Chapter 5

Module V
Remote Sensing
CHAPTER 5
REMOTE SENSING
Remote sensing is the science and art of acquiring information about an object, area or phenomenon
under study without actually being in any physical contact with them. This is done by sensing and
recording reflected or emitted energy and processing, analyzing, and applying that information.
PRINCIPLES AND PROCESS OF REMOTE SENSING SYSTEM
Energy from a source propagates through the atmosphere and interacts with the object under study.
The object reflects some amount of energy and this reflected energy is r4ecieved by sensor placed at
the platforms. Based on the characteristics of this reflected energy, the properties of the objected can
be studied.
The entire process of remote sensing is as follows:

1. Energy source: Source of Electromagnetic Energy. Sometimes Sun is considered as energy source
whereas in some remote sensing system, the remote sensing platform itself produces energy.
2. Energy interaction with the atmosphere: EM energy from source pass through the atmosphere on
its way to earth and this EM energy interact with the atmosphere.
3. Interaction with the Earth’s surface feature (Object): EM energy incident on the object and
generate reflected signals
4. Recording of Energy by the sensor: The sensor in the platform receives the reflected energy
5. Processing and transmission: The energy received is processed into different data products like
pictorial or digital products and transmitted into the ground stations
6. Interpretation and Analysis: The data received by the ground stations is analyzed to extract
information about the object
7. Application: The extracted information is used to reveal some new information and to solve some
problems
Each process is explained below:
Energy Source
Electromagnetic energy sources are used for remote sensing. Electromagnetic waves consist of:
1. Electrical field: varies magnitude in the direction of travelling

2. Magnetic field: perpendicular to the electrical field
Electromagnetic waves travel at a speed of light.
Wavelength of EM waves: it is the length of one wave cycle. It is the distance between successive
wave crests
Frequency of EM waves: It is the number of cycles passing a fixed point per unit time
We have
Where c – speed of light
λ- Wave length
f – Frequency
Electromagnetic spectrum
There are many electromagnetic waves in spectrum from shorter waves (X ray. ϒ rays) to longer
waves (micro waves, radio waves.)
 UV rays: it has shorter wavelength

 Visible light: wavelength varies from 0.4 to 0.7 micrometer
 Infr red: wavelength varies from 0.7 to 100 micrometer
 Microwave: wavelength varies from 1 mm to 1 m
Energy interaction with atmosphere
During propogation of EM energy through the atmosphere, some of it get scattered, absorbed and
some parts travel through the atmosphere and reaches the earth
1. Scattering
Due to the presence of large gas molecules, some energy get scattred. Scattering deponds on the
wavelength, abundance of particle and distance of travel.
Type of scattering
1. Rayleigh scattering
2. Mie scattering
3. Non-selective scattering
Rayleigh scattering
 Occurs when particles are smaller than the wavelength of radiation

 Shorter waves scatter more than the longer waves
 Occurs in the upper atmosphere
Mie scattering
 Occurs when particle size = wavelength of radiation
 It affects longer waves
 Occurs in lower atmosphere
Non-selective scattering
 Occurs when particles are larger than the wavelength

 All waves get scattered equally
2. Absorption
 Molecules present in atmosphere absorb EM energy at various wavelengths.
 Ozone, carbon dioxide and water vapour absorbs EM energy
Ozone: absorb UV waves
CO2: absorbs infra red
Water vapour: absorbs longer waves IR and shorted waves Microwave
Interaction with the surface feature (Object)
The transmitted EM energy reaches the earth and interacts with the object. Some energy will be
absorbed, some will be transmitted and some part will be reflected by the object. The three form of
interacti0on is given below
i. Absorption: Energy absorbed into the object

ii. Transmission: Energy transmitted or pass through the object
iii. Reflection: energy bounces off the object
By principle of conservation of energy
Where Ei – incident energy
EA – absorbed energy
ET – transmitted energy
ER – reflected energy
Remote sensing system uses the reflected waves. The reflection on object may be of two kinds
a) Specular reflection: Mirror like reflection when surface is smooth. All energy is reflected in a
single direction
b) Diffusion reflection: Energy reflected uniformly in all direction when the surface is rough.
Spectral Reflectance
 It is the reflectance charecteristics of eacrth surface feature

 It is the ratio of energy reflected to the incident energy
Spectral reflectance curve: A graph between wavelength and the spectral reflectance
 The remote sensing system differentiates each object based on this reflectance. The reflectance
characteristics of vegetation, soil and water are explains as follows:
Reflectance characteristics of vegetation
 Chlorophyll in vegetation absorbs red and blue and reflects green. Hence it is appeared as
green.
The reflectance curve is shown below
The characteristics of curve are:

 At wavelength 0.7 – 1.3µm it reflects up to 40% - 50%
 Energy is absorbed or reflected with no transmission at wavelength > 1.3 µm
 Dips are observed at 1.4, 1.9 and 2.7 µm because water in leaf absorb at these wavelengths
 Peak is observed at 1.6 µm and 2.2 µm
Reflectance characteristics of Soil
The reflectance charecteriscos of soil depends on:
 Moisture content: it decreases reflectance

 Organic matter: Absorbs radiation and show low reflectance
 Soil texture and surface roughness
 Mineral content like iron oxide: decreases reflectance
The reflectance curve is shown below

Reflectance characteristics of water
 Water shows low reflectance

 Water absorbs longer waves and shorter waves
 Water appears blue due to the stronger reflection of shorter waves including blue
 Water with suspended sediments reflects better and it appears brighter (yellowish)
 Water with algae absorb blue and reflects green and it appears greenish
Sensor
Sensor record re-emitted energy electronically as an array of numbers in digital format based on their
brightness. Sensor processes the data and send to the ground antenna
Platforms
Platforms are meant to carry sensor. Based on the height the platform are classified as
1. Ground based platforms: Buildings are used as platforms. Height up to 50m

2. Airborne platform: airplanes are used as platforms. Height up to 50 km
3. Space based platforms: satellites are used as platforms. Height up to 36,000 km
Remote sensing resolution
Resolution is the ability of remote sensing system to record and display finer details. The different
resolution terms used in remote sensing are:
1. Spatial resolution
2. Spectral resolution
3. Radiometric resolution
4. Temporal resolution
Spatial resolution
 It is the ability of remote sensing system to capture smallest possible feature.

 It is the size of the smallest image elements
 Spatial resolution depends on instantaneous field of view (IFOV)
 IFOV is the angular cone of visibility of sensor and it determine the size f the area on the earth
surface which is seen from given height
Size of area = IFOV x ground to sensor distance

Spectral resolution
 It is the ability of sensor to resolve spectral feature into separate components. It is the ability to
define fine wavelength interval
 It is the ability to differentiate separate waves like blue, green and red
 It is useful to distinguish different features by comparing their response over distinct
wavelength
 Water and vegetation are distinguished by very broad wavelength ranges
 Different rock types are identified by this resolution
 Multi spectral sensor: record energy over several separate wavelength
Radiometric resolution
 It is the ability to discriminate very slight difference in energy or brightness

 It distinguish between grey scale values
 An 8 bit sensor can distinguish 256 different grayscale or brightness values whereas a 4 bit
sensor can only distinguish 16 grey scale values
Temporal resolution
 It is the precision of an image with respect to time

 It depends on how often an image is collected
 It is used to identify the changes on features with time
Multi spectral scanning
It is a scanning system used to collect data over a variety of different wavelength reanges
There are two modes of multi spectral scanning
1. Across track scanning

2. Along track scanning
Across track scanning
 It is also called Whisk-broom scanner

 It scans the area from right to left
 It is done by using rotating or oscillating mirror to scan the terrain in series of lines
Along track scanning
 It is also called push broom scanner

 It consist of linear array of detectors
 It record one entire line at a time

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Module V

PRINCIPLES AND PROCESS OF REMOTE SENSING SYSTEM

The entire process of remote sensing is as follows:

1. Electrical field: varies magnitude in the direction of travelling

Electromagnetic waves travel at a speed of light.

Where c – speed of light

 UV rays: it has shorter wavelength

 Occurs when particles are smaller than the wavelength of radiation

 Occurs when particles are larger than the wavelength

Ozone: absorb UV waves

CO2: absorbs infra red

Water vapour: absorbs longer waves IR and shorted waves Microwave

Interaction with the surface feature (Object)

i. Absorption: Energy absorbed into the object

Where Ei – incident energy

 It is the reflectance charecteristics of eacrth surface feature

Reflectance characteristics of vegetation

The reflectance curve is shown below

The characteristics of curve are:

Reflectance characteristics of Soil

The reflectance charecteriscos of soil depends on:

 Moisture content: it decreases reflectance

The reflectance curve is shown below

 Water shows low reflectance

1. Ground based platforms: Buildings are used as platforms. Height up to 50m

 It is the ability of remote sensing system to capture smallest possible feature.

Size of area = IFOV x ground to sensor distance

 It is the ability to discriminate very slight difference in energy or brightness

 It is the precision of an image with respect to time

Multi spectral scanning

There are two modes of multi spectral scanning

1. Across track scanning

Across track scanning

 It is also called Whisk-broom scanner

 It is also called push broom scanner

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