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CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

Theoretical Framework

The study that the researchers are going to conduct is effects of reading

Wattpad on the perception of selected junior high school students on romance

and courtship in Benedictine Institute of Learning.

According to Sternberg (2017), the triangular theory of love holds that

love can be understood in terms of three components that together can be

viewed as forming the vertices of a triangle.  The triangle is used as a

metaphor, rather than as a strict geometric model.  These three components

are intimacy, passion, and decision/commitment. Each component manifests a

different aspect of love. As he identified in his theory, addiction in a relationship

can be a strong anxious attachment to itself; an anxiety at thought of losing a

partner. Many other things can be identified like its humor. Humor because in

Robert J.’s theory said that love is strange and can be funny because we

cannot identify easily how love works and how it feels differently to others.

(Humor characteristic of a suitor)

Pertaining to Rubin (2019), it is proposed that romantic love is made up

of three elements which are being attached to each other, caring, and intimacy.

Rubin believed that sometimes we experience a great amount of appreciation

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and admiration for others. We enjoy spending time with them and want to be

around them, but this doesn’t necessarily qualify as love. Instead, Rubin

referred to this as liking. Love, on the other hand, is much deeper, more

intense, and includes a strong desire on physical intimacy and contact. People

who are “in like” enjoy each other’s company, while those who are “in love”

care as much about the person’s needs as they do their own. Attachment is the

need to receive care, approval, and physical contact with the other person.

Caring involves valuing the other person need and happiness as much as your

own. Intimacy refers to the sharing of thoughts, desires, and feelings with other

person.

As stated by Pickhardt (2013), the majority of dating adolescents in high

school do not fall in love. They don’t experience in a single relationship that

magical match that includes: sexual attraction, mutual enjoyment, emotional

knowing, social compatibility, sensitive consideration, physical

affection, friendship feeling, and romantic excitement all combining to create a

sense of caring, commitment, and completeness that make the other person

the only one for you. This experience is reserved for a comparative few, for no

more than about 15 percent would be his guess.

Life changing is how “in-love” feels in adolescence because it is a far

more moving and compelling relationship than the young people have known

before. The experience is all consuming — so each is always on the other’s

mind. This is the person they want to spend all their time with — so time with
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good friends is often set aside. It is a merged relationship — so each one feels

part of the other, not quite whole when they are not together. They are highly

sensitized to each other — so both are alert to subtle interpersonal signals and

are easily hurt by small slights from each other. The intimacy is deeper than

with anyone else. Too feel so deeply known and deeply knowing makes other

relationships seem shallower by comparison. It is being said that it is important

for this parents to be mindful of these tensions in order to attain which their son

or daughter is dealing. It is being said by Pickhardt that love is risky because

the person we love can hurt us the worst. And we can’t measure the love for us

by our love for them.

Based on Pushkin (2011), the concept of Digi modernism as the latest

paradigmatic shift fundamentally altering our societies and cultures has

emerged only very recently and there is but a handful of publications on its

lasting effect on the new “everyman” formation. Alvin Toffler’s “The Third Wave”

and Alan Kirby’s “Digi modernism” are used for initial definition of Digi

modernism and probing into its various effects and aspects. Once a certain

outline of Digi modernism is established, further analysis is carried out within

different academic traditions. Firstly, by applying McLuhan’s concept of tetrad

of media effects to blogging, forums and user comments, as innate textual

formative properties of this paradigm, the attempt is made at describing the

possibilities and limitations of the new information exchange structure.

Secondly, comparative analysis of this transition from its perspective(s),

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selected for their most uncompromising and in that straightforward angle, is

carried out. Works by Chomsky, Schiller, Bourdieu and Gramsci are applied to

this task. Thirdly, inferences are made regarding the social formative function of

this new paradigm, once again returning us to Kirby and Toffler, yet reshaping,

debating and extending their hypotheses. In sequitur the structure and some

traits of culture of digital society is deduced from the above factors of this new

environment and contrasted with that of late modern/postmodern type. The

logical limitation of current paper is that its scope of analysis excludes

developing countries with severely limited or even absent access to online

digital networks, so much of it should be understood as forecasting. Current

paper aims to contribute to both new media analysis and a more general trend

of fusing and implementing theoretical frameworks of different time periods to

contemporary digital art, media and literature.

Related Studies (Foreign)

Romantic Relationships from Adolescence to Young Adulthood (2009)

Meier and Allen (2009) according to the evidence from the National

Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health Theories on romantic relationship

development posit a progression of involvement and intensity with age,

relationship duration, and experience in romantic relationships. Using the

National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, this study tests these

propositions by considering relationship type and patterns of relationships over

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the course of adolescence and their influence on relationship formation in

young adulthood. Findings indicate that relationships become more exclusive,

dyadic, of longer duration, and more emotionally and sexually intimate over the

course of adolescence. Moreover, relationship experience in adolescence is

associated with an increased likelihood of cohabitation and marriage in young

adulthood. These findings indicate that instead of being trivial or fleeting,

adolescent romantic relationships are an integral part of the social scaffolding

on which young adult romantic relationships rest.

Almost 60 percent of all respondents with one casual relationship at time

progress to multiple relationships or to one steady relationship at time.

Moreover, if researchers consider only respondents with one causal

relationship at time who changed types by time, an even larger proportion

(71%) progressed compared to regressed (29%). Likewise, 53 percent of all

respondents with multiple relationships at time progress to a steady relationship

at time. If we consider only those who changed types by the second time point,

77 percent progressed and 23 percent regressed.

Importantly, the researchers showed that adolescent relationship progression

can be empirically characterized as developmental theorists have suggested in

a nationally representative sample. Moreover, rather than being trivial or

ephemeral, one find that having any relationship experience in adolescents is

consequential for young adult partnerships. This suggests that if people are

serious in our concern about young adult relationships, scholars and policy-
 14

makers must step back in the life course to more fully consider adolescent

relationship experiences as social and developmental precursors to adult

relationships.

The Impact of Romance Novels on Women’s Sexual and Reproductive

Health

Iqbal (2014) in her study indicates that the romance novels can fulfill

each women emotionally satisfying and optimistic manner. The romance is one

of the most popular genres that are mostly read by the readers. The study also

includes that it has been well established that the attitudes and behaviors of

consumers are affected by exposure to portrayals of sex and sexuality in the

media. Much research has been conducted on visual media (i.e. television, film,

music videos and magazines). However, despite their widespread readership,

very little research has been done on depictions of sexual behaviors in

romance novels. And also contain how romance novels affect the people’s

behavior, attitudes and beliefs.

In this study of Iqbal (2014) stating that reading a romance novels can

affect the women’s sexual reproduction. Survey in 2009 questioned whether

sexual themes in young adult literature influenced teens’ own sexual

experiences showed that fewer than 15% across all ages said novels often

influence them and 32–58% (depending on age) said literature never influences

their choices, with the remainder stating a variable influence. The primary

reason adolescents gave for choosing to read fiction with sexually explicit
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content was entertainment. In a study of adult participants, study subjects

stated that they use romance novels primarily for recreational enjoyment and

emphasized their awareness of the fictional nature of romance novels. Most

denied any impact of reading romance novels on their sexual behavior or

knowledge; with regard to safer sex practices, most participants said they

discounted the information presented in romance novels as unreliable. Thus,

some argue, romance novels are unlikely to exert undue influence on attitudes

and behaviors.

History of Courtship and Dating in Japan (2014)

Kumagai (2014) study states that marriage pattern in Japan

developed from the group/horde marriage in the Primitive Times to the

tsumadoi-kon (the groom commuted to the bride residence), to the muko-in (the

groom lived with the bride family) during the aristocracy, and to the yome-in

(women marrying into men’s families) under the Bushi ruling. It was only after

the Meiji era that Japanese marriage changed to the Yoriai pattern based on

the mutual consent of the marriage partners.

Then, two types of mate selection pattern emerged: the arranged

(miai), and the romantic marriage (ren-ai).  In the arranged marriage the go-

between (nakoudo) arranges formal interviews providing the young with

opportunities for meeting possible marriage partners. During the early stage of

Japanese modernization miai was the predominant pattern, however the

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complete reversal has emerged today, and ren-ai has become the dominant

pattern instead. 

Recently, young Japanese have difficulties in finding ideal marriage

partners. Consequently, great many Japanese men and women remain single

lifetime (1920: about 2% for both men and women; 2010: 20% for men and

11% for women).  Extremely high rates for life-time singlehood of Japanese

men and women today are one of the major reasons for the fertility decline.

Attempting to provide young people with mate selection opportunities

various “Kon-Katsu” services (marriage mate seeking activities) have been

established by local municipal offices, commercial matchmaking agencies, and

Machi-Kon (Township Companion where both young men couples and women

couples meet in group). Furthermore, the current government will extend

monetary support to marriage services organized by municipal offices effective

2014 fiscal year.

Marriage, however, is an individual and private matter.  And, therefore, if

one decides to lead a lifetime singlehood, it matters only to him/herself. 

Nevertheless, it is hoped that these new styles of courtship and dating will

encourage Japanese youth to go forward for marriage.

Related Studies (Local)

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Satisfaction in Romantic Relationship among Adolescents: Inputs to

Guidance Program

Mapalad (2014) conducted a study about romantic relationship among

adolescents in Lyceum of the Philippines University, Batangas City Philippines.

She stated that Adolescents are generally satisfied about their romantic

relationship. Results suggest that although success in romantic relationships

has roots in general peer competence, there may be both deviant and prosocial

pathways of initial romantic involvement. She also states that early romantic

relationship involvement among the adolescents has negative effect in aspect

of academic performance and domains of competency.

The Respondents are confident about their romantic relationship

involvement. Later in adolescence romantic involvement is significance. It

becomes a normative development task for them. The highlights in the results

are the need of developmental research in the origin and meaning of true

romantic relationship. This is one of the most controversial aspects of peer

relationship. There is significance between sexes and length of a relationship

based on romantic relationship scores. The relationship between length of a

relationship and level of satisfaction of an individual in their relationship was

found positive according to Mapalad (2014). Sex and length of a relationship

affects but not the age affects the satisfaction of the respondents in romantic

relationship.
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Serenade: A Fleeting Tradition of the Filipinos

According to Esteba (2014), courtship is the action done by the man in

order to woo someone so dear to him. It is the process of getting to know each

other. It is action by a man to win his loved one’s heart by courting. Diversity of

culture in the Philippines gives us different ways of courting a woman. The best

highlights of Filipino courting culture is by serenading the girl called “Harana”.

Harana is serenading a woman to win her heart at night lit by the moon in order

to attract her. It is about a man announcing his love for the girl but, it is more

about the simple desire to introduce himself to a woman in a gentlemanly

fashion. The suitor will bring his friends and sometimes a “Haranista” and goes

to the house where the woman lives. The woman, on the other hand, shows

her positive reaction by opening the lights and glancing by the window. But, if

the woman does did not appreciate the Harana, the suitor and his companions

were greeted by the parents’ frown, or even at certain time by the portable

urinal and its content. If the suitor is acceptable he and his companion will wait

outside for the response of the girl for him it is the art of traditional Filipino

courtship.

Time pass by technologies came and young Filipinos forget the sense of

Harana in courting a girl. Men become timid and shy for courting a girl in

showing their love and desire for a girl sometimes they didn’t express it

personally. Instead they use Facebook, Friendster, Instagram, Twitter, dating

sites and texting. This texting custom of courtship in the Philippines opens
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doors for the younger age to court without hindrance of the parents and more

experience in romance. People change these changes that Filipinos undergo,

comes also the Filipino courting culture. The people and culture must go

together to give more value, meaningful and satisfying life. But as time pass by

people neglect this inherited values comes from our forefathers. As the song

says “uso pa ba ang Harana?”(comes from Parokya ni Edgar song Harana), it

is evident that Harana had been a part of these changes in our time. Gone

were the days of men gathering together to sings for a maiden so dear.

Grammar and Comprehension Competencies Of Grade 7 Wattpad

Readers of St. Scholastica’s Academy Marikina (2014)

Grade 10 Students: Banadero, Cortez, Estanislao, Garcia,

Makiramdam, Medina and Ullado (2014) conducted a study about “Grammar

and Comprehension Competencies Of Grade 7 Wattpad Readers of St.

Scholastica’s Academy Marikina”. They concluded that Wattpad readers get a

lot of advantages than other nonreader student but they also have

disadvantages. Readers are reading more stories and because of reading

interesting stories, they are writing stories of their own. Some of underrated and

overrated Wattpad authors got noticed because of their original pieces where

the respondents learned a lot of words and terms that belong to the stories.

Resulted for them to have a wide vocabulary and reading comprehension.

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Despite the advantages, there are negative impacts to the students like;

first readers are more attracted to read fan fiction. Fan fiction is about

characters or settings from an original work of fiction, created by fans of that

work are more appreciated rather than its original author/creator. It means that

readers can make their revisions or own version stories based on what they

read. With that, it affects the original creator while for the fans who copy or

revise a story would claim as unoriginal author. They have a lack of sustainable

business models; this implies that the readers do not have a balance

perspective to social, environmental and Economical dimensions.

Related Literature

According to the article ‘Filipino Literature’ by Zulueta (2018) on

Wattpad, Filipino teenagers is now interested in reading, because it provides

pleasure to them on their spare time. Zulueta (2018) used a very popular and

iconic book which became a flagship selection of Wattpad entitled She’s Dating

the Gangster as an example, the author described the book very predictable

and unrealistic, thus making the author’s opinion about the book’s content

rubbish. The story was considered by the author as rubbish because of the

following negative attributes such as being repetitive, shallow, and

exaggerated. 

Coming from Magnone (2015), a reader at his/her adolescent stage

usually carry the stories they love for a lifetime and it affects their attitude and
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perception in life. The reader and the content of the book that he/she is reading

will have a connection. The book does not change but the reader changes in

his/her background, maturation process, moods etc. This happens because we

deeply believe in stories especially when we are kids and it creates a big

impact in our everyday lives.

As reported by Alamo and Jaguit (2017), what most students do is

reading for the most part. Wattpad is the only place that offers a truly social and

entirely mobile reading experience with thousands of new stories added every

day. This online entertainment is getting stronger and most of its viewers are

teens commonly students.

In reference to Yap (2017), Wattpad is contributing to the recent ride of

Filipino readers and aspiring writers who do not have access to higher levels of

literature. It is arguable that these publications are degenerating the quality of

modern Philippine literature because of its use of unofficial languages, cliché

plotlines, and abuse of gender stereotypes.

As said by Suarez (2017), Wattpad ranked 8 in the United States of

America as a literary application and is one the most used by the millennials. Its

readers have an age group of 18 to 34 years old which largely coincides with

what of students we get at a university. Wattpad proves that humans need to

tell and read stories is as present as ever in the lives of young people. The said

application was created by engineers who were knowledgeable regarding the

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two behavioral characteristics of our current generation: they like reading and

they are constantly glued to their mobile phones.

Referring to The International Literature Showcase (2017), Wattpad

can be considered a distribution system, community, and a social platform. It

creates direct connections between storytellers and audiences around the

world. A variety of new features are being added from time to time through its

updates with the help of the feedback from the readers of particular previous

chapters and such. It has played a big role in the reform of literature in the

digital aspect which is said to give a lot of impact to its readers.

Based from Sarkar (2018), Wattpad can have its bad effects on its

readers. It can be very addictive and results on students missing out their study

hours. Most people that use Wattpad are teenagers but there are books that

are inappropriate for them to read. Underage people tend to get curious and be

triggered to read at their own risk.

In regard to Chapman (2018), Wattpad’s popularity has soared in the

Philippines where the first television adaptation of a story from a social network

is heading for prime time television. Wattpad remains focused on growth, not

revenue, companies can sponsor stories at the network or commission writers

craft tales tied to brands. It is the world’s largest community for reading and

writing. Of the more than nine billion minutes spent monthly reading at

Wattpad, about 85 percent is done using smartphones or tablet computers. Its

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readers share their feelings, thoughts and criticisms with one another. The

author shapes the fates of characters that are mainly shown in the story.

As stated by Contreras, Gonzaga, Trovela and Kagaoan (2016),

Wattpad has triggering factors that are the things that cause its readers to

establish a relationship with it. It has been filling their emotional and learning

satisfaction. Some of them were lured due to the insistent and aggressive

people around them. Their exposure to social media, boredom experience, and

the free cost and convenience that Wattpad provides also emerged as

triggering factors. There are others who engage themselves in reading its

stories but none reach the maximum level of hype.

Pertaining to Gaughran (2012), Wattpad might just be the biggest

revolution in reading. It is the world’s reading and writing community. It has 3

million stories total, with 250,000 every month. Wattpad’s users spend an

average of an hour or a day on the said app and need an incredible level of

engagement.