Chapter 12 Roadw

Chapter 12

Roadw
oadwaay Ma terials
Materials
and Material Sour
Material ces
Sources

oadwa
“Select quality roadway materials that are durable,

ay Ma
well-graded, and perform well on the road.
Maintain quality control.”

Materials
L
OW- VOLUME ROAD surfaces and structural available materials, ease of maintenance, and, ulti-

terials and Ma
sections are typically built from native mately, cost.
materials that must support light vehicles and
may have to support heavy commercial truck traffic. A range of options exists for improving the struc-
In addition, low-volume roads should have a surface tural capacity of the roadway in areas of soft soils or
that, when wet, will not rut and will provide adequate poor subgrades. These commonly include:
traction for vehicles. The surface of native soil roads
is also an exposed area that can produce significant • Adding material of higher strength and quality
amounts of sediment, especially if rutted (Photo over the soft soil, such as a layer of gravel or
12.1).

Material
Roadway Materials

terial Sour
It is usually desirable and,
in many cases, necessary to
add subgrade structural sup-
port or to improve the road-
bed native soil surface with
materials such as gravel,
coarse rocky soil, crushed Sources
aggregate, cobblestone, con-
crete block, or some type of
ces

bituminous seal coat or as-

phalt pavement, as shown in
Figure 12.1. Surfacing im-
proves the structural support
and reduces road surface ero-
sion. The selection of surfac-
ing type depends upon the Photo 12.1 A rutting road caused either by soft subgrade soil or inad-
traffic volume, local soils, equate road drainage (or both).
LOW-VOLUME ROADS BMPS : 115
 Figure 12.1 Commonly used low-volume road surfacing types and structural sections.
igure

a. Native Soil — Native (In-Place) Soil

— Crushed Surface Aggregate or Gravel

b. Aggregate — Native Soil

— Crushed Surface Aggregate or Gravel

c. Aggregate and Base — Aggregate Base

— Native Soil

— Cobblestones
d. Cobblestone
— Sand

— Native Soil

— Concrete Blocks
e. Concrete Block — Sand

— Native Soil

— Asphalt Pavement

— Aggregate Base
f. Asphalt Surfacing
— Aggregate Sub-Base (Optional)
— Native Soil

g. Typical Aggregate
Surfaced Road
Template Fill Slope Road Surface Ditch

LOW-VOLUME ROADS BMPS:116

 crushed aggregate;

• Improving the soft soil in

place (in-situ) by mixing it
with stabilization additives
such as lime, cement, as-
phalt, or chemicals;

• Bridging over the soft soil

with materials such as
geotextiles or wood pieces
(corduroy);

• Removing the soft or poor

soil and replacing it with a
high quality soil or rocky
Photo 12.2 Stabilize the roadway surface with crushed rock (or
material; other surfacing) on steep grades, in areas of soft soil, or in erosive
soils.
• Limiting the use of the road
during periods of wet need some type of wearing sur- 30 cm, depending on soil strength,
weather when clay soils are face. A stabilized road surface im- traffic, and climate. Specific ag-
soft; proves traction and offers erosion gregate thickness design proce-
protection as well as structural dures are found in the Selected
• Compacting the native soil support. References. Over very weak soils
to increase its density and (CBR less than 3), aggregate
strength; and Gravel, pit run rock, select thickness can be reduced with the
material, or crushed aggregate are use of geotextile or geogrid
• Keeping moisture out of the the most common improved sur- subgrade reinforcement. Also,
soil with effective roadway facing materials used on low-vol- geotextile layers are useful over
drainage or encapsulating ume roads (Photo 12.2). Aggre- soft soils to separate the aggre-
the soil to keep water out. gate is sometimes used only as gate from the soil, keep it uncon-
“fill” material in ruts. However, it taminated, and extend the useful
Various soil stabilization ma- is more desirable to place it as a life of the aggregate.
terials such as oils, lime, cements, full structural section, as shown
resins, lignin, chlorides, enzymes, in Figure 12.2. The roadway sur- Figure 12.3 presents some of
and chemicals may be used to im- facing aggregate must perform the physical properties and
prove the material properties of two basic functions. It must have tradeoffs of various soil-aggregate
the in-place soil. They may be very high enough quality and be thick mixtures, first with no fines (no
cost-effective in areas where ag- enough to provide structural sup- material passing the #200 sieve,
gregate or other materials are dif- port to the traffic and prevent rut- or .074 mm size), second with an
ficult to locate or are expensive. ting, and it must be well graded ideal percentage of fines (6-15%),
The best soil stabilization mate- and mixed with sufficient fines, and finally with excessive fines
rial to use depends on cost, soil preferably with some plasticity, to (over 15 to 30%). Figure 12.4
type, performance and local ex- prevent raveling and shows the typical gradation ranges
perience. Test sections are often washboarding. of aggregates used in road con-
needed to determine the most de- struction, how the materials, rang-
sirable and cost-effective product. Necessary aggregate thick- ing from coarse to fine, best per-
However, many soil stabilizers still ness typically ranges from 10 to form for a road, and the approxi-
LOW-VOLUME ROADS BMPS : 117
 Figure 12.2 Aggregate options to prevent rutting.
igure

POOR

a. Minimal aggregate
filled into ruts when
they develop.

MEDIOCRE– ADEQUATE
b. Ruts filled plus
addition of 10-15 cm-
thick layer of aggregate.

BEST

c. Full structural section

placed upon a reshaped
compacted subgrade.

If crushed rock or gravel is For surfacing aggregate use

not available, use coarse soil, crushed rock, gravel or 3 cm
wood chips or soil stabilizers. minus rock with fines.

Aggregate Surface or
10-30 cm Asphalt Surfacing
Aggregate Base Course or Clean
Fractured Rock 0-30 cm min.
(5-10 cm size or smaller)

LOW-VOLUME ROADS BMPS:118

Figur
iguree 12.3 Physical states of soil-aggregate mixtures. (Adapted from Yoder and
Witczak, 1975)

Aggregate with Aggregate with High

Aggregate with Sufficient Fines for Amount of Fines
no Fines Maximum Density (>30 percent)

• Grain-to-grain contact • Grain-to-grain contact

• Grain-to-grain contact with increased resistance destroyed, aggregate is
against deformation "floating" in soil
• Variable density
• Increased to maximum • Decreased density
• High Permeability density
• Low permeability
• Non-Frost Susceptible • Low permeability
• Frost susceptible
• High stability when • Frost susceptible
confined, low if uncon- • Low stability and low
fined • Relatively high stability strength
in confined or uncon-
• Not affected by water fined conditions • Greatly affected by water
• Difficult to compact • Not greatly affected by • Easy to compact
adverse water conditions
• Ravels easily • Dusts easily
• Moderately easy to
compact

• Good road performance

LOW-VOLUME ROADS BMPS : 119

 Figure 12.4 Gradation ranges of roadway surfacing materials and their performance characteristics.
igure
(Adapted from R. Charles, 1997 and the Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists)

PERCENT FINER BY WEIGHT (PERCENT PASSING - %)

PERCENT COARSER BY WEIGHT

NOTE: Gradation Ranges Shown Are Approximate.

The best roadbed surfacing materials have some plasticity and are well graded. They have
gradations parallel to the curves shown above, and are closest to the “Ideal” dashed curve in the
middle of the gradation ranges shown.

PRACTICES TO AVOID
• Construction operations or the roadway surface. • Using surfacing materials
heavy traffic during wet or that are fine grain soils,
rainy periods on roads with • Road surface stabilization soft rock that will degrade
clay rich or fine-grained soil using coarse rock larger than to fine sediment, or clean,
surfaces that form ruts. about 7.5 cm. Coarse rock is poorly graded coarse rock
difficult to drive upon or keep that will erode, ravel, or
• Allowing ruts and potholes to stabilized on the road surface, washboard.
form over 5 to 10 cm deep in and it damages tires.
LOW-VOLUME ROADS BMPS:120
mate limitations to the desirable ate plasticity, is desirable. In a high Ideally, aggregate surfacing
gradation ranges. Note that the rainfall “wet” environment, such material is (1) hard, durable, and
desirable percentage of fines in an as tropical, coastal mountain, or crushed or screened to a minus 5
aggregate can be sensitive to the jungle areas, a low percentage, cm size; (2) well graded to
climate or road environment. In such as 5 to 10% fines, is desir- achieve maximum density; (3)
semi arid to desert regions, a rela- able to prevent rutting and main- contains 5-15% clayey binder to
tively high percentage of fines, tain a stable road surface. prevent raveling; and (4) has a
such as 15 to 20%, with moder- Plasticity Index of 2 to 10. The

RECOMMENDED PRACTICES
• Stabilize the roadway ideally be determined crossings to minimize road
surface on roads that form through local experience surface erosion.
ruts or ravel excessively. or testing, such as using
the CBR (California
• Control excessive road
Common surface stabiliza-
Bearing Ratio) test. dust with water, oils,
tion techniques include
wood chips, or use of
using 10-15 cm of crushed
• Maintain a 3-5% road other dust palliatives.
aggregate; local pit run or
grid roll rocky material cross-slope with insloping, • Blend coarse aggregate
(Photo 12.4); cobblestone outsloping, or a crown to
and fine clay-rich soil
surfacing; wood chips or rapidly move water off the
(when available) to pro-
fine logging slash; or soils road surface (see Figure
duce a desirable composite
mixed and stabilized with 7.1).
roadway material that is
cement, asphalt, lime, coarse yet well-graded
lignin, chlorides, chemi-
• Grade or maintain the
roadway surface before with 5-15 % fines for
cals, or enzymes. binder (see Figures 12.3
significant potholes,
• For heavy traffic on soft washboarding, or ruts and 12.4).
subgrade soils, use a form (see Figure 4.5). • Use project construction
single, thick structural quality control, through
section consisting of at
• Compact the embankment
material, road surface visual observation and
least 20-30 cm of surfac- materials sampling and
ing aggregate. Alterna- material or aggregate
during construction and testing, to achieve speci-
tively, use a structural fied densities and quality,
section consisting of a 10- maintenance to achieve a
dense, smooth road sur- well-graded road materials
30 cm thick layer of base (Photo 12.6).
aggregate or coarse face and thus reduce the
fractured rock, capped amount of water that can • On higher standard, high
with a 10-15 cm thick soak into the road (Photo traffic volume roads
layer of surfacing aggre- 12.5). (collectors, principals, or
gate (Figure 12.2-BEST). • “Spot” stabilize local wet arterials) use appropriate,
Note that soft clay-rich areas and soft areas with cost effective surfacing
tropical soils and heavy 10-15 cm of coarse rocky materials such as oils,
tire loads may require a material. Add more rock cobblestone, paving blocks
thicker structural section. as needed (Figure 12.2). (Photo 12.7), bituminous
The structural depth surface treatments (chip
needed is a function of the • Stabilize the road surface seals) (Photo 12.8), and
traffic volume, loads and in sensitive areas near asphalt concrete pave-
soil type, and should streams and at drainage ments.
LOW-VOLUME ROADS BMPS : 121
Photo 12.3 A road in need of
maintenance and surfacing.
Add roadway surface stabiliza-
tion or do maintenance with
grading and shaping of the
surface to remove ruts and
potholes before significant road
damage occurs, to achieve
good road surface drainage,
and to define the roadbed.

Photo 12.4 A grid roller can be

used to produce a desirable
surfacing material when the
coarse rock is relatively soft.
Level and compact the roadway
surface aggregate to achieve a
dense, smooth, well-drained
riding surface.

Photo 12.5 Compaction of soil

and aggregate is typically the
least expensive way to improve
the strength and performance
of the material. Compaction is
useful and cost-effective both
for the stability of fill embank-
ments and for the road surface.

LOW-VOLUME ROADS BMPS:122

Photo 12.6 Here, a “nuclear
gauge” is being used to check
the density of aggregate. Use
project construction quality
control, gradation and density
testing, etc., as needed to
achieve the desirable materials
properties for the project.

Photo 12.7 Concrete blocks

(Adoquin) or cobblestone offer
an intermediate alternative to
aggregate and pavement road
surfacing. These materials are
labor intensive to construct and
maintain, but are very cost-
effective in many areas.

Photo 12.8 A chip seal road

surface being compacted. A
variety of surfacing materials
can be used, depending on
availability, cost, and perfor-
mance.

LOW-VOLUME ROADS BMPS : 123

surfacing applied to the road must The best compaction equip- and may have poor performance.
be maintainable in order to pre- ment for granular soils and aggre-
vent rutting and erosion. Signifi- gate is a vibratory roller. A tamp- Borrow pits and quarries can
cant deterioration of the road can ing, or sheepsfoot roller is most have major adverse impacts, in-
occur if ruts, raveling, effective on clay soils. A smooth cluding sediment from a large de-
washboarding, or surface erosion drum, steel wheel roller is ideal for nuded area, a change in land use,
are not controlled (Photo 12.3). compaction of the roadway sur- impacts on wildlife, safety prob-
Road damage can be greatly re- face. Vibratory plates or rammers, lems, and visual impacts. Thus
duced by restricting road use dur- such as “wackers”, are ideal in quarry site planning, location, and
ing wet conditions if road man- confined spaces. No one piece of development should usually be
agement allows for this option. equipment is ideal for all soils, but done in conjunction with Environ-
the best all-purpose equipment for mental Analysis to determine the
Compaction is usually the earthwork in most mixed soils is suitability of the site and con-
most cost-effective method to im- a pneumatic tire roller that pro- straints. A Pit Development Plan
prove the quality, including duces good compaction in a wide should be required for any quarry
strength and water resistance, of range of soil types, from aggre- or pit development to define and
subgrade soils and to improve the gates to cohesive silty soils. control the use of the site and the
performance of aggregate surfac- materials being extracted. A pit
ing. It increases the density and Materials Sources development plan typically defines
reduces the void spaces in the The use of local materials the location of the materials de-
material, making it less susceptible sources, such as borrow pits and posit, the working equipment,
to moisture. Thus, compaction is quarries, can produce major cost stockpile and extraction areas
useful to protect the investment savings for a project compared to (Photo 12.10), access roads,
in road aggregate, maximize its the cost of hauling materials from property boundaries, water
strength, minimize loss of fines, distant, often commercial, sources, and final shape of the pit
and prevent raveling. Road per- sources. However, the quarry or and back slopes. Materials source
formance has been excellent in borrow pit material quality must extraction can cause long-term
some semi-arid regions with the be adequate. Sources may be land use changes, so good site
use of blended local materials, nearby rock outcrops or granular analysis is needed.
very high compaction standards, deposits adjacent to the road or
and a waterproof membrane such within the roadway. Road widen- In-channel gravel deposits or
as a bituminous seal coat. ing or lowering road grade in frac- stream terrace deposits are often
tured, rocky areas may produce used as materials sources. Ideally,
Compaction can best be good construction materials in an deposits in or near streams or riv-
achieved with a minimum of ef- area already impacted by con- ers should not be used. Gravel ex-
fort if the soil or aggregate is well struction. Rock excavation and traction in active stream channels
graded and if it is moist. Ideally, production may be by hand (Photo can cause significant damage to
it should be close to the “optimum 12.9), or with the use of various the stream, both on-site and
moisture content” as determined types of equipment, such as downstream (or upstream) of the
by tests such as the “Proctor” screens and crushers. Relatively site. However, it may be reason-
Moisture-Density Tests. Expan- low-cost, on-site materials can re- able to remove some materials
sive soils should be compacted on sult in the application of consid- from the channel with adequate
the wet side of optimum. Hand erably more roadway surfacing study of the fluvial system and
tamping can be effective, but only and more slope protection with care in the operation. Some gravel
when done in thin lifts (2-8 cm) rock since the materials are readily bar or terrace deposits may be
and ideally at a moisture content available and inexpensive. How- appropriate for a materials source,
a few percent above optimum. ever, poor quality materials will particularly if taken from above
require more road maintenance the active river channel. Equip-

LOW-VOLUME ROADS BMPS:124

 Photo 12.9 Develop quarries
and borrow sites (materials
sources) close to the project
area whenever possible. Either
hand labor or equipment may be
appropriate, depending on the
site conditions and production
rates.

Photo 12.10 Quarries and

borrow sites (materials
sources) can provide an excel-
lent, relatively inexpensive
source of project materials. A
site may require simple excava-
tion, screening, or crushing to
produce the desired materials.
Control use of the area with a
Pit Development Plan.

ment should not work in the wa- sure, and future reuse must also ten requires extra processing or
ter. be addressed. A site may be used quality control. Low quality ma-
for many years but be closed be- terial may be produced at a cost
Site reclamation is typically tween projects, so interim recla- much lower than commercially
needed after materials extraction, mation may be needed. Roadside available material, but may not
and reclamation should be an in- borrow areas are commonly used perform well. Zones of good and
tegral part of site development as close, inexpensive sources of bad material may have to be sepa-
and included in the materials cost. material (Photo 12.11). These ar- rated. The use of local materials,
Reclamation work should be de- eas ideally should be located out however, can be very desirable
fined in a Pit Reclamation Plan. of sight of the road, and they too and cost-effective when available
Reclamation can include conserv- need reclamation work after use. and suitable.
ing and reapplying topsoil, reshap-
ing the pit, revegetation, drainage, The quality of the local mate-
erosion control, and safety mea- rial may be variable or marginal,
sures. Often, interim site use, clo- and the use of local material of-
LOW-VOLUME ROADS BMPS : 125
 RECOMMENDED PRACTICES
• Develop local borrow pits, the area to other long-term
quarries and pit-run productive uses. A Pit
material sources wherever Reclamation Plan should
practical in a project area. include information such
Ensure that Environmental as topsoil conservation
Analysis has been done for and reapplication, final
the establishment of new slopes and shaping, drain-
materials sources. age needs, safety mea-
sures, revegetation, and
• Use a Pit Development erosion control measures
Plan to define and control (Photo 12.12).
the use of local materials.
A Pit Development Plan • Reshape, revegetate and
should include the location control erosion in roadside
of the site, extent of borrow areas to minimize
development, excavation, their visual and environ-
stockpiling and working mental impacts (Figure
areas, shape of the pit, 12.5). Locate materials
volume of useable mate- sources either within the
rial, site limitations, a plan roadway or out of view of
view, cross-sections of the the road.
area, and so on. A plan
should also address interim • Maintain project quality
or temporary closures and control with materials
future operations. testing to guarantee the
production of suitable
• Develop a Pit Reclama- quality material from
tion Plan in conjunction quarry and borrow pit
with pit planning to return sources.

PRACTICES TO AVOID
• In-stream channel gravel and implementing reclama-
extraction operations and tion measures.
working with equipment in
the stream. • Using low quality, ques-
tionable, or unproven
• Developing materials materials without adequate
sources without planning investigation and testing.

LOW-VOLUME ROADS BMPS:126

Figure 12.5 Good and bad roadside quarry development practices. (Adapted from Visual Quality
igure
Best Management Practices for Forest Management in Minnesota, 1996)

Good Practices for Quarry Development

DO!
• Screen pit area from road
• Leave gentle slopes
• Reshape and smooth the area
• Leave pockets of vegetation
• Seed and mulch the area
• Use drainage control measures
• Replace Topsoil

Poor Practices for Quarry Development

DO NOT!
• Expose large, open area
• Leave area barren
• Leave steep or vertical slopes

Ideal Location and Sequence of Excavation

3
d
Roa

2
1
4
Locate borrow areas out of sight of the road.
(NOTE: Safe backslope excavation height depends on soil type.
Keep backslopes low, sloped or terraced for safety purposes.)
LOW-VOLUME ROADS BMPS : 127
 Photo 12.11 This roadside borrow area lacks drainage and erosion
control. Roadside quarry development can be inexpensive and useful, but
the areas should be hidden if possible, and the areas should be reclaimed
once the project is completed.

Photo 12.12 A reclaimed and revegetated borrow site. Reshape, drain,

plant vegetation, and rehabilitate borrow pits and quarries once the
usable materials are removed and use of the area is completed.

LOW-VOLUME ROADS BMPS:128