Hindawi Publishing Corporation

Journal of Sports Medicine

Volume 2013, Article ID 967183, 7 pages
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/967183

Review Article
Soccer and Sudden Cardiac Death in Young Competitive
Athletes: A Review

John P. Higgins1,2 and Aldo Andino3

1
Exercise Physiology, Memorial Hermann-Texas Medical Institute, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston,
6431 Fannin, Houston, TX 77030, USA
2
Lyndon B. Johnson General Hospital, The University of Texas Medical School at Houston, UT Annex-Room 104,
5656 Kelley Street Houston, TX 77026, USA
3
The University of Texas Medical School at Houston, 6431 Fannin, Houston, TX 77030, USA

Correspondence should be addressed to John P. Higgins; john.p.higgins@uth.tmc.edu

Received 28 November 2012; Accepted 8 January 2013

Academic Editor: Koichi Nakazato

Copyright © 2013 J. P. Higgins and A. Andino. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution
License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly
cited.

Sudden cardiac death (SCD) in young competitive athletes (<35 years old) is a tragic event that has been brought to public attention
in the past few decades. The incidence of SCD is reported to be 1-2/100,000 per year, with athletes at a 2.5 times higher risk. Soccer
is the most popular sport in the world, played by people of all ages. However, unfortunately it is cardiovascular diseases such as
hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy that have subtly missed screening and claimed
the lives of soccer stars such as Marc Vivien Foe and Antonio Puerta during live action on the field and on an internationally televised
stage. This paper covers the physiological demands of soccer and the relationship between soccer and SCD. It also reviews the most
common causes of SCD in young athletes, discusses the current guidelines in place by The Fédération Internationale de Football
Association (FIFA) for screening among professional soccer players, and the precautions that have been put in place to prevent
SCD on the field in professional soccer.

1. Introduction Soccer is the most popular sport in the world, played

by men, women, and children of all ages [5]. Unfortunately,
Due to its tragic and unexpected nature, sudden cardiac soccer has been plagued in recent years by deaths at the
death (SCD) in athletes has been brought to public atten- professional level during internationally televised games. This
tion in recent decades. The incidence of SCD has been paper aims to review the physiology of soccer, the relationship
reported to be approximately 1-2 per 100,000 person-years, between SCD in soccer and other sports, the commonest
with a 2.5 times higher risk in athletes when compared causes of SCD in young athletes, and the current screening
with nonathletes [1]. SCD in athletes is most commonly guidelines in place by The Fédération Internationale de
due to congenital and/or acquired cardiovascular disease. Football Association (FIFA) for soccer.
Different studies have reported various cardiac diseases as the
most common cause. In studies done in the United States,
hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) was the most common 2. Methods
cause, followed by congenital coronary artery anomalies
(CCA), myocarditis, and arrhythmogenic right ventricular Searching primarily the PubMed database, a search of
cardiomyopathy (ARVC); ion channelopathies such as long American and International articles available in English was
QT and Brugada syndrome were also identified [2]. SCD can performed. There was no definite time period set due to the
also be induced by a traumatic blow to the chest (commotio limited studies on SCD and sport, but keywords were used
cordis). Also, the incidence of SCD is known to be greater in to find peer-reviewed articles and case studies on the current
males than females [1–4]. reporting of soccer and SCD. Keywords used in the search
2 Journal of Sports Medicine

were soccer, soccer cardiac, soccer and sudden cardiac death, associated with SCD, the authors concluded that this was
and athlete sudden cardiac death. Authors in the selected simply due to this sport being played more than others in
studies defined SCD as cardiac arrest during or within 1– regions from which the studies were reported and that in fact
12 hours of competition [1–4, 6–17]. A young competitive it was most likely the sports with high cardiovascular demand
athlete was defined as an individual <35 years old who and isotonic work that put athletes at greatest risk for SCD [4].
participated in 2 h a week of physical training or participated
in organized team or individual sports that required regular
competition against others as a central component, placed a 5. Causes of Sudden Cardiac Death in
high premium on excellence and achievement, and required Soccer Players
systematic and, in most instances, vigorous training [2, 18].
While some studies included subjects over the age of 35, the 5.1. Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy (HCM). On June 26, 2003,
results focused on subjects from those studies under the age an internationally televised semifinal match was played
of 35. This paper aimed to highlight the reported causes of for the FIFA Confederations Cup between Columbia and
SCD in young competitive soccer players, as well as the most Cameroon at Stade de Gerland in Lyon, France [22]. During
common causes of SCD in young competitive athletes overall. the 72nd minute of the match, Marc Vivien Foé, a 28 year-
old veteran midfielder of the Cameroon national soccer team
collapsed on the center circle [23, 24]. Attempts to revive
3. Physiology of Soccer him with CPR were started on the field, and after 45 minutes
of resuscitation efforts, he died shortly after arriving to the
The game of soccer relies on aspects of psychological, phys- stadium’s medical center. On autopsy, he was found to have
iological, and biomechanical/technical skill. Players at the HCM [25].
highest levels of competition master all of these components, HCM is known to be the most common cause of SCD in
but players of all levels excel at certain skills over others. young athletes in the United States [2]. It has a prevalence of
However, in recent years there has been a trend towards 1 in 500 in several countries including USA, Europe, Japan,
selecting players with more favorable anthropometric profiles China, and East Africa [26]. The pathophysiology lies in
to compete at the highest level [19]. autosomal dominant mutations in 11 or more genes encoding
Studies conducted by filming soccer players found that thick and thin contractile myofilament protein components
distances covered at the top level during a 90-minute game of the sarcomere or the adjacent Z-disc [26]. These mutations
are about 10–12 km for players on the field and 4 km for lead to the histopathological finding of myocyte disarray [26].
the goalkeeper [19]. During a soccer match, sprinting occurs Suspicion for this diagnosis is suggested by cardiac symp-
approximately every 90 seconds and lasts 2–4 seconds [20, toms, with the findings of a murmur or abnormal electrocar-
21]. The game is dynamic considering that in addition diogram. Abnormal ECG patterns are present in the majority
to running, there is also twisting of the torso to change of HCM patients (75–95%); these findings include markedly
direction, heading, tackling, and holding the ball against increased R- or S-wave voltages, deep and prolonged Q-
defensive pressure. Energy production while playing soccer waves, and deeply inverted T-waves [27]. The diagnosis is
is mainly dependent on aerobic metabolism; however, the confirmed by 2D echocardiogram or cardiovascular MRI
work intensity can approach the anaerobic threshold, which is [26]. Imaging findings show an absolute increase in the
defined as the highest exercise intensity where the production left ventricular wall thickness (to 21-22 mm on average),
and removal of lactate are equal (usually at 80–90% of which can also be associated with mild right ventricular
maximum heart rate) [19]. hypertrophy [26]. The cause of death in these patients is
usually ventricular fibrillation and other tachyarrhythmias
[26]. Athletes who are suspected to have low-risk HCM
4. Incidence of Sudden Cardiac Death in can participate in leisurely sports with yearly followup;
Soccer Players qualifying criteria includes no SCD in relatives, no symptoms,
no LVH or ventricular arrhythmias, and normal diastolic
Table 1 lists the cardiovascular diseases that have been
filling/relaxation [28]. Athletes confirmed to have HCM with
reported in SCD while playing soccer and other sports. The
any of the aforementioned characteristics are to be restricted
listed results focused on athletes under the age of 35, since
from competitive sports as it is believed that high-intensity
it is known that athletes over 35 experienced SCD most
sports predispose to subendocardial ischemia that leads to
commonly due to atherosclerotic CAD [1, 2, 4]. Several of
ventricular arrhythmias [28].
the studies in Table 1 report soccer as the most common
sport associated with SCD [1, 3, 4, 6]. However, it is only
the study done by Corrado in the Veneto region of Italy that 5.2. Congenital Coronary Artery Anomalies. A study by Cor-
reported that the incidence of SCD associated with soccer rado showed that CCA were associated with the highest risk
was not statistically significant when compared with other of SCD in young competitive athletes, and various studies
sports, nor was any sport associated with a specific form of have reported that CCA are the second most common cause
fatal disease [1]. In a study done on SCD in Spain, the subjects of SCD in athletes under 35, associated with 15–25% of
under 30 were not found to have any predominant cause cases [1, 2, 4, 29–31]. Table 1 lists case studies of SCD in
of SCD associated with soccer [8]. In another worldwide soccer that have been found to be due to CCA on autopsy.
study where soccer was found to be the most common sport Studies have shown that the most common malformation
Journal of Sports Medicine 3

Table 1: Studies reporting SCD in soccer.

Author Design Subjects Most common sport Cardiovascular disease found

Prospective 23/300 athletes, ages (1) Soccer (1) CADa
Corrado et al. [1]
12–35 (2) Swimming (2) ARVC
(1) Isolated LVHb
Prospective 118 cases, mean age 28 (1) Soccer
de Noronha et al. [6] (2) Normal heart
(2) Running
(3) ARVC
60 international athletes
Maron et al. [3] Retrospective (ages 19 ± 3) and 213 US Soccer Commotio Cordis
Athletes (ages 14 ± 9
years)
(1) Basketball
Retrospective 1866 athletes (ages 16 ± (2) Football (1) HCMb
Maron et al. [2]
4) (3) Soccer (2) CCA

(1) Soccer
Retrospective 388 athletes (1) HCMb
Bille et al. [4] (2) Running
(2) CCA
(3) Basketball
Retrospective 32 athletes (1) Running (1) HCMb
Allouche et al. [7]
(2) Soccer (2) ARVC
Suárez-Mier and Retrospective 61 athletes, mean ages (1) Cycling (1) ARVCc
Aguilera [8] 31.9 ± 14 (2) Soccer (2) Isolated LVH
McConnell and Case study 24 y.o. female Soccer Hypoplastic left coronary artery
Collins [9]
Chen and Sheppard Case study 22 y.o. male Soccer Ebstein anomaly due to hemangioma
[10]
Case study Marked early repolarization on ECG two weeks
Zeller et al. [11] 26 y.o. male Soccer
prior to SCD; autopsy was normal
Left coronary artery arising from the right
Pellissier et al. [12] Case study 15 y.o. male Soccer anterior sinus with an oblique course between the
aorta and the pulmonary artery trunk
Pacchioni et al. [13] Case study 18 y.o. male Soccer ARVC
Myxomatous mitral valve with lacerations of the
Ronneberger et al. Case study 8 y.o. male Soccer posterior cusp and the left vestibular
[14]
endocardium and left ventricular hypertrophy
Case study Abnormal origin of left coronary artery from the
Ottaviani et al. [15] 13 y.o. male Soccer
right aortic sinus of Valsalva
Acute angle takeoff of the left main coronary
Iskandar and Case study artery and a transverse slit-like opening with a
14 y.o male Soccer
Thompson [16] fibrous cushion, which created a kink near its
origin
Case study Abnormal origin of the left coronary artery from
Meel [17] 22 y.o. male Soccer
the right sinus of Valsalva
a
These results are for the most common causes of SCD for all sports, not just soccer. Also, coronary artery disease (CAD) refers to both congenital and
atherosclerotic disease. While soccer was the most common sport associated with SCD this finding was not statistically significant when compared with other
sports, nor was any other sport associated with a specific form of fatal cardiovascular disease [1].
b
These results are for the most common causes of SCD for all sports, not just soccer [2, 4, 6, 7].
c
These results are based on all sports in a subset of cases under the age of 30. However, the most common cause of death overall for patients of all ages in
this study was CAD. In the cases SCD associated with soccer in subjects under 30, there was no predominant cause, but the causes were 3 LVH, 1 Dilated
Cardiomyopathy (DCM), 1 CCA, and 3 undetermined [8].

reported in SCD series both in the young and in the athlete exertional syncope and chest pain [32]. The diagnosis is most
is the origin of a coronary artery from a wrong aortic sinus commonly confirmed by transthoracic echocardiography in
of Valsalva, either the right from the left coronary sinus children and is supplemented by MRI and CT angiography
or the left from the right coronary sinus, with a proximal [33]. Timely diagnosis of CCA is critical because (1) athletes
course between the aorta and the pulmonary trunk [32]. must be restricted from competitive activity to prevent SCD
Patients usually present with cardiac symptoms including and (2) CCA are surgically correctable [32].
4 Journal of Sports Medicine

5.3. Arrhythmogenic Right Ventricular Cardiomyopathy the fact that the data is predicated on incidents reported to
(ARVC). On August 25, 2007, a soccer game between La the commotio registry and may not represent all cases of
Liga Spanish teams Sevilla and Getafe was played at Sánchez commotio cordis worldwide [3].
Pizjuán Stadium. During the 35th minute of the game,
22-year-old Sevilla defender Antonio Puerta crouched next
5.5. Cases without a Known Cause. In the aforementioned
to the penalty box, then collapsed [34]. He was found to
studies reviewing SCD and sport, there has always been a
be in cardiac arrest and was resuscitated on the field. He
percentage of the sample in which the cause of SCD could
was substituted and managed to walk off the field, when
not be determined by autopsy. However, the reports have
he reached the locker room he collapsed again, and was
been largely variable, ranging anywhere from 1% to 16.3%
pronounced dead at Virgen del Rocı́o University hospital;
[1, 2, 4, 7, 8]. A study in the UK reported soccer as the most
his autopsy revealed ARVC [34].
common sport associated with SCD in ages 11–35, but the
In the Veneto region of Italy, ARVC is the cardiovascular autopsies of athletes from all sports had a morphologically
disease that conveys the second highest risk of sports related normal heart in 23% of cases [6]. Studies done in the US and
sudden death, and in Spain it was found to be a predominant UK with the families of an individual who experienced SCD
pathology associated with SCD in athletes <30 years old [1, 8]. found that in 40–50% of families studied, relatives had an
It is currently estimated that disease prevalence is between 1 in ion channel disorder such as catecholaminergic polymorphic
2000 and 1 in 5000 [35]. ARVC is characterized by structural ventricular tachycardia, long QT syndrome, and Brugada
and functional abnormalities of the right ventricle, ranging syndrome [39, 40].
from regional wall motion abnormalities and ventricular In soccer, like all other sports, doping has become a
aneurysms to global ventricular dilation and dysfunction; it relevant issue, as evidenced in the 1994 World Cup when the
may also involve the left ventricle [36]. The clinical picture Argentinian superstar Diego Maradona was expelled from
is usually dominated by ventricular arrhythmias that lead to the tournament after testing positive for several banned sub-
SCD. Symptoms of ARVC include palpitations, syncope, car- stances [41]. However, the studies that have been mentioned
diac arrest, or SCD in adolescents or young individuals [36]. either excluded toxicological confounders as a cause for SCD,
The presence of T-wave inversions in V1-V3 or premature or had such a small percentage of cases that they were not
ventricular complexes (PVCs) of LBBB morphology on 12 addressed [1, 2, 6–8]. Androgen abuse has been shown to
lead ECG are the clues noted during cardiovascular screening have the direct effects of cardiac hypertrophy and myocardial
[36]. However, less commonly patients may present with what fibrosis, and indirect effects of hypertension, dyslipidemia,
appears to be congestive heart failure (CHF) due to DCM arrhythmia, and myocardial infarction [42]. One study
[36]. Patients with ARVC should not under any circumstance reviewing the autopsy findings of four body builders who
be allowed to participate in competitive sports in order to experienced SCD found cardiac hypertrophy and fibrosis
prevent SCD [28, 36]. in the myocytes of these subjects [43]. Other medications
that may play a role in soccer players’ SCD include but
5.4. Commotio Cordis. Dundela F.C. is a Northern Irish are not limited to NSAIDs, antihistamines, and herbal sup-
intermediate-level professional soccer team. On August 25, plements. Of note, COX-2-selective NSAIDs prescribed for
1995, the team’s captain Michael Goddard was struck on the musculoskeletal and arthritic complaints have been shown
chest by a ball and collapsed; he was found to be in cardiac to have an increased risk of adverse cardiac events [44].
arrest and died shortly afterwards [37]. Furthermore, some second-generation antihistamines such
as terfenadine and astemizole have been shown to reach high
Commotio cordis is defined as when blunt trauma to the
serum levels through drug and food interactions thereby pre-
chest leads to ventricular fibrillation and therefore cardiac
disposing to QT prolongation and ventricular arrhythmias
arrest (most commonly during the T-wave upstroke on ECG,
[45].
causing a PVC, which leads to ventricular fibrillation) [38].
Due to a rise in reported incidents, a study recently done by
Maron compared the international cases of commotio cordis 6. Discussion
with those inside the US. The results of this study showed
that in both groups commotio cordis occurred among young The studies reviewed above show that in Italy and much of
males and that resuscitation and defibrillation rates did not the rest of the world, the sport in which SCD occurs most
differ between US and non-US subjects [3]. Although a often is soccer [1, 6]. However, in the United States, the
difference was found in the sports involved: in the US the sports most commonly associated with SCD are basketball
sports most commonly involved were baseball/softball and and American football [2]. Therefore, it is reasonable to
American football, in non-US subjects the most common conclude that the regional difference in SCD and sport are
sport was soccer, followed by cricket and hockey [3]. A likely due to the most common sport being played and that
notable finding in the international subjects was that in it is the increased cardiovascular demand that predisposes
seven of the cases involving soccer, a traumatic blow caused to SCD rather than the sport itself. This study is limited
by a soccer ball to the chest led to commotio cordis [3]. in that most of the studies reviewed do not report whether
This finding contradicts the previous notion that air-filled there is in fact a correlation between soccer and a form of
projectiles conveyed a lesser risk than those with a solid core SCD. However, the one study that did assess this variable was
(baseballs, lacrosse balls). However, this study is limited by the study done in the Veneto region of Italy, which found
Journal of Sports Medicine 5

no statistical significance between the incidence of SCD in the low specificity of ECG as a screening tool in an athletic
soccer when compared with other sports, nor did it find a population is a major disadvantage for its use [47–49].
relationship between soccer and an underlying cause of SCD In 2005, FIFA took action to prevent SCD in soccer. Prior
[1]. Also, while the sample was considerably smaller, the study to the 2006 World Cup in Germany, the FIFA Medical Assess-
of SCD in Spain also did not find a predominant cause of SCD ment and Research Centre developed and implemented
associated with soccer [8]. a comprehensive precompetition medical assessment tai-
The most common cardiac abnormality implicated in lored specifically to this population [50]. The cardiovascular
SCD in young athletes <35 years old in the United States screening included a personal and family history, physical
is HCM, followed by CCA and ion channelopathies [2], examination, a 12-lead resting ECG, as well as an exercise
while in Italy the most common causes of SCD in young ECG and an echocardiogram. The results showed that car-
athletes were CCA, ARVC, and premature coronary artery diovascular preparticipation screening in international elite
disease [1]. A study of SCD in Spain showed ARVC to be soccer teams seemed appropriate and that while ECG and
the most common cause; however, in the UK isolated LVH echocardiography with further standardization could be use-
(confirmed by microscopy to not have myocyte disarray) ful, exercise stress testing remained questionable. Moreover,
was most common, followed by ARVC [6, 8]. These results it was previously believed that preparticipation screening
show that there may be a greater prevalence of ARVC in distressed soccer players due to the fear of being removed
European nations compared to the United States [1]. It from competition. However, a study done with Norwegian
is worth mentioning that preparticipation screening with professional soccer players found that the players felt more
ECGs in Italy is suspected to be the reason why there is a confident after screening and would recommend it to other
decreased incidence of SCD due to increased identification players [51].
and management of HCM [1]. Bille et al. reviewed studies Future studies on SCD in soccer and other sports involves
around the world and also found CCA and HCM to be more detailed reporting of SCD by cause and associated
the most common causes of SCD but suggested that these sport. There was a case by Zeller et al. in Table 1 of SCD
pathologies may be the most common because they are the in a 26-year-old soccer player whose only suggestive finding
easiest to identify, and that more occult etiologies such as was marked early repolarization on ECG [11]. Furthermore,
arrhythmias and ARVC may be underrepresented [4]. As a recent study by Lengyel reported a statistically significant
noted previously, in each of the studies discussed there was QT prolongation at rest in professional soccer players when
a percentage of the sample in which no cause was found compared to aged matched controls [52]. Future studies need
[1, 2, 4, 6–8]. Moreover, given the high prevalence of ion to be directed towards identifying further cardiac risk factors
channel disorders found in family members of individuals that may lead to SCD in soccer players.
who experienced SCD, more research is needed on the After the death of Marc Vivien Foe in 2003, FIFA reacted
efficacy of screening the relatives of these individuals and by making it mandatory to equip all stadiums with automated
prevention of SCD [39, 40]. While most studies excluded external defibrillators (AEDs) as well as to have available
positive toxicological findings, the cardiac effects of steroids medical and paramedical personnel who are able to manage
and other medications may predispose to SCD [43–45]. emergencies such as cardiac arrest [53]. A remarkable result
Since soccer players stereotypically have a slender build for of these initiatives can be attributed to the case the 24-year-
speed and agility, steroid use may seem counterintuitive, but old Fabrice Muamba, who on March 17, 2012, collapsed on
some players have tested positive [41, 46]. FIFA which is the the field during an internationally televised game between
worldwide governing body of soccer, has taken a staunch Bolton and Tottenham of the English Premier League [54].
stance against doping and in 2001 suspended legendary Resuscitation began on the field and Muamba is reported
Dutch players Edgar Davids and Frank de Boer after testing to have been in cardiac arrest for 78 minutes and to have
positive for the anabolic steroid nandrolone [46]. received a total of 15 defibrillator shocks. While he has now
In evaluating these studies, sampling bias is an issue retired from soccer, Muamba has made a full recovery with
considering that the research on SCD is based on autopsy no neurological deficits, a medical miracle likely related to the
results from reported cases, and there is the possibility that onsite AED and well trained personel rapidly responding to
cases may go unreported. There is a need for a mandatory this emergency [54].
reporting database of these incidents in the United States
and other countries. Until there is better reporting of these
incidents, the true incidence and etiology of SCD in soccer 7. Conclusion
and other sports will remain unknown.
The current guidelines for preparticipation screening Because soccer is the most commonly played sport world-
have not reached a consensus; in 2004 and 2005 the European wide, more of those considered “at risk” experienced an
Society of Cardiology and International Olympic Committee episode of SCD while playing the sport. Several studies
published notably similar guidelines, which contrasted the reported that soccer was the most common sport associated
American guidelines [4, 28]. The main difference was the with SCD, and that the causes of SCD were similar for
addition of a 12-lead ECG to the history and physical soccer as among sporting activities in general (HCM, CCA,
examination. This decision had been based on the study done and ARVC). Therefore, we conclude that preparticipation
by Corrado that showed a significantly decreased incidence screening in soccer players should focus some effort on
of SCD due to HCM in the Italian population [1]. However, screening for those structural and/or electrical abnormalities
6 Journal of Sports Medicine

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