Introduction

The marketing research process involves a number of steps such as formulating

the research problem, choice of research design, determining sources of data,
designing data collection forms, determining sampling design and sampling size,
organizing and conducting the field survey, processing and analyzing the collected data
and preparing the research report. Once the researcher has formulated the problem and
developed a research design including the questionnaire, he has to decide on the
collection of data- i.e. choosing the sample of respondents, the who, how many and
how. As we cannot study the whole of a population in detail, a sub-group of such
population is studied in order to ascertain its characteristics.

A part of a population, or a subset from a set of units, which is provided by some

process or other, usually by deliberate selection with the object of investigating the
properties of the parent population of set is called as Sample.

Sampling
Sampling as in Wikipedia means, “In statistics and survey
methodology, sampling is concerned with the selection of a subset of individuals from
within a statistical population to estimate characteristics of the whole population”. The
three main advantages of sampling are that the cost is lower, data collection is faster,
and since the data set is smaller it is possible to ensure homogeneity and to improve
the accuracy and quality of the data.

SAMPLING PLAN/ PROCESS

The development of a sampling plan follows the selection of the research
approach and the instruments that will be used to gather data. The processes that are
involved in identifying and obtaining a sample are known collectively as the sampling
plan. A sample unit is the group of potential research participants or respondents from
which the sampling frame will be developed and from which the sample will ultimately
be selected.
The sampling process comprises of several stages, they are as follow:

1. Defining the population

2. Specifying a sampling frame
3. Specifying a sampling method 
4. Determining the sample size
5. Implementing the sampling plan
6. Sampling and data collection
 1. Defining the Population
A population can be defined as including all people or items with the
characteristic which one wishes to understand. Because there is very rarely enough
time or money to gather information from everyone or everything in a population, the
goal becomes finding a representative sample (or subset) of that population. It is
necessary to define population in terms of (i) elements, (ii) sampling units, (iii) extent (iv)
time.

2. Specifying the sampling frame

The next step is to identify and specify the Sampling frame. A sampling frame is
a detailed record or list of members of a population. Census lists, telephone directories,
lists of subscribers to magazines, members of an association and data bases of
customers maintained by various corporations are all examples of sampling frames.
With the advent of computerized database, it has now become relatively easy to access
detailed sampling frames.

3. Specifying a sampling method 

There are mainly two types of sampling methods or techniques viz. Probability
and Non-Probability Sampling. These Techniques indicates how the sample units are
selected. One of the most important decisions in this regard is to determine which of the
two is to be chosen. After the specification of the sampling frame, the researcher should
choose an appropriate technique/method of sampling.

4. Determining the sample size

The number of elements taken to represent the population is the sample size.
One has to determine how many elements of the target population are to be chosen.
The sample size should be determined in such a way that they should be able to
represent well the characteristics of the population.

5. Implementing the sampling plan

The sampling plan is then specified which means that one should indicate how
decisions made so far are to be implemented. It is the operational process i.e. the
fieldwork needs to be specified. This includes details of interview procedure, the
sampling element, the time of the interview, the operational process of selecting the
specific sampling unit and the sampling element etc.
 6. Sampling and data collection
This is the final step in the sampling process. A good deal of office and fieldwork
is involved in the actual selection of the sampling elements.
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
When a decision has to be taken about the most appropriate technique of
sampling, the basic choice is between the probability and the non-probability techniques
of sampling. A traditional sampling method has been shown in figure 1.1 below.

Fig: 1.1 Traditional Sampling Method

A. Probability Sampling Techniques

A probability sampling is one in which every unit in the population has a
chance (greater than zero) of being selected in the sample, and this probability can be
accurately determined. The combination of these traits makes it possible to produce
unbiased estimates of population totals, by weighting sampled units according to their
probability of selection.
 Probability sampling includes: Simple Random Sampling, Systematic
Sampling, Stratified Sampling and Cluster Sampling. These various ways of
probability sampling have two things in common:

 Every element has a known nonzero probability of being sampled and

 Involves random selection at some point
a) Simple Random Sampling

In a simple random sample ('SRS') of a given size, all such subsets of the frame
are given an equal probability. Each element of the frame thus has an equal probability
of selection: the frame is not subdivided or partitioned. Furthermore, any given pair of
elements has the same chance of selection as any other such pair (and similarly for
triples, and so on). This minimises bias and simplifies analysis of results. In particular,
the variance between individual results within the sample is a good indicator of variance
in the overall population, which makes it relatively easy to estimate the accuracy of
results.

However, SRS can be vulnerable to sampling error because the randomness of

the selection may result in a sample that doesn't reflect the makeup of the population.
For instance, a simple random sample of ten people from a given country will on
average produce five men and five women, but any given trial is likely to over represent
one sex and underrepresent the other. Systematic and stratified techniques, discussed
below, attempt to overcome this problem by using information about the population to
choose a more representative sample.

SRS may also be cumbersome and tedious when sampling from an unusually
large target population. In some cases, investigators are interested in research
questions specific to subgroups of the population. For example, researchers might be
interested in examining whether cognitive ability as a predictor of job performance is
equally applicable across racial groups. SRS cannot accommodate the needs of
researchers in this situation because it does not provide subsamples of the population.
Stratified sampling, which is discussed below, addresses this weakness of SRS.

b) Systematic Sampling

Systematic sampling relies on arranging the target population according to some

ordering scheme and then selecting elements at regular intervals through that ordered
list. Systematic sampling involves a random start and then proceeds with the selection
of every kth element from then onwards. In this case, k=(population size/sample size). It
is important that the starting point is not automatically the first in the list, but is instead
randomly chosen from within the first to the kth element in the list. A simple example
would be to select every 10th name from the telephone directory (an 'every 10th'
sample, also referred to as 'sampling with a skip of 10').

As long as the starting point is randomized, systematic sampling is a type

of probability sampling. It is easy to implement and the stratification induced can make it
efficient, if the variable by which the list is ordered is correlated with the variable of
interest. 'Every 10th' sampling is especially useful for efficient sampling from databases.

For example, suppose we wish to sample people from a long street that starts in
a poor area (house No. 1) and ends in an expensive district (house No. 1000). A simple
random selection of addresses from this street could easily end up with too many from
the high end and too few from the low end (or vice versa), leading to an
unrepresentative sample. Selecting (e.g.) every 10th street number along the street
ensures that the sample is spread evenly along the length of the street, representing all
of these districts. (Note that if we always start at house #1 and end at #991, the sample
is slightly biased towards the low end; by randomly selecting the start between #1 and
#10, this bias is eliminated.

However, systematic sampling is especially vulnerable to periodicities in the list.

If periodicity is present and the period is a multiple or factor of the interval used, the
sample is especially likely to be unrepresentative of the overall population, making the
scheme less accurate than simple random sampling.

For example, consider a street where the odd-numbered houses are all on the
north (expensive) side of the road, and the even-numbered houses are all on the south
(cheap) side. Under the sampling scheme given above, it is impossible to get a
representative sample; either the houses sampled will all be from the odd-numbered,
expensive side, or they will all be from the even-numbered, cheap side.

Another drawback of systematic sampling is that even in scenarios where it is

more accurate than SRS, its theoretical properties make it difficult to quantify that
accuracy. (In the two examples of systematic sampling that are given above, much of
the potential sampling error is due to variation between neighbouring houses - but
because this method never selects two neighbouring houses, the sample will not give
us any information on that variation.)

As described above, systematic sampling is an EPS method, because all

elements have the same probability of selection (in the example given, one in ten). It
is not 'simple random sampling' because different subsets of the same size have
different selection probabilities - e.g. the set {4, 14, 24... 994} has a one-in-ten
probability of selection, but the set {4, 13, 24, 34...} has zero probability of selection.

c) Stratified Sampling

Where the population embraces a number of distinct categories, the frame can
be organized by these categories into separate "strata." Each stratum is then sampled
as an independent sub-population, out of which individual elements can be randomly
selected. There are several potential benefits to stratified sampling.

First, dividing the population into distinct, independent strata can enable researchers to
draw inferences about specific subgroups that may be lost in a more generalized
random sample.

Second, utilizing a stratified sampling method can lead to more efficient statistical
estimates (provided that strata are selected based upon relevance to the criterion in
question, instead of availability of the samples). Even if a stratified sampling approach
does not lead to increased statistical efficiency, such a tactic will not result in less
efficiency than would simple random sampling, provided that each stratum is
proportional to the group's size in the population.

Third, it is sometimes the case that data are more readily available for individual,
pre-existing strata within a population than for the overall population; in such cases,
using a stratified sampling approach may be more convenient than aggregating data
across groups (though this may potentially be at odds with the previously noted
importance of utilizing criterion-relevant strata).

Finally, since each stratum is treated as an independent population, different

sampling approaches can be applied to different strata, potentially enabling researchers
to use the approach best suited (or most cost-effective) for each identified subgroup
within the population.

There are, however, some potential drawbacks to using stratified sampling. First,
identifying strata and implementing such an approach can increase the cost and
complexity of sample selection, as well as leading to increased complexity of population
estimates. Second, when examining multiple criteria, stratifying variables may be
related to some, but not to others, further complicating the design, and potentially
reducing the utility of the strata. Finally, in some cases (such as designs with a large
number of strata, or those with a specified minimum sample size per group), stratified
sampling can potentially require a larger sample than would other methods (although in
most cases, the required sample size would be no larger than would be required for
simple random sampling.
A stratified sampling approach is most effective when three conditions are met

1. Variability within strata are minimized

2. Variability between strata are maximized
3. The variables upon which the population is stratified are strongly correlated with
the desired dependent variable.
Advantages over other sampling methods

1. Focuses on important subpopulations and ignores irrelevant ones.

2. Allows use of different sampling techniques for different subpopulations.
3. Improves the accuracy/efficiency of estimation.
4. Permits greater balancing of statistical power of tests of differences between
strata by sampling equal numbers from strata varying widely in size.
Disadvantages

1. Requires selection of relevant stratification variables which can be difficult.

2. Is not useful when there are no homogeneous subgroups.
3. Can be expensive to implement.

d) Cluster sampling
Sometimes it is more cost-effective to select respondents in groups ('clusters').
Sampling is often clustered by geography, or by time periods. (Nearly all samples are in
some sense 'clustered' in time - although this is rarely taken into account in the
analysis.) For instance, if surveying households within a city, we might choose to select
100 city blocks and then interview every household within the selected blocks.
Clustering can reduce travel and administrative costs. In the example above, an
interviewer can make a single trip to visit several households in one block, rather than
having to drive to a different block for each household.

It also means that one does not need a sampling frame listing all elements in the
target population. Instead, clusters can be chosen from a cluster-level frame, with an
element-level frame created only for the selected clusters. In the example above, the
sample only requires a block-level city map for initial selections, and then a household-
level map of the 100 selected blocks, rather than a household-level map of the whole
city.

Cluster sampling generally increases the variability of sample estimates above

that of simple random sampling, depending on how the clusters differ between
themselves, as compared with the within-cluster variation. For this reason, cluster
sampling requires a larger sample than SRS to achieve the same level of accuracy - but
cost savings from clustering might still make this a cheaper option.

Cluster sampling is commonly implemented as multistage sampling. This is a

complex form of cluster sampling in which two or more levels of units are embedded
one in the other. The first stage consists of constructing the clusters that will be used to
sample from. In the second stage, a sample of primary units is randomly selected from
each cluster (rather than using all units contained in all selected clusters). In following
stages, in each of those selected clusters, additional samples of units are selected, and
so on. All ultimate units (individuals, for instance) selected at the last step of this
procedure are then surveyed. This technique, thus, is essentially the process of taking
random subsamples of preceding random samples.

Multistage sampling can substantially reduce sampling costs, where the

complete population list would need to be constructed (before other sampling methods
could be applied). By eliminating the work involved in describing clusters that are not
selected, multistage sampling can reduce the large costs associated with traditional
cluster sampling

B. Non-Probability Sampling Techniques

Non-probability sampling is any sampling method where some elements of the
population have no chance of selection (these are sometimes referred to as 'out of
coverage'/'under covered'), or where the probability of selection can't be accurately
determined. It involves the selection of elements based on assumptions regarding the
population of interest, which forms the criteria for selection. Hence, because the
selection of elements is nonrandom, nonprobability sampling does not allow the
estimation of sampling errors. These conditions give rise to exclusion bias, placing limits
on how much information a sample can provide about the population. Information about
the relationship between sample and population is limited, making it difficult to
extrapolate from the sample to the population.
Example: We visit every household in a given street, and interview the first person to
answer the door. In any household with more than one occupant, this is a
nonprobability sample, because some people are more likely to answer the door (e.g.
an unemployed person who spends most of their time at home is more likely to answer
than an employed housemate who might be at work when the interviewer calls) and it's
not practical to calculate these probabilities.

Nonprobability sampling methods include accidental sampling, quota

sampling and purposive sampling. In addition, nonresponse effects may
turn any probability design into a nonprobability design if the characteristics of
nonresponse are not well understood, since nonresponse effectively modifies each
element's probability of being sampled.
a) Accidental Sampling
Accidental sampling (sometimes known as grab, convenience or opportunity
sampling) is a type of nonprobability sampling which involves the sample being drawn
from that part of the population which is close to hand. That is, a population is selected
because it is readily available and convenient. It may be through meeting the person or
including a person in the sample when one meets them or chosen by finding them
through technological means such as the internet or through phone. The researcher
using such a sample cannot scientifically make generalizations about the total
population from this sample because it would not be representative enough. For
example, if the interviewer were to conduct such a survey at a shopping center early in
the morning on a given day, the people that he/she could interview would be limited to
those given there at that given time, which would not represent the views of other
members of society in such an area, if the survey were to be conducted at different
times of day and several times per week. This type of sampling is most useful for pilot
testing. Several important considerations for researchers using convenience samples
include:

1. Are there controls within the research design or experiment which can serve to
lessen the impact of a non-random convenience sample, thereby ensuring the
results will be more representative of the population?
2. Is there good reason to believe that a particular convenience sample would or
should respond or behave differently than a random sample from the same
population?
 3. Is the question being asked by the research one that can adequately be
answered using a convenience sample?
In social science research, snowball sampling is a similar technique, where
existing study subjects are used to recruit more subjects into the sample. Some variants
of snowball sampling, such as respondent driven sampling, allow calculation of
selection probabilities and are probability sampling methods under certain conditions.
b) Quota sampling
In quota sampling, the population is first segmented into mutually exclusive sub-
groups, just as in stratified sampling. Then judgement is used to select the subjects or
units from each segment based on a specified proportion. For example, an interviewer
may be told to sample 200 females and 300 males between the age of 45 and 60.

It is this second step which makes the technique one of non-probability sampling.
In quota sampling the selection of the sample is non-random. For example interviewers
might be tempted to interview those who look most helpful. The problem is that these
samples may be biased because not everyone gets a chance of selection. This random
element is its greatest weakness and quota versus probability has been a matter of
controversy for many years.
c) Purposive sampling

In Judgmental sampling or Purposive sampling, the researcher chooses the

sample based on who they think would be appropriate for the study. This is used
primarily when there is a limited number of people that have expertise in the area being
researched.

CONCLUSION
A good sample design or technique requires the judicious balancing of four broad
criteria which includes that it should be goal oriented, measurable, practicable, and can
be used economically. It may be pointed out that these four criteria come into conflict
with each other in most of the cases, and the researcher should carefully balance the
conflicting criteria so that he is able to select a really good sample design. As there is
no unique method or procedure by which one can select a good sample, one has to
compare several sample designs that can be used in a survey. This means that one has
to weigh the pros and cons, the strong and weak points of various sample designs in
respect of these four criteria before selecting the best possible one. In some cases,
more than two sample designs have to be selected to carry out the survey.

References:
 Marketing Research; Concepts, Practices & Cases; by Sunanda
Easwaran
 Marketing Research (Third Edition); by G C Beri
 www.statisticaloutsourcingservices.com
 http://en.wikipedia.org
 www.education.ucsb.edu
 brettscaife.net/statistics