MIL-HDBK-793(AR)

CHAPTER 3

APPLICATION OF NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING

Quality control of advanced composite structures includes all stages from design to in-service inspection.
A concept of quality control is presented and the methods and equipment available for the control of
incoming materials during fabrication testing of prepregs, sandwich construction and adhesive bonding,
end-item inspection, and final and in-sevice testing are discussed. New developments in nondestructive
testing techniques for the various stages are also discussed.

3-1 INTRODUCTION defects that would affect the integrity of the part are
present. The destructive test and failure analysis en-
Quality control of advanced composite items must
gineers work with the team to determine where the
start early during the design phase. Many organizations
weak points in the structure are and where redesign is
form teams that consist of design engineers, engineers
required.
familiar with materials and production processes, and
A nondestructive testing policy should be established
specialists in nondestructive testing (NDT) and destruc-
for all advanced composite structures that are to be
tive testing and failure analysis. This concept is shown
built. The intensity of the policy should be determined
graphically in Fig. 3-1. Only through close teamwork
by the criticality of the item being built.
and exchange of data among disciplines can structural
Collins (Ref. 1) outlines an NDT policy for the
reliability be assured. The design engineers design the
inspection of composite structures. The concept of the
item to meet the user criteria. The materials and pro-
policy is
duction process engineers are required to develop the
1. The purpose of NDT shall be to detect voids,
specific data required to select the most appropriate
delaminations, or major porosity.
materials and the best processes to do the job. The
2. Strict process controls supported by select in-
nondestructive test engineer sets up the NDT require-
process inspection are required.
ments to insure that the structural integrity that was
3. The NDT engineering team shall coordinate
designed into the part is actually there and that no
its activities for specific development programs.
4. All structures shall be subjected to NDT.
5. Calibration standards with designed-in defects
shall be provided for the nondestructive testing.
6. Defect allowable shall be determined.
7. The NDT engineer shall specify the design
and fabrication of the defect standards.
8. Only proven NDT methods shall be used.
9. Written NDT procedures shall be required for
all production programs.
Vary (Ref. 2) graphically depicts the interplay of the
principal activities that are related to structural reliabil-
ity. He further points out that nondestructive testing is
an important link in the design-production-inspection
system. As pointed out by both Collins and Vary,
nondestructive and destructive testing both play im-
portant roles in the overall plan for a well-designed,
quality-controlled, reliable product.
Raw materials must be tested and standards estab-
lished, cure cycles must be established and monitored,
and resin and curing agent purity and specific require-
ments must be established. Refs. 3 through 6 describe
Figure 3-1. Design Team Concept for testing of resin systems and prepregs for use in rein-
Structure Reliability forced composite production. Kausen (Ref. 7) describes

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the concept of fiber areal weight as a practical manu- uneven mold temperatures or by orientation caused by
facturing and quality control for composite laminates. long flow paths in a mold
The fiber areal weight is a function of the ply thickness, 15. Washout—the abnormal fiber displacement
the resin weight fraction, and the laminate density. Ref. during molding caused by excessive resin flow.
8 describes overage indicators for prepreg materials, The design engineer and the NDT engineer must
and Ref. 9 discusses the need for quality assurance determine the importance of the defect based upon the
material testing for glass-fiber-reinforced thermoplastic frequency of occurrence, size and location, and effect
molding. The various test methods described in the on the properties of the laminate or structure. Only
papers in Ref. 8 are of value to determine and describe those defects that will adversely affect the performance
the properties of the resins, prepregs, and composite should be considered nonacceptable. Therefore. the ac-
components, but they are not nondestructive. ceptance criteria will depend upon an analysis of the
Nondestructive test methods are generally used to defects. It must be remembered that to insist upon the
detect defects in the structure. The defects must be removal of all defects will result in excessive cost
defined and defect allowable must be evaluated and without necessarily increasing reliability, durability, or
established. The major defects that might occur in a maintainability.
fiber-reinforced composite structure are
1. Contamination—the inclusion of foreign mat- 3-2 INCOMING MATERIALS
ter The incoming materials generally can be itemized to
2. Damaged fibers-broken filaments, knots, or include reinforcements, matrix materials, prepreg
splicings in the roving or fabric yarns materials, adhesives, core materials, laminates or mold-
3. Delamination—the separation of the plies ings, and subassemblies. The basic raw materials such
within a laminate as reinforcements, matrix materials, and prepregs should
4. Density variations—variations associated with be purchased in compliance with military or other
resin fraction variations, porosity, and voids specifications. There is an increasing tendency to move
5. Fiber misalignment—the disorientation of the toward the consensus-type specifications, which are pre-
fabric or filaments, the deviation from a predetermined pared by organizations such as the American Society
lay-up or filament-winding pattern, or washout of the for Testing and Materials (ASTM) and the Society of
fiber caused by excessive resin flow Automotive Engineers (SAE). SAE has prepared a
6. Flow lines—local waviness of the surface due group of specifications designated as Aerospace
to fiber orientation or low mold temperature Materials Specifications (AMS). These consensus speci-
7. Moisture pickup—excess moisture that is not fications cover a wide range of subjects and often
normal within the resin or reinforcement replace the military specifications if both are considered
8. Porosity—accumulation of open or closed macro- to be equal. A list of specifications and standards
scopic or microscopic bubbles covering nondestructive testing is given in Appendix A.
9. Resin fraction variations—resin-rich and resin- A list of some material specifications covering incom-
starved areas over the surface of the laminate brought ing raw materials is given in Table 3-1.
about by variations in the prepreg resin content, or by Components such as laminates, moldings, and sub-
improper resin bleed out during vacuum-bag curing, or assemblies may be inspected by simple procedures con-
by variation due to flow conditions in short-fiber mold- sisting of dimensional and tolerance measurements,
ing weight and density determinations, cure determinations
10. Sink marks—caused by nonuniform shrink- by hardness measurements, visual examination for de-
age during molding due to uneven temperature in the fects, and tapping for void determinations. If the in-
mold halves or to insufficient pressure tegrity of the subassembly warrants a more complete
11 Thickness variations—normally associated inspection, this can be accomplished by using the
with variations in the resin content of the laminate and various nondestructive testing techniques discussed in
often inherent in open-mold processing Chapter 2. However, nondestructive testing will, in
12. Unbends or disbonds (bond failures)—the general, add to the component cost and should be used
separation of an adhesive bond or of the facing from only when warranted on critical applications. Some of
the core in a sandwich structure the defects that can be detected by nondestructive test-
13. Voids—the entrapment of air or other ing are given in Table 3-2.
volatiles that may be present in the resin system. These The adhesives used to assemble composite structures
may be either macroscopic or microscopic and may be should be checked to determine that they are within the
either localized or distributed through the laminate. required shelf life for that particular adhesive. Adhesives
14. Warpage—the uneven shrinkage caused by stored for any period of time should be used on a first- . -

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TABLE 3-1 in, first-out cycle. Adhesives that have exceeded the
recommended storage life may, in some cases, be recerti-
CONSENSUS SPECIFICATIONS FOR
fied by the quality control laboratory, but this recerti-
INCOMING MATERIALS
fication requires strict controls. These controls might
include strength tests, gel and cure rate determinations,
Specification and flow characterization. Recertified adhesives must
No. Topic
be used within a short time after recertification.
AMS 3616A Resin, Polyimide, Laminating, and
Molding It is very important that frozen adhesives be allowed
AMS 3671 Plastic Molding Compound, Novolac to stabilize at room temperature in the sealed wrappings
Epoxy, Short-Glass-Fiber Reinforced to prevent moisture condensing on the surface of the
AMS 3687A Adhesive, Film, for Sandwich Panels adhesive. Rolls of adhesive generally should be removed
AMS 3823C Fabric, Glass Cloth, Style 7781 from the cold storage and kept in their sealed wrappings
AMS 3828A Glass Roving, Epoxy-Resin- at least 12 h prior to use. If samples have been cut and
Preimpregnated replaced in cold storage, shorter stabilization times may
AMS 3832A Glass Roving, Type-S Glass, Epoxy- be used. The quality control laboratory should establish
Impregnated minimum stabilization times for these samples depend-
AMS 3894C/ Graphite Fiber, Tape and Sheet, Epoxy- ing upon the size and volume of the sample package.
1-9 Impregnated
Core materials. especially the nonmetallic cores, such
AMS 3899 Graphite Fiber, Tape and Sheet,
Polysulfone-lmpregnated as the phenolic-impregnated kraft and Nomex paper
AMS 3906/ Glass, Nonwoven Fiber, Tape and honeycombs and the various polymeric foams, should
1-7 Sheet, Epoxy-Resin-Impregnated be checked for moisture content and dried prior to use
ASTM E 865 Adhesive, Structural Film if their moisture contents are above the standards es-
ASTM E 990 Adhesive, Core Splice tablished in the processing specification.
Most new developments in the testing of incoming
TABLE 3-2 raw materials are in the area of chemical quality assur-
ance testing, processability testing, and cure monitoring.
DEFECTS DETECTED BY VARIOUS The data obtained in these areas will be fed into
NDT METHODS computer-aided design and manufacturing programs,
along with nondestructive inspection and in-service his-
tory data, to predict structural safety margins and
composite durability and reliability.

3-3 DURING FABRICATION

NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING
3-3.1 SOLID LAMINATES
Once the raw materials have been certified as per-
Unbond forming to the standards set forth, the next step is to
X X X X require control and monitoring of the lay-up and curing
Delamination X1 X X X X
Undercure of the composite. The control of the lay-up is generally
X X
Fiber Misalignment X X X done by use of well-trained and certified personnel. The
Damaged Filaments X X X monitoring of the cure may use various methods, which
Resin Variation X will be discussed in par. 3-3.1.2.
Thickness Variation X X X
Density Variation X X X 3-3.1.1 Control of Prepregs
Voids X X X X X In applications where the control of the thickness or
Porosity X X X X X
Fracture weight per unit area is very critical and continuous
X X X X X
Contamination X X X control is required, gamma backscattering gages can be
Moisture X X used for on-line inspection. Fig. 3-2 shows a gamma
backscatter thickness gage.
1
lf oriented parallel to X-ray beam The theory of operation of the gamma backscatter
technique is based upon the Compton Photon Back-
scatter Principle. The system uses a small, radioactive
isotope in the sensing probe, which emits low-energy
gamma rays that are collimated and beamed at the

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material to be measured. These rays are scattered back

toward the detector in direct proportion to the mass of
the material in front of the probe. A scintillation crystal
or photomultiplier detector is used to convert the back-
scattered protons to an electrical signal, which, in turn,
can be related to the weight per unit area or to thickness
provided that the density is constant. Compared to
other radiation-gaging methods, the gamma backscatter
principle is insensitive to changes in color, opacity, and
composition. This eliminates the need for complex cali-
bration techniques. The gamma backscattering gages
can be set up in various configurations, as shown in
Fig. 3-3. In a dual scanning system, traversing frames
and probes are mounted before and after the coater so
that a complete profile of the sheet is generated and
displayed on the recorder chart. The scanners are syn-
chronized to make a same-spot measurement. The dual Before
scanning system may consist of dual traversing frames, (Courtesy of NDC Systems)
two gages, and complete color cathode-ray tube (CRT)
display of product profiles and parameters, as shown in Figure 3-3. Various Configuration Set-Ups of
Fig. 3-4. Gamma Backscatter Gages
for some time. Further work on the application of this
3-3.1.2 Cure Monitoring
theory has progressed so that today dielectric cure
Standard practices for monitoring the cure of a resin monitoring is used not only in conjunction with the
system involve control of the time, temperature, and laboratory-controlled tests but also with large pro-
pressure during cure. Autoclaves and presses are duction equipment. Refs. 11 through 15 discuss
equipped with temperature- and pressure-recording de- dielectric-cure monitoring. The principle of dielectric
vices and can be automatically controlled for time. measurement is quite simple. The resin matrix is the
However, these are often not enough. Other systems dielectric medium and a small condenser can be built
have been developed to help monitor the cure of the into the fabrication part. In composite fabrication, thin
organic resins. These include dielectric analysis and ion metal foils or screening can be placed directly in the
graphing. Yolof (Ref. 10) points out that the theory part; these metal parts act as the plates of the condenser.
covering the interrelationship between dielectric and The mold, press platen, or caul sheet can also be used
mechanical relaxation properties, adhesion wetting, as one of the condenser plates. Most organic resins are
solubility, and molecular architecture has been known polar because they contain dipoles, which will orient in

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 MIL-HDBK-793(AR)
monitoring in large autoclave operations. The dielectric
system can be and has been used to determine at what
stage of a cure the parts are in the event of a vacuum-
bag failure. If the temperature-time-pressure window
has not been reached at the time of bag failure, the
parts often can be saved and rebagged; this decreases
wasted time.
Ion graphing as an in-process, cure-monitoring pro-
cedure involves continuous measuring of DC resistance
of the resin during cure. The resistance measurement
changes with the fluidity of the resin. As the system
goes from a viscous solid to a fluid to the cured solid,
the resistance through the system drops and then in-
creases again. In practice, aluminum foil electrodes are
placed such that one is in contact with the laminate and
the other is within the bleeder ply on the other side. In
this way the cure through the thickness of the laminate
is observed. The results of an ion-graphing analysis
generally are plotted as voltage versus time. This system
can also be used to monitor the recure of an aborted
autoclave run. More details on ion graphing can be
found in Refs. 16 and 17.

(Courtesy NDC Systems)

3-3.2 SANDWICH CONSTRUCTION
Figure 3-4. Dual Traversing Frames With
As mentioned in par. 1-3.2.2, sandwich construction
Color CRT Display for Gamma Backscatter
consists of two or more laminates of dissimilar materials
Gages bonded together with an adhesive. Therefore, sandwich
construction will be treated as an adhesive-bonded struc-
an electric field. These dipoles will change position in
ture and, as such, will be discussed in par. 3-3.3. The
an alternating field. However, the movement of the
testing of the structure itself will be covered in par. 3-4.
dipoles is restricted by the physical state of the material.
To build a quality sandwich structure, it is necessary
If the resin matrix is hard (unmelted or cured), the
that the laminates be of sound structure. Their testing is
dipoles will not move because they are locked in place.
covered in par. 3-3.1 and will be further covered in par.
If the resin matrix is very viscous or if gelation takes
3-4. The surfaces of the laminates should be clean and
place, the dipoles will move only with great difficulty.
freshly prepared. The adhesive system should be selected
When the resin matrix is fluid, the dipoles are free to
based on its durability, bonding capability, and com-
move and will readily orientate. The ease or difficulty
patibility with the adherends (laminates and core). The
of orientation can be determined by measuring the
core materials, especially if nonmetallic, should be dried
dielectric constant or capacitance of the polymerizing
to prevent blowing the panel during cure. Ref. 18
resin. The dissipation factor, which is a measure of the
discusses some of the considerations that the designer
energy lost due to dipole movement, also can be
should be aware of as far as acceptance test criteria for
determined. This factor is related to the viscoelastic
sandwich construction are concerned. The authors point
properties of the resin matrix, which are constantly
out that there is a need for work and serious considera-
changing as the cure proceeds. Changes in the resin
tion of the problems involved with some types of sand-
caused by temperature and pressure variations can be
wich structures.
defined and controlled accurately if the physical nature
of the curing resin is known. Allen (Ref. 12) points out
3-3.3 ADHESIVE BONDING
that the technique of automatic dielectrometry is re-
liable, but a background data base must be established The in-fabrication testing of adhesive bonding mainly
for each resin system used. Yokota (Ref. 13) shows involves the use of destructive coupon testing to insure
that, with the application of dielectric monitoring, it is that the proper controls of surface preparation, adhesive
possible to establish a temperature-time-pressure applica- cure, and storage of the adhesive have been used. There
tion diagram, which will define the optimum time to are a few tests that can be used during fabrication. One
apply the pressure and what temperature range should of these is the use of cure monitoring, as described by
be maintained. Ref. 14 discusses the use of dielectric Fritzen, et al., in Ref. 19, which includes the use of ion

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graphing, dielectrics, and phase metrology. The phase Other work of interest involves the use of unmodified,
metrology system uses a small, aluminum foil electrode general-purpose, ultrasonic equipment in conjunction
placed in the adhesive “glue line”. The system measures with a digital-to-analog converter to help analyze the
phase-angle shift and vector voltages. Basically, the data by use of binary and colorgraphic displays. This
three systems are similar in that they measure some work (Ref. 23) concludes that “the future application of
form of electrical flow through the resin system and color graphics to ultrasonic C-scan inspection, as well
response to the changes as the resin cures. Ion graphing as more sophisticated image processing techniques
is also discussed in Ref. 20. Hart-Smith (Ref. 21) dis- promises to provide a more quantitative basis for
cusses the effects of flow and porosity on the strength material evaluation. and interpretation of ultrasonic
of the adhesive joint. These defects are important to composite material amplitude signatures will be facili-
understand because they will dictate the inspection tated.”
criteria for the nondestructive testing technique that A new optical method of NDT referred to as “Shearo-
will be used to inspect the final part and for subsequent graphic Nondestructive Testing” (SNDT) seems to be
in-service inspections. well suited for nondestructive inspection in production
There are some important but simple tests that the environments (Ref. 24). SNDT is an interferometric
operator can use to inspect the parts being bonded. The technique that allows surface strains to be measured.
first test, and a very important one, is a visual in- SNDT detects flaws in a manner similar to holography
spection for warpage, distortion, or misalignment. The except that holography measures displacements and
edges of the joint should be checked for voids and flash shearography measures strains. SNDT does not require
(exuded adhesive), which will indicate whether too little special vibration isolation as is needed for holography.
or too much adhesive was applied. The flash should be Thus SNDT should be more suited for inspection in the
checked to determine the degree of cure. If it is burnt, production plant environment.
bubbly, or porous, it probably was cured at too high a Another new NDT tool has been introduced which is
temperature. If the adhesive system used was one that reported to be able to inspect the quality of surfaces to
cures at room temperature, porosity may indicate that be coated or bonded. This tool is described as Surface
the use of a vacuum may have removed volatile consti- Quality Unit for Inspection by Nondestructive Testing
tuents, such as amines, from the mix, which will result (SQUINT) with photoelectron emission (Ref. 25). The
in adverse effects. Leaving a sample of the room- tool measures current due to optically stimulated elec-
temperature-curing adhesive in the container overnight tron emission and relates these measurements to peel
often will give a good indication of the cure in the parts strengths of bonds to graphite-epoxy composite lami-
that were bonded with that batch. Areas of uncured nates. This new tool or method, when perfected, will
adhesive are also indicative of improper mixing of multi- lend itself to the inspection of composite surfaces prior
component adhesives. Elevated-temperature-curing ad- to bonding, an area in which there is currently no
hesives can also be checked for cure by putting a small acceptable inspection tool.
amount of the adhesive through the cure cycle and Flash X ray and cineradiography (X-ray movie pictures)
observing it. are coming and will provide new insights into composite
performance (Ref. 26). These techniques are being ap-
3-3.4 NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN plied to study deformations and strains in fiber-
IN-PROCESS NDT reinforced composites. They are expected to be useful
in the study of composites under ballistic impact. How-
New developments in in-process testing will include
ever, this information will indicate whether the adhesive
the areas of design and manufacture. Boyce and Miller
will cure at the cure temperature but will not account
(Ref. 22), in a paper presented at the American Helicop-
for the possibility that the bond line may not have
ter Society meeting, described the use of acoustic emis-
reached the required temperature. Ref. 27 is a good
sion (AE) technology to evaluate the design of com-
introduction to nondestructive testing of adhesive-
posite structures using static testing to locate those
bonded structures and describes some of the test
areas that needed to be reinforced without overdesign
techniques that will be discussed in par. 3-4.
of the component. The authors pointed out that, if the
advantages of composites are to be fully achieved, an
3-4 END-ITEM NONDESTRUCTIVE
economical method of detecting, locating, and assessing
the severity of a defect was necessary. The development TESTING
of a point-contact transducer and digital AE signal The inspection of end-items, either as the final pro-
processing were the first steps toward developing AE as duction inspection of subassemblies or complete prod-
a quantitative NDT technique. Much work must be ucts, is the area where nondestructive testing is used the
done in this area, and the design and NDT engineer most. Another area in which nondestructive testing is
should watch these developments as they progress. being rapidly adopted is in the in-service inspection of

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 MIL-HDBK-793(AR)

composite structures and adhesive-bonded structures. rich/resin-starved areas, to determine ply orientation (if
These two areas, final inspection and in-service in- indicators are included), and to detect cracks that are
spection, will be discussed in the paragraphs that oriented parallel to the X-ray beam and have a depth
follow. greater than approximately 3% of the total part thick-
ness (Ref. 29). The fluoroscopic system is particular)
3-4.1 FINAL INSPECTION applicable to bonded honeycomb structures such as
Final inspection of the finished item must consist of a helicopter main rotor blades, tail rotor blades, and
number of tests. These tests include visual inspection panels to detect hidden foreign materials, mismatch or
for dimensional tolerances, flatness or contour, and misalignment of detail parts, lack of potting material
nondestructive testing for structural integrity. Table 3-3 around inserts, and a wide variety of core defects
lists some of the common defects that would affect the including entrapped matter. Fig. 3-5 shows a helicopter
structural integrity of the composite structure and the main rotor blade being inspected by fluoroscopic radiog-
nondestructive test technique that may be used to in- raphy, Fig. 3-6 shows the control room of the Fluoro-
spect for these defects. Ref. 28 describes a product scopic Radiography Laboratory at Bell Helicopter
inspection development program for the inspection of a Textron, and Fig. 3-7 shows a variety of parts awaiting
carbon-fiber-reinforced composite-honeycomb panel fluoroscopic radiographic inspection. Other discussions
that was part of a commercial aircraft rudder. of radiographic inspection of composite structure can
be found in Refs. 30 and 31.
3-4.1.1 Radiographic Inspection
3-4.1.2 Ultrasonic Inspection
Radiographic inspection techniques are widely used
for the detection of discrepancies in the internal details The ultrasonic inspection system has found wide
of the structure which will show up as cross-sectional acceptance in the inspection of composite structures.
density variations. These discrepancies include excess or There are two different approaches to ultrasonic in-
missing material, porosity, inclusions, and damaged or
distorted honeycomb core in a sandwich structure. X-
ray radiographs are a permanent record that the engi-
neer can use to evaluate problems that may occur later
during service. However, radiographs are expensive in
terms of time and materials. Recent advances in im-
proving equipment have made real-time viewing
radiographic (fluoroscopic) techniques very appealing
for inspection of composite structures. Fluoroscopic
evaluation has been reported to be particularly appli-
cable to composite materials to detect exaggerated resin-

TABLE 3-3
FINAL INSPECTION TECHNIQUES
FOR SPECIFIC DEFECTS

Technique

Radiographic X X X
Ultrasonic X X X
Acoustic Emission X X X (Courtesy of Bell Helicopter/ Textron)
Mechanical Impedance X X X X
Thermal X X X Figure 3-5. Composite Main Rotor Blade
Inspection by Fluoroscopic Radiography

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 MIL-HDBK-793(AR)

(Courtesy of Bell Helicopter/Textron)

Figure 3-6. Control Laboratory for Fluoroscopic Radiography Showing Real-Time Imspection of
Honeycomb Panel

spection of a laminate. One is pulsed wave and the

other is standing wave. The pulsed wave approach
includes the pulse-echo and through-transmission
techniques. In ultrasonic pulse echo the pulses are
generated and detected by a single transducer in contact
with the surface through a couplant. The pulse travels
internally through the part and ethos. or reflects, from
each material change, for example, the interface of a
laminate bonded to a different substructure. The re-
flected pulses or echos are detected by the transducer
and the resultant signals are monitored on a CRT for
changes caused by the defects. Fig. 3-8 depicts a bonded
laminate structure with no defect, a delamination, and a
void. The sound path for each type of defect is also
shown. The signal on the CRT would vary in shape and
duration for each of these three locations. The time
interval from pulse initiation to its return to the trans-
ducer can be electronically presented as a depth reading.
For this method to detect bond failures, the skin-to-
substructure bond must permit the pulse to pass into
(Courtesy of Bell Helicopter) Textron) the substructure. Also this method requires a reference
Figure 3-7. Variety of Parts Awaiting standard of the same material with and without the
Fluoroscopic Radiographic Inspection defect; this standard is used to set up the instrument.

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Figure 3-8. Pulsed Echo Ultrasonic Inspection

Pulse-echo ultrasonic inspection can be used while the

section to be inspected is a part of the whole or in in-
place inspection. The part need not be removed for
inspection
In through-transmission ultrasonic inspection the
pulses are generated by the “transmit” transducer, which
is coupled to the surface of the part by a water bath,
water column, or by direct contact through a couplant.
The pulse enters the part and travels through to the
other side and is detected by the “receive” transducer.
which is coupled to the other side in the same manner
as the “transmit” transducer. Detectable defects will
block or reduce the sound transmission; this causes a
loss or reduction in signal amplitude. This system will
only distinguish between a good and a defective part.
the through-transmission system and the use of a water
bath or column can be used with C-scan recording. The
transducers can be moved over the part to be inspected
in pairs, and the signal recorded as a C-scan that will
locate the areas of lost or reduced signal. Through-
transmission ultrasonics generally is used with the part
removed from the whole assembly, and it cannot be (Courtesy of Custom Machine, Inc., Cleveland, OH)
used to measure depth of the defects. Fig. 3-9 shows a Figure 3-9. Water Squirter Used to Couple the
water squirter or water column for use with through- Ultrasonic Signal to the Part in Through-
transmission ultrasonics. The squirter nozzles can be Transmission Ultrasonics
used in-plane or offset in either the x- or y-axis. A n
adapter can be used to mount the squirter nozzles so ultrasonics has specific areas of application for the
that their centerline is horizontal instead of vertical. It inspection of fiber-reinforced polymeric composites. The
is also possible to have the squirters mounted on an major applications include the detection of bond failures
auxiliary manipulator, which will rotate the transducers between bonded laminates or composite-to-metal bonds,
360 deg around the vertical axis. The system can be delamination between layers of the composite laminate,
controlled by a programmable controller. Multiple and detecting internal-impact damage, especially in
squirter assemblies can be placed in “gangs” to decrease graphite-reinforced composites. Fig. 3-11 shows a por-
inspection time. This is depicted in Fig. 3-10. table standing wave ultrasonic instrument. In Fig. 3-11
Standing wave ultrasonics, or impedance plane ultra- the dot display represents various defects; the center dot
sonics, relies on the generation of a standing wave pat- is a bonded or structurally sound laminate. The dot in
tern throughout the laminate thickness and on measur- the lower, fourth quadrant is a measure of the probe in
ing its collective effects on the acoustic impedance at air, The dots, starting with the one on the x-axis (first
the surface. The system uses a small probe (typically quadrant) and proceeding counterclockwise, would indi-
resonant) to generate the standing wave across the cate a defect (void or delamination) at a progressively
laminate thickness. The theory of standing wave ultra- deeper depth. Other papers on ultrasonic nondestructive
sonics is explained in Refs. 32 and 33. Standing wave testing are cited in Refs. 34 through 37.

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 MIL-HDBK-793(AR)
testing involves the placing of AE transducers at various
locations on the structure and then applying a load or
stress. As the load increases and any microfailures start
to occur, the transducers will pick up the signal. The
time for the signal to reach the different transducers can
be used to locate the source of the signal and hence the
location of the defect. By use of standard specimens
representing a structure, AE counts versus load traces
can be prepared and then compared to the counts
obtained during pressure testing to help to predict the
strength or weakness of a structure. AE tests have been
used to inspect pressure vessels such as rocket motor
cases. Refs. 38 through 40 discuss the use of AE testing
to evaluate the structural integrity of fiber-reinforced
composite pressure vessels. AE requires some sort of
proof testing, i.e., a load must be applied to the struc-
ture. The load may be applied by mechanical, thermal,
or sonic means. These methods are generally used to
check on the structure once it is in service and will be
discussed further in par. 3-4.2.

3-4.1.4 Mechanical Impedance Inspection

(Courtesy of Custom Machine, Inc., Cleveland, OH)
Mechanical impedance testing techniques use bond
Figure 3-10. Multiple Squirters for the test equipment that excites the structure with relatively
Inspection of Large Parts low-frequency mechanical vibrations and then measures
the response to these vibrations. This type of equipment
includes such instruments as the Uniwest-Shurtronics
Composite Tester and Harmonic Bond Tester (Fig. 3-
12), the Fokker Bond Tester, and Inspection Instru-
ment’s Acoustic Flaw Detector. The two Uniwest-Shur-
tronic units use a probe with a vibrating pin, which
excites the composite structure. The amplitude and
phase shifts of the returned signal are measured and
processed to detect the defect. The Fokker Bond Tester
and the Acoustic Flaw Detector use a piezoelectric
transducer to excite the surface. The Fokker instrument
requires a liquid couplant and the transducer must be
repositioned for each reading. The other instruments
are dry-coupling and rapid-scanning. Refs. 28 and 41
(Courtesy of NDT Instruments, Inc.) discuss mechanical impedance techniques.
Figure 3-11. BondaScope 2100 Standing Wave
Ultrasonic Inspection Instrument 3-4.1.5 Thermal Inspection
Large structures such as large nose radomes and
3-4.1.3 Acoustic Emission Inspection some communication satellites are made from compos-
Of the various types of defects one might inspect for, ite materials that present some different and unique
there are three primary failure modes in composite problems in nondestructive testing. Often the skin ply
structures. These include matrix cracking, delamination, thickness is very thin and the use of couplants could
and fiber breakage. The three modes can occur during result in couplant penetration of the laminate surface.
the pressurization of a fiber-reinforced pressure vessel. Couplant penetration may affect the adhesion of rain-
Delamination is critical to the buckling strength of the erosion-resistant coatings. Photochromic coatings that
vessel, and the fibers are the primary load-bearing will change color with changes in surface temperature
constituent of the structure. However, the matrix have been found useful in these applications. For further
cracking is important only if it leads to fiber damage. details on the use of the thermal-sensitive photochromic
AE can inspect for all three modes of failure. AE systems, see par. 2-2.6 and Refs. 42 through 44.

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 MIL-HDBK-793(AR)
Some of these methods could be used while the part
is on the aircraft, but other methods require that the
part be removed. Many of these methods are still in
use. In 1980 Botsco (Ref. 47) described new methods
for nondestructively evaluating airframes and jet en-
gines. What Botsco described was the ultrasonic imped-
ance display concept for testing a variety of laminated
and honeycomb-core, adhesive-bonded structures that
were discussed in par. 3-4.1.2, and the use of high-
resolution ultrasonic techniques for inspecting graphite
composites and bond line thickness. This high-resolution
ultrasonic equipment includes the NovaScope 2000
shown in Fig. 3-13. Botsco reported that the high-
resolution ultrasonic technique is particularly useful for
inspecting graphite-reinforced composites for delamina-
tion. Delamination are not only readily detectable,
but their depths can be precisely measured with a
digital readout of thickness. Since 1982, there has been
an increasing number of papers presented on the use of
AE as an in-service test method for fiber-reinforced
composite structures. Refs. 48 through 52 describe the
use of AE field testing of aerial lift trucks shown in
Figs. 3-14 and 3-15. Fowler (Ref. 53) states that “Com-
(Courtesy of Uniwest-Shurtronics) pared to many other nondestructive test methods acous-
Figure 3-12. Harmonic Bond Tester With the tic emission has predetermined, objective evaluation
criteria and is not open to the subjectivity of operator
Vibrating Pin Probe- Left Front
interpretation.”. The author further points out that the
3-4.2 IN-SERVICE NONDESTRUCTIVE test method provides information about the entire item
TESTING of equipment, rather than about small, localized areas.
Furthermore, in-service equipment can be tested while
The testing of items in service for defect development, in use, and in most cases it is not necessary to shut the
defect growth, or degradation is one of the most im- equipment down. The paper shows that since acoustic
portant uses of nondestructive testing. emission testing of all fiber-reinforced plastic chemical
In 1977, Wadin and Pollock (Ref. 45) reported that processing vessels has been used at Monsanto, there has
“Acoustic emission can conveniently be implemented been a dramatic decrease in the number and frequency
into a periodic overload proof test to detect the exist-
ence of material cracks and other discontinuities or to
predict impending material failure.”. This work was
done to establish a nondestructive test procedure for
testing the safe service life of fiberglass nonconductive
aerial booms. In 1979, under a contract to NASA, the
Boeing Commercial Airplane Company conducted an
assessment of the state of the art of in-service inspection
of graphite-epoxy composite structures on commercial
transport aircraft (Ref. 46). Appendix B to Ref. 46 lists
seven areas of nondestructive testing that had been or
were being used to inspect advanced composite struc-
tures on in-service aircraft at that time. These tests
included
1. Visual and visual optical
2. Tap testing
3. Ultrasonic pulse-echo
4. Ultrasonic through-transmission (Courtesy of NDT Instruments, Inc.)
5. Ultrasonic digital thickness gage
6. Radiography Figure 3-13. The NovaScope 2000 Ultrasonic
7. Bond test equipment. Inspection Equipment

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 MIL-HDBK-793(AR)

(Courtesy of Physical Acoustics Corp.)

Figure 3-14. Acoustic Emission Testing of Aerial Lift Trucks Showing the Use of a Tie-Down to
Stress the Boom

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 MIL-HDBK-793(AR)

has been used to detect the difference between a good

and a poor adhesive-bonded joint.
The progress made in the area of in-service inspection
since 1977 has been impressive. but much more work is
required.

3-5 NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN END-

ITEM NDT
The inspection of the finished item, whether final
production or in-service inspection, is the area in which
advances must be made. Work is underway in the area
of detecting degradation in composite structures and in
adhesive bonds during acousto-ultrasonics. The combina-
tion of highly pulsed ultrasonic transducers with AE
systems shows promise in the ability to detect differ-
ences in structures that appear to be sound but in fact
have advanced in degradation due to environmental
and chronological aging (Ref. 57). Acousto-ultrasonic
techniques can be used to determine the relative ad-
hesive bond strength of composite assemblies ( Ref. 56).
Ref. 58 also discusses acousto-ultrasonics and its po-
tential to detect dispersed microstructural anomalies in
composites and differences in the bond strength or
interlaminar strength of the composites. The paper also
describes a dry-coupled, two-wheeled sensor that con-
(Courtesy of Physical Acoustics Corp.) tains the pulser in one wheel and the receiver in the
Figure 3-15. Acoustic Emission Sensors other. Further information on acousto-ultrasonics is
Located on the Boom of an Aerial Lift included in Ref. 59.
Truck During Test It is possible to detect differences in strength,
absorption of moisture or other liquids, and changes in
of catastrophic failures of the tanks, Only one tank moduli of materials by NDT techniques. Therefore, it is
failed before it was removed from service, and that conceivable that the nondestructive testing industry will
failure had been predicted as a result of the testing. This be able to produce and market instruments that will be
work is also described in Ref. 54. Gillette (Ref. 55) capable of reading the strength of an adhesive joint or
discusses the use of AE to predict long-term per- the interlaminar strength of a composite with reproduc-
formance of reinforced thermosetting resin pipe and ible and reliable results.
concludes that acoustic emission has proven to be a
valuable tool in determining the structural integrity of
reinforced thermosetting pipe at the time of the test.
However, much more work is required if the method is
to be used to predict long-term strength under cyclic
loading conditions. In 1985, Vargas reported (Ref. 56)
that AE techniques were being applied to the quality
control problem in many areas such as fiber-reinforced
tanks and vessels, rocket motor cases, composite aircraft
structures (Fig. 3-16), and pipes. The author points out
“A limitation of acoustic emission as a quality control
method is that it can only detect flaws that are growing.
Either an external force, or some force within the
composite must be acting on the flaw in such a way as
to cause it to grow in order for it to release energy.”.
The author also discusses the “uses of ultrasonic AE.
Ultrasonic-acoustic, or acousto-ultrasonic, emission is a (Courtesy of Physical Acoustics Corp.)
method of testing composite components and bonded Figure 3-16. Acoustic Emission Testing of a
structures without physically loading them. This method Composite Helicopter Rotor Blade

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 MIL-HDBK-793(AR)

REFERENCES
1. R. M. Collins, NDI Policy and Techniques for Number 4, pp. 11-7 (July/August 1978); also 22nd
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S. B. Marshall, Cure Monitoring and Control With
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Combined Dielectric/ Temperature Probes, SAMPE
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4. R. Hinrichs and J. Thuen, Advanced Chemical tion 28, Covina, CA, 12-14 April 1983, pp. 851-61.
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Products, 24th National SAMPE Symposium and 20. D. J. Crabtree and G. H. Bischoff. The Electrical
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1979, pp. 33041. Technical Conference 5, Covina, CA, 9-11 October
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410-5. American Helicopter Society, Alexandria. VA, 15-
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Cure Control—Two Case Studies, 20th National 23. R. A. Blake, Digital Nondestructive Evaluation of
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CA, 29 April-1 May 1975, pp. 108-15. Materials Report CCM-82-01, College of Engineer-
12. J. D. Allen, In-Process Dielectric Monitoring of ing, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, May
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May 1975, pp. 270-85. Testing in Production Plants by Shearography, 27th
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Resin Matrix Composites. SAMPE Journal 14, Covina, CA, 4-6 May 1982. pp. 377-83.

3-14
 MIL-HDBK-793(AR)

25. T. Smith, “Surface Quality Unit for Inspection by communication Satellites”, SAMPE Journal 18,
Nondestructive Testing (SQUINT) With Photo- Number 5, pp. 8-15 (September, October 1982).
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26. D. L. Blake, “Application of Dynamic Radiography sion”, SAMPE Quarterly 8, Number 1, pp. 31-44
to Fiber-Reinforced Composites”, SAMPE (October 1976).
Quarterly 15, No. 2, pp. 14-9 (January 1984). 39. D. J. McNall, “Inspection of Composite Rocket
27. R. J. Botsco and R. T. Anderson, “Nondestructive Motor Cases Using Acoustic Emission”, Materials
Testing Assuring Reliability in Critically Bonded Evaluation 43, Number 6, pp. 728-32 (May 1985).
Structures”, Adhesives Age 27, Number 6, pp. 19- 40. E. V. K. Hill and T. J. Lewis, “Acoustic Emission
23 (31 May 1984). Monitoring of a Filament-Wound Composite
28. P. R. Teagle, Airworthiness Certification of Com- Rocket Motor Case During Hydroproof”, Materials
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Nondestructive Evaluation, 11th National SAMPE 41. P. R. Teagle, Recent Advances in Mechanical Im-
Technical Conference 11, Covina, CA, 13-15 pedance Analysis Instrumentation for the Evalua-
November 1979, pp. 192-210. tion of Adhesive-Bonded and Composite Structures,
29. R. H. Porter and B. J. Hunter, Automatic Scan- 1983 ATA Nondestructive Testing Forum, Kansas
ning Inspection of Composite Helicopter Structures City, KS.
Using an Advanced Technology Fluoroscopic Sys- 42. J. Styron and S. Allinikov, Photochromic NDI
tem, 35th Annual National Forum of the American Aircraft Radome Structures, 24th National SAMPE
Helicopter Society, Preprint No. 79-35, pp. 1-5, Symposium and Exhibition 24, Book 1, Covina,
May 1979. CA, 8-10 May 1979, pp. 354-71.
30. J. L. Camahort, D. Carver, R. Pfeil, and B. J. 43. T. A. Dougherty, G. Epstein, and S. Allinikov,
Mulroy, Jr.. Process Control/NDE Procedures for Nondestructive Testing of Lightweight Graphite-
Advanced Composite Structures. 24th National Epoxy Sandwich Panels, 20th National SAMPE
SAMPE Symposium and Exhibition 24, Book 1, Symposium and Exhibition 20, Covina, CA, 29
Covina, CA, 8-10 May 1979, pp. 377-89. April-1 May 1975, pp. 117-28.
31. D. Hagemaier, H. J. McFaul, and D. Moon, 44. J. B. Bidwell, Nondestructive Evaluation of Fiber
Nondestructive Testing of Graphite Fiber Composite Composites, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Structures, SAE, Paper No. 700750. National Sea Grant Report No. MITSG 80-8, Index No. 80-
Aeronautic and Space Engineering and Manufactur- 708 Int, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
ing Meeting, Warrendale, PA, 5-9 October 1970, Cambridge, MA (July 1980).
pp. 1-10. 45. J. Wadin and A. A. Pollock, Periodic Proof Test-
32. R. J. Botsco, and R. T. Anderson, “Ultrasonic ing of Fiberglass Booms Through the Use of Non-
Impedance Plane Analysis of Aerospace Lami- Kaiser Acoustic Emission Responses. 9th National
nates”, Adhesives Age 27, Number 7, pp. 22-5, SAMPE Technical Conference 9, Covina, CA, 4-6
(June 1984). October 1977, pp. 519-60.
33. R. J. Botsco, Advanced Ultrasonic Testing of Aero- 46. M. L. Phelps, Assessment of State of the Art of
space Structures, 26th National SAMPE Sym- In-Service Inspection Methods for Graphite-Epoxy
posium and Exhibition 26, Covina, CA, 28-30 April Composite Structures on Commercial Transport
1981, pp. 24-33. Aircraft, NASA Contractor Report 158969, Con-
34. W. H. Sheldon, Nondestructive Evaluation (NDE) tract NAS-1-15304, Boeing Commercial Airplane
of Impact Damage in Thick Graphite Composite Company, Seattle, WA, January 1979.
Aircraft Structures, 24th National SAMPE Sym- 47. R. J. Botsco, New Methods for Nondestructively
posium and Exhibition 24, Book 1, Covina, CA, Evaluating Airframes and Jet Engines, Paper No.
8-10 May 1979, pp. 372-6. 528, Air Transport Association Forum, Long
35. R. J. Botsco, Ultrasonic Testing of Composites Beach, CA, 8-11 September 1980.
With High Resolution and Impedance Plane 48. J. Sanders on, Aerial Device Acoustic Emission Test-
Techniques, Composites in Manufacturing 11, ing Reviewed, Electric Utility Fleet Management,
Society of Manufacturing Engineers, Paper Number 15 August 1982, pp. 36-7.
EM 83-107, Dearborn, MI, 11-13 January 1983. 49. G. C. Moran, “Acoustic Emission”, Standardiza-
36. B. W. Von Aspe, K. C. Stewart, and K. E. Graeber, tion News, American Society for Testing and
Boeing Military Airplane Company’s Robotic Ultra- Materials, Philadelphia, PA, pp. 24-5 (November
sonic Inspection System, 30th National SAMPE 1982).
Symposium and Exhibition 30, Covina, CA, 19-21 50. Anonymous, “Sound Advice”, Quality, April 1982.
March 1985, pp. 1655-64. 51. K. Moore and C. A. Larson, “Aerial Equipment
37. T. J. DeLacy, “Nondestructive Testing to Study Requires Thorough Regular Inspection”, Trans-
Stress Relaxation in Advanced Composites for Tele- mission and Distribution, pp. 23-7 (January 1984).

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 MIL-HDBK-793(AR)

52. J. R. Mitchell and D. G. Toggart, Acoustic Emis- industry, New York, NY, 16-19 January 1984, pp.
sion Testing of Fiberglass Bucket Truck Booms, 1-3.
39th Annual Conference, Session 16B, Reinforced 56. A. F. Vargas, Acoustic Emission for Quality Con-
Plastics Composites Institute, The Society of the rol in Composites. Fabricating Composites Con-
Plastics Industry, New York, NY, 16-19 January ference, Technical Report No. 58, Composites
1984, pp. 1-7. Group, SME, Hartford, CT, 12 June 1985.
53. T. J. Fowler, Acoustic Emission Testing of Chemi- 57. J. E. Green and J. Rogers. Acousto-Ultrasonic
cal Process Industry Vessels, 7th International Acous- Evaluation of Impact-Damaged Graphite Epoxy
tic Emission Symposium, Zao. Japan, published by Composites, 27th National SAMPE Symposium
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tion, 23-26 October 1984. 58. J. M. Rogers, Quality Assurance and In-Service
54. T. J. Fowler, “Acoustic Emission Testing of Fiber- Inspection Applications of Acousto-Ulrasonics to
Reinforced Plastic Equipment”, Chemical Process- Bonded and Composite Structures, Acoustics Emis-
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55. J. M. Gillette. Can Acoustic Emission Be Used as a January 1983.
Tool to Predict Long-Term Performance of Rein- 59. L. Lorenzo and H. T. Hahn. Detection of Ply
forced Thermosetting Resin Pipe?, 39th Annual Cracking Through Wave Attenuation. 29th Na-
Conference, Session IO-D, Reinforced Plastics/ tional SAMPE Symposium and Exhibition 29,
Composites Institute, The Society of the Plastics Covina, CA, 3-5 April 1984. pp. 1022-33.

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 MIL-HDBK-793(AR)
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