New business models as drivers of distributed

renewable energy systems

Ambrosio M. Liceaga Pablo Sanchis M. del Mar Rubio-Varas

Institute of Smart Cities Institute of Smart Cities, Institute for Advance Research in
Public, University of Navarre, Department of Electrical and Business and Economics,
31006 Pamplona, Spain Electronic Engineering Economics Department
ambrosiom.liceaga@unavarra.es Public University of Navarre, Public University of Navarre,
31006 Pamplona, Spain 31006 Pamplona, Spain
pablo.sanchis@unavarra.es mar.rubio@unavarra.es

Abstract—Distributed renewable energy systems have been are intended to show an ample and varied sample of the long list
proposed as the future of energy supply. However, many of projects currently active.
technological, governance, and societal obstacles must be
eliminated before this vision becomes mainstream. This paper To classify these examples, we have selected 6 different
analyzes different business models which could contribute to this parameters which have a significant impact on the decision of
change by attracting new consumers to distributed energy consumers. These parameters are cost and predictability of the
schemes. Consumers interest is organized along 6 parameters and tariffs, origin of the energy and its associated CO2 emissions,
state-of-art technologies are compared against them to detect independence of external sources, traceability of external energy
technological gaps which could delay or prevent a successful sources, type of intended client (domestic or business) and
implementation of these systems. The chosen method is a network size (local, regional or national).
comparative analysis of selected commercial offers in four
continents which implement new technologies and show a real-life This paper does not include a detailed cost analysis of
test of its advantages, shortcomings and potential future different options as it is a fast-changing variable and depends on
improvements local regulations and variable energy costs. Instead, it is centered
in a qualitative analysis of the characteristics of each project
Keywords— Business Models; Peer-to-peer networks; Virtual which, usually, represents a whole family of similar proposals
Power Plants; blockchain; Renewable energy systems; from different companies. Some of the included examples are
traditional local energy providers as Burlington Energy
I. INTRODUCTION Department, innovative peer-to-peer companies like LO3
Energy or mixed cooperative offers such as SonnenCommunity.
Advances in new technologies related with Virtual Power A classification between better and worse proposals has not been
Plants (VPP), Distributed Energy Systems (DES) and established since it would not respond to the actual behavior of
Renewable Energy Sources (RES) have situated these facilities the clients. Multiple business models can coexist in the same
in the verge of a massive implementation. However, this market serving customers with different needs.
implementation is not guaranteed as attractive products and
technologies have been rejected by consumers from time to time Regarding the technologies, both generation and
even when they were sound and economical [1]. The failure of management technologies are analyzed with special attention to
BETAMAX against VHS or Digital Radio (DAB) against FM examples using blockchain as a traceability tool. The bargain
radio are good examples. Some studies indicate that the power of different actors and the information protocols are also
influence of consumer choices is decisive in the early stages of studied because they represent a critical element to generate the
the technology’s market uptake and economic reasons are not necessary trust between prosumers and a significant element to
the only factors to consider [2]. At the same time, markets and improve the possibilities of a successful implementation
consumers are significant actors to orient technological
development as they finance private research at high II. CLASSIFICATION PARAMETERS
technological readiness levels (TRL 7-9). This is especially
important in the area of renewable energy sources. In order to classify the different commercial offers, we have
selected six parameters which have a significant impact in
Taking these facts into account, this paper analyses some consumer selection. These parameters are a personal selection
examples of start-ups and consolidated companies which have from the authors as a compilation of a variety of sources as
started to sell different products and services associated with publicity, academic papers, business analysis and polls.
these technologies. The selected examples are based in four
different continents (America, Asia, Oceania and Europe) and Next, we include a brief description of each of them:

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A. Cost and predictability of the tariffs generation and consumption of electrical energy. This
For a long time, the tariff has been a fundamental variable analysis is usually made after some period of time,
when choosing an energy supplier. This variable used to be months or even a year which could generate some
summarized in a single figure (cost / kWh). The development of mismatches that must be corrected after the fact.
new control and measurement systems has exponentially • The most advanced option is an almost real-time analysis
increased the possibilities. Differential tariffs were used in the of production and energy consumption in short intervals
past to flatten the load curve of an energy producer by changing of 15-30 minutes to match them. This information can be
consumer demand. The introduction of smart meters has provided as energy producers have detailed accounting
multiply the possibilities and offers a trove of information that records but, in addition to this, credibility and trust
could be used to adjust commercial offers and consumer questions must be solved in order to give confidence to
behavior [3]. For example, they allow the companies to offer consumers. In this scenario, the use of new technologies
real-time changes in tariffs or free utilization in some periods of like blockchain has been tested with limited results, to
time selected by the consumer. These bespoke tariffs can also be simplify the inherent complexity of the problem [6][7].
a source of frustration for some consumer which prefer a more
predictable cost or even a flat-rate for a predefined consumption. Nowadays, the second option, production-consumption
matching is the most usual.
Another critical point is the existence of net meeting
schemes which allow consumers to become prosumers and D. Independence of external sources
receive a compensation in money or credits for their excess of
electricity production. DES usually have some kind of connection with the general
grid. In an isolated microgrid, there is no larger grid to export or
B. Origin of the energy and its associated CO2 emissions import power and it requires other components such as energy
storage, grid-forming inverters, and a higher demand response
Electricity from nuclear power plants was, probably, the first capacity which can be extremely expensive. Although in some
source of energy which faced an important social opposition. locations like Alaska, consumers must accept this higher cost in
This opposition began in the 1960s and multiplied in the 1970s order to guarantee their electrical supply[8], most proposals
[4]. Since then, all energy sources have been analyzed to prefer to use the general grid as a back-up system to reduce their
determine its social, economic and ecological impact both in cost.
present and future. As a consequence, a variable percentage of
consumers have determined their energy habits based on these E. Type of intended client
studies. In recent times, the most significant element in this
analysis is the CO2 emissions and its effects in the planet Domestic and industrial users are the two extremes of users
climate. which have different requirements in price, supply stability and
schedules. Industrial users require contracts with greater
C. Traceability of external energy sources complexity than other users although there is a continuous
progression depending on the size and type of company. Other
In relation to the previous point, a different issue appears. If types of business consumers have also their own requirements.
some of the energy comes from the grid, it is extremely difficult
to know how it was generated. Even if some company sells F. Network size
“green energy” or energy from renewable sources, this energy is
mixed in the grid like the water from different effluents is mixed The size of the proposed network has a great impact on the
in a river. With the partial exceptions of Burlington Energy and selection of available power generators. Solar energy is
SOLShare, all the examples in this paper use the “general” grid achieving an important implantation in self-consumption
so it is impossible to determine the exact origin of the electricity systems for individual domestic consumers while other sources
consumed. However, the consumer asks for some kind of such as wind or hydroelectric require larger networks of
traceability of its energy and companies offer at least three consumers.
alternatives as a reasonable approximation:
III. SELECTED EXAMPLES
• The energy provider could offer to its clients a contracted
power equivalent to its total renewable generation As usually happens with new technologies, it is difficult to
capacity. This option does not take into account the create a complete and up-to-date list of start-up companies
uncertainties in the production of renewable energy, related with DES and VPP. There are some recent examples like
especially wind and solar energy.. It is also true that real the one shown in [9] but even in that case, one company
consumption of the clients is also lower than its (Yeloha) has closed in the last year. An alternative is to select
maximum allowed contracted power but this option is some companies as examples regardless its present or future
becoming less popular in recent times. economic success. In this paper, we have chosen this method and
have selected different examples to analyze their advantages and
• The client could calculate its exact energy consumption disadvantages. We have tried to create an exhaustive list of
and acquire the same number of kWh from renewable different business models. Therefore, the mentioned companies
sources. This option is popular if the client is a company are only used as representative examples but they are not the
with a significant ecological compromise like Deutsche only active ones.
Bahn [5] but it is less interesting for individual
consumers as it requires a detailed audit of both the

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A. Burlington Electric Department be connected to the grid by paying a monthly fee with no
Burlington is a city located in the state of Vermont in the additional taxes.
United States with approximately 42,000 inhabitants. Since The commercial objectives of Viesgo are clear. With this
1981 and due to the strong political impulse of its mayor, Bernie offer, it can increase its power capacity at no cost as the
Sanders, later senator and candidate for the presidency of the installation is paid by the prosumer. At the same time, Viesgo
USA, Burlington has worked to become a city with near zero can sell the excess of electricity with no production costs. This
carbon dioxide emissions. The main actor is the municipal is especially interesting for a small company with no idle
electric power company, Burlington Electrical Department, capacity. On the other hand, without net metering, there is no
which obtains all the energy for the city from several economic incentive for Spanish prosumers [15] although the fast
hydroelectric plants (50%), a thermal power plant that consumes reduction in the price of solar panels could change this analysis
nearby biomass (30%) and other small wind and solar in the future. At the same time, other criteria as a reduced
installations [10]. The city also promotes distributed generation ecologic footprint could be important for possible clients.
among its inhabitants with a total capacity of 35 MW [11].
Although the system is not totally independent from external D. Vandebron
sources, Burlington is a classic example of local and distributed Vandebron [16] is a provider which is oriented to domestic
generation, much more abundant in the past but which has been consumers and relatively long contracts (1-3 years). The
replaced in many countries by centralized systems with large company offers sustainable energy from local producers directly
thermal or nuclear power plants. Its natural resources allow to Dutch households. Each client knows where their energy
Burlington to control both the cost and origin of energy, comes from and to which producer they are paying for it. The
although price competitiveness is not a crucial element. vast majority of producers are families that own a small number
(1-10) of wind turbines [17], although some biogas production
B. Virtual Power Plant of South Australia plants are also included. By the end of 2016, Vandebron had 100
The Virtual Power Plant project of South Australia [12] is a energy suppliers and around 100,000 customers [18].
public-private partnership venture launched in 2018. The Vandebron charges the consumers with a fixed cost
concept is a network of solar photovoltaic and battery home subscription (12,5 €) as payments for energy consumed goes
systems, all working together to generate, store and inject energy directly to the small producers [19].
back into the grid. Tesla provides the components and the South
Australian Government finances the project with a small grant E. SonnenCommunity
and a loan which is expected to be repaid with the sale of the
generated energy. Domestic consumers can sign to join the Sonnen is a leading German manufacturer of home energy
program but the company will select the best locations for solar storage systems for private households and small businesses. In
panels and batteries. As a compensation, their electric bill will addition to this activity, they have created SonnenCommunity.
be reduced in a 30%. Around 50,000 homes are hoped to join This is a community of prosumers with photovoltaic panels and
the program in the next 4 years with a total production capacity Sonnen batteries. Usually, they consume the energy produced by
of 250 MW. its own panels with the batteries as a backup. As, in some cases,
the batteries could be complete depleted, the community can
share the energy among their members at a reduced price using
C. Viesgo Solar
conventional grid connections. Community members pay a
Viesgo is an old (110 years) and small utility in the Iberian monthly membership fee of 19.99 euros for some services as
market (Portugal and Spain). Its market share is small with an weather forecast updates, energy usage optimization to match
energy mix which combines fossils fuels and renewable energy. weather predictions or remote maintenance and monitoring. The
Taking advantage of the latest advances in simulation of solar sale of batteries and services are the main sources of income for
irradiation over urban areas [13], this company designs, builds the company as the cost of energy is free or paid between
and maintains the solar installations of its customers who pay different users of the community. Only in extreme
the full cost of construction and equipment. The consumers circumstances, Sonnen could acquire additional energy from
maintain their connection to the grid and receive, at cost price, external providers and sell it to the Community members. As of
additional energy when the electricity produced by the solar October 2017, statistics over a 12-month period were that it had
panels is not enough to cover their demand. This design is less seen 14,746,807 kWh of electricity fed into the community
expensive than others as there is no need for a storage device. (from home generation) and 8,240,783 kWh consumed with
Some analysis suggest that it is also the most efficient and around 10,000 members in Germany [20].
ecological solution when solar production has only a small share
of total production in a region or country [14], as happens in Sonnen uses nowadays a proprietary platform to control the
Spain. exchange of energy but has started a pilot program with TenneT,
a transmission system operator with 44 million clients in
This example has been selected because Spain represents a Germany and The Netherlands. Sonnen systems have been
growing trend towards the reduction of the payments received integrated into TenenT’s grid via a blockchain solution
by net metering. According to Spanish legislation, net metering developed by IBM [21]. TenneT’s goal is to use blockchain
is not available to domestic prosumers [15]. All the excess of technology to securely manage flows of electricity provided by
production is injected into the grid and the prosumer receives no distributed energy storage.
compensation. At the same time, installations up to 10 kW can

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F. SonnenFlat around 50 dollars and a brokerage fee are the source of income
SonnenFlat is not a different company but a commercial of the company which, nowadays, has around 1,500 clients [31].
alternative to Sonnen batteries owners in some markets like
Germany and Australia [22]. In this alternative, customers IV. COMPARISION OF ALTERNATIVES
receive a guaranteed annual energy allowance, generally A summary of all the examples is included in Table I. For
provided by SonnenCommunity, for a monthly fee and, in each alternative, the table lists its key technology, income source
return, part of the energy from their batteries can be used to help and main selling point. Our examples include two proposals
stabilize the electricity grid. Clients do not pay energy charges from public authorities, namely the city of Burlington and the
or fixed supply charges to the distribution company. This model state of South Australia, but their solutions are very different.
could be more attractive to rental house owners or people that The former created a public company as the only energy
want predictable energy costs. A pilot scheme limited to 5,000 provider and offers a regulated and predictable price for their
users was launched in Germany in January 2017 [23]. citizens. The latter offers seed capital for a private company with
This business model is only possible thanks to the a technology that could solve its main concern, grid stability.
cooperation of the distributions companies and the In addition, there are six proposals from private companies
characteristics of solar energy with no fuel costs and much with different key technologies and income sources. Time and
reduced operation and maintenance costs. consumers, will select a few winners, but the same key
technology could be used to support various business models, as
G. LO3 Energy - Exergy Table 1 explains. Regarding our six parameters, there are also
LO3 Energy is a US-based company which has several important differences. In Table II, there is a summary of our
energy projects including its own blockchain implementation results.
called Exergy [24]. The use of blockchain, smart contract and
energy auctions has been demonstrated as a proof-of-concept in V. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONES
the Washington State University campus [25]. The most
significant project with real users is The Brooklyn Microgrid, Disruptive technologies, like DES or VPP, bring to market
led by LO3. This microgrid is based on various distributed very different value propositions than had been available
generation systems, mostly residential photovoltaics, and a previously. Renewable technology is characterized by different
virtual community energy market platform which is based on a structures of initial and recurrent costs, which has allowed these
private blockchain using the Tendermint protocol[26]. companies to experiment with diverse income sources and sales
According to the latest information from December 2017, the arguments. Typically, each company has some features that a
company is still testing the system at a very small scale, around minority of customers value. In addition, they could, probably,
60 members, but has attracted financial and technical help from coexist in the same market as they are competing for different
the Siemens Energy Management Division to scale-up their consumers.
implementations [27].
TABLE I. TECHNICAL COMPARISION
The Brooklyn Microgrid has a significant difference with
other examples. An additional physical grid has been installed to Characteristics
supplement the existing distribution grid, which is close to its Main selling
Key Technology Income Source
maximum capacity [28]. This added grid improves greatly the point
resilience of the electricity system and can operate in island Burlington
Whatever with
100%
mode to guarantee the electric supply to critical consumers such sources locally Energy
electric renewable
available
as hospitals. Cheaper
Viesgo Solar Solar Panels Energy arbitrage
energy
H. SOLShare VPP- Australia
Batterries /
Energy
Grid
Solar Panels stability
ME SOLshare is a Bangladeshi Ltd. ICT-company founded Batteries +
in 2015 [29]. It has a unique bottom-up approach as a high Sonnen
Batteries Services +
Share solar
percentage of the Bangladeshi population has no access to an Community energy
additional energy
electricity grid. As an alternative, around 4 million houses have SonnenFlat Batteries
Batteries + Flat
Fixed cost
Solar Home Systems (SHS), which consist of photovoltaic rate
panels and batteries [30]. SOLshare offers a hardware Software Selected
Vandebron Fixed Fee
Platform sources
component, the SOLbox, which acts as a bi-directional direct Software
current (dc electricity meter that enables peer-to-peer electricity LO3 Energy Arbitragea Resilience
Platform
trading, remote monitoring and data analytics. This hardware SOLbox. DC
Hardware + Bottom-up
could be connected with a payment and user management SOLShare bi-directional
brokerage fee network
Android application integrated with local mobile money meter
providers. a.
Blocked by pending changes in legal status. Current income from cooperation projects

The use of dc connections limits the geographical scope of

each grid. These “nanogrids” usually cover only a small village,
or part of it, although its simplicity allows plug-and-play
connections between nodes. The sale of SOLBox systems for

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 TABLE II. SUMMARY OF CHARACTERISTICS

Characteristics
Company
Cost Origin of Energy Traceability Independence Type of client Network Size

Burlington electric Fixed by political decision Renewable Mostly Grid dependent Business / Domestic Local
Time limited/
VPP- Australia Discount on rate Solar / Gridb Partial Domestic Regional
batteries
Initial payment compensated by
Small business /
Viesgo Solar free self-produced electricity Solar / Grid Partial Grid dependent National
Domestic
plus discount on grid electricity
Renewable / Regional /
Vandebron Monthly Fee plus energy Mostly Grid dependent Domestic
Grid National
Time limited/
Sonnen Community Monthly Fee plus energy Solar / Grid Mostly Domestic National
batteries
Time limited/
SonnenFlat Monthly Fee Solar / Grid Mostly Domestic National
batteries
To be determined, pending legal Time limited/ local
LO3 Energy Solar / Grid Partial Business / Domestic Local
changes generation
Time limited/
SOLShare Initial payment Solar Total Domestic Local
batteries
b.
When some energy comes from the grid, it is not possible to determinate exactly its origin,

This situation has allowed the emergence of new business the typical generation facility and its efficiency for each energy
models that do not focus solely on selling energy. Among the source. For example, the model proposed by SOLShare would
models promoted by public administrations, the origin of energy not be viable using other energy sources than solar
and the stability of the electricity supply seem to be the main photovoltaics. On the other hand, dc grids still have not been
priorities. Among the variety of models offered by private tested in massive domestic grids Pending advances will come
companies, the different origin of their income stands out, which from the interaction between successful business models and the
suggests that several of them can be maintained in the future, technology that makes them possible and improves them as they
serving different customer segments. The various sale are used.
arguments used by the companies suggest the same point. These
models call into question commonly accepted criteria, for
example, the need to save energy to reduce the bill as flat rates
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