubic metres a
year to generate the average contribution to the economy of US$1,337.90. This would
place the value of domestic water supplies at around US$90 (KSh7,913) per cubic metre.
This is may be considered a conservative estimate, since it is based on an estimated
volume of water that is relatively high, and an average per capita GDP that is relatively
low. On the other hand, according to the logic of the argument that is presented here, if
the entire population had access to sufficient water to fulfil their basic needs for health
and lead economically productive lives, both total and per capita GDP could be expected
to increase.
Controversies associated with valuing a productive human life have received attention
in international literature and in the context of Kenya’s arid lands (Luedeling et al.
2015). Using GDP as a total sum of national productivity has also attracted criticism
because it does not include many dimensions of value or account for externalities from
economic activities.
It is important to note that the domestic use value of water that we identified using the
method above is higher than the market value most people are willing to pay for their
domestic water supplies. In most of Isiolo for most of the year, the market price of a
20-litre jerrycan of water pumped from a borehole is around US$0.03 (KSh3). This can
rise to US$0.34 (KSh30) per 20 litres and US$17.06 (KSh 1,500) per cubic metre in
water-scarce areas such as Modogashe, Sericho ward (NDMA 2014, 2015b, 2016a).
For the sake of comparison, if the price of bottled water from a supermarket is US$2
(KSh176), this would amount to US$2,000 (KSh175,840) per cubic metre.
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Research methods
Discussion held under a solar panels during a visit to Cherab ward. Photo credit: Caroline King-Okumu
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5
Direct use values of climate-dependent ecosystem services in Isiolo County
Assessment of direct
use values
5.1 Water supply
We estimated water demand (and assumed supply) at over 4.5 million cubic metres a
year, with a value to society of more than US$240 million (over KSh21 billion) (Table
6). This is the estimated value of annual water provisioning services to humans and
livestock in Isiolo; water for livestock was worth over US$20 million (nearly KSh1.8
billion). This works out to a value of US$13–22 per cubic metre of water provided for
livestock to drink. This is noticeably higher than published estimates of water productivity
for livestock raised in more intensive systems (e.g. in van Breugel et al. 2010) because
these offset the economic value of livestock against the water used for both forage
production and drinking. In the pastoral systems, on the other hand, livestock rely almost
entirely on extensive grazing, rather than on forage crops. Since no water is extracted
from the system to provide rainfed vegetation, our calculation considers only the water
requirements for livestock to drink.
Extraction of water from boreholes can place pressure on aquifer systems, causing
negative indirect use values through falling water tables and salinisation. If we were
to subtract these negative indirect use values, the total value estimate would be lower
than the direct use value. But groundwater can be pumped on demand during drought
periods so, the longer the water is conserved in these sources, the more option value for
insurance against drought emergencies it will provide.
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Assessment of direct use values
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Direct use values of climate-dependent ecosystem services in Isiolo County
Table 6: Estimated direct use value of water provisioning for humans and livestock in Isiolo, 2013
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Assessment of direct use values
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Direct use values of climate-dependent ecosystem services in Isiolo County
meant trees had been over-harvested in many areas of Isiolo. Our estimate of the market
value of fuelwood for households (Table 7), does not include wood used by businesses
or sold to households outside the county, either as fuelwood or charcoal. Nor does it take
into account the indirect (ecosystem resilience) cost of the loss of vegetative cover and
habitats where wood has been over-harvested. The cost of these are a reduction in the
future availability of woodfuel and other actual and potential economic uses of vegetation.
Our calculations indicate that around 1,406 households in Garbatulla collect
456 kilograms of opoponax a year – that’s an annual total of 641,136kg, worth
US$3,646,133.85 (KSh320,568,000). We estimate that there are around 1,000
Commiphora holtziana Engl. trees in each square kilometre of bushland. So, as bushland
covers 80 per cent of the 2,970km2 Garbatulla grazing unit, there could be as many as
2,376,000 trees. If each produces around 1kg of opoponax per year, they have a potential
value of US$12,716,105.55 (KSh1,118,000,000) a year. But because there are no well-
developed systems to collect, process and deliver it to market (Mwongela 2012), only
about a quarter of the potential is collected and marketed.
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Assessment of direct use values
To assess the indirect (induced economic) benefits of opoponax production, we based our
estimates on the assumption that people trade this product alongside others, rather than
as their sole business. Local collectors receive a better price for opoponax when they
collect it in larger volumes. Individual collectors would bring 0.5–20kg of gums and resins
to the trading centres for each sale. The price some pay for gums and resins depends on
the amount brought to the market: they pay a higher price for larger quantities because
by buying in bulk, they can immediately transport it to Nairobi for sale. This enables higher
stock turnover, more profit and better relations with buyers. Collecting smaller quantities
over longer periods of time for less frequent sales is less profitable and more troublesome
(Salah 2014). Based on this information, traders may see an opportunity cost in trading
small volumes of opoponax – particularly if they are also engaged in other trades.
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Direct use values of climate-dependent ecosystem services in Isiolo County
Skillful tapping of gums and resins and tree management can ensure that the harvesting
of these products does not result in loss of tree cover (Njenga et al. 2013). Cuts and
damage to the trees increase opoponax production unless the tree is unable to survive.
This means that producing opoponax does not necessarily have a negative indirect
(ecosystem resilience) cost. The income generated from this non-destructive use, with the
future option of using the larger trees for wood or fuel, could offset the foregone income
from conserving, rather than cutting down, trees. But the option value that communities
can derive from reserving the option to cut trees in the future, rather than immediately,
depends on their ability to ensure that outsiders do not come and cut them first. In many
parts of Isiolo, this is a problem.
Acacia, Commiphora and Boswellia are well-adapted species for dry conditions and
usually survive, even through drought periods. The dry season is the period of highest
opoponax production. However, excessively dry conditions have a negative effect, even on
these species.
In Table 6 we presented the estimated use value of water used for livestock. This is based
on the estimated annual market value of livestock offtake, which includes the value of
vegetation used for grazing. People tend to collect wood, gums and resins alongside
raising livestock, rather than as a separate activity. Other uses of rangeland vegetation
– observed in GeoData’s participatory resource mapping activities (Hill et al. 2014,
2015) and ongoing work by LARMAT (Wasonga et al. 2016) – include grazing, fruits,
sisal, incense, thatch, dyes, poisons, medicines for headaches from malnourishment and
anaemia in children, deworming goats, making drinking cups, containers, troughs, pestles
and mortars for grinding maize and poles for construction. It was difficult to identify a
market value for many of these valuable resources (see Table 3), so our assessment does
not consider them all.
Households do use irrigation to support the production of forage and other crops. A 2015
survey by the University of Nairobi’s Department of Urban and Regional Planning revealed
that availability of household water supplies in the urban area has enabled households to
plant kitchen gardens, flowers and trees where water is available from the piped network
(DURP 2015). But the productivity of these gardens has not been recorded.
Developing irrigation schemes is considered a promising strategy for community
development in many parts of Isiolo (see e.g. NRT 2015b, Gotu WRUA and WRMA
2013). It is also high on the list of the Kenya Food Security Group’s recommended
interventions to improve food security in the county (NDMA 2015a, 2016a).
Irrigation is mostly understood to require diversion of fresh surface or groundwater
through communal irrigation schemes (WRMA 2013). The longest-established large
irrigation scheme in Isiolo is at Rapsu (Box 2). Relatively less attention has been paid
to the potential for reusing wastewater or harvesting water for small scale to use in
crop production. Even less information is available concerning pastoral communities’
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Assessment of direct use values
opportunistic cultivation of flood recession areas and the use of supplemental watering
practices, to ensure the survival of indigenous species during extreme dry periods.
A previous study observed that 2,000 persons (330 households) in the Rapsu pastoral
community, growing irrigated crops on 176 hectares, were earning US$23,000 (KSh2
million) gross – US$130 (KSh11,430) per hectare – a year from crop sales. They
were also growing enough for their own consumption. But because they were diverting
water from the Ewaso Ng’iro river for irrigation, pastoralists found that the goods and
services they were obtaining from the downstream Lorian swamp had been reduced.
Pastoralists within a radius of more than 50 kilometres had historically depended on
this wetland as a source of water and forage during dry periods. They estimated the
value of these goods and services at about US$125 (KSh10,990) per hectare per
year. The basis for this estimate is not known.
Since the area of the swamp (231,000 hectares) was far larger than that of the
irrigation scheme, the pastoral community did not consider the trade-off between their
loss of services and the gain of irrigated production to have been worthwhile.
Source: Niemi and Manyindo (2010)
Most community-managed irrigation schemes in Isiolo County are either furrow or basin
irrigation technologies that are relatively cheap, compared to pressurised systems such
as sprinkler or drip irrigation. Farmers can easily adopt and manage them as they are
simple to operate and maintain. But their efficiency is generally assumed to be about 50
percent (Ocra 2014) due to water losses along the lined canals and in the simple earthen
channels for distribution and application.
An economic assessment of the potential value of furrow irrigated agriculture in Isiolo
County projected that exploiting the county’s total potential irrigation at a cropping
intensity of 130 per cent over a cropping area of 5,850 hectares would generate
US$10.16 million (nearly KSh893 million) a year. The same study calculated the gross
irrigation water requirement at 3.1 x 107 litres per hectare per year, or 31,000 cubic
metres per hectare per year. This was anticipated to generate a profit of some US$1,736
(KSh152,650) per hectare per year (FAO 2013 unpublished forthcoming p44). This is far
more than previously observed (see Box 2), but still amounts to only US$0.06 (less than
5 shillings) of use value for every cubic metre of water.
According to the Irrigation and Drainage Database (Isiolo), the total irrigated area in 2013
was 2,879.6 hectares, with a water demand of 3,578 cubic metres per day (WRMA 2013
p71). This amounts to 1.24 cubic metres per hectare, per day. If irrigation is applied once
a week throughout a six month season, this would amount to a total water requirement
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Direct use values of climate-dependent ecosystem services in Isiolo County
of 29.82 cubic metres of water per hectare, per year. If the income per hectare was only
US$130 (KSh11,430) (see Box 2), this would amount to a gross income of US$4.36
(Ksh 383) per cubic metre of water (before deduction of costs). However, more recent
estimates of crop productivity and values and effective calculation of the gross margin
after deduction of costs, might enable identification of an updated figure.
It is possible to get ‘more crop per drop’ by using pumps and drip irrigation systems to
increase control over water distribution and application. The sources of water and systems
that farmers use will affect the costs and determine the level of externalities in relation to
the water and carbon balances. But importing foodstuffs also creates a (possibly larger)
energy demand from transportation and storage. These indirect effects associated with
different configurations of direct resource uses are not well understood.
5.3 Recreation
Recreational uses of ecosystems in Isiolo are important, and can generate income
streams through tourism enterprises. Previous studies have estimated the value of tourist
uses of the ecosystem services associated with wildlife in the Ewaso Ng’iro Basin by
multiplying the number of visitors by the conservancy entrance fees (Ericksen et al. 2011,
Silvestri et al. 2013). By this calculation, the conservancy entry fees in sub-catchment 5 –
where Shaba, Buffalo springs and Nakuprat Gotu conservancies are located – generated
US$1.26 (KSh111) per hectare per year.
The indirect (induced economic) value of nature tourism may be higher than its direct
use value from hotels, restaurants and travel costs. The wildlife tourism sector has been
estimated to contribute over half of all earnings in Kenya’s trade, restaurant and hotel
sectors (Mogaka et al. 2006). In 2013, Isiolo had:
●● one 5-star hotel (bed capacity: 34)
●● two 4-star hotels (joint bed capacity: 78)
●● three 3-star hotels (total bed capacity: 250)
●● one 2-star hotel (bed capacity: 311)
●● three 1-star hotel (total bed capacity: 348)
●● several unclassified hotels and restaurants (GoK 2013).
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Assessment of direct use values
We estimated the gross income and income per unit of water that the hotels would
generate at full occupancy (Table 8). Although our calculation of value achieved per
unit of water is an overestimate because we could not subtract other input costs from
the gross income, the value is clearly less than is achieved through livestock production
or irrigation.
Table 8: Estimated annual gross hotel income per unit of water
Hotel Star Number Capacity Price (Ksh) Water litres Value per unit
type rating per day of water
In 2014, the fees the hotels paid the NRT did not cover the conservancies’ operating
costs, leaving them dependent on donor support. Total 2014 income to NRT operations
in nine counties from international donors was US$1,735,334.43 (KSh152,570,603).
Although these funds are not necessarily spent in Isiolo, we could consider donor support
to NRT as an induced economic benefit to the wider economy.
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Direct use values of climate-dependent ecosystem services in Isiolo County
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Total values: Summary and discussion
Our assessment approach differs from previous TEV studies in the county because we
have quantified water-related services and also explored other service values per cubic
metre of water, rather than focusing on values per hectare of land. Based on the county’s
average rainfall and surface area, we could calculate Isiolo’s rainfall at 149,111,400m3.
But the direct use values we identified in this study still account for only the small fraction
of this water that is accessed through the waterpoints. We have not yet attempted to
value the water that is stored and used in different parts of the system, including in plants
and soils. Although we have valued some components of the rangeland vegetation, we
have not included the rainwater that they consume in our calculations of value per unit of
water. We also assigned a value to water for human use that is higher than those used
in other studies that have relied more on market valuation methods. This non-market
valuation is is in line with the stated principles of catchment-level water allocation (Mutiga,
et al. 2010), but could have controversial implications for the current catchment
management practices.
The mixture of non-market and market valuation approaches we use in this study reflects
choices of social rather than market values, wherever possible and available. Further
adjustment of these to take into consideration the indirect values would be desirable. We
have observed that there are market chain studies for some key products, but not for
others. To improve understanding of induced economic benefits, there is a need for these
value chains to be further explored and their inputs assessed – for example, through
the water, energy, transport and construction sectors. There is also scope to consider
externalities and loss of value and to adjust for the ecosystem resilience benefits (and
costs) associated with different patterns of direct uses. This would require further use of
spatial monitoring, mapping and modelling tools, which have been previously developed
and applied in Isiolo (for example, in WRMA 2013, Hill et al. 2014).
We identified the important effects of option value in adjusting the direct use values that
are obtained from ecosystem services through the nature and timing of their direct use.
Although these are difficult to build in to a generalised profile of the system focusing on
a single year (as in this study), they will be critical for both anticipatory or retrospective
evaluation of different management scenarios.
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Direct use values of climate-dependent ecosystem services in Isiolo County
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Beyond the profile of 2013-14: next steps
●● extending the profile developed so far through a longer-term scenario to take into
account the likely effects of climate change and variability.
An important strategic consideration concerns whether to assess scenarios for ecosystem
values under different management systems on an annual basis – as we did for the
direct use values in this report – or on longer timeframes (e.g. 5–10+ years). Decision
makers often require assessments of the returns on their investments to be available
over short timeframes. However effects on ecological processes can take longer to
appear. Selecting a four- to five-year timeframe (such as 2013–17) would be in line with
economic decision making under the CIDP, whereas national strategic planning extends
to 2030 (GoK 2012).
The longer the assessment timeframe, the greater the challenge to accommodate
uncertainties of various kinds. Use of a probabilistic approach, incorporation of outputs
from downscaled climate and hydrological models and discounting could help to account
for some of the uncertainties in long term planning scenarios (for further discussion
of the use of statistical techniques to accommodate and account for uncertainties see
discussion in Luedeling et al. 2015, Shepherd et al. 2015, Hubbard 2014).
Overall, we take the view that using a provisional assessment framework and ‘best
available’ supporting evidence base is preferable to having no framework or evidence
for decision making. Progressive use of the framework and underlying datasets will
encourage greater scrutiny and possibly also some updating, which could enable
improvement. In the meantime, we hope that researchers and decision makers will apply
the TEV framework in an exploratory and discursive manner. We do not advocate using
it to programme automated decision-support applications because this would reduce the
emphasis on human judgement, and scope for critical reflection and debate.
Public debate around the relative value of different benefits to society remains
essential for the framework’s sound development and application. Many controversial
questions may arise around who decides what, how to prioritise gaps, etc. It is
important that these should be handled transparently, enabling iterative deliberation and
progressive adjustments.
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Direct use values of climate-dependent ecosystem services in Isiolo County
Conclusion
The profile we have described in this report demonstrates an application of the TEV
assessment framework. The direct use values that we consider represent an improvement
on the frequent limitation to market values in cost-benefit assessments. The suggestion
that indirect (induced economic and ecosystem) use values and option values could also
be considered, depending on the timeframe of interest, is also progressive.
The county government could take action to improve the assessment and its potential
to support decision-making through more systematic recording, mapping and prediction
of ecosystem service flows and values. Applying this framework in an exploratory and
discursive way – even with its gaps – provides informative comparisons of service
values associated with different uses and raises questions that will contribute to further
elaboration of the assessment approach. Researchers and practitioners should use
it carefully as a discursive tool, ensuring regular opportunities for public review and
comment.
If the county government were to generate assessments of ecosystem service values
using this framework, the findings could be used to better inform decision-making. This
could include not only the County level decision-making, but also national level plans for
green growth, and international thinking on environment and sustainable development
issues.
48 www.iied.org
references
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