AC CIRCUITS

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
INTRODUCTION
Types of Electric Signals
The Nature of Alternating Current (AC) Signals
ELECTRICAL SIGNALS
❖ Technically, a visual representation of the variation of a voltage or
current over time
PERIODIC Signals APERIODIC Signals
❖ signals recur at a regular ❖ Signals that have no definite
time interval interval of recurrence

Periodic

Aperiodic
Periodic
 UNIDIRECTIONAL BIDIRECTIONAL
Signals Signals
❖ these signals are always
positive or negative in nature ❖ these signals are also called
flowing in ONE FORWARD ALTERNATING WAVEFORMS as they
DIRECTION only as they do not alternate from a positive direction to
cross the zero axis point. a negative direction constantly
crossing the zero axis point.
❖ Direct current (DC) is the
unidirectional flow of electric ❖ In alternating current (AC) the
charge. movement (or flow) of electric
charge periodically reverses
direction.
❖
 DIRECT ALTERNATING
CURRENT (DC) Signals CURRENT (AC) Signals
❖ the movement (or flow) of ❖movement (or flow) of electric
electric charge is only in charge periodically reverses
one direction. direction.

+
–
DCDIRECT
AC
CURRENT ALTERNATING
CURRENT
Alternating Current Signals/Waveform
Generation of AC Signal
(SINE Wave)
The Sine Wave
THE SINE WAVE
• also referred to as a sinusoidal
wave or, simply, sinusoid.
• a fundamental type of waveform
used in AC and is commercially
distributed.
• The electrical service provided by
the power companies is in the
form of sinusoidal voltage and
current
Generation of AC Output: THE SINE WAVE

“Whenever lines
of flux is cut by
a conductor,
emf is induced
in it”
-Michael Faraday
(1791-1867)
Generation of AC Output: THE SINE WAVE
When the loop is in vertical position ,
the coil sides do not cut magnetic lines
of force; thus, no voltage induced in the
loop.

As the coil rotates, the coil sides will cut

the magnetic lines of force in opposite
directions.

The direction of the induced voltages

depends on the direction of the
movement of the coil.
POLARITY of a Sine Wave
A sine wave changes polarity at its zero value; that is, it alternates
between positive and negative values.
During the positive alternation of the
source voltage Vs, the current is in the
CW direction.

During a negative alternation of the

source voltage, the current is in the
opposite (CCW) direction.
Waveform Parameters
 WAVEFORM
➢ In general, a waveform can be drawn to
represent ANY TIME- VARYING quantity

Important parameters associated with waveforms include:

A. Period (T) F. Average Value
B. Frequency (f ) G. RMS Value (also called
C. Peak Value effective value)
D. Peak-to-Peak Value H. Form Factor
E. Instantaneous Value I. Peak Factor
PERIOD FREQUENCY
• The time required for a given • Frequency is the number of cycles
sine wave to complete one full that a sine wave completes in one
second.
cycle
• Frequency (f) is measured in units of
• Period (T) is measured in units hertz (hz). One hertz is equivalent to
of milliseconds (ms). one cycle per second.
Relation between Period and Frequency
1 1
f = or T =
T f
Another way to describe periodicity of the wave is through the angular
frequency defined as

 = 2 f
where
 = angular velocity, in radians per second
2 = the number of radians in one cycle
f = the number of cycles per second (frequency)
PEAK/Max Value ( Yp , Ym ) PEAK- to PEAK Value (Ypp )
• The peak value of a sine wave ❖ the measure from the
is the value of voltage (or
current) at the positive or the positive peak to negative
negative maximum (peaks) peak of the wave
with respect to zero.

Relationship: Y pp = 2 * Y p
 EXAMPLE
The Philippines is said to operate at a frequency of 60 Hz.
Find the cycle period of the said frequency.

ANSWER: T=16.66667ms
 EXAMPLE
What is the angular frequency of waveform having a period
of 1 msec?

ANSWER: w= 2πf= 2π(1/1ms)= 2000 π rad/sec

EXAMPLE i(t)
8.3333 𝑚𝑠

Find: 𝐴𝑛𝑠:
a. IP 𝐼𝑃 = 5 𝐴
b. IP-P 𝐼𝑃−𝑃 = 10 𝐴
𝑓 = 60 𝐻𝑧
c. Frequency 5𝐴
𝑇 = 16.6667 𝑚𝑠
d. Period 𝜔 = 376.9911 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
e. Angular Velocity t
EXAMPLE i(t)
8.3333 𝑚𝑠

Find: 𝐴𝑛𝑠:
a. IP 𝐼𝑃 = 5 𝐴
b. IP-P 𝐼𝑃−𝑃 = 10 𝐴
𝑓 = 60 𝐻𝑧
c. Frequency 5𝐴
𝑇 = 16.6667 𝑚𝑠
d. Period 𝜔 = 376.9911 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
e. Angular Velocity t
 GENERAL FORMULA OF A WAVE
𝑦 𝜙 = 𝑦𝑃 sin 𝜙 ± 𝜃 𝜃 𝜃
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑦𝑃 sin 𝜔𝑡 ± 𝜃
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑦𝑃 sin(2𝜋𝑓t ± 𝜃)

Where:
yP = max value/ peak value
 = angular velocity (rad/sec)
f = frequency (hz)
𝜃 = phase angle (rad or degree)
𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔, +𝜃 𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔, −𝜃
INSTANTANEOUS Value
❖the value of a sinusoidal voltage or current at a specified point
in time can be expressed as:

v(t ) = V pk sin(t   )

where Vpk is the maximum magnitude of the voltage.

In terms of f,

v(t ) = V pk sin( 2ft   )

 𝐴𝑛𝑠:
𝑉𝑃 = 135 𝑉

EXAMPLE 𝑉𝑃−𝑃 = 270 𝑉

𝑓 = 50 𝐻𝑧
𝜃
𝑇 = 20 𝑚𝑠
Find: 𝜔 = 314.1593 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
(a) VP 𝜃 = 121.5863° 5 𝑚𝑠
(b) VP-P 𝑣 𝑡 = 135 sin 314.1593𝑡 − 121.5863° 𝑉
(c) Frequency
(d) Period
(e) Angular Velocity
(f) Phase angle
(g) Equation of the
waveform

270 𝑉
–115 𝑉
EXAMPLE

Find:
𝐴𝑛𝑠:
(a) VP 𝑉𝑃 = 135 𝑉
(b) VP-P 𝑉𝑃−𝑃 = 270 𝑉
(c) Frequency 𝑓 = 50 𝐻𝑧
(d) Period 𝑇 = 20 𝑚𝑠
(e) Angular Velocity 𝜔 = 314.1593 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
(f) Phase angle 𝜃 = 121.5863°
𝑣 𝑡 = 135 sin 314.1593𝑡 − 121.5863° 𝑉
(g) Equation of the waveform
EXAMPLE

Find:
𝐴𝑛𝑠:
(a) VP 𝑉𝑃 = 135 𝑉
(b) VP-P 𝑉𝑃−𝑃 = 270 𝑉
(c) Frequency 𝑓 = 50 𝐻𝑧
(d) Period 𝑇 = 20 𝑚𝑠
(e) Angular Velocity 𝜔 = 314.1593 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
(f) Phase angle 𝜃 = 121.5863°
𝑣 𝑡 = 135 sin 314.1593𝑡 − 121.5863° 𝑉
(g) Equation of the waveform
EXAMPLE

Find:
𝐴𝑛𝑠:
(a) VP 𝑉𝑃 = 135 𝑉
(b) VP-P 𝑉𝑃−𝑃 = 270 𝑉
(c) Frequency 𝑓 = 50 𝐻𝑧
(d) Period 𝑇 = 20 𝑚𝑠
(e) Angular Velocity 𝜔 = 314.1593 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
(f) Phase angle 𝜃 = 121.5863°
𝑣 𝑡 = 135 sin 314.1593𝑡 − 121.5863° 𝑉
(g) Equation of the waveform
AVERAGE Value
❖ the arithmetic average of all the values in a wave
for one alteration, or a half cycle.

❖the mathematical “mean” of all a waveform's

points over the period of one cycle.
AVERAGE Value
In general, 1 T
Yave =  0 y (t ) dt
T
But for practical measure, we only consider HALF CYCLE of the sine
wave

For sine wave,

2
Yave = Ym

Yave = 0.637Ym
ROOT - MEAN - SQUARE (RMS) or
EFFECTIVE Value
❖a way of expressing an AC quantity of voltage or
current in terms functionally equivalent to DC.

❖The RMS value of a sinusoidal voltage is actually a

measure of the heating effect of the sine wave.
RMS or EFFECTIVE Value
In general,

1 T
Yrms = 
2
[ y (t )] dt
T 0

Thus for sine wave, the DC equivalent value of the wave is:

1
Yrms = Ym
2
Yrms = 0.707Ym
 AVERAGE VALUE ROOT MEAN
(YAVE) SQAURE (YRMS)
• The quotient of the area under • It is the dc voltage/current that
the waveform with respect to delivers the same average
time or angle. power to a resistor as the
• It is the arithmetic average of periodic current/voltage.
all instantaneous values • Also called the Effective Value
of current/voltage.
1 𝑇
𝑌𝑎𝑣𝑒 = න 𝑦(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 1 𝑇
𝑇 0 𝑌𝑟𝑚𝑠 = න 𝑦(𝑡) 2 𝑑𝑡
1 2𝜋 𝑇 0
𝑌𝑎𝑣𝑒 = න 𝑦(𝜙)𝑑𝜙
2𝜋 0
1 2𝜋
Note:
𝑌𝑟𝑚𝑠 = න 𝑦(𝜙) 2 𝑑𝜙
2𝜋 0
These are the formulas for a pure sine wave, if you wish to solve the average and rms
of other waveforms, change the ‘blue’ parts of the equations
RMS Value is the output reading of AC metering devices.
Average Value is the output reading of DC metering devices.
FORM FACTOR
• The ratio of the root-mean-square value to the average
value of an alternating quantity (current or voltage)

In general,
Yrms
Form Factor =
Yave

For sine wave,

Form _ Factor = 1.11
PEAK FACTOR
• Ratio of the peak/ maximum value to the RMS (root-mean-
square) value
• Aslo known as CREST Factor

In general,
Ym
Peak Factor =
Yrms

For sine wave,

Peak _ Factor = 1.414
AVERAGE VALUE
1 2
0 Y = 0.3183 YP Y = 0.6366 YP
𝜋 P 𝜋 P
RMS/Effective VALUE
1 1 1
Y = 0.7071YP Y = 0.5 YP Y = 0.7071YP
2 P 2 P 2 P
FORM FACTOR
1.11 (half-wave only) 1.57 1.11
TYPICAL SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORM
EXAMPLES
The instantaneous magnitude of a voltage is given as
100 sin 377t volts. Find the following parameters:
a. Vp
b. Vpp
c. Vave
d. Vrms
e. Form factor
f. Peak factor
ANSWER:
a. Vp= 100 v
b. Vpp= 200v
c. Vave= 0.637 (100) = 63.7 V
d. Vrms= 0.707 (100) = 70.7 V
e. FF=1.11
f. PF=1.414