PHYS - 555

Astronomy & Astrophysics I: (Semester III, 2017)

Observational Data – 20 Lectures

Telescopes and Instrumentation: 8 Lectures
Sun: 6 Lectures
Variable Stars & Asteroseismology: 8 Lectures
Observational Data :

Astronomical Coordinates – Celestial Sphere, Horison, Equatorial, Ecliptic and

Galactic System of Coordinates, Conversion from one system of coordinates into
another

Magnitude scale – Apparent and Absolute Magnitude

Determination of mass, luminosity, radius, temperature and distance of a star,

colour index

Stellar Spectral classification – Henry- Draper and Modern MK classification

schemes

H-R diagram, H-R diagram of Clusters, Empirical Mass Luminosity relation

Astronomical Coordinate Systems

Introduction

I intend to address the following problems:

• How to describe the position of an object in the sky

• Different Coordinate Systems (Horizon, Equatorial, Ecliptic, Galactic)
• How to transform between coordinate systems

It is largely based on the following text-books:

Smart, W.M., Text-book on Spherical Astronomy

Gorakh Prasad, Text-book on Spherical Astronomy
Bhatia, V. B., Text-book on A & A
 The Terrestrial Sphere

Start with a familiar sphere: the Earth

(assume for the moment that it is spherical), spinning around an axis.

The North & South Poles are where this axis meets the Earth's surface.

The equator lies midway between them.

The equator is an example of a great circle: one whose plane passes through the centre
of the sphere.
 The Terrestrial Sphere
Every great circle has two poles. We can define these as the points

(a) which are 90° away from the circle, on the surface of the sphere.
(b) where the perpendicular to the plane of the great circle cuts the surface of the sphere.

The length of a great-circle arc on the surface of a sphere is the angle between its end-points, as
seen at the centre of the sphere, and is expressed in degrees (not miles, kilometres etc.).
 The Terrestrial Sphere

A great circle is a geodesic (the shortest distance between two points) on the
surface of a sphere, analogous to a straight line on a plane surface.

To describe a location X on the surface of the

Earth, we use latitude and longitude (two
coordinates, because the surface is two-
dimensional).

Draw a great circle from pole to pole, passing

through location X: this is a meridian of
longitude.

The latitude of X is the angular distance along

this meridian from the equator to X,
measured from -90° at the South Pole to +90°
at the North Pole.

The co-latitude of X is the angular distance

from the North Pole to X = 90° - latitude.
 The Terrestrial Sphere

There is no obvious point of origin for

measuring longitude; for historical reasons, the
zero-point is the meridian which passes through
Greenwich (also called the Prime Meridian).

The longitude of X is the angular distance along

the equator from the Prime Meridian to the
meridian through X. It may be measured east or
west 0° to, 360°or both ways 0° to 180°.

360° of longitude equal a complete rotation of

the earth on its axis.

Thus, 15° of longitude equal one hour of time,

or 1° of longitude equals 4 minutes.
 The Terrestrial Sphere

DELHI: Latitude : 28.38 N Longitude : 77.12 E

 The Terrestrial Sphere

Note that a position on the surface of the Earth is fixed using one fundamental circle (the
equator) and one fixed point on it (the intersection with Greenwich Meridian).

Celestial navigation used at sea (and in the air) involves spherical trigonometry, so the
results are in angular measure (degrees). These must be converted to linear measure for
practical use.

We define the nautical mile as 1 arc-minute along a great circle on Earth's surface. This
comes out about 15% greater than the normal "statute" mile (6080 feet instead of 5280 feet).

Assignments
1. Small circles parallel to equator are parallels of latitude. Show that the circumference of a
small circle at any given latitude is
360 x cos(latitude) degrees,
and the length of arc of a small circle between two meridians of longitude is
(difference in longitude) x cos(latitude).

2. Alderney, in the Channel Islands, has longitude 2°W, latitude 50°N.

Winnipeg, in Canada, has longitude 97°W, latitude 50°N.
How far apart are they, in nautical miles, along a parallel of latitude?
 Coordinate Systems in Positional Astronomy

The Celestial Sphere

• The celestial sphere is the vast hollow sphere on which the stars appear fixed.
• Objects in the sky appear to be positioned on the celestial sphere, an indefinite
distance away
• The celestial equator is defined by extending the earth's equator outward.
• The N & S poles of the celestial sphere correspond to the earth's poles.
 1.  The Horizon or "alt-az" system

The location of an object on the sky is fixed by celestial coordinates analogous to the terrestrial latitude/
longitude system.

The horizon system uses the horizon as its fundamental circle.

The poles of this circle are the zenith overhead and the nadir underfoot;
these are defined by the local vertical.

Draw a vertical circle from the zenith to the nadir

through object X.
 1.  The Horizon or "alt-az" system

The altitude (a) of object X is the angular distance

along the vertical circle from the horizon to X,
measured from -90° at nadir to +90° at zenith.
Alternatively, the zenith distance of X is 90° - a.

Any two objects with the same altitude lie on a small

circle called a parallel of altitude.

To fix a point of origin on horizon, we look at where

the spin axis of the Earth intersects the celestial
sphere, at the North and South Celestial Poles.

The vertical circle through these is called the

principal vertical.

Where this intersects the horizon, it gives the north

and south cardinal points.

The azimuth (A) of object X is the angular distance

around the horizon
from the north cardinal point to the vertical circle
through X, measured 0°-360° as shown in the Figure.
 Comparison with the terrestrial system

terrestrial alt-az
equator horizon
North Pole Zenith
South Pole Nadir
latitude altitude
co-latitude zenith distance
parallel of latitude parallel of altitude
meridian of longitude vertical circle
Principal Vertical
longitude azimuth
 1. Horizon System (alt-az) system

• Azimuth gives the direction in which to look for the object

• The altitude then gives the angle by which the telescope is to be raised from the horizon
to locate the object
• Convenient for small telescopes

Suffers from two drawbacks

• Since the horizon at different locations on the earth is different, the coordinates of the
same object at the same time are different for observers located at different places
• As the earth rotates (diurnal motion), the celestial objects move in planes normal to the
polar axis. Since these planes are generally inclined to the horizon, the coordinates of any
object keep changing with time for any given observer.

These shortcomings are eliminated in the equatorial system

 Assignment

1.  Show that the altitude of the North Celestial Pole is equal to the latitude of
the observer.

2. Show that

sine rule:
sin(a)/sin(A) = sin(b)/sin(B) = sin(c)/sin(C)

cosine rule:
cos(a) = cos(b) cos(c) + sin(b) sin(c) cos(A)
cos(b) = cos(c) cos(a) + sin(c) sin(a) cos(B)
cos(c) = cos(a) cos(b) + sin(a) sin(b) cos(C)

3. From St.Andrews, at 6 pm on 1998 February 2nd, the Moon

appeared at altitude +39°, azimuth 196°, while Saturn is at altitude
+34°, azimuth 210°.

How far apart did the two objects appear?

Which was further East?

Altitude of North Celestial Pole

The altitude of the NCP is equal to the latitude of the observer

The hand, held at arm's length, is a convenient tool for estimating angles subtended at the eye
.

2. The First Equatorial System (HA & Dec)

We need a system of celestial coordinates which is fixed on the sky, independent of the observer's
time and place.
For this, we change the fundamental circle from the horizon to the celestial equator.

The North Celestial Pole (NCP) and the South Celestial Pole (SCP)
lie directly above North and South Poles of Earth.

The NCP and SCP form the poles of a great circle

on celestial sphere, analogous to the equator on
Earth.

It is called the celestial equator and it lies

directly above the Earth's equator.

Any great circle between the NCP and the SCP is a meridian.
The one which also passes through the zenith and the nadir
is "the" celestial meridian, or the observer's meridian.
(It is identical to the principal vertical.)
This provides our new zero-point; in this case,
we use the point where it crosses the southern half of the equator.
 .

2. The First Equatorial System (HA & Dec)

A typical star comes up over the horizon (rises) somewhere in the eastern sector; it moves round to the
right, climbing higher in the sky; it reaches its highest point when it's due south, i.e. on the meridian; it
continues moving right, and sinking lower; and it disappears below the horizon (sets) somewhere in the
western sector.

(Note that this is only true in the northern hemisphere;

in the southern hemisphere, the star will move to the left,
and reach its highest point when it's due north.
In what follows, I assume we are in the northern hemisphere.)
 .

2. The First Equatorial System (HA & Dec)

The star's highest point, due south, is called (upper) transit or culmination.

The star will also cross the meridian again, in the opposite direction, at the lowest point in its daily path.

This is called lower transit, and it occurs below the horizon unless the star is circumpolar.

Stars close to North Celestial Pole never set;

if a star's north polar distance is less than the
altitude of the Pole, then that star cannot reach the horizon.

These are defined as north circumpolar stars.

Similarly, stars close to the South Celestial Pole
will never rise: these are south circumpolar stars.

All others are equatorial stars, which rise and set.

The division between circumpolar and equatorial

stars depends on the altitude of the North Celestial Pole,
i.e. on the observer's latitude
 .

2. The First Equatorial System (HA & Dec)

To fix the coordinates of an object X on the celestial sphere, draw the meridian through X.

The declination (δ) of X is the angular distance

from the celestial equator to X, measured from -90° at the SCP to +90° at the NCP.

Any point on celestial equator has declination 0°.

Alternatively, the North Polar Distance of X = 90° - δ.

Any two objects with the same declination lie on

a parallel of declination.

The Hour Angle or HA (H) of object X is

the angular distance between the meridian of X
and "the" celestial meridian.

It is measured westwards from the celestial meridian

in hours, 0h-24h, since the Earth rotates 360° in 24 hours.
.

2. The First Equatorial System (HA & Dec)

time interval angle

1 hour 15°
1 minute 15'
1 second 15"

An object on the meridian (culminating) has H = 0h.

Its HA then steadily increases as the object

moves westwards.

At lower transit, when it is due north

(and possibly below the horizon),
H = 12h. At H = 23h, it is just one hour short
of culminating again.
.

2. The First Equatorial System (HA & Dec)

This system is still dependent on the time of observation,

but an object's declination generally doesn't change rapidly,
and its Hour Angle can be determined quite simply,
given the time and the location.

A telescope can be built on an equatorial mounting,

with its axis pointing at the NCP. Once it is set on
a star, if the telescope rotates about its polar axis
at the correct speed (15° per hour), the star
will stay in view.
Vernal Equinox

Once a year, the Sun traces out a circle on

the celestial sphere called the ecliptic.

The ecliptic is tilted at an angle of 23.5°

with respect to the celestial equator.

(The Moon and planets also move near the

ecliptic.)
 Vernal Equinox

The Sun crosses the celestial equator at exactly two

points, called equinoxes, from the Latin for "equal
nights"

The equinox where the Sun ascends from the southern

to the northern hemisphere is called the spring or
vernal equinox because the Sun is there on March 21.

The vernal equinox is chosen to be 0 h R.A.

The Sun again crosses the celestial equator halfway around,

at 12 h R.A.

This position is called the autumnal equinox because the

Sun is there on September 23.
 2. The Second Equatorial System (RA & Dec)

Coordinates in the first equatorial system (HA and declination) still depend on the time of
observation. Now we change the zero-point for our coordinates.

We choose a fixed point on the celestial equator, called the vernal equinox, or the First Point of
Aries.

The symbol for this is the astrological symbol for Aries:

The declination (δ) of object X is measured in the

same way as before.

The Right Ascension or RA (α) of object X is the

angle along the celestial equator measured from the
vernal equinox to the meridian of X.

Like HA, RA is measured in hours 0-24h,

but it goes in the opposite direction

Also local hour angle H = LST - RA

Local Siderial Time is the RA of the star at the observer’s meridian

 2. The Second Equatorial System (RA & Dec)

Celestial objects are at constant RA, but change their hour angle as time proceeds. If
measured in units of hours, minutes and seconds, HA will change for the same amount as
the elapsed time interval is, as measured in sidereal time or star time (ST), which is defined
so that a sidereal rotation of Earth takes 24 hours star time, which corresponds to 23 h 56 m
4.091 s standard (mean solar) time. This is the reason why RA and HA are measured in
time units. The standard convention is that HA is measured from east to west so that it
increases with time, and this is opposite to the convention for RA.

Star time is ST = 0 h by definition whenever the vernal equinox, RA = 0 h, crosses the local
meridian, HA = 0.

As time proceeds, RA stays constant, and both HA and ST grow by the amount of time
elapsed, thus star time is always equal to the hour angle of the vernal equinox.
Moreover, objects with "later" RA come into the meridian HA = 0, more precisely with RA
which is later by the amount of elapsed star time, so that also star time is equal to the current
Right Ascension of the local meridian.

More generally, for any object in the sky, the following relation between right ascension, hour
angle, and star time always holds:

HA = LST – RA
 Solstice

• The positions where the Sun reaches its highest and lowest
points are called solstices, from the Latin for "the Sun stops"
as it changes direction.

• The Sun is highest in the sky (in the northern hemisphere)

when it is at 6 h R.A.

This position is called the summer solstice because the Sun is

there on June 21.

The Sun then has a declination of +23.5°.

• The Sun is lowest in the sky (in the northern hemisphere)

when it is at 18 h R.A.

This position is called the winter solstice because the Sun is

there on December 21.

The Sun then has a declination of -23.5°.

Comparison of the celestial coordinate systems with the terrestrial system

terrestrial alt-az HA-dec. RA-dec.

equator horizon celestial equator celestial equator
North Pole zenith North Celestial Pole North Celestial Pole
South Pole nadir South Celestial Pole South Celestial Pole
latitude altitude declination declination
co-latitude zenith distance North Polar Distance North Polar Distance
parallel of latitude parallel of altitude parallel of declination parallel of declination
meridian of longitude vertical circle meridian meridian
Principal Vertical celestial meridian vernal equinox
longitude azimuth Hour Angle Right Ascension
 Conversion between different coordinate systems

Horizon and Equatorial systems

To convert between the horizon and equatorial coordinates

for an object X, we use a spherical triangle often called
"The Astronomical Triangle”: XPZ, where Z is the
zenith, P is the North Celestial Pole, and X is the object.

The sides of the triangle:

PZ is the observer's co-latitude = 90°-φ.

ZX is the zenith distance of X = 90°-a.
PX is the North Polar Distance of X = 90°-δ.

The angles of the triangle:

The angle at P is H, the local Hour Angle of X.
The angle at Z is 360°-A, where A is the azimuth of X.
The angle at X is q, the parallactic angle.

We assume we know the observer’s latitude φ and the

Local Sidereal Time LST.
 Conversion between different coordinate systems

Horizon and Equatorial systems

Given RA (α) and declination (δ), we have

Local Hour Angle H = LST - RA, in hours;
convert H to degrees (multiply by 15).

Given H, δ, and φ, we require azimuth A and altitude a.

By the cosine rule:

cos(90°-a) = cos(90°-δ) cos(90°-φ) +

sin(90°-δ) sin(90°-φ) cos(H)
which simplifies to:

sin(a) = sin(δ) sin(φ) + cos(δ) cos(φ) cos(H)

This gives us the altitude a.

cosine rule:

cos(a) = cos(b) cos(c) + sin(b) sin(c) cos(A)

cos(b) = cos(c) cos(a) + sin(c) sin(a) cos(B)
cos(c) = cos(a) cos(b) + sin(a) sin(b) cos(C)
 Conversion between different coordinate systems

Horizon and Equatorial systems

By the sine rule:

sin(360°-A)/sin(90°-δ) = sin(H)/sin(90°-a)
or
- sin(A)/cos(δ) = sin(H)/cos(a)
or
sin(A) = - sin(H) cos(δ) / cos(a)

which gives us the azimuth A.

Or by the cosine rule

cos(90°-δ) = cos(90°-φ) cos(90°-a) + sin(90°-φ) sin(90°-a) cos(360°-A)

or
sin(δ) = sin(φ) sin(a) + cos(φ) cos(a) cos(A)

cos(A) = { sin(δ) - sin(φ) sin(a) } / cos(φ) cos(a)

which gives us the azimuth A. sine rule:

sin(a)/sin(A) = sin(b)/sin(B) = sin(c)/sin(C)
 Conversion between different coordinate systems

Here are all the equations together for converting

Horizon to equatorial system:

H=t-α
sin(a) = sin(δ) sin(φ) + cos(δ) cos(φ) cos(H)
sin(A) = - sin(H) cos(δ) / cos(a)
cos(A) = { sin(δ) - sin(φ) sin(a) } / cos(φ) cos(a)
 Conversion between different coordinate systems

Now for the inverse problem:

to convert from Horizon to Equatorial coordinates:

Given φ, a and A, what are α and δ?

Use the cosine rule to get δ,

sin(δ) = sin(a)sin(φ) + cos(a) cos(φ) cos(A)

Use the sine rule to get H,

sin(H) = - sin(A) cos(a) / cos(δ)

Or use the cosine rule instead:

sin(a) = sin(δ)sin(φ) + cos(δ) cos(φ) cos(H) Here are all the equations together:
and rearrange to find H: sin(δ) = sin(a)sin(φ) + cos(a) cos(φ) cos(A)
cos(H) = { sin(a) - sin(δ) sin(φ) } / cos(δ) cos(φ) sin(H) = - sin(A) cos(a) / cos(δ)
Having calculated H, ascertain the Local Sidereal cos(H) = { sin(a) - sin(δ) sin(φ) } / cos(δ) cos(φ)
Time t. Then the R.A. follows from α=t–H
α=t–H
 3. The Ecliptic System

In the ecliptic system of coordinates, the fundamental great circle is the ecliptic.
The zero-point is still the vernal equinox.

Take K as the northern pole of the ecliptic, K' as the southern one.

To fix the ecliptic coordinates of an object X on the

celestial sphere, draw the great circle from K to K'
through X

The ecliptic (or celestial) latitude of X (symbol β)

is the angular distance from the ecliptic to X,
measured from -90° at K' to +90° at K.
Any point on the ecliptic has ecliptic latitude 0°.

The ecliptic (or celestial) longitude of X (symbol λ)

is the angular distance along the ecliptic from the
vernal equinox to the great circle through X.

It is measured eastwards (like R.A.), but in degrees, 0°-360°.

 4. The Galactic Coordinates

The equatorial system of coordinates (Right Ascension and declination) is the one most often used.
But the galactic system is sometimes more useful, e.g. for seeing how objects are distributed with
respect to the galactic plane.

In this system, the fundamental great circle is the galactic equator,

which is the intersection of the galactic plane with celestial sphere,
with corresponding galactic poles.

To fix the galactic coordinates of object X, draw a

great circle between the two galactic poles, passing
through X.

The galactic latitude (b) of object X is the angular

distance on this circle from galactic equator to X,
from - 90° at South Galactic Pole to +90° at North
Galactic Pole.

The zero-point for longitude is the centre of galaxy;

the position was fixed by the IAU. The galactic longitude (l)
of object X is the angular distance around the galactic equator
from the centre of the galaxy to the great circle through X,
measured eastwards 0-360°.
From St.Andrews, at 6 pm on 1998 February 2nd,
the Moon appeared at altitude +39°, azimuth 196°,
while Saturn is at altitude +34°, azimuth 210°.

How far apart did the two objects appear?

The difference in azimuth is 14°.
Use the cosine rule:

cos MS = cos MZ cos ZS + sin MZ sin ZS cos Z = 0.98

so MS = 12.3°

cosine rule:

cos(a) = cos(b) cos(c) + sin(b) sin(c) cos(A)

cos(b) = cos(c) cos(a) + sin(c) sin(a) cos(B)
cos(c) = cos(a) cos(b) + sin(a) sin(b) cos(C)
 Telescope Mountings

Alt-Az mount

Dobsonian

Equatorial Mount

German Equatorial English Yoke Fork

 Starlight
§  In astronomy, we cannot perform experiments
with our objects
§  The only way to investigate them, is by analyzing
the signals (light and other radiation) which we
receive from them.
§  Decoding these signals gives us insights into how
stars are born, how they evolve and how they die
§  Observations and subsequent measurements of
stellar properties allow us to test our theories
 Stellar Parameters

Intrinsic: Extrinsic:
è  Luminosity è  Position
è  Size è  Distance
è  Surface Temperature è  Radial velocity
è  Composition è  Proper motion
è  Mass
è  Spectrum [ Iλ (λ) ]
è  Color(s)
è  Rotation rate
è  Magnetic field strength
è  Activity Cycle
è  Stellar wind strength
è  Age
 ASTRONOMICAL DISTANCES

AU : Earth-Sun distance

Light Year: Distance travelled by light in one year

PARSEC is another unit of distance and is equal to 3.26 light years

Why are Distances Important?

Distances are necessary for estimating:

• Total energy released by an object (Luminosity)

• Masses of objects from orbital motions (Kepler's third law)
• Physical sizes of objects
 Measuring Stellar Distances

Parallax: nearby objects

appear to shift with
respect to background as
observer moves
 Measuring Stellar Distances
Parallax Method

A nearby star will change position on the sky relative to distant (background) stars.

Observing the object from points A and B, we can compute the distance to it from
angle “p” and the length of the baseline.
 Measuring Stellar Distances

Parallax Method

Parallax is measured in arc-seconds

Expression for parallax: p = a / d ( radians) = 206265 a/d (arc-seconds)

1 parsec = the distance at which 1 AU subtends an angle of 1 arc-second

1 parsec (pc) = 206265 AU = 3 X 1013 km = 3.26 light years

 Measuring Stellar Distances

Parallax Method

• Parallax becomes smaller as the distance to a star increases

• Parallax can not be measured to better than ~0.02" from the ground (d < 50 pc)
• Alpha Cen has the largest parallax (~0.8")
• The satellite Hipparcos (1989) has measured the parallax of 120,000 stars to better than 0.002"
d < 500 pc

• The star alpha Centauri has a • A star is measured to have a parallax
parallax of p=0.76-arcsec: of p=0.02-arcsec:
Hipparcos
HIgh
Precision
PARallax
COllecting
Satellite
(1989-1993)
Gaia
(2013 -
Gaia will make the largest,
most precise three-
dimensional map of our
Galaxy by surveying more
than a thousand million
stars.
 Luminosity and Apparent Brightness
Light from any source
fades as the distance Luminosity, L: energy emitted per unit
squared - referred to as time; units = ergs/s, W.
geometric dilution
Flux, F or apparent brightness: ergs/s/
cm2 is the energy passing through area
⊥ to the line-of-sight per unit time.

Flux measurements depend on

luminosity AND distance.

To determine a star s true luminosity,

both its apparent brightness and
distance must be measured.

L
b=
4πd 2
Measuring Brightness of Stars

L = 4πR2σT4
 The apparent magnitude scale

The apparent brightness of a star as measured by the human eye

(or human perception) defines the stellar magnitude scale. This is
a logarithmic scale. The eye senses brightness approximately
logarithmically over a moderate range and stellar magnitude is
measured on a logarithmic scale.

The old magnitude scale was introduced by the Greek

astronomer Hipparcos: brightest stars have a magnitude m = 1,
the faintest, m = 6.

Stellar brightness is
defined in terms of
⇒ magnitudes ⇐
 The apparent magnitude scale
1856 - N.R. Pogson formalized the magnitude system so that a
1st magnitude star is 100 times brighter than a 6th magnitude
star. Or, a 1st magnitude star is 2.512 times brighter than a 2nd
magnitude star.
A variation of 1 in the magnitude scale corresponds to a factor of
2.512 in brightness, because (2.512)5 = 100.
Apparent magnitude Apparent brightness ratio b2/b1
difference m1- m2
1 2.512
2 2.5122 = 6.31
3 2.5123 = 15.85
4 2.5124 = 39.82
5 2.5125 = 100
10 2.51210 = 104
20 2.51220 = 108
 The apparent magnitude scale

These are apparent magnitudes, because they are

related to the apparent brightness (i.e. they have no
information about the total output of energy from a
star).

Dimmer stars have higher apparent magnitudes.

The relationship between apparent magnitude and

apparent brightness is:
b1/b2 = 2.512-(m1 - m2) which translates into:
m1 - m2 = - 2.5 log (b1/b2)
m1 – m2 = 5

m1 = 6 fainter
m2 = 1 brighter

Hence b2/b1 = 100

(2.5125 = 100)
b2/b1 = 2.512(m1-m2)

or

b1/b2 = 2.512 -(m1-m2)

log (b1/b2) = -(m1-m2) log 2.512

(log 2.512 = 0.4)
m1-m2 = -2.5 log (b1/b2)
 The apparent magnitude scale

Modern magnitude scale is extended in both directions

 The Absolute Magnitude Scale

The apparent magnitude scale is distance independent.

Therefore, this scale has no information about how luminous
stars are.
Thus, the absolute magnitude scale was introduced to
characterize the luminosity (L) of stars by including the
distance.
The absolute magnitude of a star (M) is the apparent
magnitude the star would have if it were at a distance of 10
parsec.

M1 - M2 = - 2.5 log (L1/L2)

 The Relationship Between Absolute and Apparent Magnitude:

If the apparent magnitude of a star is m and its absolute magnitude

is M (its real brightness), then the distance to the star, d in parsecs, is
given by:

m − M = 5 log10 (d ) − 5
M = m + 5 − 5 log10 (d )

m - apparent magnitudes (mag)

M - absolute magnitude (mag)
d - distance (pc)
m - M is called the distance modulus
 L
b=
4πd 2
m1 - m2 = - 2.5 log (b1/b2)
For a star at distance ‘d’, m1=m
at distance ‘10 pc’, m2=M

m - M= -2.5 log (L/(4 π d2))/(L/(4 π 10pc2))

m – M = -2.5 log (10/d) 2

or m – M = -5 log 10 + 5 log d
 The Relationship Between Absolute and Apparent Magnitude:

Consider that we already know that the Sun has m = -26.8, and it is located
at 1 A.U. ( astronomical unit) from us.

1 A.U. = 1.5 x 1013 cm = 4.85 x 10-6 pc = semi-major axis of earth's orbit.

The sun has a luminosity of 1 solar luminosity Lsun = 3.9 x 1033 erg s-1.

We can calculate the absolute magnitude of the Sun Msun by considering

how much fainter the Sun would appear if it were located at 10 pc from us
instead of 1 A.U.

The absolute magnitude of the sun is Msun = +4.77. Similarly, for other stars,
a star of a certain absolute magnitude M is more/less luminous than the sun
according to:

M = +4.77 - 2.5 log (L / Lsun).

 Assignment

1.  The apparent magnitude of the Sun as seen from the Earth is -26.7. What is the apparent magnitude
of the Sun as seen from Jupiter (orbital radius 5.2 AU)?

2.  If a star has an apparent magnitude m = 0.4 and a parallax of 0.3”, what is (a) the distance
modulus (b) the absolute magnitude?

3.  What is the distance (in parsecs) of a star whose absolute magnitude is +6.0 and whose
apparent magnitude is +16.0.

4.  The magnitude difference between two stars A & B is 14. What is the luminosity ratio of A & B. The ratio
of luminosities of two stars C & D is 1000. What is the difference in the magnitude of C & D.

5.  Alpha Centauri is a visual binary system with a combined apparent magnitude of -0.29. The pair can be
separated easily in a small telescope, and it is found that the apparent magnitude of the brighter
component is -0.01. What is the apparent magnitude of the fainter component?

6.  Two stars are known from their spectra to have the same luminosity. Star B is three times as far away as
star A.
(a) What is the ratio of the flux received from star A to that received from star B?
(b) If star B has an apparent magnitude of 8.0, what is the apparent magnitude of star B?
(c) Star B is a member of a visual binary. Its companion star, C, has apparent magnitude 8.6. What is the
ratio of the flux received from C to that received from B?
(d) What is the combined magnitude of the B+C system, seen through a small telescope which does not
resolve them as separate stars?
Color and Temperature
Stars appear in different Orion
Betelgeuse
colors,
from blue (like Rigel)
via green / yellow (like
our sun)
to red (like Betelgeuse).

These colors tell us

Rigel
about the star’s
temperature.
Measuring Temperatures of Stars
Colors and Temperatures of stars

Wien's Law
The Color of a Star

B band
V band
The color of a star is measured
by comparing its brightness in
two different wavelength
bands:
The blue (B) band and the
visual (V) band.


Filters

Op+cal devices called filters allow light to pass in a limited range of wavelengths
and thus allow photometric observa+ons at one or more specific wavelengths


FILTERS Wavelength (Ang)
U 3600
B 4400
V 5500
R 7000
I 9000

22,000

 Astronomical Color Filters

In stellar astronomy, the following filters are the most common

U (ultraviolet) B (blue) V (visual)

Their transmission of light as a function of wavelength, as well as the response

of the average human eye, is illustrated below

V magnitude corresponds roughly to that which would be es+mated by eye

B mag corresponds roughly to that obtained by using a blue sensi+ve photographic
emulsion

U mag - no visual or photographic analogue. Suitable for high al+tude sites
 Colour Index
A color index is defined by taking the difference in magnitudes (which are related
logarithmically to intensity) at two different wavelengths.

Using the U, B, and V color filters, there are three possible independent differences.

For example, the B-V color index is defined by taking the difference between the magnitudes in
the blue and visual regions of the spectrum and the

U-B color index is the analogous difference between the UV and blue regions of the spectrum.

Examples:
The star Spica has apparent magnitudes U = -0.24, B = 0.7, and V = 0.9 in the UV, blue, and
photovisual regions, respectively. The corresponding color indices are

B - V = 0.7 - 0.9 = - 0.2

U - B = -0.24 -0.7 = - 0.94

Generally, the negative values of these color indices are an indication that Spica is a hot star,
with most of its radiation coming at shorter wavelengths. On the other hand, for Antares
B = 2.7 and V=0.9, and the B - V color index is

B - V = 2.7 - 0.9 = 1.8

The positive value of B - V in this case is an indication that Antares is a cool star, with most of
its radiation coming at longer wavelengths.
Colour Index
 Bolometric Magnitude
The total luminosity is a measure of all the energy the star puts out over
all wavelengths, from the far infrared to the extreme ultraviolet.
Astronomers refer to this as the star's bolometric luminosity.

The Bolometric Correction

So how do we measure the bolometric magnitude of a star? We usually
don't! We measure the magnitude of the star in some filter (say, V) and
apply a bolometric correction, i.e.:

For example, we said the (bolometric) absolute magnitude for the Sun
was M = 4.76. Its absolute V magnitude is 4.83, so its bolometric
correction is BC=4.76-4.83=-0.07.
 The Bolometric Correction

The bolometric correction is large both for hot stars and for cool stars.

Because:

For hot stars, a substantial part of the produced radiation is in the ultraviolet.

For cool stars, a large part is in the infrared.

For a star like our Sun, the correction is only marginal because the Sun
radiates most of its energy in the visual wavelength range.
 Measuring Sizes of Stars
STELLAR RADII

For stars, the luminosity, temperature and radius are linked by an expansion of
Stefan-Boltzmann's law that says:

L = 4πR2σT4

This equation can be expressing in terms

of solar units such that:

L/Lo = (R/Ro)2(T/To)4

where Lo, Ro and To are the luminosity,

radius and surface temperature of the Sun.

Knowing T, L, Lo, To, Ro, radius of a star

can be determined.
L = 4πR2σT4
Measuring Sizes of Stars
Measuring Sizes of Stars
 Using Binary Stars to Determine Masses of stars

§ Binary or double stars provide virtually the only means of directly

determining the masses of stars other than our Sun.

§ Knowing a star's mass determines its life cycle and fate,

§ Accurate determination of stellar masses is vital in refining our models of

stars.

Anima+on Binary.html
 Kepler's Laws

To find the mass of a binary system we need to apply Kepler's Laws. If we
adapt them for a binary system where the masses of the component stars are
similar then:

1. The stars orbit each other in elliptical orbits, with the centre of mass (or
barycenter) as one common focus.

2. The line between the stars (the radius vector) sweeps out equal areas in
equal periods of time (sometimes called the Law of Equal Areas).

3. The square of a star's period, T, is directly proportional to the cube of its

average distance from the centre of system mass, r: T2 r3. This is the Law
of Periods or Harmonic Law.
 Deriving Equa+ons for Mass of Binary System

centre of mass (Barycenter) of the system is where mArA = mBrB

as r =rA + rB , rB = r - rA

mArA = mB(r - rA)

mArA = mB r - mB rA

rA = mBr/(mA + mB)

rA = mBr/M

The forces ac+ng on each star are balanced, that is the gravita+onal force equals the
centripetal force. So
FG = FC or GmAmB/r2 = mAv2/rA where v is the orbital speed of A.

Unless v can be measured or inferred directly from Doppler shi] in its spectrum it
must be calculated from the period, T:

v = 2πrA/T subs+tu+ng this in the above equa+on

GmB/r2 = 4π2rA/T2 so if we then subs+tute rA = mBr/M

GmB/r2 = 4π2mBr/T2M or M = 4π2r3/GT2

which can be rewri`en as: mA + mB = 4π2r3/GT2

which is simply an expression of Kepler's 3rd Law; r3/T2 = GM/4π2
mA + mB = 4π2r3/GT2 or r3/T2 = GM/4π2

Using above, we can determine the mass of the binary system if we can
measure the orbital period and the radius vector (separa+on between the two
components) for the system. In prac+ce most systems will not have their orbital
plane perpendicular to us so we need to adjust for the observed inclina+on.

While it is rela+vely straight forward to determine the total system mass, it is

harder to determine the individual masses of the component stars.

This requires the distance from a component star to the barycenter to also be
measured. We can then use this to determine the mass of that star by using:

mA = M(r - rA)/r

Once the mass of one component and the total system is known it is
straigheorward to calculate the mass of the other component.
 Mass Luminosity Relationship

Detailed observations, particularly in binary star systems where masses can be

determined with some reliability, indicate that there is a correlation between the
mass of a star and its luminosity.

We see that on this plot most stars fall very near a straight line. This is called the
mass-luminosity relation for main-sequence stars.

Example: If we double the mass of a main sequence star, the luminosity increases by a factor 2 3.5 ~ 11.3.
Thus, stars like Sirius that are about twice as massive as the Sun are more than 10 times as luminous.
Observa+ons of 192 stars
 Spectrum of a Star

• Almost all stars show a "continuum" spectum

with "absorption" lines.

• Some stars show "emission" lines.

• All stars do not have the same spectrum!

 Kirchhoff s Laws

Gustav Kirchhoff in 1860, came up with three laws describing the processes behind three types of
spectra. The laws are :

1. A hot solid, liquid or gas at high pressure has a

continuous spectrum.

There is energy at all wavelengths.

2. A gas at low pressure and high temperature will

produce emission lines.

There is energy only at specific wavelengths.

3. A gas at low pressure in front of a hot
continuum causes absorption lines.

Spectrum
Ground based optical Telescopes work at λ ~ 4000-9000 A0
Instruments extend the usage to ~ 3000 (UV end) &
10000 A0 (IR end)
Spectral Signatures allow us to know about :

• Chemical composition of the stars

• Abundances of the elements
• Physical conditions of the gases such as densities and
temperature
Stellar Spectra

O
B

Surface temperature
A
F
G
K
M
Analyzing Absorption Spectra
•  Each element produces a specific set of
absorption (and emission) lines.
•  Comparing the relative strengths of these sets of lines,
we can study the composition of gases.

By far the
most
abundant
elements
in the
Universe
The spectral lines in the ultraviolet are the Lyman series.
In the visible these are called the Balmer series.

Transition
Series Designation Wavelength
(Levels)
Lyman (UV)

Lyα 2-1 1215.7 A

Lyβ 3-1 1025.7 A

Lyγ 4-1 972.53 A

...

limit infinity-1 911.5 A

Balmer (visible)

Hα 3-2 6562.8 A

Hβ 4-2 4861.3 A

Hγ 5-2 4340.5 A

...

limit infinity-2 3646.0 A

The energies in atoms are usually expressed in

electron volts (eV).
• 1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J
For instance, the energy difference between
n=2 and n=1 in H is 10.2 eV.
Since E = hc/λ, λ = 1216 Ang
 Spectral Classification of Stars

Harvard Classification System

In 1890, Edward Pickering and Williamina Fleming made a first attempt at

spectral classification:

Sorted stars by decreasing Hydrogen absorption-line strength

Spectral Type "A" = strongest Hydrogen lines
followed by types B, C, D, etc. (weaker)
 Spectral Classification of Stars

Cannon Classification

In 1901, Annie Jump Cannon noticed that stellar temperature was the principal
distinguishing feature among different spectra.

Re-ordered the ABC types by temperature instead of Hydrogen absorption-line

strength.

Most classes were thrown out as redundant.

Left with the 7 primary classes we recognize today, in the order:

OBAFGKM
 Spectral Classification of Stars

If the surface of a star is as cool as the surface of the Sun (about 5800 K) or
cooler, most of the atoms are in the ground state. This means that, although
stars like the Sun have a lot of hydrogen in their atmospheres, very little of
their hydrogen atoms have electrons in the second energy level (most
electrons are in the first energy level, which is the ground state). Without
electrons in the second level, very little Balmer radiation is produced. So,
cool stars have very weak Balmer lines.

In very hot stars (like O stars which have surface temperatures of around
20,000 K), almost all of the hydrogen is either ionized (which means it has
lost its electrons completely) or has electrons in only very high energy levels.
Again, there are very few hydrogen atoms with electrons in the second
energy level, so the Balmer lines of these stars are weak.
 Spectral Classification of Stars

However, in A Type stars (surface temperature about 10,000 K), most of the
hydrogen atoms have electrons in the second energy level. These stars,
therefore, have very strong hydrogen lines.
 Spectral Classification of Stars

Henry Draper Catalog of Stars

Annie Cannon further refined the spectral classification system by dividing each
class into numbered ten subclasses.

For example, type A is subdivided into: A0 A1 A2 A3 ... A9

A0 being the hottest and A9 being the coolest within Spectral Type A.

Between 1911 and 1924, she applied this Harvard Classification scheme to about
220,000 stars, published as the Henry Draper Catalog.
 Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram

In 1905, Danish astronomer Einar Hertzsprung, and independently American astronomer Henry
Norris Russell, noticed that the luminosity of stars decreased from spectral type O to M.

They developed the technique of plotting absolute magnitude for a star versus its spectral type to
look for families of stellar type.
Helium Ions

All elements can be ionized by removing one or more electrons. The example of helium is shown
below.

Suffix Meaning Examples

I neutral He I, O I
II once ionized He II, O II
III twice ionized He III, O III
IV three times ionized O IV, Ne IV
O; 28,000-50,000 K; ionized atoms, especially helium
B; 10,000-28,000 K; neutral helium, some hydrogren
A; 7,500-10,000 K; strong hydrogen, some ionized metals
F; 6,000-7,500 K; hydrogen and ionized metals, such as calcium and iron
G; 5,000-6,000 K; ionized calcium and both neutral and ionized metals
K; 3,500-5,000 K; neutral metals
M; 2,500-3,500 K; strong molecules, e.g., titanium oxide and some neutral
calcium
 Spectral Classification of Stars

Modern M-K System

In 1943, William Morgan (Chicago) and Phillip Keenan (Ohio State) added
Luminosity as a second classification parameter.

Luminosity Classes are designated by the Roman numerals I thru V, in

order of decreasing luminosity:

Ia = Bright Supergiants
Ib = Supergiants Sun: G2v
II = Bright Giants Betelgeuse: M2I
III = Giants Rigel: B8I
IV = Subgiants Sirius: A1v
V = Dwarfs Aldebaran: K5III
 Spectral Classification of Stars

The giants, supergiants, and white dwarfs can all be distinguished

spectroscopically even if their distances and hence luminosities are not known.
The line profiles change shape depending on the surface gravity of the star.

If one compares spectral

lines from low pressure gas
and high pressure gas, one
finds that the high pressure
gas produces broader
spectral lines.

This is because the atoms in

the gas at high pressure (and
thus denser) have a larger
collision rate and thus
available energy levels for
absorption of photons.
 Spectral Classification of Stars

For stars of comparable temperatures,

those with higher surface gravities will
have higher pressures and vice-versa.

Dwarfs have relatively high surface

gravities and thus broader spectral lines,
while the outer layers of supergiants are
least dense and have narrow absorption
lines
These spectra come from stars with
the same T but P increasing
downwards in the plot
 Finer Spectral Classification

Main Class: O, B, A, …

Sub-Class: O1-O9
B1-B9
A1-A9
……..

Luminosity Class: I – V
 MASS

SIZE

BRIGHTNESS

TEMPERATURE
 The Main-Sequence

The important properties are:

• The Main Sequence is a Mass Sequence:

1. Massive stars are hotter and brighter.
2. Low-mass stars are cooler and fainter.

• Main Sequence Lifetime depends on Mass:

1. Massive stars have short M-S lifetimes

2. Low-mass stars have long M-S lifetimes.

• Low-Mass stars take longer to form.

 The Main-Sequence

p-p chain reaction

The Main-Sequence
 The Main-Sequence

• Main Sequence Lifetime depends on Mass:

1. Massive stars have short M-S lifetimes

2. Low-mass stars have long M-S lifetimes.

Assignment:

Calculate nuclear time scales of main sequence stars of 5 and 10 solar masses.

Hint : Use the following relation together with the Mass-luminosity relation:
Stellar Clusters

The Milky Way

Stellar Clusters
Open Clusters: When a cluster is young, the brightest members are O, B and A stars. Young clusters in
our Galaxy are called open clusters due to their loose appearance. They usually contain between 100
and 1,000 members. Example : Pleiades

Globular Clusters: Early in the formation of our Galaxy, very large, globular clusters formed from giant molecular
clouds. Each contain over 10,000 members, appear very compact and have the oldest stars in the Universe.
Example : M92
 H-R Diagrams of Star Clusters

When stars are born they develop from large clouds of molecular gas.

This means that they form in groups or clusters, since molecular clouds are composed
of hundreds of solar masses of material.

After the remnant gas is heated and blown away, the stars collect together by gravity.
During the exchange of energy between the stars, some stars reach escape velocity
from the proto-cluster and become runaway stars.

The rest become gravitationally bound, meaning they will exist as collection
orbiting each other forever.
Since all the stars in a cluster formed at the same time, they are all the same age.

Observations of star clusters consist of performing photometry on many individual stars in a cluster.

Each star is plotted by its color and magnitude on the HR diagram. Shown below is one such diagram for the
globular cluster M13.

Note that the main sequence only exists

for low mass G, K and M stars.

All stars bluer than the turn-off point

have exhausted their hydrogen fuel and
evolved into red giants millions and
billions of years ago.

Also visible is a clear red giant branch

and a post-red giant phase region, the
horizontal branch.
As a cluster ages:

• Start with high-mass stars on the M-S, and low-mass stars still approaching.

• High mass run out of hydrogen in their cores first, evolving off into supergiants.

• As successively lower mass stars run out of hydrogen in their cores, they too evolve off.
Effect is that stars peel off the Main-Sequence from the top (high-mass end) down as the
cluster ages.

Main-Sequence Turn-off
Point where the Main-Sequence "turns off" towards giant stars.

• As cluster ages, the stars at the turn-off are lower mass

• Low mass stars have redder colors.

• Color of the turn-off is an indicator of the cluster age:

• Older Clusters have redder turn-off points.

Plotting various star cluster HR diagrams together gives the following plot
Understanding the changes in the lifetime of a main
sequence star is a simple matter of nuclear physics,
where we can calibrate the turn-off points for various
clusters to give their ages.

This, then, provides a tool to understand how our

Galaxy formed, by mapping the positions and
characteristics of star clusters with known ages.

When this is done it is found that old clusters form a

halo around our Galaxy, young clusters are found in the
arms of our spiral galaxy near regions of gas and dust.
Reference Books

Modern Astrophysics – Carrol & Ostlie

Astronomy – Zeilik

Fundamental Astronomy – Kartunnen et al.

Physical Universe – Frank Shu

IGNOU Course PHE-15

 Telescopes
and
Instrumentation
 Observables and Astronomical
Observing Instruments
Observed Quantities
•  Brightness (magnitude)
•  Colour (magnitude)
•  Chemical Composition (spectrum)

Observing Instruments
•  Telescope : Gathers light, Forms image of an object
•  Eye-Piece : For visual observations
•  Plate holder : For imaging
•  Photometer : Used to measure brightness
•  Spectrograph : For taking spectrum
•  Polarimeter : For measuring light polarization
 Eye as a Detector
•  Eye is a very versatile detector
•  Eye acts as a camera
•  Eye also acts as a photometer
•  The diameter of the pupil of our eye completely adapted
to dark is about 7 mm
•  The spectral response of the eye is between 0.4µ to
0.7µ.
•  The peak quantum efficiency of the eye is a few percent
•  Eye has a very large dynamic range (about a billion)
•  The response time constant of the eye is about 0.1s
•  Eye cannot integrate light
 Telescopes
The main functions of telescopes are:
•  To make images with as much angular information as possible
•  To gather as much light as possible to allow study of faint objects

Where one puts the telescope can also be important (Site)

•  It s better to have nice weather (or no weather) - Space
•  It s better to have as little absorption by atmosphere - Transparency
•  It s better to have very stable air to minimize blurring - Seeing
•  Mauna Kea in Hawaii and La silla in Chile are among the best
astronomical sites in the world.

Types of Telescopes
•  Refractors (Use Lenses)
•  Reflectors (Use Mirrors)
 Permanent observatories above 4,000 m:

Observatory Type of Major

Observatory Name Elevation Location Coordinates Established
Site Observatory Instruments

University of Tokyo 5,640 m Atacama Optical,

Cerro Chajnantor 2009[10]
Atacama Observatory (TAO) (18,500 ft)[10] Desert, Chile 22°59′12″S infrared
67°44′32″W
Tibet
Shiquanhe Observatory 5,100 m Shiquanhe, Ngari Autonomous 32°19′N 2011 Optical
(NAOC Ali Observatory)[11] (16,700 ft)[12] Plateau Region, 80°01′E
China
Colorado,
4,312 m Optical,
Meyer-Womble Observatory Mount Evans United 39°35′12″N 1996
(14,147 ft) Infrared
States 105°38′24″W
Keck, UKIRT,
Hawaii, Optical, Gemini North,
4,190 m
Mauna Kea Observatory Mauna Kea United 19°49′28″N 1967 infrared, Subaru, JCMT,
(13,750 ft)[17]
States 155°28′24″W submillimeter CSO, SMA,
CFHT
Himalayan
Hanle, Infrared,
Indian Astronomical 4,500 m Mount Chandra
Ladakh, 32°46′46″N 2001 gamma ray,
Observatory (14,800 ft) Saraswati[13] [14] Telescope,
India 78°57′51″E Optical
HAGAR

 Detectors
An Ideal Detector should have
•  100% quantum efficiency
•  Infinite dynamic range
•  Infinite spatial and time resolution
•  Perfect spectral resolution
•  A very large surface area
Detectors for Photometry
•  Photographic Emulsions
•  Photocells
•  Photomultiplier Tubes
•  Solid State Detectors
•  Charge-Coupled Devices (CCDs)
 Instruments
•  Photometers

•  Spectrographs

•  Polarimeters
Design of a Refracting Telescope
Internal Design:

External Look:
 Refracting telescopes
One can use a lens to gather the light and bring it to a
focus. It is hard to make lenses really big. The largest
refractor is of 1-metre diameter at Yerkes observatory,
Wisconsin

Refractors are
conspicuous
by their long
tubes
•  Only peripheral Support:
The lens can be supported only on its periphery. The problem is more
severe for larger lenses.

•  Design is bulky:
Optical path (focal length) can be large and hence pipe size goes on
increasing

•  Difficult to use for photography:

Since the size of telescope is bulky, chance of image vibrations is
higher and photographs tend to get blurred.

•  Cost of the telescope becomes higher:

Since this type of telescopes uses only lenses therefore as we go for
higher size of the aperture the cost goes on increasing as large lenses
are expensive to make.
 Reflecting Telescopes
It is much easier to make a large mirror, because one can support it from behind. All
large telescopes are reflectors. The largest being 10-metre in diameter.

•  One can take the light to various foci, some

of which are better for placing heavy
instruments.
•  One generally has a secondary mirror to
take the light to the focus.
 Main Types of reflecting telescopes
•  Newtonian Reflector:
In the optical design, where light is taken out of the tube by placing a
plane mirror near the focus point of the primary mirror. The plane
mirror reflects the light by 450 angle. The telescope having this type of
arrangement is known as Newtonian Reflector Telescope.

•  These types of
telescopes are easy to
use and easy to make.
•  These types of
telescopes are widely
used for planetary and
moon viewing.
•  Most amateurs build
and use this type of
telescope.
Newtonian Reflectors
 Main Types of reflecting telescopes

•  Schmidt-Cassegrain Reflector:
In these, light is taken out of the tube through a hole made in the
primary mirror while a thin correcting lens (called the Schmidt plate)
is placed above the secondary mirror to reduce spherical aberration.

•  T h e s e t y p e s o f
telescopes are easy
to use but not easy to
make.
•  They are usually
made by professional
t e l e s c o p e
manufacturers
•  These are costly and
can be used for
astrophotography and
photometry.
Schmidt Cassegrain Reflectors
Why a BIG Telescope? - Light Gathering Power
Think of a telescope as a
bucket sitting in a rain of
photons: increasing the
aperture (diameter) of a
telescope,increases its
light gathering power
(it can capture more
photons in the same
amount of time because
it is bigger) is
proportional to the area
2
LGP ∝ Area ∝ D
Two pictures of the Andromeda galaxy taken with the
same exposure time…...
 Light gathering Power of a telescope
•  How much more light does the telescope collect? That is
known as the "light grasp or LGP", and can be found
quite simply as the increase in area that you gain in
going from using the pupil of your eye to using the
objective lens (or mirror) of the telescope.
•  The area of a circle is π/4 × D2, so the light grasp -- we'll
call it GL -- is the ratio of the area of the objective to the
area of the pupil of the eye, which is
Light gathering power

For two telescopes with diameters D1 and D2

LGP1 / LGP2 = (D1 /D2)2

For example, a telescope of 100mm diameter can gather (100/7)2 = 204 times
more light than a human eye with a typical pupil diameter of 7 mm.

For two telescopes with diameters 24 cm and 4 cm, the former gathers 36 times
[(24/4)2 ] more light than the other.

Even a small increase in the diameter of the telescope produces a large increase
in its light gathering power and enables Astronomers to study much fainter objects.
Magnitude Limit (Limiting Magnitude of a Telescope)

We've already worked out the brightness increase we get from

the telescope as GL = (DO/Deye)²

Brightness increase of the telescope in terms of magnitudes

is
Gmag = 2.5×log(GL)

or Gmag = 2.5×log((DO/Deye)²).
 Taking Deye = 7mm , we get:

Since log(7) is about 0.8, then 5×0.8 = 4 so our equation for the gain in
star magnitude is

Remember to express Do in mm.

This represents how many more magnitudes the telescope will let one see,
over and above what the eye alone can see. Then to find the faintest
magnitude one can see with the telescope, we simply add Gmag to the
faintest magnitude our eye can see, magnitude 6.

This is the magnitude limit of the telescope, Lmag:

Which simplifies down to our final equation for the magnitude limit Lmag of
the telescope

For a telescope with 90 mm aperture, the limiting magnitude is

Lmag = 2 + 5×log(DO) = 2 + 5×log(90) = 2 + 5×1.95 = 11.75.

 Telescopes
Magnification and focal ratio

Three telescopes :

Longest

DO = 76 mm
F = 1200 mm

Middle

DO = 70 mm
F = 600 mm

Shortest

DO = 76 mm
F = 300 mm
 Telescopes
Magnification

We calculate the Magnification of a telescope by dividing the objective s focal length by

the focal length of the eyepiece

FL(aperture) / FL(eyepiece) = Magnification

For three telescopes of same aperture but focal lengths : 1200 mm,
600mm, 300 mm
Two eyepieces of focal lengths : 20 mm, 10 mm
 Focal ratios (f/ratio)

Deifined as F/D

For the long refractor, we divide 1200 mm with the aperture of 76mm and
arrive at 15.8 for an f/ratio, or about f/16 - quite a long focal ratio telescope.
The mid-length refractor is a shorter f/ratio: 600 millimeters divided by
70mm is f/8.5. And the short little refractor has the shortest focal length of
all: 300 divided by 76 is 3.9 or close to f/4.

The longer f/ratio telescopes provide more magnification with the

same eyepiece but less Field of View.

Thus, short f/ratio telescopes are most easily used for wide field viewing;
long f/ratio telescopes for observations of planets and double stars.
Focal ratios

This is the ‘speed’ of a telescope’s optics. The smaller the f/number, the
lower the magnification, the wider the field, and the brighter the image
with any given eyepiece or camera.

Fast f/4 to f/5 focal ratios are generally best for lower power wide field
observing and deep space photography. Slow f/11 to f/15 focal ratios are
usually better suited to higher power lunar, planetary, and binary star
observing and high power photography. Medium f/6 to f/10 focal ratios
work well with either.

An f/5 system can photograph a nebula or other faint extended deep

space object in one-fourth the time of an f/10 system, but the image will
be only one-half as large. Point sources, such as stars, are recorded
based on the aperture, however, rather than the focal ratio – so that the
larger the aperture, the fainter the star you can see or photograph, no
matter what the focal ratio.
 Telescopes
Resolving Power and Diffraction Limit

The image of a point object through an optical instrument is not sharp (point-like)

It is a large circular disc called Airy s disc and is surrounded by a number of

alternate bright and dark fringes produced due to diffraction. The central bright
disc represents the image of the object.
 Telescopes
Resolving Power and Diffraction Limit

For two close stars that appear equally bright, we should be able to see two
Airy s discs.

However, whether we see them as distinct

stars or overlapping each other depends on the
resolving power of the telescope.

Rayleigh Criterion

Two equally bright stars are said to be just

resolved when the central maximum of one
diffraction pattern coincides with the first
minimum of the other.
 Telescopes
Resolving Power and Diffraction Limit

Resolved Not Resolved

 Angular Resolution
The resolution of a telescope:

λ
resolution ∝
D

A small resolution is
better, as it allows
more closely spaced
features to be
distinguished.
The diffraction limit of resolution is defined as:

R (in radians) = (1.22 λ / D)

Where λ is the wavelength of light and D is the telescope diameter. Both

λ  and D have to be expressed in the same units.

R can be expressed in arc-seconds as

R (arc-sec) = 1.22 λ / D (206265)

For Human eye R ~ 1 arc-min for absolute sharp vision

~ 2 arc-min for clear vision
~ 4 arc-min for comfortable vision

Remember, the smaller is the value of R, the better is the

instrument s ability to resolve nearby objects
 The diffraction limit of resolution of telescopes of
different sizes
λ = 457 nm

Telescope diameter (mm) R( )

50 2.3
100 1.15
200 0.58
300 0.29
500 0.23

Large telescopes should have very small resolving powers.

But this resolution is limited by the passage of light through the Earth s atmosphere.
It does not allow ground-based telescopes to resolve better than 1-2 arc-seconds (even at
best sites)
 The diffraction limit of resolution of telescopes of
different sizes

If we observe at a wavelength of 500 nm (near the peak of the eye's response),

at what aperture diameter does the diffraction limit become equal to the 1
arcsecond or so limit set by the atmosphere?

Ans. = 0.12 m
 Atmospheric Windows

Ground based Telescopes

•  Optical Window
3000 A0 to 10000 A0
•  IR Window
up to 24 µm

•  Radio Window
8 mm to 15m
Atmospheric
Windows

Optical Window

Ground based optical Telescopes work around λ ~

5000 A0

Instruments extend the usage to ~ 3000 (UV end) &

10000 A0 (IR end)
 Plate Scale
Plate scale, p: relates the size of the image in the focal plane, s, to its
angular size θ on the sky.

Given that θ is usually small è s=Fθ , where θ is in radians.

If an astronomer wishes to study an object of angular size θ in high

spatial detail, s needs to be large, and therefore a long focal-length
telescope is required.
 Plate Scale

Plate scale, p: relates the size of the image in the focal plane, s, to its
angular size on the sky.

If F is measured in mm, the plate scale in radians per mm is given by

p = θ / s = 1 / F, since s = F θ

Plate scale is usually expressed in arc-seconds per mm

p = 206265 / F,

where F is in mm.
 Telescope Terminology Summary

•  Diameter or Aperture of the Objective (D)

- Light gathering power α D2
- Resolution α 1/D
•  Focal Length of the telescope (F)
- Equals focal length of objective for a single element
- Equals combined focal length of the primary and
secondary
•  F-ratio = F/D, Smaller f-ratio indicates faster system
•  Plate Scale – Gives size of image at focal plane
Plate Scale = 206265/F (in "/mm)
•  Field of View is the field covered at the focal plane
 Telescope Mounts

Mounts come in two basic types – alt-az and equatorial.

Although they sound different, they’re actually very closely

related

An equatorial mount being essentially an alt-az mount with

one axis tilted over so that it points at your local celestial
pole (NCP or SCP)
 Telescope Mounts
Mounts come in two basic types – alt-az and equatorial.

Although they sound different, they’re actually very closely related

An equatorial mount being essentially an alt-az mount with one axis

tilted over so that it points at your local celestial pole (NCP or SCP)
Alt-Azimuth Mount
•  The telescope moves in
azimuth and altitude.
•  The mount is much
simpler mechanically
•  Both the axes need to be
rotated to follow an object
with non-uniform rates.
•  Computers are a must to
be able to track an object.
Alt-Azimuth Mount
Equatorial Mount
•  The telescope moves in
RA and DEC
•  The axis of rotation of the
telescope is parallel to
axis of earth s rotation
•  The rate of rotation is
constant (one rotation in
24 hours)
•  A simple drive is able to
do the task of tracking
Equatorial Mount
Equatorial Mount
 Telescope Mounts

There are two types of telescope mounts: alt-azimuth and equatorial.

36 –inch Lick Refractor 40-inch Yerkes Refractor
(Univ. of California) World s Largest Refractor
(Univ. of Chicago)
Nasmyth mounts
can hold heavy
instruments, and
all it takes is a
quick flip of a
small mirror to
change from one
instrument to
another.
 Examples of Nasmyth Mounts

Nasmyth mount of WIYN 3.5m VLT Instrument at Nasmyth

Coude Focus

Coude instruments are kept in a

separate room, generally for stability.
They can be very large, and usually
accept very slow beams.
Hale 200-inch Telescope
(Caltech)
8-metre VLT and Dome (ESO)
located at Cerro Paranal, 2635m
 The Four VLTs
(Equivalent to 16-m Telescope)
10-metre Keck Telescopes (Caltech)
located at Mauna Kea, 4145 m
Keck Telescope
Hubble Space Telescope
 Large Telescopes (Under Construction)

Size and Year Name Location

42m , 2023 European Extremely Large Chile
Telescope (E-ELT)
30m , 2023 Thirty Metre Telescope Hawaii (USA)
or Canary Islands (spain)
21.4m (7x8.4), Giant Magellan Telescope Las Campanas, Chile
2018
8.4m, 2017 Large Synoptic Survey Chile
Telescope
 Giant Magellan Telescope (GMT)
Seven x 1.1m
segmented secondary
mirror (3.2 m )
Alt-az mount

Seven x 8.4 m
segmented borosilicate
primary mirror
Equivalent of 25
Laser house metre telescope

Pier
Height: 38.7 meters
Weight: 1,125 tons
At La Campanas
Thirty Metre Telescope (TMT)
30-metre mirror (1.4m x 492 segments)
E-ELT 42-metre (984x1.4 m segments)
1 Night at E-ELT is Ξ to 1 year at VLT
 The Physics of Seeing
The atmosphere has moving density variations, which vary the light’s
optical path. This distorts the wavefront on scales larger than ~10-20
cm in the optical (~1 meter in the IR).

d0 ~ 10 cm distorted
wavefront
Effects of Seeing
 Correcting for Seeing
To compensate (at least partially)
for seeing, one can
•  Take very short (~20 millisec)
exposures, then align and add
up the individual frames
(“speckle”)
 Correcting for Seeing
To compensate (at least partially)
for seeing, one can
•  Take very short (~20 millisec)
exposures, then align and add
up the individual frames
(“speckle”)
•  Sense the wavefront and use
actuators to realign the mirrors
every ~ 0.5 sec (“active optics”)
 Correcting for Seeing
To compensate (at least partially)
for seeing, one can
•  Take very short (~20 millisec)
exposures, then align and add
up the individual frames
(“speckle”)
•  Sense the wavefront and use
actuators to realign the mirrors
every ~ 0.5 sec (“active optics”)
•  S e n s e , t h e n c o r r e c t t h e
wavefront by deforming one of
the mirrors every millisec
(“adaptive optics”). Because of
the size of the isoplanic patch,
this is much easier in the IR.
 Correcting for Seeing
To compensate (at least partially)
for seeing, one can
•  Take very short (~20 millisec)
exposures, then align and add
up the individual frames
(“speckle”)
•  Sense the wavefront and use
actuators to realign the mirrors
every ~ 0.5 sec (“active optics”)
•  S e n s e , t h e n c o r r e c t t h e
wavefront by deforming one of
the mirrors every millisec Note: to measure the wavefront,
(“adaptive optics”). Because of you need a point source within
the size of the isoplanic patch, the isoplanic patch. If there’s no
this is much easier in the IR. bright star around, you can try
making one with sodium lasers.
 Results from Adaptive
Optics (1.6 and 2.2
microns)

Adaptive Optics can

achieve the diffraction
limit in the near-IR
 Adaptive Optics (AO)
•  Adaptive optics is a technology used to improve the
performance of optical systems by reducing the effects of
rapidly changing optical distortion caused by
atmosphere.
•  Adaptive optics works by measuring the distortions in a
wavefront and compensating for them.
•  The simplest form of adaptive optics is tip-tilt correction.
achieved using a rapidly moving tip-tilt mirror. A
significant fraction of the aberration introduced by the
atmosphere can be removed in this way.
•  Advance AO systems use deformable mirrors and laser
guide stars.
•  All new large telescopes (will) have AO systems as their
integral part and thus will be able to achieve diffraction
limited images.
AO Imaging of Resolved Stellar
Systems
Globular Cluster around Cen A 3.8Mpc 3pc core radius
H-band
HST 2m Gemini 8 m GMT 25m

4mas
2ʹʹ pixels
 Telescopes
in Space by
Wavelength

(red arrows
note those
telescopes
that are still Suzaku

working)
 Millimeter and Radio Telescopes
Arecibo

VLA

Green Bank Telescope (GBT)

ALMA
 Radio Telescopes
46. For a 100-meter (104 -centimeter) radio telescope observing radio waves
with a wavelength of 21 centimeters, the diffraction limit is:
✓ ◆
wavelength
diffraction limit (arcseconds) = 2.5 · 105 ·
telescope diameter
✓ ◆
21 cm
= 2.5 · 105 ·
104 cm
= 52500 .
This angular resolution of over 500 arcseconds is about 10,000 times
poorer than the Hubble Space Telescope’s 0.05-arcsecond resolution for
visible light. In order to achieve significantly better resolution when
observing 21-centimeter radio waves, a radio telescope must have an ef-
fective diameter much larger than 100 meters. Because it would be im-
practical to build such huge telescopes, radio astronomers use the tech-
nique of interferometry to make many small radio telescopes achieve
the angular resolution that a single very large one would achieve.
Radio Telescopes


 Detectors
An Ideal Detector should have
•  100% quantum efficiency
•  Infinite dynamic range
•  Infinite spa<al and <me resolu<on
•  Perfect spectral resolu<on
•  A very large surface area
Detectors for Photometry
•  Photographic Emulsions
•  Photocells
•  Photomul<plier Tubes
•  Solid State Detectors
•  Charge-Coupled Devices (CCDs)
 Photographic Emulsions
•  Blackening of Silver Halides when exposed to light
•  Density of the images is proportional to intensity
•  Plate measuring machines needed to extract information

Advantages
•  Large Area
•  Permanent record
•  Fine grain size (~ 5 to 10 microns)
Extensively used in astronomical
surveys like Palomar Survey
Disadvantages
•  Non linear detector (Characteris<c
Curve)
•  Low quantum efficiency ( ~ 1%)
•  Limited Pass bands – Different
emulsions for different pass bands
Stellar Photometers
Photometer Components

•  Previewer to verify the correct star field and center the star
•  Diaphragm to exclude light from stars other than the one being observed
and to minimize background

•  Postviewer to verify proper centering of Program star and for making small
adjustments in the pointing of telescope

•  Fabry Lens for a stable image. To concentrate light onto the detector even
when there are small movements of the star within diaphragm

•  Filter to allow light in one wavelength band to pass through, while rejecting in
other bands

•  Photodetector PMT or a photodiode to convert falling photons into a

weak current
 Photometer Components
•  Diaphragm to exclude light from stars other than the one being observed
and to minimize background

f = focal length of the telescope

d = diaphragm diameter
φ = angle of the sky seen through diaphragm
r
φ/2
tan φ/2 ≅ φ/2 = r / f (for small angles)
d
φ/2
φ (radians) = d / f r

φ (arcsec) = 206265 (d / f )
f
 Photometer Components
•  Diaphragm

φ (arcsec) = 206265 (d / f )

For a telescope with focal length = 40 inches

r
φ/2
To cover 50 arcsec of sky, the diameter of the
diaphragm would be 0.0097 inches. d
φ/2
r
Unless the telescope has a solid mount, accurate
drives, is well protected from wind etc., it may be
reasonable to have a fixed diaphragm size
f
Photometers Components
• Filter to allow light in one wavelength band to pass through,
while rejecting in other bands
Filters
 •  Fabry Lens for a stable image. To concentrate light onto the detector even when there are small
movements of the star within diaphragm

Location vis-à-vis objective

and

If Fabry lens is placed close to the

Diaphragm

s≈f ,s ≈F

Fabry lens :

•  stops wandering of the image due to atmospheric seeing,

improper centering or irregular drive
•  could be a simple plano-convex lens
•  has no restriction on exact location vis-a-vis the objective
 Photomul<plier Tubes
•  Based on the principle of photoelectric effect
•  Consists of a photocathode and a series of dynodes in an evacuated glass
enclosure
•  The electrons emiSed by the photocathode are accelerated towards a
series of dynodes which generate addi<onal electrons.
•  This cascading effect creates 105 to 107 electrons for each photon hiVng
the first cathode.
•  The amplified signal is finally collected at the anode where it is measured.
 Photomul<plier Tubes (contd…)

•  Cathodes are made of bi-alkali metals

•  These have been widely used for photo-electric photometry

Advantages
•  Linear Devices
•  Higher Quantum Efficiency (~ 20%)
•  Very fast response <me: 1-15 nano-seconds
•  Can be used as pulse coun<ng devices
•  Cover a large spectral range

Disadvantages
•  Very small area (~ 1 sq. mm)
•  Can not be used for imaging
•  High Dark Current (Need Cooling)
•  Require high voltages ~1000 V
 Photometers Components
•  Photodetectors (Photomultiplier Tubes)

•  Based on Photoelectric effect

(incident photon causes an electron to be emitted from
the photocathode)

•  Potential difference between Cathode

and Anode
(causes the electrons to flow to the anode and are
recoreded as current)
Dynodes

•  Flux of few tens of electrons per second PMT

(corresponds to ~ 10-17 A)

•  Amplification by means of Dynodes

(of successively higher potential)

•  Cascade effect
(causes one photon to eject a large burst of electrons)
 Photometer Components
•  Photocathodes

Quantum Efficiency (Q) = No. of photoelectrons emitted per incident photon

Quantum Efficiency

•  depends on λ of light source

•  typically 20 – 30 %
•  peaks between 350 nm – 450 nm

Photocathode material determines sensitivity in the

105 nm (UV) to 1100 nm (near IR) region
 Photometer Components
•  Photocathodes

S1 S20 S4,S5,S11
(UBVRI) (UBVR) (UBV)

Ag O Cs Na2 K Sb Cs Sb Cs
(300 nm to 1000 nm) (300 nm to 930 nm) (red cutoff 650 nm)
Red cutoff 850-930 nm
cooled
ERMA PMT

K2Sb Cs
Ga As (bialkali)
Flat response Improved blue sensitivity
300–900 nm
cooled
Transmission of glass (cover) determines the UV cutoff
 Photometer Components
•  Photodetectors (Photomultiplier Tubes)

•  Dynodes

allow secondary emission of electrons which

occurs when an incident electron strikes the
dynode with K.E. sufficient to excite several
electrons on the surface of the dynode material to
an energy which allows them to escape the
potential barrier
Dynodes

Gain for n dynodes :

PMT
G = yn
where ‘y’ electrons are emitted per incident electron
by each dynode
Photometers Components
•  Dynodes
Photometers Components
•  Photodetectors (Photomultiplier Tubes)

•  Dynodes

Gain (G) is typically 107 (range 104 to 108)

Final current being ~ 0.1 nA which can be measured by a

conventional circuit and also can be amplified further

V/F Freq.
From PMT Amp
converter counter

G ~106 for a 10 stage tube with y = 4 and 100 Volts across each stage

y= 4 to 6 for Cs Sb dynodes (most common)

= 3 to 4 for Be O Cu dynodes
= 15 to 25 for Ga P:Cs dynodes
NOISE

Shot Noise

Random Fluctuations of the signal due to inherently non-steady photon influx

Selecting a PMT with twice the QE will improve the S/N by √2

(assuming poisson distribution for the photon flux)

Dark Noise

Thermionic Emission described by Richardson Eqn.

(can be reduced by cooling the PMT housings)

Cerenkov radiation from Cosmic rays

Radioactive material in the PMT components

Ionization Noise
A three-channel Photometer:
Chanel 1 – Program Star
Chanel 2 – Standard Star
Chanel 3 - Sky
 Charge Coupled Devices (CCDs)

•  Detector made of Silicon
•  Invented in 1969, First
astronomical use in 1973
•  Two dimensional Devices - Can be
considered as an array of picture
elements called pixels arranged in
rows and columns
•  Pixel Size from 6µ to 30µ
•  CCD Format (50x50 to
4096x4096)
•  One can have a Mosaic CCD
comprising of a number of CCDs
Megacam – Mosaic of 40 CCDs
Each CCD is 2k x 4k
 Advantages of CCDs
•  Revolu<onized astronomical observa<ons
•  Linear Devices
•  High Quantum Efficiency (up to 90%)
•  Gain of almost 100 <mes
•  The increase in QE over film is like making a
telescope into a much bigger one – effec<vely
allowing a 1-m telescope to perform like a 4-m.
•  Large spectral range ( 0.3µ to 1µ)
•  The accuracy of CCDs in both linearity and stability
means the measurements made are of the highest
quality, and a wider band of the spectrum is
u<lised.
 CCD Principle
•  CCD is made of Silicon – a semiconductor
•  A photon on absorption in silicon generates a photoelectron
•  Photoelectron is free to migrate under electric field
•  For imaging, photoelectron should not migrate from the site of
impact of photon
•  Achieved by applying special electrostatic field to attract
photoelectrons to a specific spot and by creating a Storage well
•  Storage wells are created by applying metal electrodes to the
silicon together with a thin insulating layer (0.1µ) of SiO2 (insulator)
•  The way in which the photo-generated charge and hence the image
is extracted is called Charge Coupling
boundary
pixel

Electrode Structure

SiO2 Insulating layer

silicon
 CCD Analogy
VERTICAL CCD Readout is
RAIN (PHOTONS) CONVEYOR done through a
BELTS clocking
(CCD COLUMNS)
sequence:
BUCKETS (PIXELS) •  A vertical shift
by one pixel
•  A horizontal
shift through
all the pixels
•  Again a
Vertical shift
•  Again a
Horizontal shift
•  Repeated till
MEASURING whole of CCD
CYLINDER
HORIZONTAL (OUTPUT is read
CONVEYOR BELT AMPLIFIER)
(SERIAL REGISTER)
 Thick Front-side Illuminated CCD
Incoming photons

Silicon
Silicon dioxide insulating layer
625µm Polysilicon electrodes

•  It isn’t possible for 100% of the front surface of a CCD to

be free for light to enter as there is nowhere for the circuitry
which connects the pixels to go.
•  Therefore, the light has to go through the circuitry which
causes losses.
•  This results in lower quantum efficiency as well as loss of
blue response of the CCD.
 Thinned CCDs
•  An obvious solu<on to the problem of the light passing
through the gates is to turn the CCD over and let the light fall
on the back side (“Back-side illumina<on”).
•  But this has it’s own problem. The silicon must be thinned to
a few tens of microns and supported in a special way.
•  As there is no obstruc<on to light falling on the CCD, the
thinned CCDs are sensi<ve to blue region as well.
•  Another improvement in not loosing light is to apply an an<-
reflec<on coa<ng to the CCD surface.
•  The thinned and back-illuminated CCDs are the norm in
professional astronomy today as they offer significant
benefits, like 90% or greater QE.
 Thinned Back-side Illuminated CCD
Incoming photons

Anti-reflective (AR) coating

Silicon
Silicon dioxide insulating layer
15µm Polysilicon electrodes

•  In Thin CCDs, the silicon is chemically etched and polished down

to a thickness of about 15 microns.
•  Light enters from the rear and so the electrodes do not obstruct
the photons. The QE can approach 90%
•  These are very expensive
 Quantum Efficiency Comparison
The graph below compares the quantum of efficiency of a thick
frontside illuminated CCD and a thin backside illuminated CCD.
 Typical CCD System
Camera Head
•  CCD Detector
•  Cooling system (Thermo-electrically or Cryogenically Cooled)
Camera Electronics
•  Signal Processing hardware
•  Analogue to Digital Converter
•  Timing Logic
•  Electronic interface to computer
Computer
•  Needed to communicate with the CCD
•  Image acquisi<on sokware
•  Image Processing Sokware (MIDAS, IRAF)
•  Normally UNIX/LINUX opera<ng system required
 CCD Imaging and calibra<on
Along with exposures of the object, one needs to take Dark and Flat-Field
frames

•  Dark Frames: During long integra<ons at moderate cooling a

significant amount of charge can accumulate in the CCD pixels due to
thermal excita<on. The purpose of producing dark or thermal count
images is to subtract the contribu<on from thermally generated charge in
the image.

•  Flat Field Frames :Flat fielding corresponds to correc<ng the

combined op<cal-system and CCD throughput at each pixel so that each
pixel on the CCD would respond equally to a source with the same photon
flux. Flat fielding removes the effect of the pixel-to-pixel sensi<vity
varia<ons across the array as well as the effect of dust or scratches on the
CCD window. Done using dome flats or sky flats
 Astronomical Spectroscopy - Spectrographs

An astronomical spectrograph splits, or disperses, the light from a source

into its component wavelengths.

This function used to be performed by a prism, which exploits the fact that
light of different wavelengths are refracted by different amounts, with blue
light being refracted more than red light.

Prism spectrographs are only rarely found in astronomy, the dispersion is

non-linear, with light in the blue part of the spectrum being dispersed more
than the red, making it more difficult to analyse.

The almost universal choice for the dispersing element in modern

astronomical spectrographs is the diffraction grating.
Astronomical Spectroscopy - Spectrographs
Astronomical Spectroscopy - Spectrographs

Slit - Limits the light entering the spectrograph so that it

acts as a point source of light from a larger image

This allows an astronomer to take a number of spectra

from different regions of an extended source such as a
galaxy or of a specific star in the telescope's field of view

Collimator - Light is then collimated (made parallel)

before hitting a diffraction grating

Grating - disperses the light into component wavelengths

which can then by focused by a camera mirror into a
detector such as a charged-couple device (CCD).

By rotating the grating, different parts of the dispersed

spectrum can be focused on the camera.
 Spectrograph Gra<ngs

Transmission Grating: A diffraction grating consists of a large number of

fine, equidistant, parallel lines ruled onto a transparent glass plate so that
light can pass between the lines, but not through them.

Reflection grating : has the lines ruled onto a reflective glass plate so that
only the light falling between the lines is reflected. Most astronomical
gratings are reflection gratings.
 Reflection Gratings

•  Light reflecting from grooves A and B will

interfere constructively if the difference in
path length is an integer number of
wavelengths.

•  The path difference is dsinα + dsinβ (where d is the distance between facets
on the grating), so

dsinα + dsinβ = nλ → the grating equation

•  n is the “spectral order” and quantifies how many wavelengths of path

difference are introduced between successive facets or grooves on the grating)
 The Grating Equation
d (sin α + sin β) = nλ
•  The groove spacing d is a feature of the grating
•  The angle of incidence, α, is the same for all wavelengths
•  The angle of diffraction, β, must then be a function of wavelength

sin β = nλ/d – sin α

 Reflection Grating Efficiency
•  Problem: A grating diffracts light into many orders; one order contains
only a fraction of the light

•  Fix: Gratings can be designed to concentrate most of the incident

intensity into a particular order, by a process called “blazing”. This is a
process where the grooves of a grating are cut so that the reflecting
surfaces are at a certain angle, the blaze angle. About 90% of the incident
light is diffracted preferentially into the first order.
Astronomical Spectroscopy - Spectrographs
Astronomical Spectroscopy - Spectrographs

Softwares like IRAF -

used for caliberation

 Astronomical Spectroscopy - Spectrographs

Calibration –

Flux calibration using a

standard star

Wavelength calibration using

an arc lamp
 Resolving Power of a Diffrac<on
Gra<ng
•  If λ1 and λ2 are two nearly equal wavelengths
between which the gra<ng spectrometer can just
barely dis<nguish, the resolving power, R, of the
gra<ng is
λ λ
R= =
λ2 − λ1 Δλ
–  All the wavelengths are nearly the same
 Resolving power and dispersion
•  Spectral resolution, Resolving Power R = λ/Δλ
–  λ is the wavelength and Δλ is the smallest
wavelength interval that can be resolved
–  “low” resolution 10<R<1000
–  “moderate” resolution 1000<R<10,000
–  “high” resolution R>10,000

•  Dispersion – Δλ/pixel
High resolution vs low resolution

λ
R=
Δλ




Variable stars & Asteroseismology :


Photometry of variable stars, differen5al photometry, ex5nc5on
coefficients, classes of variable stars, period-mean density
rela5onship, classical Cepheids as distance indicators, pulsa5on
mechanisms
What are Variable Stars?



Variable stars are stars that change in brightness.


Technically, all stars will change in brightness over their life5mes
(a few million years to several billion years).


We are interested in variability that occurs over smaller 5mescales
– variability from seconds to years



 Variable stars

Variable stars fall into two general categories, Intrinsic & Extrinsic:

Intrinsic variables

in which physical changes, such as pulsa5ons or erup5ons, are
involved. Pulsa5ng variables, for example, swell and shrink due to
internal forces.
 Variable stars

Variable stars fall into two general categories:

Intrinsic variables

in which physical changes, such as pulsa5ons or erup5ons, are
involved. Pulsa5ng variables, for example, swell and shrink due to
internal forces.

Extrinsic variables

in which the light output fluctuates due to external reasons, e.g.,
eclipses or stellar rota5on.

intrinsic variables
 intrinsic variables

A por7on of the light curve for R Cygni , the

popular Mira-type long period variable star.
Intrinsic variables - example
Intrinsic variables - example
Variable Star Types…….Some examples


An eclipsing binary will dim when it is eclipsed by a faint companion, and
then brighten when the occul5ng star moves out of the way (extrinsic
variables)



Variable Star Types…….Some examples


Some variable stars are actually extremely close pairs of stars, exchanging
mass as one star strips the atmosphere from the other.

Beta Lyrae
Variable Star Types…….Some examples


Some variable stars are actually extremely close pairs of stars, exchanging
mass as one star strips the atmosphere from the other.


 Variable stars

classifica5on is complex

originally it was based on a star's light-curve, amplitude, and
periodicity (or lack of it)

now more closely linked to the physical processes underlying the
variability.
Why Observe/study Variable Stars?


Research on variable stars is important because it provides informa5on
about stellar proper5es, such as mass, radius, luminosity, temperature,
internal and external structure, composi5on, and evolu5on.

This is possible because the variability in some classes of variables allows
us to es5mate their distances (standard candles).

Some of this informa5on would be difficult or impossible to obtain any
other way. In many cases, it is the nature of the variability that provides
the clues to the answers.

Variability resul5ng from stars with systems of planets are the only likely
places we will find life in the universe; by studying stars, we are also
learning about possible abodes for life.
Why Observe/study Variable Stars?

Mass, radius, distances,

Masses of components from orbital parameters of eclipsing binaries

Radius from eclipsing binaries,
If physical sizes and angular sizes are known, distance is known


Distances from Period-Luminosity rela5ons of certain variables
Once distance is known Luminosity (absolute brightness) is known using apparent
brightness and distance
 Discovering Variable Stars

If one wants to discover variable stars, one has to observe and record
same part of the sky again and again.

If a variable star is detected, follow-up observa5ons las5ng days to
months need to be done depending on the period of the star.
Observing Variable Stars - Historical

In Aug. 1595 : Amateur Astronomer David Fabricius observed O Ce7 over a period of months

The brightness of the 2nd mag star slowly faded and in Oct. 1595, O Ce7 was invisible (8th mag)

Reappeared several months later

Was named “Mira” (wonderful); by 1660, 11 month period was established

O Ce7 (Mira) is a pulsa7ng long period variable – dims and brightens as its surface expands
or contracts

Lead to a class of variable called Long Period Variable – periods between 100 to 700 days

In 1784 : John Goodricke observed d Cephei in York, England

Varies from 3.5 to 4.5 mag with a period of 5d 8h 48m

Cost Goodricke his life

Lead to a class of variables called Classical Cepheids – Vital importance in Astronomy for
distance indicators


Variable Stars
on the
HR Diagram
Brightness observations with time
(Raw light curve, though with some pre-processing)
 intrinsic variables

Unphased light curve of R Scu5, a popular target for variable star observers for well over a century
(its observa5onal record dates to the late 18th century). R Scu5 is an RV Tauri star, which are highly
evolved pulsa5ng giant stars having periods from tens of days to 100 days or more. The RV Tauri
stars are irregular, in that their light curves do not repeat from cycle to cycle, but they s5ll have a
reasonably well defined "period". R Scu5 is no excep5on, having a period around 146 days, but each
cycle can differ significantly from the ones preceding and following them.
All days are numbered consecu5vely from Julian Day 0, which began at
noon on January 1, 4713 B. C. January 1st, 1993, was JD 2448989; January
1st, 2000 will be JD 2451545.

The Julian Day begins at noon, Greenwich Mean. Clock 5me afer noon is
converted to a frac5on of a day.

November 3, 2016, 00:00 hrs UT =2457695.5

 Light Curves and Phase Diagram

When the same cycle repeats over and over as

regularly as clockwork, we refer to this as periodic
behavior.

If we want to know what is happening at

any moment, it does not matter which cycle we are
observing, because every cycle is exactly the same.

What does matter is which part of the cycle we are

observing.

So if a star (or any other phenomenon) is

perfectly periodic, then its variation depends only on
where it is in its cycle, a quantity called the phase.
 Light Curves and Phase Diagram
However, we measure phase in cycles, rather than in days,
hours or minutes.

Since phase is measured in cycles, of course a single cycle

starts at 0 and ends at 1. In this case, the phase is simply
the fraction of the cycle which has been completed so far.

Thus a phase of 0.5 corresponds to 0.5 of the way (50%, or

halfway) through the cycle, a phase of 0.2 is 20% (one-fifth)
of the way through the cycle, etc.

A phase of 1 is 100% of the way, the end of the cycle; it is

also the beginning of the next cycle, so it is phase 0 of the
next cycle.

One can choose the cycle to start at any time, or at the time
of minimum or maximum brightness (time = t0).
0 1
Phase
To compute the phase in terms of cycles, we need to
know how long each cycle is—in other words, we
need to know what the Period is.
 Light Curves and Phase Diagram
Therefore, to compute phase, we need to know the starting
time of the cycle, known as the epoch (reference time), and
the period.

Suppose the epoch (start of the cycle) is at time t0, and the
period is P. What is the phase at some other time t?

First we find how far we are into the cycle, by simply

subtracting the starting time:

t – t0

This is the phase, in time units.

To get the phase in units of cycles, we simply divide this

by the period:

0 1
phase
At t = t0, 0

At t – t0 = P, 1
 Light Curves and Phase Diagram

Whenever we compute a phase, we can make it into a

“standard” phase by simply ignoring which cycle.

If the phase is φ = 3.11 (a little more than three cycles), we

are 11% of the way through three cycles later.

We ignore the “three cycles later” part, and say the phase
is 0.11. All standard phases are between 0 and 1.

So we modify the above equation,

and say that the (standardized) phase is the decimal part of

decimal part of
 Light Curves and Phase Diagram

Decimal part of

What about negative phases ?

phase 0.2 is equal to phase 1.2

phase -0.2 is not equal to phase

0.2 or 1.2.

Add 1, so that phase = -0.2 + 1 = 0.8

(between 0 and 1)

Example of Modular Arithmatic (Modulo 1)

 Phase folded light curves

Decimal part of

or

The upper panel shows the phased light curve for the star ASAS
193524+0550.3 with the original ASAS period PASAS= 0.370 306 d.

The lower panel shows the phased light curve of the same star with the
improved period of 0.370 314 d.
Photometry
 Atmospheric Extinction
Astronomers who specialize in photometry need to compensate for
atmospheric ex5nc5on: the reduc5on in a celes5al object's apparent
brightness when its light passes through the atmosphere. This depends on
following factors:

•  The transparency (clarity) of the air.

•  Your eleva?on above sea level.

•  The al?tude above the horizon of your celes5al target.

•  The wavelength of the incoming light

Ex5nc5on has two components: absorp?on, where light absorbed, and
scaDering, where light is diffused away from its original source. Thin fog
scaiers light, and smoke absorbs it. Scaiering is more of a problem as it
not only dims the object that you're observing, but also reduces contrast
by brightening the background sky.
 Atmospheric Extinction

Al7tude and Air-mass

The closer your target is to the horizon, the more air you have to look through,
and the more degraded your view gets. The path length through the atmosphere
is known as the air-mass.
Atmospheric Extinction
 Atmospheric Extinction
Airmass X = sec z

z = angle from zenith

Airmass X = 1 for a star at zenith
Airmass X = 2 for a star at 60o from zenith
 Atmospheric Extinction

Also, from spherical triangle rules,

Note that the air mass is a normalized quan5ty and the air mass at the zenith is
one.
 Atmospheric Extinction
This ex5nc5on of starlight needs to be corrected, to get the magnitude
of a star "at the top of the atmosphere”.

The difference between the magnitude of the incident light
(before it enters the atmosphere) and the magnitude of the starlight
reaching the telescope is directly propor5onal to the airmass X

is the ex5nc5on coefficient which is wavelength dependant.

X is always +ve, is always +ve

The minus sign in the above equa5on is appropriate because the
incident light must be brighter (numerically smaller magnitude) than the
transmiied light.
 Atmospheric Extinction

Hence if the ex5nc5on coefficient in the V band is k = 0.15 magnitudes/airmass,

then a star would appear 0.15 magnitudes fainter at the zenith than it would
appear above the atmosphere, and 0.3 magnitudes fainter than above the
atmosphere when at a zenith distance of 60o.

Ex5nc5on coefficients are also, unfortunately, 5me- and loca5on-dependent.

You need to measure them yourself as part of your observing run....

How to determine ??




Atmospheric Extinction

Ex5nc5on should be found using a non-variable star

 Atmospheric Extinction

Ex5nc5on decreases as one moves from UV to infrared wavelengths

Atmospheric Extinction

1
 Photometry

• Calculate Universal Time (UT) as follows :

Data
UTh = ISTh - 5h30m IST Counts
(hh:mm:ss) Per unit
IST = Indian Standard Time 7me
20:23:23 23448
•  Calculate Julian Date 21:05:42 23988
21:50:03 25325
• Calculate Instrumental magnitude : 22:36:34 25030
23:10:45 24009
mi = -2.5 log(COUNTS) 23:55:29 23859
00:43:56 23224
•  Calculate ex5nc5on corrected magnitude ……………. ………..

mc = mi – k X for each filter
 Photometry

Data

There are many standard photometric systems (for example) :

•  UBVRI broad band system (900 A° )

•  uvby intermediate band system (200 A° )

•  Hα,Hβ narrow band system (30 A° )

Any system can be chosen, depending on the requirement

 Transforma7on Coefficients

Filter Central Wavelength (A°)

Broad Band System
U 3600
B 4400
V 5500
R 7000
I 9000
Intermediate Band System
U 3500
v 4100
b 4700
y 5500
Narrow Band System
Hα
6567
Hβ
4868
Transforma7on Coefficients
Zero points of Transforma5on coefficients
may change with 5me due to:

•  variable atmospheric ex5nc5on

•  dust deposi5on on mirror/other op5cs or filters

•  deteriora5on of telescope-photometer system

 Differential Photometry
A simple technique to record photometric variability of stars with high
accuracy

The basic idea of differen5al photometry is to record variability of a

variable star with respect to a nearby constant star called the
Comparison star

We also choose a third star called the Check star which gives
accuracy to the observa5ons as it is used to check constancy
of the Comparison star.

The important criteria to choose comparison and check stars are:

•  They should be as near as possible to the variable star, preferably
within a degree

•  Nearly same brightness and color as those of the Variable star

ch
 Differential Photometry

Plot of JD/Phase for differen5al magnitude

Upper panel : Differen5al magnitude between Variable and Comparison

Lower Panel : Differen5al magnitude between comparison and Check which is not varying
 Photometry
Vs.
Differential Photometry

Differen5al photometry:

1.  Error introduced by variable atmosphere is minimized.

2. Same color minimizes the difference in wavelength response
between the instrumental system and the standard system.

3. Similar brightness of both stars means you can use CCD or
Photometer for same exposure/integra5on 5me.

4. Par5cularly useful for Variable star observa5ons
 Cepheid Variables - Distances

—  Cepheid variables are yellow giant stars that

pulsate on a very regular basis. Prototype :
Delta Cephei.

—  They have relatively short periods, lasting

from days to weeks.

—  The period of the pulsation is directly related

to their “intrinsic” brightness.

—  This allows astronomers to calculate their

distances.

—  Variations caused by variable opacity layer

of helium. In other words, one that becomes
more and less “see-through”.
Measuring Distances
Variable Stars - Distances
Till 20 years ago: ~ 20,000 pulsa7ng stars

10% of these were discovered by Henriena Leavin (1868-1921) at Harvard
university (by comparing two photographs of the same field taken at
different 7mes)

Discovered 2400 Classical Cepheids, most of them in the Small Magellanic
Cloud with periods between 1 to 50 days

Ploned the apparent magnitudes of these stars against their pulsa7on
periods

Since all the stars in the SMC are roughly the same distance from us (60kpc),
the difference in their apparent magnitudes must be the same as the
difference in their absolute magnitudes

Presented prospects of determining the absolute magnitudes or luminosity
of a distant Cepheid simply by 7ming its pulsa7on period

Period-Luminosity Rela7on for Classical Cepheids

Obtained by calibra7ng Leavin’s observa7ons

Mv is the absolute visual magnitude and P is the period (in days)

Period-Luminosity Rela7on for Classical Cepheids


Period-Luminosity Rela7on for Classical Cepheids

Mv is the absolute visual magnitude and P is the period (in days)

M bol = −2.5 log10 (Lbol ) + const

⎛ L ⎞
M bol = 4.79 − 2.5 log10 ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟
L
⎝ S ⎠

L
log10 = 1.15 log10 (P ) + 2.47
LS
Period-Luminosity Rela7on for Classical Cepheids

Since Cepheids are supergiant stars (~50 Msun, ~1000 Lsun), they
can be seen over intergalac7c distances

Pulsa7ng Cepheids, thus, serve as “Standard Candles” for measuring
intergalac7c distances

(remember limita7ons of parallax method)


Pulsating Variables

ZZ Ce5 (DAV) 100 – 1000 s

Pulsating Variables

Instability strip in HR diagram:

Narrow range in Teff spanning a wide range of luminosi5es

Whenever stars pass through this instability strip
in their evolu5on, they become pulsa5onally unstable

Stellar pulsa5ons are due to sound waves resona5ng
in their interiors

Stellar pulsa5ons depend on stellar structure
 The Physics of Stellar Pulsation

•  The radial
oscilla5ons of a
pulsa5ng star are Standing sound waves in an organ pipe.

the result of sound

waves resona5ng in
the stars interior

Radial modes for a pulsating star

Pulsating Variables : Period-Mean Density Relation

A rough es5mate of the pulsa5on period Π may be obtained by considering

how long it would take a sound wave to cross the diameter of a model star
of radius R and constant density (or mean density) ρ.

The adiaba5c sound speed is





The Pressure can be found from the hydrosta5c equilibrium equa5on
Pulsating Variables : Period-Mean Density Relation

This can be integrated using the boundary condi5on that P = 0 at the surface to
obtain Pressure as a func5on of r.
Pulsating Variables : Period-Mean Density Relation

Let us take M = 5 M_sun and Radius = 50 R_sun for a typical

Cepheid,
Π ~ 10 days
 The Period – Mean Density Relation
1
period ∝ Period –luminosity
mean _ density relationship

density period
incr incr
Pulsations: Eddington’s Valve or κ-Mechanism
Pulsations: Eddington’s Valve or κ-Mechanism
 Opacity Effects
ρ
opacity ∝ 3.5
T

•  Par5al ioniza5on zones have increased

opacity under compression





•  Layer will trap energy and be lifed



SUN:
Physical Characteristics of Sun – basic data, solar rotation, solar
magnetic fields,

Photosphere – granulation, Sunspots, Babcock model of sunspot

formation,

Solar atmosphere – chromosphere and corona

Solar Activity – flares, prominences, solar wind, activity cycle

 SUN

Basic Data

Solar radius = 695,990 km = 432,470 mi = 109 Earth radii

Solar mass = 1.989 X 1030 kg = 4.376 X 1030 lb = 333,000 M_Earth

Solar luminosity (energy output of the Sun) = 3.846 X 1033 erg/s

Surface temperature = 5770 K = 10,400 ºF

Surface density = 2.07 X 10-7 g/cm3 = 1.6 X 10-4 Air density

Surface composition = 70% H, 28% He, 2% (C, N, O, ...) by mass

Central temperature = 15,600,000 K = 28,000,000 ºF

Central density = 150 g/cm3 = 8 × Gold density

Central composition = 35% H, 63% He, 2% (C, N, O, ...) by mass

Solar age = 4.57 X 109 yr

 Solar Mass Loss

The Sun sends out about 4 x 1033 ergs/sec of energy (Solar Luminosity)

Einstein's mass-energy relation is E = m c2.

Thus the equivalent mass loss of all this energy loss is m = 4 x 1033 ergs/sec / (3 x
1010 cm/sec) 2
or a mass loss of 4 x 1012 grams/sec

or about 4 million metric tons per second.

Mass of the Sun = 2 X 1033 gms

 Lifetime of the Sun (nuclear life time)

The current age of the sun is around 5 billion years

This number is determined from radioactive dating of objects in the solar system which are
known to have formed around the same time as the sun.

lifetime = (energy) / (rate [energy/time] at which sun emits energy)

If you look at a periodic table, you will see that one helium atom has a little less
mass than four hydrogen atoms combined; about 0.7% of the original mass has
"disappeared".
E = 0.007 x Msun c2

On the order of 10% of the sun's mass is in the central part, hot enough to undergo nuclear
reactions.

E = 0.007 x 0.1 x Msun c2 = (0.0007)(2 x 1033 grams)/(4 x1012 grams/sec) = 10 billion yrs

So the Sun should last another 5 billion years.

 The Solar Composition
We can learn a great deal about composition of the Sun from the pattern of absorption lines in its
spectrum (the Frauenhofer lines).

The pattern of these lines serves as a set of fingerprints for the elements that are present in the surface
of the Sun, and their intensity serves as a measure of the concentration of these elements.

High Resolution Solar Spectrum Showing Absorption Lines

The Solar Abundances

Approximately 60 elements have been identified in the solar spectrum.

The most abundant are listed in the table below, both with respect to the number of atoms
or ions present, and with respect to the total mass of the atoms or ions.

The Sun is clearly mostly hydrogen and helium, with only a trace of heavier elements.

Solar Elemental Abundances

Element Number % Mass %

Hydrogen 92.0 73.4

Helium 7.8 25.0
Carbon 0.02 0.20
Nitrogen 0.008 0.09
Oxygen 0.06 0.8
Neon 0.01 0.16
Magnesium 0.003 0.06
Silicon 0.004 0.09
Sulfur 0.002 0.05
Iron 0.003 0.14
 The Discovery of Helium

The element helium is the second most abundant in both the Sun and the Universe, but
it is very difficult to trace it on the Earth.

In fact, helium was discovered in the spectrum of the Sun (the name helium derives from
helios, which is the Greek name for the Sun).

It was postulated that a set of spectral lines observed in the Solar emission spectrum that
could not be associated with any known element belonged to a new element (the Sun is
too cool to ionize helium appreciably, so absorption lines associated with helium are very
weak).

Only after this was helium discovered on the Earth and this hypothesis confirmed
(helium occurs in certain very deep gas wells on the Earth).

The first evidence of helium was observed on August 18, 1868 as a bright
yellow line with a wavelength of 587.49 nanometers in the spectrum of
the chromosphere of the Sun. The line was detected by French astronomer
Pierre Janssen during a total solar eclipse in Guntur, India.
 Sun from Ground & Space

304 Ao Composite
171, 195, 284 Ao
SUN from SOHO
satellite
Sun from BBSO
November 8, 2017
The Solar Interior and the Solar Atmosphere
Sun - Slice
•  outermost 30%
solar convection
zone

•  innermost 70%
radiation zone

•  transition towards
radiation zone no
solid boundary
 The Solar Rotation

SOLAR ROTATION
PERIOD SPOT
LATITUDE
(d)* PERIOD

0° 25.6 24.7
10° 25.7 24.9
20° 26.0 25.3
30° 26.6 26.0
40° 27.7 26.9
50° 29.3
60° 31.4
70° 33.5
80° 33.6

*Photospheric absorption lines may be used to measure the rotation rate of the Sun.
By measuring the Doppler shifts of the solar limb, we find that the Sun rotates differentially
Differential Rotation - Equator rotating faster than the poles
The Photosphere

Ø  500 km in extent
Ø  6500 K at the base of the Photosphere
Ø  4400 K at the top of the Photosphere
Ø  Effective Temperature 5770 K

Ø  Base of the photosphere is a patchwork of bright and dark regions

that appear and disappear – GRANULATION

Ø  Granulation are a result of the top of the convection zone

protruding into the base of the convection zone

Ø  Granulation – Spatial Scale ~ 700 Km

Ø  Granulation – Characteristic lifetime 5 – 10 minutes

Granula-on
Granula-on
 Convec<on
Closeup View of Sunspots
Sunspots
Sunspots
Why are Sunspots darker than the rest of the
photosphere?

Because they are cooler.

Recall that hot gas radiates more, cooler gas radiates less.

Why are they cooler?

Because they inhibit convective transport of

energy to the surrounding photosphere
due to magnetic fields.
The Solar Magnetic Field

The mean magnetic-field intensity measurable at the solar surface is only

approximately 1 Gauss. Near the base of the convection zone the magnetic field may
reach an amplitude of 105 Gauss.

Sunspots and Magnetic Fields

Sunspot fields turn out to be as intense as the ones we find near the poles of
iron magnets--but extending across regions many thousands of kilometers
wide. In conventional units, the magnetic intensity in them reaches about
1500 gauss (0.15 Tesla), while the field near the surface of Earth is typically
0.3-0.5 gauss, depending on location
 Sunspot Forma-on
Babcock Model

Magnetic Field
+
Rotation
+
Convection
 Babcock Model
Magnetic
B
Field
Differential
Rotation

R
 Babcock Model
Magnetic
B
Field
Differential
Rotation

R
 Babcock Model
Magnetic
B
Field
Differential
Rotation

R
convection
convection
convection
radiation

convection
 The Magnetic Field of the Sun

The Sun has a strong and complex magnetic field, and much solar activity appears to be directly
connected with the properties of the magnetic field.

The Zeeman Effect

The magnetic field of the Sun can be probed in a rather precise and direct manner because in the presence of a magnetic field
the energy levels of atoms (and ions and molecules) are split into more than one level. This causes spectral transition lines to
also be split into more than one line, with the amount of splitting proportional to the strength of the magnetic field. This is
called the Zeeman Effect, and the corresponding increase in the number of spectral lines is called Zeeman splitting. Thus, we
can infer the presence of magnetic fields if we observe Zeeman splitting in the spectrum, and we can measure the strength of
the field by measuring quantitatively the amount of Zeeman splitting.
Zeeman Effect
Zeeman Effect
• When sunspots come in pairs, one tends to have a magnetic field polarity that is opposite that of
the other (that is, one behaves magnetically like the north pole of a bar magnet and the other
behaves magnetically like the south pole of a bar magnet).

• During a given sunspot cycle, the leading sunspots in groups in the northern hemisphere of the
Sun all tend to have the same polarity, while the same is true of sunspots in the southern
hemisphere, except that the common polarity is reversed from that of sunspots in the northern
hemisphere.

• During the next sunspot cycle, the regularities noted in the previous point reverse themselves:
the polarity of the leading spots in each hemisphere is opposite from what it was in the previous
cycle.
The number of sunspots reaches a
maximum about every 11 years, but
successive maxima have spots with
reversed magnetic polarity. Thus the
whole cycle is 22 years long.
Sunspot Cycle First Realized
Traced Back to 1715
Sunspots First Observed?
Galileo 1610
1645-1715
Maunder Minimum
No Sunspot Maximum
Little Ice Age
1°C Cooler
Li=le Ice Age
 Wolf Sunspot Number

The Wolf number (Rudolf Wolf 1849; also known as the International
sunspot number, relative sunspot number, or Zürich number) is a
quantity which measures the number of sunspots and groups of sunspots
present on the surface of the sun.

The relative sunspot number is

computed using the formula (collected
as a daily index of sunspot activity):

where R is the relative sunspot number,

s is the number of individual spots, g is
the number of sunspot groups, and k is a
factor that varies with location and
instrumentation (also known as the
observatory factor).
§ Throughout the solar cycle, the latitude of sunspot occurrence varies with an interesting
pattern.
§ The plot shows the latitude of sunspot occurrence versus time (in years).
§ Sunspots are typically confined to an equatorial belt between -35 degrees south and +35 degrees
north latitude.
§ At the beginning of a new solar cycle, sunspots tend to form at high latitudes, but as the cycle
reaches a maximum (large numbers of sunspots) the spots form at lower latitudes.
§ Near the minimum of the cycle, sunspots appear even closer to the equator, and as a new cycle
starts again, sunspots appear at high latitudes.
§ This recurrent behavior of sunspots gives rise to the ``butterfly'' pattern shown, and was first
discovered by Edward Maunder in 1904.
§ The reason for this sunspot migration pattern is unknown. Understanding this pattern could tell
us something about how the Sun's internal magnetic field is generated.
Solar Atmosphere
 The Chromosphere

Ø  Intensity only about 10-4 of the value at the photosphere

Ø  Extends from top of the photosphere to about 2300 km

Ø  Gas density drops by nearly a factor of 104

Ø Temperature begins to increase from 4400 K to 25,000 K

Ø  Spectral lines that are not produced at the lower temperatures and
higher densities of the photosphere can form in the chromosphere. In
addition to the Hydrogen Balmer lines, the lines of HeII, FeII, SiII, CrII
and CaII can appear in the spectrum

Ø  Although Fraunhofer lines appear as absorption lines in the visible and

near ultraviolet regions of the em spectrum, they begin to appear as
emission lines at shorter wavelengths.
 The Chromosphere

Ø Visible wavelength emission lines that are not normally seen against the
bright solar disk can be observed for a few seconds at the beginning and the
end of a total eclipse – Flash Spectrum
The Chromosphere

Prominences

Spicules
 The Chromosphere

Ø  Using filters, it is possible to see a great deal of structure in the

chromosphere

Solar Prominence, in Hα Light (656.3 nm)

Chromosphere
Prominences
The Sun in He+ (30.4 nm) Emission
 The Chromosphere

Spicules or filaments: vertical filaments of gas, extending upward from the

chromosphere for 10,000 km

Individual spicule has a lifetime of 15 min.

~30,000 spicules may exist at any given time covering a few percent of the
surface of the Sun

Doppler studies indicate mass motions outward at ~20 km/sec.

Prominences: are features that may reach high into the corona (100,000
km, often as loops that may hang suspended for many days.
The Sun in Fe XII (19.5 nm) Emission
 The Transition Region

Ø  Between Chromosphere and Corona

Ø  Above the Chromosphere, the temperature rises very rapidly in only a few
hundred km, reaching more than 106 K

Ø  May be selectively observed at various altitudes in the UV and EUV, e.g.,

Ø  (a) 1216 Ang Lyman alpha emission line, produced at the top of the
chromosphere at 20,000 K

Ø  (b) C III 977 Ang. originates at 90,000 K

Ø  (c) 1032 Ang. line of OIV at 300,000 K

Ø  (d) Mg X 625 Ang. at 1.4 X 106 K

The Corona
The solar corona during the 1980 solar eclipse (left) and the
1988 solar eclipse (right). The 1980 eclipse was near a solar
activity maximum and the 1988 eclipse was near a minimum
 The Corona

Ø  Radiation from the faint Corono becomes visible during the eclipse

Ø  Located above the transition region. Extends to several solar radii

Ø  Has energy output nearly 106 times less intense than that in photosphere

Ø  density very low (105 particles/cc) - 1019 particles/cc at sea level

Ø  Essentially transparent to electromagnetic radiation

(except long radio wavelengths)

Ø  Not in local thermodynamic equilibrium hence a unique temperature is not

strictly definable. Presence of Fe XIV lines indicate temperatures in excess
of 2 X 106 K
 Solar Mass Ejections

• In addition to its emissions of electromagnetic radiation, the Sun also emits
material (mostly in the form of electrons, protons, and helium nuclei) which flows
outward into the solar system (some of it reaching Earth s vicinity).

• The major part of this mass ejection, especially in times of low solar activity, is the
solar wind , a steady flow of ionized gas outward through the solar system,
having low enough energy as to not have major effects on the planets and their
local environments.

• More significant, in terms of its effects, are coronal mass

ejections, mostly associated with active regions on the
solar surface, which are most frequent and energetic
during times of high solar activity.

• Coronal mass ejections can result from solar flares and

are often associated with sunspots and their local
surroundings.
The Sun Imaged in X-Rays
 Solar Wind

Ø  The aurora borealis and the aurora australis (the northern and southern lights)

Ø  Van Allen radiation belts: ions from the Sun interact with the Earth s magnetic field
and are trapped in it and bounce back and forth between the north magnetic pole
and the south magnetic pole
 Solar Wind
Ø  Mass loss from the Sun deduced long before its direct detection, e.g., tails of comets

Ø  The dust tail pushed back by the radiation pressure; the curvature due to different
orbital speeds of the individual dust particles

Ø  The ion tail is straight as the interaction between ions and the solar wind and the
ions of the tail allows momentum to be transferred to the comet tail

Comet HaleBopp
 Solar Wind

Ø  At 1 AU from the Sun, velocity can be between 200 – 700 km/s

Ø  Typical density of 7 ions /cc

Ø  Temperature = 4 X 104 K for protons; 105 K for electrons

Ø  Heavier ions are also present

Parker Model of the Solar Wind

Ø  Parker (1958) suggested that the corona could not remain in static equilibrium
but must be continually expanding

Ø  The continual expansion of the corona is the solar wind

Ø  Properties predicted by Parker were confirmed by the satellites Lunik III and
Venus I in 1959 and by Mariner II in early 1960 s
Equa-on describing the mass distribu-on:

Equa-on of Mass conserva-on

 Equa-on describing pressure:

Because a main sequence star is in hydrosta-c equilibrium, these two forces

must balance:

Equa-on of Hydrosta-c equilibrium

 Parker Model of the Solar Wind

Main Assumptions:

The outflow is

1.  Steady
2.  Spherically symmetric
3.  Isothermal

Equation for radial motion (assuming spherical symmetry ) is

Where v is the radial expansion speed

 We have,

For steady flow (assumtion 1)

For Class 2 solutions, we choose r=rc and v =Cs and this requires C =-3
 Validity of different classes of solutions

Each of the classes of solutions fits a different set of boundary conditions

at
r = and

The physical acceptability of these

Solutions depends on the boundary
Conditions.

Observations tell us that the flows

at the base of the Corona are
Subsonic.

Both Class 3 and Class 4 solution are

not plausible models since they predict
super-sonic flows at the base of the
Corona, which is not observed.
 Validity of different classes of solutions

Class 1 and Class 2 Solutions

Both are acceptable on the basis of their

Properties around
r =
since they both predict sub-sonic flows
in the region

However, Class 1 & 2 solutions behave

Differently as
 Validity of different classes of solutions

Class 1 Solution v tends to zero as

Class 1 solution implies that the density (and hence the pressure)
will tend to be a constant which is unphysical.
 Validity of different classes of solutions

Class 2 Solution v >> Cs as

 Validity of different classes of solutions

Class 2 Solution is physically plausible

and predicts that the plasma will be
supersonic beyond r = rc , the critical
point.
 Verification of Parker s Model

We first calculate the critical radius,

The radius of the Sun is

m

Assuming a typical coronal temperature of K, the sound speed is

The critical radius is

To put this into context, the radius of the Earth's orbit is

 Verification of Parker s Model

Thus, the solar wind is highly super-sonic by the time it reaches the
Earth. To calculate the actual wind speed from Parker's model we set

and solve for

This may be solved using the Newton-Raphson method to give

Thus, Parker's solar wind model gives quite a good estimation of the
velocity.
One could also draw the isotherms at different temperatures:

The real solar wind ends in a shock called the heliopause at about