226 PART 3 SEDIMENTARY/SURFICIAL PROCESSES

Lateritization: Bauxite: the Los Pijiguaos

deposit, Venezuela

Approximately 90% of the world’s bauxite, the principal The deposit as a whole is subdivided into blocks that are
source of alumina, is obtained from laterites formed by defined by fluvial channels that cut through the deposit
deep weathering of continental planation surfaces exposed subsequent to its formation (Figure 1).
to hot humid climates. Global production of bauxite The bauxite at Los Pijiguaos is made up principally of
has risen significantly in recent years and is presently at gibbsite with lesser quartz and rare kaolinite. The original
around 125 million tons per annum (Meyer et al., 2002). granite textures in the bauxite layer have been almost
One of the largest bauxite deposits in the world is at Los entirely destroyed, with feldspars, and to a lesser extent
Pijiguaos in Venezuela, where annual production is about quartz, being largely replaced by gibbsite (Figure 3). An
5 million tons from a total resource that could be as much increasing degree of lateritization is marked by systematic
as 6 billion tons. compositional changes in the rock. This is demonstrated
The Los Pijiguaos bauxite deposit formed from a in the Al2O3–SiO2–Fe2O3 ternary plot in Figure 2 where
Mesoproterozoic, metaluminous Rapakivi-type granite (the the process of lateritization is characterized by an increase
Parguaza granite) that was deeply eroded and weathered in the alumina content. Quartz and gibbsite are inversely
during Cretaceous–Paleogene times to form the Nuria correlated in the bauxite ore and iron contents remain
planation surface (Figure 1). This profound weathering relatively constant, with an increase in Fe2O3 in the most
event gave rise to the development of thick lateritic soil highly lateritized samples. The bauxite at Los Pijiguaos is
cover in which economic concentrations of bauxite a product of desilication, hydration and residual Al2O3
(around 50 wt% Al2O3) form a mineable zone that aver- concentration of the Parguaza granite, and involves a mass
ages 8 m thick. The complete laterite profile comprises loss of some 60% (Meyer et al., 2002). These processes
an upper concretionary zone (bauxite), underlain by a produce a high grade and high purity gibbsitic ore from
mottled or saprolitic layer and then the granitic bedrock. which alumina can be extracted by low temperature diges-
The bauxite layer itself can be subdivided into four zones tion, making Los Pijiguaos one of the most commercially
comprising various concretionary and pisolitic textures. profitable bauxite deposits in the world.

North South

Kamarata Surface
1000
(Jurassic)

800
Los Pijiguaos Bauxite deposit
Nuria Surface
Altitude (m)

600
(Cretaceous)

400

200 Incised drainage

Los Llanos Surface
(Pliocene–Pleistocene)
0

0 10
km

Figure 1 Schematic profile through the Los Pijiguaos bauxite deposit showing the concentration of laterite on
a dissected late Cretaceous planation surface (after Meyer et al., 2002).
 SURFICIAL AND SUPERGENE ORE-FORMING PROCESSES CHAPTER 4 227

SiO2

Kaolinization PG

Weak lateritization

50

n
Bauxitizatio
Moderate
lateritization
Figure 2 (a) Ternary
Al2O3–SiO2–Fe2O3 plot
showing the residual increase
Strong
in alumina content with lateritization
progressive lateritization in
the Los Pijiguaos bauxite ores.
PG is the composition of the Al2O3 50 Fe2O3
unaltered granite.

Figure 3 Photomicrograph showing the replacement

of quartz and feldspar by Kaolinite and gibbsite in
bauxite ores from Los Pijiguaos (photograph courtesy
of Michael Meyer).

processes, Ni laterites are a much sought after

4.3.3 Nickel laterites
commodity. The principles by which these ores
Laterites that are developed on ultramafic rocks form are relatively straightforward and basically
containing abundant olivine and orthopyroxene involve eluviation of Ni from the uppermost lat-
and, hence, with high Ni contents (i.e. 0.1 to eritic residuum and concentration in underlying
0.3%; see Chapter 2), commonly develop concen- saprolitic illuvium as nickeliferous talc, serpen-
trations of Ni silicate or oxide that are up to 10 tine, or smectite, or less commonly together with
times the original concentration. Given the relat- goethite.
ive ease of mining of this type of ore compared The primary olivine and orthopyroxene minerals
to hard-rock magmatic sulfide ores, as well as that are the source of the Ni form the main ingre-
recent developments in extractive metallurgical dients of an ultramafic rock that may originally
228 PART 3 SEDIMENTARY/SURFICIAL PROCESSES

have been part of an obducted ophiolite complex nierite,” after the Frenchman Jules Garnier who
(in the case of the New Caledonia deposits in discovered the enormous Ni laterite ores of New
the south Pacific) or a layered mafic intrusion Caledonia in the nineteenth century. Some Ni
(such as at Niquelandia in Brazil). These minerals concentration is also associated with goethite,
are rapidly serpentinized, in some cases prior to although the exact nature of the fixation mech-
lateritization by interaction with sea water or anism is not known. It is possible that adsorption
during low-grade metamorphism or alteration. of Ni onto goethitic colloids might occur at
The alteration of olivine is by hydration to amor- neutral to slightly alkaline pH, as discussed pre-
phous silica, serpentine, and limonite, with the viously in Chapter 3 and shown in Figure 3.15b.
serpentine able to accommodate as much or more The limonite zone in the upper part of most lat-
of the Ni as the original olivine. Most nickel erite profiles (Figure 4.5) is, however, generally
laterites form on bedrock that is already largely depleted in Ni.
altered to serpentinite (Golightly, 1981). In later- Enormous resources of Ni ore are located in
itic regoliths the groundwaters become progres- ultramafic rooted lateritic regoliths in many parts
sively less acidic with depth (pH increases of the world. The thickest laterite and the richest
downwards from around 5 to 8.5; Golightly, 1981) concentrations of garnierite tend to occur where
and bicarbonate is the main anion in solution. the bedrock is characterized by closely spaced
Olivine breaks down completely under such jointing, as this is where maximum groundwater
conditions and this is followed by orthopyroxene, circulation and fluid–rock interaction takes place.
serpentine, chlorite, and talc. An important The best Ni laterite concentrations also appear
reaction in this process is given in [4.5] below to display a topographic control and tend to occur
(after Golightly, 1981) where olivine breaks either beneath a hill or on the edge of a plateau
down to smectitic clays (saponite–nontronite) and or terrace (Golightly, 1981). This is because these
goethite: deposits are sensitive to surface erosion and to
fluctuations in water table levels that in turn con-
4(Fe2,Mg2)SiO4 + 8H+ + 4O2 ⇔ trol the distribution of zones of eluviation and
olivine illuviation.
(Fe2,Mg3)Si4O10(OH)2 + 6FeO(OH) + 5Mg2+ [4.5]
smectite goethite
4.3.4 Gold in laterites
Once smectite, and also serpentine and talc, are It is well known that gold occurs in the upper
present in the regolith, further concentration of pedolithic portions of laterite weathering zones
Ni takes place largely by cation exchange, mainly in many parts of the world, including Brazil,
with Mg2+. This results in the formation of a west Africa and Western Australia (Nahon et al.,
variety of unusual Ni enriched phyllosilicate 1992). This gold takes many forms, ranging from
minerals such as kerolite (Ni–talc), nepouite large, rounded nugget-like particles and gold
(Ni–serpentine), and pimelite (Ni–smectite). An dendrites in cracks and joints, to small crystals
example of such an ion exchange reaction, where in pore spaces. In the Yilgarn Craton of Western
nepouite forms from serpentine, is shown in [4.6] Australia, for example, the recovery of gold from
below (after Golightly, 1981): lateritic profiles is a major activity and some spec-
tacular nuggets, occasionally over 1 kg in mass,
Mg3Si2O5(OH)4 + 3Ni2+(aq) ⇔ have been found. Whereas the primary source
serpentine of gold in these environments is high in silver
Ni3Si2O5(OH)4 + 3Mg2+(aq) [4.6] (strictly a Au–Ag alloy with typically 5–10% Ag
nepouite as well as minor Hg and other impurities), the
gold that is concentrated in lateritic profiles has
The collective term applied to Ni–phyllosilicate been chemically purified. This suggests that dif-
ore minerals in lateritic environments is “gar- ferential mobilization and decoupling of Au and
 SURFICIAL AND SUPERGENE ORE-FORMING PROCESSES CHAPTER 4 229

MgO, Fe2O3, SiO2 (wt%)

Surface 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Iron crust
Zone of Pisolites

Pedolith
residual laterite Al2O3
1–20 meters Red limonite Ni
(eluviation) Cr2O3
Yellow limonite
Fe2O3
Ore with SiO2
Zone of altered
Saprolith

peridotite and boulders

nickel concentration
1–20 meters (Garnierite,
(illuviation) Amorphous silica)
Rocky ore Ni
Zone of
fresh peridotite Bedrock MgO

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Ni, Cr2O3, Al2O3 (wt%)

Figure 4.5 Descriptive profile and Ni ore distribution in a lateritic regolith typical of the New Caledonian deposits.
The chemical profile clearly distinguishes the ferruginous/aluminous residual zone where Si, Mg, and Ni are
leached, from the saprolith where illuviation has resulted in concentration of Ni (after Troly et al., 1979; Guilbert
and Park, 1986).

Ag takes place as meteoric fluids percolate 2FeS2 + 2H2O + 7O2 ⇔ 2Fe2+ + 4SO42− + 4H+ [4.7]
through the weathering zone.
It is only under certain very specific conditions Reaction [4.8] illustrates the oxidation of ferrous
in the near surface environment that Au and Ag iron in the vicinity of the water table, to form
can be substantially mobilized. Actual measure- goethite in the ferruginous pedolith, with further
ments of near surface groundwaters in lateritic production of hydrogen ions (after Mann, 1984):
environments indicate that aqueous solutions
are relatively acidic (pH < 5), oxidizing, and in 2Fe2+ + 3H2O + O2 ⇔ 2FeOOH + 4H+ [4.8]
Western Australia have low to moderate salinities goethite
because of a marine influence on rainfall (Mann,
1984). With increasing depth, groundwater pH These reactions illustrate some of the processes
tends to increase (i.e. become more alkaline) and active during lateritization and explain why
the fluids become more reducing as the ferric/fer- groundwaters are likely to be acidic in such envir-
rous ratio decreases (Figure 4.6). The process of onments. Laterites formed over felsic rocks are
lateritization, described in section 4.3.1 above, is prone to be more acidic than those over a mafic
controlled essentially by hydrolysis as groundwa- substrate, as the latter will have pH buffered by
ters react with the regolith and iron is oxidized. bicarbonate ions formed during alteration (Mann,
Two reactions reflect the nature of the process 1984).
and indicate why groundwaters become more Experimental work (Cloke and Kelly, 1964;
acidic upwards in lateritic profiles. Reaction [4.7] Mann, 1984) indicates that at low pH and high
describes the initial breakdown, by hydrolysis, of Eh, and in the presence of Cl− ions, gold in the
sulfide phases such as pyrite in the lower sections surficial environment can go into solution as an
of the weathering zone close to bedrock, and the AuCl 4− complex (Figure 4.7). Substantial Au dis-
production of hydrogen ions: solution only occurs, however, at relatively high Eh
230 PART 3 SEDIMENTARY/SURFICIAL PROCESSES

(b)
Iron oxyhydroxide
Peripheral replacement halo,
(a) void containing gold
Higher purity gold rim (Ag-depleted)
(Ag-depleted)
Iron
oxyhydroxide
Primary
Au–Ag
alloy

AgCl

Dissolution of Au, Ag O2 O2 Water table

AgCl Low pH
Pedolith High Eh
AgCl
Reprecipitation of Au
rce
ou

AuCl4–
ld s
go

Saprolith
–
einv
rtz

Fe2+
Q ua

Fe2+ Felsic Fe2+

Mafic
Neutral pH
Low Eh
Bedrock

Figure 4.6 The nature and characteristics of gold and silver redistribution in a typical lateritic profile. The inset
diagram shows two mechanisms whereby a primary Au–Ag alloy particle could be broken down during lateritization
and silver preferentially removed (modified after Mann, 1984; Nahon et al., 1992).

when Fe2+ is completely oxidized in the presence be leached of their Ag over a broader range of
of free oxygen. By contrast, silver will go into conditions.
solution more readily, and under more reducing A model for gold concentration in laterites is
conditions, as several complexes, including AgCl shown in Figure 4.6 and is discussed below in
(the most stable) and AgCl −2 or AgCl 32− (Figure 4.7). terms of gold– and silver–chloride speciation, as
Accordingly, particles of Au–Ag alloy in the well as the likely Eh–pH conditions of a typical
surficial environment will be more likely to lateritic profile, shown in Figure 4.7. Using these