answers

Buddhist art reflects very faithfully all the important aspects of Buddhism.  In primitive  Buddhism,
Gautama Sakyamuni has been regarded as an ideal human being and quite naturally we find that the
early Buddhist art of Bharhut, Sanchi, Bodh-Gaya and Amaravati and other places shows no
anthropomorphic representation of the Master.  His presence is indicated by means of an empty throne,
or a Bodhi tree or a pair of foot-prints, or a dharma-chakra, symbolizing one or the other event of his life. 
As the time passed, Buddhism acquired greater popularity and drew adherents from all sections of the
people.  The discipline and austerities of the early Buddhism were beyond the comprehension of the
ordinary followers of the religion.  A religion without a personal god in whom one can repose faith had but
little appeal to them.  The demand of the popular mind as met by the Mahayanists who defied Buddha
and introduced the concept of divine Bodhisattvas and several other deities.  With the progress of time,
the Buddhist pantheon was enlarged to include several hundred deities.  Among the male deities, the
Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara became the most popular because of  his great compassion for the living
creatures.  He is an emanation of the Dhyani Buddha Amitabha and his shakti  Pandara (the Sukhavati-
Vyuha or the Amitayus Sutra, translated into Chinese between A.D. 148-170, seems to refer for the first
time to the name of Amitabha or Amitayus), Avalokitesvara is the personification of  universal
compassion.  As described in the Karanda-vyuha he refused or renounced Nirvana in favour of afficted
humanity.  He is supposed to impart spiritual knowledge to fellow creatures so that all, by a gradual
process, may advance on the path of salvation.  Different forms of the Avalokitesvara have been
mentioned in the Sadhana-mala, of these the important ones are Shadakshari Lokeshvara, Simhanada,
Khasharpana.  Lokanatha, Halahala, Nilakantha and few others.

The Bharhut Stupa

            (The Sunga-Andhra epoch (2nd-1st Century B.C) was one of the most creative periods of Buddhist
art.  Though the Sunga rulers were followers of the Brahmanical faith and Buddhism was deprived of the
State patronage which it enjoyed during the reign of the Mauryan rulers, like Asoka and some of his
successors, there was no set-back in the propagation or popularity of the Buddhist faith.  (Buddhist
establishments flourished in Bodh-Gaya, Bharhut, and Sanchi in Northern and Central India, in Amaravati
and Jaggayapeta in South India, at Bhaja, Nasik, Karle and Janta and at several other places in Western
India.  The art of this period consists mainly in the excavation of the rock-cut temples or viharas (some of
which are embellished with paintings) and the erection of  railings and toranas (gateways) to the Buddhist
Stupas at different places). General Cunningham found remains of the railings and on gateway of the
Stupa at Bharhut (Madhya Pradesh) during the years 1872-74 and had them deposited in the Indian
Museum in the year following.  The Stupa in question was built during the 2 nd Century B.C.  In the
absence of the Stupa itself it is difficult to ascertain its shape and size.  But it was probably similar to the
Stupas represented on its panels and the almost contemporary Stupas of Sanchi.   All these Stupas
consist of hemispherical dome with a harmika above suppporting the umbrellas.

            One of the main interest of the Bharhut sculptures consists in the representation of the birth-
stories of the Gautama Budha.  These stories (or the Jatakas) are of two main classes, those relating to
the previous births of Buddha as a Bodhisattva (a Buddha potentia), and those of his last appearance as
Gautama Shakyamuni when he attained Enlightenment of Buddhahood.  The Jatakas represented on the
Bharhut panels include Mahakapi-Jataka, Latuva-Jataka, Miga-Jataka, Sujata-gahuto-Jataka,
Mahajanaka-Jataka and Vidhurapandita-Jataka, Chhadanta Jataka, etc.

            The scenes on the Bharhut sculptures, relating to the life of Gautama Shakyamuni include, among
others, the dream of Maya (Illustrating the descent of a Bodhisattva in the form of an elephant into the
mothers womb), the defeat of Mara, Gautama’s Enlightenment under the Bodhi tree, the worship of  the
Bodhi tree, the worship of Gautama’s hair-locks by celestial beings, the visits of  king Ajatashatru of
Magadha and of  Prasenjit of Koshala, etc.

            The worship of the Bodhi tree, seems to have been widely prevalent, as there are many
representation of it on the sculptured panels of Bharhut, Sanchi and Amaravati. Again, in the
Divyavandana it is related that the Bodhi tree was Asoka’s favourite object of worship.   The lowest
architrave of the Eastern Gateway  Stupa I, Sanchi (1st Century B.C.) depicts the ceremonial visits of king
Asoka and his queen, Tishyarakshita to the Bodhi Tree.  In the centre of the panel are the tree and the
temple of Bodh Gaya.  On the left is seen a crowd of musicians and devotees carrying water vessels. On
the right are the king and the queen descending from the elephant and payment homage to the Bodhi
tree.

The Sanchi Stupa

            In addition to Bharhut, the other important centres of Buddhist art and religion in north India during
this period were Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh) and Bodh Gaya(Bihar).  The main interest of the art at Sanchi 
centres round the Great Stupa.  Originally built of brick, during the reign of Asoka (3 rd Century, B.C.), it
was encased in stone and brought to its present dimension about a century later.  The other additions,
such as the erection of the toranas and the ground balustrade were done still later, probably about 50
B.C. of all the four gateways, the south gateways seems to be the oldest.  On one of its architraves, there
is an inscription showing that it was the work of one of the artisans of king Sri Satakarni (1 st Century B.C.),
who was evidently the son of Simuka, the founder of the Satavahana family of the Deccan. Of all toranas
or gateways, the best preserved is the northern gateway which enables the visitor to have a complete
idea of the appearance of all the gateways.  Each gateway is composed of two square pillars with capitals
at the top.  These capitals of standing dwarfs or elephants support a superstructure of architraves. 
Finally, on the summit of the gateway is the dharma-chakra symbol in the middle.  The pillars and
superstructures are elaborately decorated with representation of Jataka legends (stories of Buddha’s past
lives).  There are also representations of the sacred trees, stupas and other motifs to indicate the
presence of Gautam Buddha symbolically.  As in Bharhut art, here also, in conformity with the tradition of
early Indian art, there is no anthropomorphic representation of Buddha.

            About 50 yards north-cast of the great stupa of Sanchi is another monument of the same nature
but smaller in proportions.  Inside this stupa the relics of two very important disciples of Buddha, Sariputta
and Maha-Moggalana, were discovered by General Cunnigham.

Jaggapetta Stupa

            A stylistic equivalent of the panels of Sanchi is to be found in a carving from a Jaggayapeta stupa
near Amaravati on the Krishna river.This will show how little differences existed between different regions
in the field of art.  A monument to be  ascribed to the early Sunga period is the old Vihara at Bhaja which
is situated in the hills of the Western ghats to the south of Bombay.  It is a rectangular chamber with
several cells.  The decoration of the Bhaja monastery includes among other the representation of
Yakshas, a sun god on a four-horse chariot and Indra riding his vehicle, i.e., Airavat.   The art of Bharhut
and other early contemporaneous sites has a primitive simplicity.  (It is permitted by naturalism, enlivened
by humour, dance and music.  From the standpoint of technique the figures are in low relief, somewhat
flattened with angular limbs).

            Although there are innumerable references in the Jatakas and other Buddhist literature to the
pointed decorations, the earliest surviving examples of Buddhist paintings are met with at the oldest
Chaitya Halls at Ajanta in the Deccan, dedicated in the 2 nd Century B.C.  The principal wall painting in
cave 10 is devoted to the illustration of the Chaddanta Jataka.

Amaravati Stupa

            The Buddhist art in South India during this period is best illustrated by the remains of the Maha-
Chaitya (or stupa) of Amaravati.  As the earliest Buddhist Sculptures found here are primitive in style
resembling those of Bharhut, it can be presumed that the Maha-Chaitya was built during the 2 nd Century
B.C. to 250 A.D.  Its earliest pieces as noted above, show affinities to Bharhut art.  The images of Buddha
were introduced here about the 1st –2nd Century A.D.  The Amaravati art of this period is highly elegant
and sensitive.

Gandhara Art

            Buddhist art entered upon a new phase with the rise of Mahayana Buddhism during the 1 st
Century B.C. to 1st Century A.D. The period is remarkable in that it gave for the first time the figure art or
the anthropomorplhic representations of the Buddha.  Under the patronage of Kushana rulers (1 st-2nd
Century A.D.) a new school of art flourished in the Gandhara region, i.e. Peshawar and its neighbouring
districts.  Because of its strategic geographical position the region became a meeting place of various
races and cultures.  As a result of this, the art of the region shows mingling of both Indian and foreign
ideas and motifs.  Gandhara art is a hybrid product; though Buddhist in theme it is Graeco-Roman in style
or technique as is evident from the physiognomy and drapery of the images.  The artists of this region
have produced a large number of Buddha and Bodhisattva images along with other Buddhist deities. 
Gandhara art flourished for about four to five hundred years and to a  great extent it influenced the
indigenous art of Mathura, Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda.  It exercised a profound influence upon the
art of Afgahnistan and Central Asia The Buddha and Bodhisattva images of many sites in Central Asia
show an affiliations to the Gandhara style.  The art of the region received a greatblow at the hands of the
Huna invaders.  Mihirakula, a cruel king of the Huna had destroyed, as Xuanzang was told during his
travel to this country, the Buddhist monasteries of the region.  The main centres of Gandhara art were the
cities of Peshawar and Taxila, and also Afghanistan where a large number of stupas, monasteries and
sculptures have been unearthed by the archaeologists.

Mathura – A great Centre of Art

            Mathura also was a great centre of art and culture during this period.  Here flourished side by side
all the important religions of India, such as Brahmanism, Jainism and Buddhism.  It is believed that the
first Buddha images were carved at Mathura simultaneously if not earlier, with the Gandhara school. 
Mathura has produced Buddha images of various dimensions.  The Kushana Buddha or Bodhisattva
images of Mathura served as the prototypes of the more beautiful specimens of the Gupta period.  The
workshop of Mathura exported several Buddhist images to various other places, such as Sarnath and
even as far as Rajgir in Bihar.  It is well known that Friar-Bala an inhabitant of Mathura had several
Bodhisattva images set up at different places.  Two of them were found at Sravasti and Sarnath.  (The
Kushana art of Mathura is somewhat heavy.  The style and technique which the Kushana artists were
trying to evolve were brought to the Gupta period.  But the art of South India during this time is more
elegant and sophisticated.  The sculptured panels of Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda, Goli, Ghantasals,
belonging to the 2nd – 3rd Century A.D., are characterised by delicasy of forms, and linear grace.

 
The Gupta Art

            The Gupta period (4th – 6th Century A.D.) marks the bright period of art in India.  Gupta art is
marked by restraint combined with a high aesthetic sense and discipline.  The main centres of Buddhist
art during this period were Mathura, Sarnath and Nalanda in the north.  The Buddhist images of Mathura
and Sarnath are some of the best specimens of Indian art, never equalled by any art creations of later
period.  The delicate folds of the transparent garment adorning the Gupta figures were done in a beautiful
style.  The profusely decorated halo is another special feature of the art of the Gupta figure.  The delicate
modelling of forms with meditative repose has rendered the Buddha and Bodhisattva figures of the Gupta
period most attractive. The Gupta artists showed an equal ingenuity in the carving of metal images also.  
The bronze Buddha image from Sultanganj and also one from Dhanesar Khera together with a number of
specimens found in north-western part of India are some excellent specimens testifying to the skill and
ability of the Gupta metal carvers.

            This period is also known for excavations of several rock-cut viharas and temples at Ajanta and
Ellora, in Maharashtra, under the patronage of the Vakataka King.  Caves 16,17 and 26 at Ajanta are
excellent examples of pillared halls with usual cells with shrines in the back containing Budha figures.  
The beauty and variety of the pillars are remarkable.  Caves 16 and 17 were excavated in the last quarter
of the 5th Century A.D. by a Minister and feudatory of the Vakataka king Harisena.  The mural paintings in
the Ajanta caves of the Vakataka period contain representations of scenes from Buddha’s life from the
conception to enlightenment.  Some of them are devoted to the illustrations of Jataka stories, including
one of Prince Visvantara, hero of immeasurable bounty.  The Ajanta paintings both in composition and
technique are characterised by a delicacy and depth of feelings.  The artists excel not only in depicting
human and animal figures but also in decorative genius.  They adorned the ceilings, pedestals of
columns, door and window frames, with patterns and motifs of kaleidoscopic variety.  Several Buddhist
caves are to be found also at Bagh (Madhya Pradesh) and Ellora (Maharashtra), containing numerous
Budha and Bodhisattva figures (5th – 6th Century).

Post – Gupta – Developments

            The Gupta art tradition was followed in later period also.  The art of Nalanda , Kurkihar, Sarnath,
Orissa and other places during the mediaeval period is based upon the Gupta art idiom.   The north Indian
Buddhism of the mediaeval period (8 th – 11th Century A.D). is a peculiar synthesis of the Mahayana ideals
and tantric elements.  The concept of the Adi-Budha, the Dhyani-Buddhas, the divine Bodhisattvas as
well as the concept of Shakti or the female energy figures most prominently in the Buddhist art of the
period. One anachronism of Buddhist art in mediaeval period is the introduction of the crowned Buddhas
with jewelleries.  Though incompatible to the idea of renunciation which Buddha followed and preached,
such images were made probably to lay emphasis on the concept of Buddha as a Chakravartin, the
supreme universal monarch.

Nalanda

            The art of Nalanda shows very high standard of stone carving as well as metal casting.  The
minute execution of the bronzes specially of the smaller ones, has excited the admiration of all art lovers
of the world.  Several Nalanda bronzes were exported to Nepal and Tibet and also to Java.  Equally
interesting are the palm leaf illustrations of the Buddhist manuscripts of the Pala period.  Their minature
size, colour scheme and linear grace show the skill of the painters of these illustrations.  The Pala style of
painting, as Pala sculptures and bronzes, very much influenced the art of Nepal, Tibet and the further
East.  Bodh-Gaya and Nalanda in Magadha drew pilgrims from different parts of the Buddhist world.
 

Nagapattinam

            A flourishing centre of Buddhism in South India during the period was Naga-pattinam, near
Madras on east coast.  There existed here in the mediaeval period a colony of the Malaya Buddhists who,
patronized by the Cholas erected here two temples in the 11 th Century A.D., with the aid granted by the
Sailendra kings of Java and Sumatra.  One of the temples was called Rajarajaperumpalli and the
Rajendracholaperumpalli.  Naga-pattinum was a place of piligrimage for the Buddhists of different places
in India as well as outside.  Since 1856 about 350 bronzes have been found in these vihara sites.  Some
of them are of the early Chola times while the rest belong to the later Chola period.   The Nagapattinam
bronzes are some of the finest metal works of South India.

Excellent Jain architecture and sculpture can be seen in their Stupas and rock-cut caves
found in Mathura, Bundelkhand, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa cave temples. A number of
rock-cut caves have been discovered in Udaigiri and Khandagiri, twin hills in Puri District of
Orissa and in Ellora in Maharashtra.

Excavated mainly as retreats for Jaina ascetics, they belong to the first century and second
century BC. The eighteen Udaigiri and fifteen Khandagiri caves differ in plan from the rock-
cut viharas of the Buddhists. The Jain viharas here do not have the assembly or prayer hall
surrounded by cel1s nor a sanctuary like the Buddhist viharas. Excavated at different levels,
the cells are narrow with low ceilings. There are no niches in the walls. The cells are small
and plain, in keeping with the rigorous asceticism of Jain monks. Some of the cells have
shelves cut across the walls. The doorways are small and one has to bend or crawl to enter
a cell. In some of the cells the floor is raised at the rear end to serve as a pillow. Some cells
have low raised platforms for beds. The lay-out of the cells is such that they get sufficient
light - the cells opening on to a verandah. The Udaigiri caves are double-storeyed and have
a courtyard in front.

The largest and finest of the Udaigiri caves is Cave 1 called the Rani-Gumpha or Rani cave.
(Gumpha the local word tor cave). The Rani-Gumpha is important for its heavily sculptured
friezes. The architecture of the cave is simple, having been excavated on three sides of a
quadrangle. The roof of the verandah projects outwards like an overhanging cornice (eave).
Pillars have been cut to support the roof giving the caves an effect of structural houses. The
right wing of the lower storey has one cell with three small entrances and a pillared
verandah. Two armed dwarapalas stand guard on either side of the verandah. Though the
pillars have collapsed, the capitals with sculptured bulls and lions are to be seen intact. The
entrances to the cells are arched with motifs of the lotus and creepers coming out of the
mouths of animals. The back wall of the verandah is covered with a frieze of elaborately
carved figures. The left wing has three cells and the main wing has four cells. The doorways
of all the cells are decorated with sculptured pilasters and arches. Carved friezes depicting
the reception of a king returning victorious from a battle adorn the rear walls of the
verandahs. In the upper storey also, the plan is the same - with four cells in the main wing
and one cell each on either side. Each cell has two doorways with curved arches and
engraved pilasters Symbol, auspicious for the Jains are carved in the space between the
arches. The workmanship in the upper storey is superior to that of the lower. On the whole
the figures are shown in easy natural poses with their faces in various profiles and moods.
The designs on the pillars are similar to those used in Buddhist caves. The inscriptions on
the cave walls give valuable information about the rulers and dynasties of that period. The
cave is a good exhibit of the water supply system at the time. As there was no worship of
images then, there is no Jain thirthankara in the original carving. Figures of thirthankaras
carved on the walls of the cells are a later addition to the Khandagiri caves which were
redone in about the 11th and 12th centuries A.D. to serve as sanctuaries.

The Hathigumpha is important for its rock-cut inscription of King Karavela of Orissa which
describes chronologically the events of his rule.
Jain architecture reached the peak of excellence in the 11th and 12th century AD as can be
seen in their temples in Rajgir in Bihar and Palitana in Kathiawar.
 
4

The Badami Chalukya era was an important period in the development of South Indian
architecture. Their style of architecture is called "Chalukyan architecture" or "Karnata Dravida
architecture".[98][99] Nearly a hundred monuments built by them, rock cut (cave) and structural, are
found in the Malaprabha river basin in modern Bagalkot district of northern Karnataka.[100] The
building material they used was a reddish-golden Sandstone found locally. Though they ruled a
vast empire, the Chalukyan workshops concentrated most of their temple building activity in a
relatively small area within the Chalukyan heartland – Aihole, Badami, Pattadakal and Mahakuta
in modern Karnataka state.[101]

Their temple building activity can be categorised into three phases. The early phase began in the
last quarter of the 6th century and resulted in many cave temples, prominent among which are
three elementary cave temples at Aihole (one Vedic, one Jain and one Buddhist which is
incomplete), followed by four developed cave temples at Badami (of which cave 3, a Vaishnava
temple, is dated accurately to 578 CE).[102] These cave temples at Badami are similar, in that,
each has a plain exterior but an exceptionally well finished interior comprising of a pillared
verandah, a columned hall (mantapa) and a cella (shrine, cut deep into rock) which contains the
deity of worship.[103] In Badami, three caves temples are Vedic and one in Jain. The Vedic
temples contain large well sculpted images of Harihara, Mahishasuramardhini, Varaha,
Narasimha, Trivikrama, Vishnu seated on Anantha (the snake) and Nataraja (dancing Shiva).[104]

The second phase of temple building was at Aihole (where some seventy structures exist and has
been called "one of the cradles of Indian temple architecture"[105]) and Badami. Though the exact
dating of these temples has been debated, there is consensus that the beginnings of these
constructions are from c. 600.[106][107][108] These are the Lad Khan Temple (dated by some to c. 450
but more accurately to 620) with its interesting perforated stone windows and sculptures of river
goddesses; the Meguti Jain Temple (634) which shows progress in structural design; the Durga
Temple with its northern Indian style tower (8th century) and experiments to adapt a Buddhist
Chaitya design to a brahminical one; the Huccimalli Gudi Temple with a new inclusion, a
vestibule, connecting the sanctum to the hall.[109] Other dravida style temples from this period are
the Naganatha Temple at Nagaral; the Banantigudi Temple, the Mahakutesvara Temple and the
Mallikarjuna Temple at Mahakuta; and the Lower Sivalaya Temple, the Malegitti Sivalaya
Temple (upper) and the Jambulingesvara Temple at Badami.[107]

The structural temples at Pattadakal, built in the 8th century and now a UNESCO World
Heritage Site, marks the culmination and mature phase of Badami Chalukyan architecture. The
Bhutanatha group of temples at Badami are also from this period. There are ten temples at
Pattadakal, six in southern dravida style and four in the northern nagara style. Well known
among these are the Sangamesvara Temple (725), the Virupaksha Temple (740–745) and the
Mallikarjuna Temple (740–745) in the southern style. The Papanatha temple (680) and
Galaganatha Temple (740) are early attempts in the nagara – dravida fusion style.[110]
Inscriptional evidence suggests that the Virupaksha and the Mallikarjuna Temples were
commissioned by the two queens of King Vikramaditya II after his military success over the
Pallavas of Kanchipuram.[107] Some well known names of Chalukyan architects are Revadi
Ovajja, Narasobba and Anivarita Gunda.[111]

The reign of Western Chalukyas was an important period in the development of Deccan
architecture. Their architecture served as a conceptual link between the Badami Chalukya
architecture of the 8th century and the Hoysala architecture popularised in the 13th century.[112]
[113]
The centre of their cultural and temple-building activity lay in the Tungabhadra region of
modern Karnataka state, encompassing the present-day Dharwad district; it included areas of
present-day Haveri and Gadag districts.[114][115] Here, large medieval workshops built numerous
monuments.[116] These monuments, regional variants of pre-existing dravida temples, defined the
Karnata dravida tradition.[117]

The most notable of the many buildings dating from this period are the Mahadeva Temple at
Itagi in the Koppal district,[118] the Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi in the Gadag district,[119]
the Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti and the Kallesvara Temple at Bagali, both in the
Davangere district.[120] Other notable constructions are the Dodda Basappa Temple at Dambal
(Gadag district),[121] the Siddhesvara Temple at Haveri (Haveri district),[122] and the Amrtesvara
Temple at Annigeri (Dharwad district).[123] The Eastern Chalukyas built some fine temples at
Alampur, in modern eastern Andhra Pradesh.[102][124]

THE GUPTA STYLE OF ARCHITECTURE

The Gupta Period (4th-7th c AD) is often described as "the Golden Age of art and architecture in
India".  During this period, Sarnath emerged as a school par excellence in the Buddhist art. Some
of the most beautiful images of Buddha are products of this School. One of the best sculptures
from Sarnath depicts Buddha giving his first sermon in the Deer Park. The image of the Buddhist
pantheon include Indra, Surya, Yakshas, Yakshis, dwarapalas, Mithuna couples, winged horses
and mythical animals in Hinayana stupas and viharas as at Sanchi, Bharhut, Bodhgaya, Bhaja,
Karle, Bedsa, Pitalkhoda and others and the Bodhisattvas, the Buddha, Tara and others in the
Mahayana monuments as at Ajanta, Ellora, Auragabad, Karle, Bedsa, Pitalkhoda and Kanheri.
 This period witnessed a tremendous resurgence of Hinduism when it became the official religion
of the Gupta Empire. Consequently, this era was also marked by the emergence of innumerable
images of popular Hindu Gods and Goddesses. Images of Lord Vishnu, Lord Shiva, Lord
Krishna, Surya and Durga evolved in this period. The Udaigiri caves in Madhya Pradesh house a
colossal image of Lord Vishnu. Other statues of this period found in various temples and
museums are indicative of the various dimensions of early Hindu art and sculpture.

 During the Gupta period a firm foundation of temple architecture was laid when the basic
elements of the Indian temple consisting of a square sanctum and pillared porch emerged. The
evolved Gupta temple also had a covered processional path for circumambulation that formed a
part of the worship-ritual. Earlier temples of the period had a flat slab-roof, often monolithic, but
the later temples in brick and stone developed a shikhara. The gradual evolution of the Gupta
style is traceable through development of the plan and the ornamentation on the pillars and door-
frame, the later introducing new decorative motifs like goblins, couples, flying angels, door-
keepers and a figure relief in the centre of the lintel emblematic of the deity consecrated in the
temple.

 Sculptures of deities their consorts, celestial beings, couples, directional deities, composite
animals and decorative motifs formed the mass of images that adorned the walls of the temples
and their interiors. The deities consecrated in the sanctum were carved strictly according to
religious cannons and installed by performing a special consecration ceremony. The genius of
the Indian sculptor lay in his visualization of the deities' ideal proportions, youthful bodies and
benign expressions.   Temple sculptures were not necessarily religious. Many drew on secular
subject matters and decorative motifs. The scenes of everyday life consist of military
processions, royal court scenes, musicians, dancers, acrobats and amorous couples. Another
group of non-religious figures is the apsaras or devanganas (celestial women) and vyalas
(composite animals).

 The Parvati temple at Nachana, the temple of Bhitaragaon, the Vishnu temple at Tigawa, the
Shiva temple at Bhumara and the Dasavatara temple at Deogarh are among the best examples of
the Gupta style of temple architecture.

 The cave architecture also attained a great degree of refinement during the Gupta period.  The
Chaitya and Vihara caves at Ajanta and the Ellora caves are the best specimens of cave-
architecture of the period. The rock-cut caves at Khandagiri, Udayagiri and Undavalli also
belong to this period. 

The Hoysala Rulers who succeeded the later Chalukyas and ruled over the Mysore Plateau in
the 12th and 13th centuries A.D. were also lovers of art.  They evolved a new style of
architecture.  The most notable temples of this period are those constructed in Belur,
Halebid and Somnathpur.  These temples are star-shaped.  They are built on a high star-
shaped base which is richly carved.  The shikharas though pyramidal are low unlike those of
other temples. 
The Somnathpur temple was built by Vinaditya Ballal in about 1043 A.D. and is the earliest
of this type. The temple though small was exquisitely carved with three pyramidal vimanas
surmounting the three shrines. The best specimen of Hoysala art is the Hoysaleswara
temple at Halebid and the Chenna Kesava temple at Belur.
The Hoysaleswara temple is composed of two similar temples side by side on a single five
feet high star shaped terrace. Built of grey soap-stone, best suited for fine carving, each of
the temples has star shaped vimanas with projections on three sides. The inner arms
connect the two temples The mandapa ceilings and the pillars in the hall are intricately
carved. The entire base is covered with running lengths of  carved friezes of tigers,
elephants, horses, birds and celestial beings-each frieze more beautiful than the other. The
ceilings, interior and exterior walls of the temple have beautiful sculptures carved on them.

The Chenna Kesava temple at Belur was built by Vishnuvardhana of the Hoysala Dynasty in
1117 A.D. to commemorate a victory won over the Cholas at Talkad in 1116 A.D. It is
dedicated to the deity Chenna Kesava. The temple stands in a spacious courtyard
surrounded by a covered passage and compound with a gopura entrance. Later, other small
temples were built in the courtyard around the main temple. The whole complex stands on a
wide, raised star-shaped terrace with space enough for circumambulation. The star-shaped
base has elephants in different poses adorning it The basement of the vimana is profusely
carved with narrative friezes from the Ramayana, Mahabharata and Bhagavat Purana. The
walls are covered with sculptures of miniature shrines, animated female figures and
animals. The main entrances have a flight of steps from the courtyard and are flanked by
two small vimanas. The ceiling and the pillars inside are elegantly carved. Bracket figures
support the base of the ceiling: The superstructure on the main vimana is lost. Inside the
sanctum sanctorum is the beautiful 2 meter high idol of Chenna Kesava.

The Ganga rulers whose kingdom included Mysore have left behind a group of stone Jain
temples on the hills of Chandrigiri and Vindyagiri at Sravanabelgola in Hassan district of
Karnataka. The most impressive of the monuments is the statue of Bahubali or
Gomateswara, a Jain prince who after a victory in battle renounced worldly life for a life of
meditation. Carved out of massive granite, the statue stands on the crest of the Vindyagiri
hill. Standing nearly 20 meres high from head to foot, is of perfect proportions. It was
erected by Chamundaraya, a minister of the Ganga ruler, Rachamalla in 974-984 A.D. The
creepers entwining the limbs of the show him completely oblivious of life around. The statue
is surrounded by a granite pillared cloister built by Gangaraja, a minister of the Hoysala
ruler Vishnuvardhana.   

Vijayanagara architecture is a vibrant combination of the Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya and Chola
styles, idioms that prospered in previous centuries.[89][90] Its legacy of sculpture, architecture and
painting influenced the development of the arts long after the empire came to an end. Its stylistic
hallmark is the ornate pillared Kalyanamantapa (marriage hall), Vasanthamantapa (open pillared
halls) and the Rayagopura (tower). Artisans used the locally available hard granite because of its
durability since the kingdom was under constant threat of invasion. While the empire's
monuments are spread over the whole of Southern India, nothing surpasses the vast open air
theatre of monuments at its capital at Vijayanagara, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[91]
In the 14th century the kings continued to build Vesara or Deccan style monuments but later
incorporated dravida-style gopurams to meet their ritualistic needs. The Prasanna Virupaksha
temple (underground temple) of Bukka Raya I and the Hazare Rama temple of Deva Raya I are
examples of Deccan architecture.[92] The varied and intricate ornamentation of the pillars is a
mark of their work.[93] At Hampi, though the Vitthala temple is the best example of their pillared
Kalyanamantapa style, the Hazara Ramaswamy temple is a modest but perfectly finished
example.[94] A visible aspect of their style is their return to the simplistic and serene art developed
by the Chalukya dynasty.[95] A grand specimen of Vijayanagara art, the Vitthala temple, took
several decades to complete during the reign of the Tuluva kings.[96]

Another element of the Vijayanagara style is the carving of large monoliths such as the
Sasivekalu (mustard) Ganesha and Kadalekalu (Ground nut) Ganesha at Hampi, the
Gomateshwara statues in Karkala and Venur, and the Nandi bull in Lepakshi. The Vijayanagara
temples of Bhatkal, Kanakagiri, Sringeri and other towns of coastal Karnataka, as well as
Tadpatri, Lepakshi, Ahobilam, Tirupati and Srikalahasti in Andhra Pradesh, and Vellore,
Kumbakonam, Kanchi and Srirangam in Tamil Nadu are examples of this style. Vijayanagara art
includes wall-paintings such as Dasavathara (ten avatars of Vishnu) and Girijakalyana
(marriage of Goddess Parvati) in the Virupaksha temple at Hampi, the Shivapurana paintings
(tales of Shiva) at the Virabhadra temple at Lepakshi, and those at the Jain basadi (temple) and
the Kamaskshi and Varadaraja temple at Kanchi.[97] This mingling of the South Indian styles
resulted in a richness not seen in earlier centuries, a focus on reliefs in addition to sculpture that
surpasses that previously in India.[98]

An aspect of Vijayanagara architecture that shows the cosmopolitanism of the great city is the
presence of many secular structures bearing Islamic features. While political history concentrates
on the ongoing conflict between the Vijayanagara empire and the Deccan Sultanates, the
architectural record reflects a more creative interaction. There are many arches, domes and vaults
that show these influences. The concentration of structures like pavilions, stables and towers
suggests they were for use by royalty.[99] The decorative details of these structures may have been
absorbed into Vijayanagara architecture during the early 15th century, coinciding with the rule of
Deva Raya I and Deva Raya II. These kings are known to have employed many Muslims in their
army and court, some of whom may have been Muslim architects. This harmonious exchange of
architectural ideas must have happened during rare periods of peace between the Hindu and
Muslim kingdoms.[100] The "Great Platform" (Mahanavami dibba) has relief carvings in which
the figures seem to have the facial features of central Asian Turks who were known to have been
employed as royal attendants.[101]

The South Indian temples have made a rich contribution to temple architecture in India. The
development of the Bhakti Cult in the form of Saivism and Vaishnavism resulted in the
worship of idols and construction of temples.  Starting with the rule of the Pallavas in the
7th Century A.D. temple architecture gradually continued to develop during the Chola Period
(900 – 1150 A.D.), the Chalukya and Hoysala Period (10th to 12th Century A.D.), the
Pandya Period (1100 A.D. to 1350 A.D.), the Vijayanagar Period (1350 A.D. to 1565 A.D.)
culminating in the final phase of the Dravidian style during the rule of the Nayak rulers of
Madurai.
The South Indian temples are institutions by themselves and are centres of community life
– Public and Religious.  Here, people gathered to worship, discuss social, political and
religious matters.  They were centres for music, dance and drama.  They had schools and
colleges attached where free secular and religious instruction were given as per the Agama
Shastras, they maintained people of various crafts and occupations as temple staff to serve
the needs of the community.  They have thus contributed to the all-round development of
the individual in Society. 
The Dravidian or Pallava style was introduced during the Pallava Rule.  The earlier form of
this style is seen in the rock cut temples or Rathas of Mahabalipuram.  Known as the Seven
Rathas and named after Ganesh, Draupadi and the Five Pandava brothers, these temples
are cut out of solid rock, have mandaps and pillared halls.  They are monolithic shrines. 
Mahabalipuram or Mamallapuram, 59 Kms. south of Madras, was founded by
Narasimhavarman I Pallava who ruled over the area in the 7th Century A.D.  There are a
number of cave temples with beautiful mandaps and figures of lions – the symbols of the
Pallava Simha Vishnu prominently displayed.
The Seven Rathas were excavated during the reign of Narasimhavarman 1.  The
Dharmaraja Ratha is the largest of the group and is 12.8 mtrs. long.  Its height is 12.3 mtrs
feet.  Built on a square base, it has a 3-tier pyramidal superstructure with a stupa adorn it
on top.  The Draupadi Ratha is the smallest and most elegant.  Dedicated to Saivism, these
rathas have around them images of lions, elephants and bulls carved on rocks as symbols of
Durga, Indra and Shiva respectively.
The temples, mostly pyramidal structures have either a square or rectangular base.  The
superstructure of the Bhima Ratha is different and is semicircular in shape like the vaulted
roof of a wagon.  The mandaps and Rathas are adorned with beautiful sculptured figures
and panels.  The most beautiful and well-known of these is that showing the ‘penance of
Arjuna’ or as described by some artists the ‘Descent of Ganga’. 
SHORE TEMPLE, MAHABALIPURAM  
The Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram, built during the reign of Narasimha 11 is on the
seashore.  Facing east, the temple has a small gopuram with a pradakshina path between
the temple and the outer wall.  The main shrine contains a broken fluted Shiva linga. 
Opposite the gopuram is the dwaja sthamba.  The outer walls of the temple are covered
with carved panels separated y lions.  Many of these have been destroyed by the dashing
waves of the sea.  Behind this shrine is another cell with a figure of Vishnu reclining on the
serpent sesha.  Next to this and facing west is another shrine dedicated to Shiva.  Opposite
the Temple is the Balipitha or altar.  The courtyard is surrounded by rows of Nandis.  Rocks
carved with the eight-armed Durga on a lion can also be seen near the temple. 
 
The second phase of Pallava art begins towards the end of the 7th  century AD and
continues in the 8th century AD in the form of structural monuments. Splendid temples
were constructed during this period. The characteristic feature of these temples is the high
shikharas ascending tier upon tier, diminishing in size. The most beautiful examples of this
style are the Kailashnath Temple dedicated to Shiva and the Vaikuntha Perumal Temple to
Vishnu both located at Kanchipuram. These are a development on the style of previous
temples and contain a flat roofed mandap surrounded by numerous cells. Rock and brick
were used in the construction.
The Kailashnath Temple of Shiva was built by Rajasimha Pallava and his son
Mahendravarman. Built of coarse sandstone, it has a four-storeyed square vimana. The
sikhara is octagonal. Three of the four storeys of the vimana are decorated with miniature
vimanas and the fourth has four nandis on the four corners. The bases of the mandapa
pillars have lions sculptured on them. The temple has a courtyard on all four sidesin which
there is a row of fifty four small shrines. A temple wall encloses the temple complex. The
inner and outer walls of these shrines are adorned with fresco paintings while the walls of
the main temple are profusely decorated with sculptures.
The Vaikuntha Perumal Temple was constructed by Nandivarnam in the 7th century AD and
is dedicated to Lord Vishnu. It is built on a plan similar to the Kailashnath Temple. Built of
sandstone and granite, it is a large square temple with a four storeyed vimana. The temple
contains three garbha-grihas or sanctum cells, with an idol of Vishnu sitting, standing and
reclining. The walls of the storeys and the mandapa have beautiful sculptures on them. A
pillared cloister surrounds the shrine. The temple is important for the series of inscriptions
describing the wars between the Pallavas and the Chalukyas and the sculptured panels
depicting the history of the Pallava rulers.
Pallava art was also carried across the seas to South-East Asia. An example of Pallava art is
seen in the Temple of Angkor Vat in Cambodia built by King Suryavarman.  Dedicated to
Shiva, it is the largest temple in the world. The temple is built on a vast terrace and has
many spires and towers. It has three terraces or galleries one above the other getting
smaller in size as they go up. They are connected by stairs. A pyramidal temple, the central
tower is the highest of the twelve surrounding towers. The temple walls and galleries are
adorned with fine sculptures of birds, flowers, dancers and scenes from the Ramayana and
Mahabharata and the puranas. The temple is enclosed by a boundary wall and a moat. Built
by Indian builders it is a magnificient structure.
9

The Rashtrakutas contributed much to the architectural heritage of the Deccan. The Rashtrakuta
contributions to art and architecture are reflected in the splendid rock-cut cave temples at Ellora
and Elephanta, located in present day Maharashtra. The Ellora site was originally part of a
complex of 34 Buddhist caves probably created in the first half of the sixth century in rocky
areas also occupied by Jains monks whose structural details show Pandyan influence. Cave
temples occupied by Hindus only became feasible later.[148]

The Rashtrakutas renovated these Buddhist caves and re-dedicated the rock-cut shrines.
Amoghavarsha I espoused Jainism and there are five Jain cave temples at Ellora ascribed to his
period.[149] The most extensive and sumptuous of the Rashtrakutas work at Ellora is their creation
of the monolithic Kailasanath Temple, a splendid achievement confirming the "Balhara" status as
"one among the four principle Kings of the world".[71] The walls of the temple have marvellous
sculptures from Hindu mythology including Ravana, Shiva and Parvathi while the ceilings have
paintings.

The Kailasanath Temple project was commissioned by King Krishna I after the Rashtrakuta rule
had spread into South India from the Deccan. The architectural style used was Dravidian. It does
not contain any of the Shikharas common to the Nagara style and was built on the same lines as
the Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal in Karnataka.[150] The achievement at the Kailasanath temple
is considered an architectural consummation of the monolithic rock-cut temple and deserves be
considered one of the wonders of the world.[151] As an accomplishment of art, the Kailasnatha
temple is considered an unrivalled work of rock architecture, a monument that has always
excited and astonished travellers.[152]
While some scholars have claimed the architecture at Elephanta is attributable to the Kalachuri,
others claim that it was built during the Rashtrakuta period.[153] Some of the sculptures such as
Nataraja and Sadashiva excel in beauty and craftmanship even that of the Ellora sculptures.[154]
Famous sculptures at Elephanta include Ardhanarishvara and Maheshamurthy. The latter, a
three faced bust of Lord Shiva, is 25 feet (8 m) tall and considered one of the finest pieces of
sculpture in India. It is said that, in the world of sculpture, few works of art depicting a divinity
are as balanced.[154] Other famous rock-cut temples in the Maharashtra region are the Dhumer
Lena and Dashvatara cave temples in Ellora (famous for its sculptures of Vishnu and Shivaleela)
and the Jogeshvari temple near Mumbai.

In Karnataka their most famous temples are the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple
at Pattadakal, a UNESCO World Heritage site.[155] Other well known temples are the Parameshwara
temple at Konnur, Brahmadeva temple at Savadi, the Settavva, Kontigudi II, Jadaragudi and
Ambigeragudi temples at Aihole, Mallikarjuna temple at Ron, Andhakeshwara temple at Huli (Hooli),
Someshwara temple at Sogal, Jain temples at Lokapura, Navalinga temple at Kuknur, Kumaraswamy
temple at Sandur, at Shirival in Gulbarga and the Trikuteshwara temple at Gadag which was later
expanded by Kalyani Chalukyas. Archeological study of these temples show some have the stellar
(multigonal) plan later to be used profusely by the Hoysalas of Belur and Halebidu.[156] One of the richest
traditions in Indian architecture took shape in the Deccan during this time and one writer calls it Karnata
dravida style as opposed to traditional Dravida style.

10

Prof. Chitralekha Singh is the first woman in the world to have earned D. Litt. (Painting). She
has been the Director, Lalit Kala Sansthan, Agra and Head Dept. of Fine Arts, Agra College,
Agra. She has authored 24 books, guided 150 M. Phil. and 45 Ph. D. scholars. The prestigious
‘Gandhi Medal’ was awarded by Govt. of India for her outstanding efforts through her
‘paintings’ on ‘World Peace’ in 2005. Prof. Chitralekha Singh was awarded the title of
‘professional & business woman’ by American biographical Institute, INC. USA in 1999. She
has been an honorary member of the Professional Women’s Advisory Board, USA, since 2003.
She has served NCC as caption and she is holder of defence secretaries commendation cards
Dr. Chitralekha Singh
DEAN & PROFESSOR
Institute of Visual and Performing Arts
D.Litt, Ph.D, M.A

11

Folk arts of India are quite well developed. They are different from primitive art forms in that
they are more finished, polished, complex and stylised. Folk art came after the village
settlements were established. It is marginally developed and more finished in nature. The
common people are the mainspring of folk art. Folk art forms may accompany the celebration of
various religious, social, and family festivals. The problem of fertility both in case of human
beings and land, the problem of natural disasters like floods, famines and fire, diseases and
accidents, directly or indirectly, provide the theme for folk art. The main purpose of folk arts is
three-fold- they satisfy people`s passion for religious rituals, entertainment as well as social
interaction.

Characteristics of Folk Arts in India

Folk arts, as distinct from tribal and traditional art, exhibit certain characteristics
which is typical to this art form alone. The compositions either do not claim any author or are
adopted from written texts. But neither the performers nor the audience are interested in the
source of the text or the author. Folk art is mostly orally transmitted and passes from generation
to generation through Guru-Sishya Parampara. The folk arts have no watertight
compartmentalisation among themselves and there is seen a mixture of dance, song, music and
drama. The division into dance, drama and musical forms made basing on emphasis. The music
used in the folk arts is mostly Bhava-centric music. The stress is on Tala (rhythm), and though
all kinds of instruments are used, the most important instruments used are percussion
instruments. Most common kinds of Anabadha (drum) Vadyas are Dhol, Mardal, Khol,
Pakhavaj etc. The Ghana (brass) instruments are Gird, Jhanja, Kartal etc. A particular feature of
folk art is the presence of body language and histrionics even where no actual dramatic plot
exists. Its Sahitya is very simple.

Relationship between Folk and Classical Arts in India

There is a rather strong relationship between the folk or traditional arts and the so-called `Sastrik` or
classical art forms of India. In fact, it is rather difficult to exactly demarcate between the characteristics
and streams of folk and classical arts at times. As it is well known many Raagas have folk origin. For
instance, Raaga Mand evolved from Rajasthani folk music. Jaisalmer in Rajasthan is said to be its place
of origin. But interestingly enough folk singers of Rajasthan like Manganiyars who play many Hindustani
classical Raagas and also are found in Jaisalmer area do not ever play Raaga Mand. This also illustrates
another interesting phenomenon where the folk arts passed through a further process of Sanskritisation
and did away with the previously acquired Sanskritised elements in its culture. Even in the field of dance,
such intermingling of classical and folk elements can be seen. Modern Odissi dance, which is today
accepted as a classical dance system, as some experts observe, actually was reconstructed in the 60`s
from Gotipua dance, which was virtually a folk dance. Dhiren Dash, an expert on ancient performing arts
of Orissa proves that many folk forms of music in Orissa actually conformed to the tenets laid down in
the Sastras.

Thus the field of performing arts is replete with such instances. Dhrupad degenerated into Khayal which
in its turn degenerated into Thumri, which again has degenerated into popular folk form. On the other
hand, from folk forms evolved classical forms like Raag Mand or Saberi and Odissi dance. Then again
some folk forms are actually based on Sastriya principles. These examples prove how weak the dividing
lines between Sastrik and folk music are.