1

LUBRICATION
• Process by which the friction in a moving contact is
reduced may be described as LUBRICATION.
Dust, Sand or Gravel on surface of Road ??
(Technically Solid Lubricants)

Low but constant & controlled friction.

No attack or damage to the bearings surfaces.
Preferably adhere strongly on one bearing surface
so that it is not rapidly lost from bearing.

Is lubrication reduce wear ???

2

1
 3
Wu = 10 5 WB = 1010 WFF

• Dimensionless film parameter

Λ (“Specific film thickness)
hmin
Λ=
R 2
rms , a + Rrms
2
,b

• Boundary lub., Λ<1

• Mixed (Partial) lub., 1<Λ<3
• Hydrodynamic lub., Λ>5
• Elastohydrodynamic lub.,
3<Λ<5 4

2
 5

Industrial Lubricants
• Solid
– lamellar solids, solid organic compounds,
chemical coatings, soft metals.
• Semi-solid …….. Grease.
• Liquid…… mineral, animal/vegetable,
synthetic, water based fluids.
• Gases ….. Mostly air.

3
To understand functioning of lubricants
one needs to understand Dry FRICTION
Leonardo da vinci(1452-1519): F W;F ≠ A
“Friction made by same weight will be of equal
resistance at the beginning of movement, although contact
may be of different breadths or length”
“Friction produces the double the amount of effort if
weight be doubled”
G.Amontons, 1699: F Fn; F ≠ A

C.A.Coulomb 1781 (1736-1806):

1)Clearly distinguished between static & kinetic friction
2)Contact at discrete points.
3)Friction due to interlocking of rough surfaces

4)No adhesion
5)f ≠ func(v) 8

4
TOMLINSON’s Theory of Molecular attraction: 1929
• Relation between friction coefficient & elastic properties of material
involved.
f = 10700 * [θ I +θ II ]2 / 3 E is young modulus, psi
3 . E + 4 .G
θ = G is modulus in shear, psi
G (3 .* E + G )
• Clean Steel E=30 Mpsi, G=12 Mpsi
• Aluminum E=10 Mpsi, G=3.6 Mpsi
• Titanium E=15.5 Mpsi G=6.5 Mpsi

• Bowden & Tabor Model

– Two friction sources
• Generally load on bearing surface is carried on just a
few points. These are subjected to heavy unit
pressure, and so probably weld together. Adhesion
force developed at real area of contact.
• Deformation force needed to plough asperities of
harder surface through softer.
• Resulting friction force is sum of two contributing
terms

Adhesion = Attractive force across an interface

Interface = Contact boundary between two surfaces.
10

5
 ADHESION Theory

• Two surfaces are pressed together under load W.

• They deformed until area of contact (A) is sufficient to support
load W. A = W/H.
Basic assumption is plastic deformation. For
elastic deformation A = (W/H)n 2/3 < n<1

• To move the surface sideway, must overcome shear strength 11of

junctions with force F F=As

Shear stress of softer of contacting materials

s
W = Areal H F = Areal s µ=
H
• For most of materials H = 3σy & s = σy /1.7 Real surfaces, being
• Expected value of µ =.2 bumpy on a
• Friction of metals arises from strong adhesion or microscopic scale,
welding at the regions of real contact.
make contact at
• Similar & dissimilar materials?????
only asperities. This
Metals on it self On steel (0.13%C) means, load is
supported on a very
Gold 2 Silver 0.5 small total area
Silver 1 Copper 0.8 during contact, and
Copper 1 Indium 2.0 local contact stress
is high, equivalent
Chromium 0.4 Lead 1.2 to H (= 3 * σy)
Lead 1.5 12

6
 PLOUGHING Effect
Ploughing occurs when two bodies in
contact have different hardness. The
asperities on the harder surface may
penetrate into the softer surface and
produce grooves on it, if there is relative
motion.
• Assume n conical asperities of hard metal in contact with flat soft
metal, vertically project area of contact:
(
A = n 0.5 * πr 2 )
W = n(0.5 * πr ) H 2
F = (nrh) H
2
µ= cot θ
π 13

• Two basic reasons of ploughing are:

– Ploughing by surface asperities
– Ploughing by hard wear particles present in
contact zone
• For θ = 45° µ = 0.6366
• For θ = 60° µ = 0.3676
• For θ = 80° µ = 0.1123
• Slope of real surfaces are nearly always less
than 10° (i.e. θ> 80°), therefore µ < 0.1.
• Conclusion: Total µ , representing contribution
for both ploughing and adhesion terms, should not
exceed 0.3. For same material, µ = 0.2.
14

7
 Metals on it self On steel (0.13%C)
Gold 2
Indium 2 Indium 2.0
Silver 1 Silver 0.5
Tin 1
Copper 1 Copper 0.8
Chromium 0.4 Chromium 0.5
Lead 1.5 Lead 1.2
Cadmium 0.5 Cadmium 0.4

15

Junction Growth

F ∝ A ????
Constant 16

8
 Limiting Junction Growth
• Presence of weak interfacial films. Assume
shear stress, τi.
Average shear
Fmax = τ i Amax strength

Fmax τ i Amax
µ= =
W (σ y2 − 4τ i2 ) Amax
2

τi
µ=
2 (τ y2 − τ i2 )
Understanding this mechanism motivate to apply thin film of
low shear strength materials to the surfaces.

17

Shear strength of Industrial Lubricants

• Solid ---- Lower shear strength compared solid metals
– lamellar solids, solid organic compounds,
chemical coatings, soft metals.
• Semi-solid …Grease--- lower shear strength compared to
solid lubricants.

• Liquid…… mineral, animal/vegetable,

synthetic, water based fluids.
• Gases ….. Mostly air….. Minimum shear strength.
– Is air the best lubricant for rolling element bearings?

To answer this question one needs to understand adhesive

wear and squeeze film lubrication. 18

9
Adhesive (frictional)
wear

Mechanical interaction at real area of contact

19

Laws of Adhesive Wear

to hardness
of softer material
k1 NL
V=
3H 20

10
 Squeeze Film
• Viscous lubricant cannot be instantaneously
squeezed out from between two surfaces that are
approaching each other.
• When the load is relieved or becomes reversed, the
oil film often can recover its thickness in time for
the next application.
• Consider two circular flat plates of radius R
approaching each other. The clearance space is
filled with viscous liquid. At any instant of time
Fluid flow is given by:
2πrh 3 dp
q=−
12η dr 21

Assume liquid is squeezing out at velocity v, the flow rate

q = πr 2 v 2πrh 3 dp 3ηvr 2
− = πr 2v p=− + C1
12η dr h3

3ηv( R 2 − r 2 )
Using boundary p = 0 at r = R, p =
h3
R 3πηvR 4
Load carrying capacity W = p.2πr.dr W=
0 2h 3

For a constant load W, the instantaneous velocity of approach

can be computed for a given film thickness. An expression for
elapsed time can be obtained using v=dh/dt, such as

3πηR 4 dh
dt = −
2W h 3 22

11
 Solid Lubricants
• A solid lubricant is a material used as
powder or thin film to reduce friction
and wear.
– Layers of solid lubricants are quite
flexible and can slide over each other
repeatedly without damage (???).
– Adhesion between lamellae is highly
undesirable, adhesion of lamellae to the
worn surface is essential. Examples:
• Inorganic compounds graphite and
molybdenum disulfide (MoS2 )
• Polymer material, PTFE
(polytetrafluoroethylene)

23

Advantages Disadvantages
More effective than fluid Poor self-healing properties.
lubricants at high loads. A broken solid film tends to
High resistance to deterioration shorten the useful life of the
in storage.
lubricant.
Highly stable in extreme
temperature, pressure, Poor heat dissipation. This
radiation, and reactive condition is especially true
environments. with polymers due to their
Permit equipment to be lighter low thermal conductivities.
and simpler because Higher coefficient of
lubrication distribution
systems and seals are not
friction and wear than
required. hydrodynamically
Superior cleanliness lubricated bearings. 24

12
 • Molybdenum
Disulfide
– Strengths
• High Load Carrying
(> 100,000 psi)
• Low Friction
– Weaknesses
• Rapid Oxidation in
Air over 400°C (!!!)
• Moisture Detrimental
to performance

•Film thickness ~ 15 µm

25
1 bar = 14.5 psi

Graphite
Strengths
Moderate Loads
(~ 40,000 psi—275MPa)
Low Friction
High Temp stability
Weaknesses Perfect
Corrosion Structure
Vacuum Detrimental to
performance

Distorted
Structure

26

13
• High thermal stability (2000°C)
– Practical application is limited to a range of 500 to 600°C
due to oxidation.
• Low friction
– Low friction relies on adsorbed moisture or vapors to
achieve. At temperatures as low as 100°C, amount of water
vapor adsorbed may be significantly reduced to the point
that low friction cannot be maintained.

• Corrosion
– Graphite promotes electrolysis. Graphite has a very noble
potential of + 0.25V, which can lead to severe galvanic
corrosion of copper alloys and stainless steels in saline
waters.
27

Failure of MoS2 & Graphite

• Blistering (delamination)
• Blending graphite,
antimony-
thioantimonate and
molybdenum disulphide
provides superior
results.

28

14
 PTFE
Polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon– Trade name
by Du Pont)
Strengths
High chemical stability. Great chemical
inertness, because of carbon fluorine bonds
Very low surface energy. Low Friction (0.1).
High P, Low V
Nontoxic- useful in pharmaceutical and food
industries.
Weaknesses
Too soft, High wear rate
Poor creep resistance, Low load capacity
Poor thermal conductivity. High thermal
expansion. Temp limit (250°C)
Vacuum Detrimental to performance

29

Boundary Lubrication
English Biologist “W.B. Hardy”. 1922.
•“Very thin adsorbed layer, about 10 A° thick, were
sufficient to cause two glass surfaces to slide over each other”.

30

15
 Mechanisms of Boundary Lubrication
• Physical adsorption (Physisorption)
– All petroleum and synthetic lubricants have some potential
for forming boundary films under mild sliding conditions.
– Useful under light load and low temperature conditions.
• Chemical adsorption (Chemisorption):
– Bond energies are much greater than physisorption (>
40kJ/mol)

Mechanisms of boundary lubrication are usually

controlled by additives present in the oil/grease.

31

Physisorption
• Surface active molecules of oiliness additives are
attracted to surface by electrostatic (dipole) forces.
– Energy is lowered when the molecules adsorb on the surface.
– Solvent tends to dissolve solute again, a process encouraged
by dilute concentrations and hindered by high concentration
of polar molecules. In other words an equilibrium exists
between the solute and number of empty sites on the one
hand and number of covered sites on the other.
solute + empty _ site ⇔ adsorbed _ sites
a3 θ
a1 + a2 ⇔ a3 → equilibrium constant k = =
a1a2 C (1 − θ )
s free energy ∆G = ∆H − T∆S = − RT log K
Total Gibb'

Physisorption or “physical adsorption’ (physical bonding by van der

Waals force) – Molecules of adsorbate may attach or detach from a
surface without any irreversible changes to the surface or the adsorbate.32

16
 Mineral oils are
nonpolar &
chemically inert.
There is a
thermodynamic
reversibility, i.e. a
small change in
temp or
concentration
produces an
Strong polarity very equivalent change
effective lubricant in the coverage, θ

straight chain molecules

with one polar end are
highly desirable 33

Minimum chain length for effective

lubrication is n = 9. An increase in ' n'from
9 to 18 raises the friction transition
temperature.

34

17
 Fatty acid
Ester Compound of organic acid and alcohol
Both the ester and fatty acids content polar end that is
attached to metallic surface and provides protection against
direct contact.
Table: Coefficient of friction influenced by %
of polar lubricant on steel surfaces.
Adsorption
Lubricant Friction lubrication is not
Coefficient effective unless the
Pure mineral oil 0.360 adsorbate film is in
2% oleic acid in mineral oil 0.249 near-perfect
condition, i.e. has
10% oleic acid in mineral oil 0.198
very few holes or
50% oleic acid in mineral oil 0.198 vacant sites in it.
Pure oleic acid 0.195 35

Chemisorption
• Physically absorbed boundary additive decompose or melt
at high temperature
• Is a form of corrosion
• To form a chemically bound layer three things are needed:
– Surfactant must be chemically active
– Metal surface also must be reactive
– Surface must be free enough of physisorbed material for the
chemical reaction to take place. Temperature Gap between
physical and chemical is known as “Temperature Distress Gap”
• During each contact the chemical layer is rubbed off the
surface and has to be reformed before next contact come
round. Surface is therefore slowly worn away so the
additive must be chosen with care.
• Must be active enough to protect the surface, but not so active that it
corrodes violently at high temp.

36

18
Extreme Pressure Boundary Lubrication

– EP additives react with sliding surfaces under severe

conditions in contact zone to give compound with low
shear strength, thus forming a lub. Film at precisely
location where it is needed.

37

38

19
 Grease lubrication

In layman’s language Grease is: A black or yellow sticky mass

used in the bearings for lubrication purpose.

In our language grease is: A semi-solid fluid product, which is

dispersion of a thickening agent in a liquid lubricant. Other
ingredients imparting special properties may be included.

Greases are a type of shear-thinning or pseudo-plastic fluid,

which means that the viscosity of the fluid is reduced under
shear. This drop in shear force means that grease is
considered a plastic fluid, and the reduction of shear force
with time makes it thixotropic.

39

Advantages /Dis-advantages of Grease

!
"
# $
"
% "
" &
" 40

20
 Grease Lubricant
Consist of
– Base oils (75 to 95%): Mineral oils,
Silicones, Diesters

.
– Additives (0 to 5%): Antioxidants, EP
additives, Corrosion inhibitors, Water
repellants
– Minute thickener fibers (5 to 20%):
Added to a base oil in order to thicken it to
a grease structure. Semi solid lubricant

EP Greases…….Graphite greases……..Moly greases 41

• Thickener-
– Produce a semi-rigid structure… (

– Soap: Sodium (Soda), Calcium (Lime), Lithium,

etc.
• Soaps = Fatty acid or ester (of either animal or vegetable
origin) + alkali earth metal , reacted with the application
of heat, pressure or agitation through a process known
as saponification.
• In order to take on enhanced performance
characteristics, a complex agent is added to the soap
thickener to convert it to a soap salt complex thickener.
The greases are then referred to as "complexes"

– Non-soap: Silica gel, Clay, Alumina, Polyurea,

PTFE, etc.

42

21
• Thickeners and base oils are loosely held together through
molecular bonding.
• Lesser thickener, more bleeding (oil separates or bleeds from
the grease).
• Synthetic greases exhibit excellent resistance to oil separation.
• Complex soaps are suitable for a greater temperature range.

43

44

22
 Grease shows a change from a semi-solid
to a liquid state.

Thickener Drop Point

Sodium Soap $ & '!$ ( " #
Calcium Soap & !$ "#
Lithium Soap $% ! "#
PTFE ! "#

Calcium grease is cheaper, while lithium grease

will tolerate a wider range of temperature.

45

• Lubrication
mechanism ??

Only a very small amount

of grease is needed for
lubrication.

For most of rolling

element Life long
lubrication is possible if
speed < 1.5 * 106
mm/min. 46

23
 τ = τ p + ηb du ( dh
)
n

Yield strength n < 1 shear

thinning

ηeff
(
τ p + ηb du dh)n

=
(du dh)

( n
)
τ = τ p + α du dh + ηb du dh( )
47

!
• Corrosion inhibitors: Elevated oil acidity causes
corrosion of non-ferrous metals (copper,
aluminum, tin, cadmium, etc. These additives
protect surfaces against any corrosive agents
(sulphur, phosphorus, chlorine, and oxidation
products) present in oil. Ex. Benzotriazole. Used
for used in bearings, seals).
• Oxidation Inhibitors
– Zinc dialkyldithiophosphate, natural sulphur, &
nitrogen scavenge free radical produced during
oxidation and delay onset of severe oil
oxidation. Power loss due to increased viscous
drag & difficulties in pumping.
– Replace oil if TAN > 3. 48

24
 Grease Characteristics

49

1. Grease surface
(maintained at 25°C) is
smoothed out to make it
uniform.
2. Cone release
mechanism is activated
and cone is allowed to
sink for 5 seconds.
! "
# %Grease Classification
$ "# 50

25
 Lubricant Selection for Rolling Bearings
NLGI grades no. 1, 2, 3, or 4 are recommended
for lubrication.
NLGI 2 would normally be first choice
For larger bearing size, harder grease is used.
For better sealing, Grease no. 3 or 4 are
recommended.
Shock load or vibration tends to cause grease to
slump into moving components. A Harder grease
reduces problem.
Centralized grease supply uses a softer grade.
The base oil (80-90% constituent of grease) affects the working
temperature range, load bearing and lubricating properties of the grease.
51

Rolling Element Bearings-

Load Calculation
• Load rating
C r > P x fn x fL x fd
Where Cr = radial dynamic rating
P = calculated effective radial load
fn = speed (rpm) factor
fl = Life (hours) factor
fd = dynamic or service factor

52

26
 53

Example 1: Radial load = 4448 N, Speed = 1000 rpm

Desired life= 30 000 hours, No Shock loading

Cr > P x fn x fL x fd
fd = 1.0; P = 4 448 N

fn= 2.78; fl= 3.42

=> Cr > 42, 290 N

54

27
Example 2: Radial load = 2 224 N, Speed = 1500 rpm
Desired life= 8 hours/day, 5 day/weeks for 5 years, Light Shock
loading. For shaft dia of 25 mm.
Cr > P x fn x fL x fd. fd = 1.5; P = 2 224 N

fn= 3.125; fl= 2.46+(2.6-2.46)*400/2000=2.488

=> Cr > 25, 937 N

55

56

28
 Example 2: Radial load = 2 224 N, Speed = 1500 rpm
Desired life= 8 hours/day, 5 day/weeks for 5 years, Light Shock
loading. For shaft dia of 25 mm.
C10 > 2224*1.5*(10400*1500*60/106)1/a
C10 > 32, 633 N for BALL BEARINGS
C10 > 25, 978 N for ROLLER BEARINGS

57

Region I ???
Region II: Higher
base oil viscosity, EP
additives, and possibly
solid lubricant additives.

Region III : greases

with low viscosity ester
oil as base oil

Ka = 1 for Deep groove, Angular contact, four point, self aligning, thrust & Cylindrical
roller bearings
= 2 for Spherical, tapered, & needle roller bearings
= 3 Axially loaded & full complemented cylindrical roller bearings 58

29
 Selection of base oil

For rolling bearing

lubrication, oils having a
high viscosity index of at
least 85 are recommended
Bearing life may be
extended by selecting an oil
whose viscosity ν at the
operating temperature is
somewhat higher than ν1.
Practical limit ???
If the viscosity ratio κ =
ν/ν1 is less than 1 an oil
containing EP additives is
recommended
59

Viscosity
– Physical property-
resistance to flow.
– Due to internal friction
and molecular
phenomena .
Friction = Shear Stress * Area
– Dynamic Viscosity
o 1 cP=10-3 Pa.s F = (Viscosity* V/h)*Area
V = 2πRN ; A = 2πRL
– Kinematic Viscosity η * 2πRN * 2πRL
Friction force, F =
o 1 cSt = 1 mm2/s C
F η * 2πRN * 2πRL / C
Coefficient of friction, µ = =
W 2 RLP
2 ηN R
Petroff equation → µ = 2π
P C

60

30
• VI relates viscosity change at 37.8 0c and 98.90c.
• Pennsylvanian oil~VI=100
• gulf coast oil ~ VI=0
L-U
VI = *100
L-H

61

*+, ! ! )
- $ % &'($
* , .
+ . *+, " " #
$ (* )
** '
' ) $) ' &
% & $ %)*
$ ( $$
$' $ ' $& '
$( * )
* * '
)& )$ ) ' &
&* &$ %) *
$ ( $$
Note: 1 Centistoke = 10-6 m2/s 62

31
 Table variation of viscosity with
temp for commonly used engine oil
SAE ISO Viscosity In cSt VI
grade grade 400c 1000c 1300c
10W 32 32.6 5.57 3.20 107
20W 68 62.3 8.81 5.01 118
SAE 30 100 100 11.9 6.25 110
SAE 40 150 140 14.7 8.0 102
5W-20 46 138 6.92 4.17 140
10W-30 68 66.4 10.2 5.7 135
10W-40 100 77.1 14.4 8.4 193
10W-50 ------ 117 20.5 10.53 194 63

Most oils on shelf today are MULTIGRADE oils, such as

10W30 or 20W50. These oils are made by adding polymers
in mineral oils to enhance viscosity indices (about 150). At
cold temperatures the polymers are coiled up and allow the
oil to flow as their low numbers indicate. As the oil warms
up the polymers begin to unwind into larger dia coils that
prevent the oil from thinning as much as it normally would.
• One grade at 0°F and higher grade at 210°F
• 10W30 2100 cP at 0°F & SAE30 at 210°F
• Lower the first number, better performance in
extremely cold conditions
• Higher the second number better the oil will protect at
higher temperatures.
• 20W50 may be good in Mumbai, but 0W30 will be
preferred in Kashmir 64

32
 Viscosity Index Improvers
• Purpose: Reduce the dependence of the viscosity
on temperature. Make temp-viscosity curve flat.
• Mechanism: Polymer molecules are extremely
coiled in poor solvent (cold oil) and assume a
greater vol in a good solvent (warm oil) by
uncoiling. This makes the oil relatively thick.
• Chemical Compounds: Polyisobutylenes,
Polyacrylates, Ethylene propylene, etc.

65

Example
d = 340 mm
D = 420 mm
dm = 0.5 (d + D),
dm = 380 mm
speed n = 500 r/min

Minimum kinematic
viscosity ν1 at the operating
temperature = 13 mm2/s

66

33
 At the reference temperature of 40
ºC of at least 39 mm2/s will be
required.

67

Dynamic viscosity, 1cP = 1mPa.s

Kinematic viscosity, 1cS = cP/0.85 (g/cm3)

Variation with Temperature

• More viscous oil is more susceptible to change in viscosity with temp.
• Walther’s equation: Form the basis of ASTM viscosity temperature
chart
log log(ν + 0.6) = constant − c log T
• Vogel’s equation: Most accurate; very useful in engineering
calculations

η = keb /(t +θ ) k gives inherent viscosity.

b has units of temp. b increases with increase in viscosity.
68

34
 SAE ISO Viscosity In cSt VI
grade grade 400c 1000c 1300c
10W 32 32.6 5.57 3.20 107
20W 68 62.3 8.81 5.01 118
SAE 30 100 100 11.9 6.25 110
SAE 40 150 140 14.7 8.0 102
5W-20 46 138 6.92 4.17 140
10W-30 68 66.4 10.2 5.7 135
10W-40 100 77.1 14.4 8.4 193
10W-50 ------ 117 20.5 10.53 194

69

If excessive lubricant cannot escape from bearing, churning causes

temp. to rise to such an extent that the grease looses its lubricity and
bearing fails from defective lubrication.

d=25 mm, D = 52mm,

B = 17mm
Gk=0.0265 g/h to
0.046 g/h 70

35