HEALTH & SAFETY

Key Concepts in
Gas Detection
A Guide to Understanding
Todays’s Gas Detection
Technology
Key Concepts in Gas Detection
Gas-detection systems are important front-line watch
dogs, and provide many process plants with early Types of Gas Detectors
notification of dangerous releases. Proper design and There are a number of methods used to detect the
layout is critical to the functionality of these systems, presence of various gas compounds. Typically, the
but poses a challenge for many users since little most universally accepted methods are
standardized guidance is available. A qualified safety
professional should be involved in all ultimate design • Electrochemical
decisions. When designing a gas-detection installation, • Catalytic bead
the user must remember that gas detection is only one • Infrared
part of a facility’s comprehensive safety management • Papertape
plan. To be most useful during facility operation,
monitoring system users should address not only how Electrochemical
many sensors are required and where they will go, but Electrochemical gas sensors contain various
also how the real-time data provided by these devices components designed to react with a specific toxic gas;
can be used to improve the overall safety of the plant the reaction generates a current which is measured by
and its workers. the instrument and translated into a concentration
value (PPM or PPB).

What is a Gas?
GAS - a substance that is normally in gaseous state at
ordinary temperatures and pressures
VAPOR - a gaseous form of a substance that is liquid
or solid at normal temperatures and pressures
FUME - airborne dispersion consisting of minute
particles that come from heating a solid (often an oxide
resulting from a chemical reaction between the particles
and oxygen.

Types of gas and vapors

• Asphiyxiants - Cause suffocation by displacing O2
(i.e. H2, CO) or by interfering with blood’s ability to
carry O2 (i.e. CO) Figure 1 - Electrochemical Sensor
• Irritants/Corrosives - Cause inflammatory effect
on tissue by chemical action (i.e. NH3, Cl2, O3,
SO2) Catalytic Bead
• Toxic Agents - Poisonous to one or several
Catalytic sensors “burn” combustible gases on a small
organs (i.e. CS2, AsH3, CCl4)
extremely hot bead; the instrument measures the
• Carcinogens - Cause Cancer (i.e. vinyl chloride)
resulting increase in resistance and translates it into
• Central Nervous System Depressants - Cause
percent of lower explosive limit (LEL).
disturbances to CNS (i.e. benzene, acetone)
• Combustibles - Liquids with flash point between
100°F and 200°F
• Flammables - Liquids with flash point under
100°F, gases that form flammable mixture with air
at 13% by volume or less
 Understand the application
Before purchasing a detection system, the user must
decide which gases the system should monitor. Legal
requirements provide a good starting point for making
this decision. Local and federal regulations, fire and
building codes, and industry safety standards specify
the use of gas detectors in certain types of facilities and
for certain types of toxic and combustible gases.
The local fire Marshall or a qualified safety engineer
should be able to provide system designers with a
comprehensive list of applicable regulations, codes and
standards. Unfortunately, regulations, standards and
codes only cover a small percentage of all applications
in need of gas monitoring. In most cases, other criteria
must also be used to decide which gases and
Figure 2 - Catalytic Bead Sensor equipment components to monitor. The most important
consideration is the actual hazard posed by the gases.
Infrared These hazards are driven by toxicity or explosion risk.
Infra-red instruments shine a “tuned” beam of light Since some toxic gases are more dangerous than
through the gas sample. If the target gas is present, a others, engineers deciding what to monitor should
portion of the beams light spectrum is absorbed in evaluate the absolute toxicity of substances, based on
proportion to the concentration of the gas. Infrared- factors such as LC 50 (the median lethal
based instruments are generally more expensive to concentration), short-term exposure limit (STEL),
purchase but provide lower, long-term cost of ceiling limit (the concentration that should not be
ownership as they require less maintenance and do not exceeded), and IDLH (the concentration immediately
require span calibration. dangerous to life and health). These factors are
available from a variety of organizations, such as the
U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Admin.(OSHA;
Washington, D.C.), American Conference of
Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH; Cincinnati,
Ohio) and National Inst. for Occupational Safety and
Health (NIOSH; Cincinnati, Ohio) [2].
The primary hazard associated with handling flammable
or combustible gases is the risk of explosion that could
result from a leak or spill. As a rule of thumb, the lower
the flashpoint or lower explosive limit (LEL) of a gas,
the more important it is to monitor.
Figure 3 - Infrared Sensor
System users should install monitoring devices to
Papertape detect leaks of any combustible and flammable
Paper tape instruments use chemically-impregnated substances whose flashpoint is below ambient
tape for very accurate and specific detection of toxic temperatures, since these substances immediately give
gases. Much like a piece of litmus paper, the tape off vapors which may be sufficient to form an ignitable
changes color when exposed to a given gas; the color mixture. Note that certain combustible gases are also
change is detected by a photocell, analyzed, and toxic, with permissible exposure limits under their LELs.
translated into a concentration value.
Methanol, for example, has an STEL of about 250 ppm
– well below its 6% (or 60,000-ppm) LEL. In areas
where a leak could result in personnel exposure, these
gases should generally be evaluated primarily as toxic
hazards, rather than as explosion hazards. In some
cases, even non-flammable or non-toxic gases (such
as nitrogen) should be monitored. This is especially true In general, gas detectors used to monitor potential
when the potential exists for that gas to leak into an release points should be positioned close to the
enclosed area. Such leakage would increase the risk of potential leak point, with consideration given to the likely
oxygen deficiency, which puts workers at risk of mode of release. Common release points in process
asphyxiation. facilities include:
• Seals and flanges for pumps and compressors

Identify Potential Danger • Valve-stem seals

Points • Expansion joints

• Gaskets
Site-specific danger points can be divided into two • Compression fittings
broad categories:
• Weld failures
• Release points. Locations from which hazardous gas
could be released. • Loading and unloading areas
• Receptor points. Locations where hazardous gases • Liquid- and gas-storage areas
could pose a threat to personnel, property or
equipment. • Sample points

In the case of flammable or combustible gases, the • Battery rooms

receptor point is specifically an ignition source – with no • Runoff areas (such as sumps, oily water sewers and
ignition, there is no threat to personnel, property, or wastewater-treatment areas)
equipment, except possibly through oxygen deprivation.
In theory, all vessels, pipes and pieces of equipment • Piping-distribution manifolds (such as valve-manifold
containing hazardous substances and all areas around boxes)
these items are potential danger points. In practice, It is also a good idea to monitor certain locations where
however, it is generally prudent to focus on a smaller there is high potential for damage or injury to personnel
number of specific danger points to balance monitoring – even if no specific release point exists nearby. These
needs with capital and on- going maintenance costs. locations include areas where gases could potentially
While most facilities have numerous release and build up (e.g., cable vaults), as well as any areas where
receptor points, it is important to recognize that these highly toxic or highly flammable combustible gases are
two categories of dangers are not always located at the stored, handled, transported or processed.
same site.
Receptor Points
Release Points Identifying receptor points should begin with a review of
To identify specific release points, the users should the facility’s layout or floor plan, noting areas where
review all hazardous-area-classification drawings, personnel are likely to circulate or congregate on a
which provide useful information on flammable- and regular basis (including evacuation and exit routes).
combustible-gas danger points (e.g., they will indicate P&IDs, as well as the plant’s process-safety-
Class 1 areas, as defined by the National Electrical management plan, can help determine potential ignition
Code). Process-safety-management and risk- points. Gas detectors used to monitor receptor points
management plans can provide similar information for should be positioned between release and receptor
toxic gases handled onsite. Additional gas-release points. Common receptor points include:
points and areas of potential gas buildup can be
identified using process-and-instrumentation diagrams • Analyzer shelters
(P&IDs). Using such documents, the user should • Facilities where plant personnel could be present
carefully evaluate the facility’s gas-storage and • Switchgear shelters
inventory areas, as well as distribution, processing, • Internal combustion engine shelters
ventilation, and waste/gas-treatment systems. Any • Confined spaces
transportation routes where gas or high-vapor-pressure • Nearby communities and facilities
liquids are transported (in trucks, railcars, cylinders and • Facility-air intakes are also common locations for
so on) should also be included in this evaluation. detectors monitoring receptor points in plants.
Determine Gas Characteristics
In general, the slower the rate of evaporation or the
Vapor density is a key criterion in positioning gas denser the vapor, the more important it is to place
sensors. Heavier-than-air gases, including vapors from sensors close to the location where the liquid
high vapor pressure liquids, tend to sink and flow in accumulates. Meanwhile, prevailing air or ventilation
thermal layers along the ground, and will often currents become more important considerations as the
accumulate in low places such as pits or ditches. Since rate of evaporation increases.
they collect easily and are less likely to disperse, more
sensors should be used to monitor these substances in Gases stored or transported under, pressure are
unenclosed areas, compared with lighter-than- air released as a gas (or two- phase, liquid-gas) jet. If a
gases. jet’s release point or direction is predictable – for
example, in a gas cabinet or by a valve where hoods or
Sensors for heavier-than-air compounds, such as cones are used to direct the jet – it is generally
hydrogen sulfide, should be located near ground level – desirable to place a detector in its path. Otherwise,
typically about 18-24 in. above the ground – or in low- detectors should be placed either in multiple locations
lying areas where the gas may gather. In contrast, around the danger point or in areas where the gas is
sensors for lighter-than- air gases should generally be likely to travel or settle after being released (taking into
located above the danger point. consideration prevailing air or ventilation currents).
In enclosed facilities, it is typical to mount sensors for Note that lighter-than-air gases will often sink
low-vapor-density gases on the ceiling. Sensors for immediately after release due to the presence of
gases with the same density as air should generally be aerosols in the jet, and the drop in temperature that
located at or near breathing level. Note that when accompanies a drop in gas pressure. Most gas jets
monitoring for oxygen deficiency, one should consider experience substantial mixing, and, in the open, can
the density of the gas(es) that are displacing the disperse below dangerous levels a short distance from
oxygen. For example, in a helium cylinder storage the leak point. However, prolonged leaks and re- leases
room, the first indication of a leak will be seen by an in confined or semi-confined areas still pose substantial
oxygen sensor mounted close to the ceiling (helium will threats.
rise and “crowd-out” the oxygen near the ceiling).
Gas release temperature should not be ignored when
evaluating vapor density. Liquefied, lighter-than-air
gases, such as LNG, will generally behave like heavier-
Indoor vs Outdoor Detection
than-air gases immediately after a spill, but will soon Although indoor releases are often much more
begin to rise as the vapors become diluted and warm dangerous than outdoor ones – due to confinement or
up to ambient temperatures. Similarly, some heated finite volume available for diffusion – their behavior is
heavier-than-air gases, such as hydrogen sulfide, rise also more predictable. Studies have shown that in
when first released, but will settle as they cool and their unexhausted rooms, gas tends to reach uniform
density increases above that of air. concentration above (or below) the leak source very
rapidly. The more mixing that takes place through
It is important to recognize that factors such as
convection currents, ventilation and so on, the more
ventilation and air currents, especially for gases whose
quickly the gas will reach a uniform concentration.
densities are similar to air, may alter these general
recommendations. Strong air- flow through a room, for In this application, ”typical” sensor locations – those
example, may make an exhaust duct a better location based primarily on vapor density and release mode) –
than the ceiling for monitoring a lighter-than-air gas. can be used. Note that when very hot air exists near the
ceiling, some thermal stratification may occur.
Mode of storage and release can also affect the
monitoring setup suggested by vapor density. Liquefied For instance, warmer, lower-density air may slow the
gases and high-vapor-pressure liquids are typically passage of a gas to the roof. Since most indoor
released as liquid spills (or jets) that subsequently process facilities are exhausted, the effect of
evaporate. The rate of evaporation varies positively with mechanical ventilation is important to consider.
the surface area of the liquid pool (which is reduced by
dikes or embankments), the boiling point or vapor Where ventilation rates are fairly rapid, sensors often
pressure of the liquid, and the heat transferred from the provide the best indications of air conditions in the
ground and atmosphere. room, chamber or cabinet. Note that in some cases,
sensors may have to be mounted in several ducts, 3. Potential Gas Sources - The location and nature
since code requirements require ventilation-system of potential vapor/gas sources (e.g., pressure,
design to take gas density into account. For example, amount, source, temperature, and distance) need to
where mixtures of light and heavy gases exist, be assessed.
ventilation must capture gas at both high and low
points. 4. Ambient Temperature - Insure that the system is
located within an area that complies with the
In situations where ventilation rates are slower, a specified operating temperature range.
smoke study should be per- formed to confirm that the
sensor will ”see” a gas leak. In such a study, a puff of 5. Vibration - Mount the transmitter and sensor in a
smoke or some other easy-to-see fume is released, manner that minimizes vibration.
and its behavior in the prevailing air currents is 6. Accessibility - When determining mounting
observed. If ventilation ducts are interconnected and a location, consider future maintenance and calibration
potential release point lies ”upstream,” or if air is drawn requirements.
from the outside near a potential leak source, it may
also be desirable to locate a sensor at or near the air- 7. Avoid water and condensing humidity.
inflow duct. In certain cases, such as when highly toxic Droplets adhering to the outer membrane of the
gases are being handled, it can be useful to monitor sensor will reduce or negate sensor performance. A
breathing zone locations as well, for added safety. rain shield is recommended for outdoor installations.

Monitoring outdoor gas releases is significantly more 8. Avoid strong electromagnetic fields. Mounting
complex, as gas behavior is impacted by many more the gas transmitter near power transformers or other
variables. Meteorological conditions must be strong EM fields may cause undesirable results.
considered because gas disperses most rapidly during 9. Avoid pressure and excessive air velocity.
sunny afternoons with light wind, and least rapidly GasPlus sensors are designed to measure gas
during clear nights with light wind. concentration under normal atmospheric conditions
It is important to note that predicted release behavior with up to 1 LPM air flow. High air velocities will
can be significantly altered by topographical result in inaccurate measurement and reduce sensor
characteristics created by buildings, process vessels, life.
piping arrays and so on, since most dispersion models 10. Conduit Seals. Protect the transmitter
assume flat surfaces. electronics from moisture by thoroughly sealing the
conduit entries and tightening the cover of the
transmitter housing.
11. Distance. All systems that separate the gas
Installing a Gas Detector sensor (or transmitter) from the main controller
electronics have distance limit specifications.
Quick List Ensure that the application’s distance requirements
are within specifications and that the appropriate
Prior to installing a gas transmitter, consideration gauge wiring is used.
should be given to the following items when choosing
its location:
1. Orientation - Always mount the sensor pointing
downwards.
2. Gas Density - For gases heavier than air, it is
recommended that the sensor be installed
approximately 18" from floor level. In these applications
care should be taken to protect the sensors from
physical damage. For gases that are lighter than air,
sensors should be installed at a high level or close to
the potential leak source.