Bulletin for Biblical Research 11.

2 (2001) 293-304 [© 2001 Institute for Biblical Research]

Equilibrium and the Sacred Compass:

The Structure of Leviticus

JOHN H. WALTON
WHEATON COLLEGE

Despite the highly organized features of Leviticus, interpreters have found

it difficult to identify a cohesive structure to the book. One possible expla-
nation may be that we have been deterred by presuppositions. We have
generally seen the sacrificial system in terms of providing a means to care
for the sin and impurity of the people. An alternative approach, however,
focuses on the need to preserve and maintain sacred space. This paper
builds on this concept and explores the ways that such an adjustment in
our thinking suggests a new understanding of the structure and focus of
Leviticus.

Key Words: Leviticus, sacred space, sacred compass, sacrifice

Extensive reading in the literature on Leviticus is not necessary to

arrive at the conclusion that there is a high degree of confusion
about the structure of the book. Non-evangelical scholars tend to be
much more interested in P and H as individual sources and offer little
attention to the canonical structure of the book. E. Gerstenberger's
comments are typical:

According to contemporary literary understanding, Leviticus is not a

"book" at all, but rather a fairly artificial excerpt from a larger narra-
tive and legislative work, sewn together like a patchwork quilt from
many different, individual pieces.1

Jacob Milgrom's magisterial commentary is mostly concerned

with the integration of sources H and P, but he does also deal briefly
with the book as a unified whole.2 He adopts with some adjustment
the ring structure proposed by Mary Douglas that posits chap. 19
1. E. Gerstenberger, Leviticus (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1996) 2.
2. Jacob Milgrom, Leviticus 17-22 (AB 3A; New York: Doubleday, 2000) 1364-67.
294 Bulletin for Biblical Research 11.2

as the center turning point.3 This structure continues by matching

chaps. 18//20; 11-16//21-23; the two narratives, 10:1-4//24:10-23;
1-9//25; 26 is seen as the logical ending; and 27 as an appendix to
lock with 1-9, thereby closing the ring structure.
Canonical and literary approaches shed little additional light.
Given the above paragraph, one might be mildly surprised to read
Childs's remark that "there is wide agreement regarding the struc-
ture of the book of Leviticus,"4 until one discovers that by this he
means that the content can be divided into five sections. Rendtorff
can say only that "Evidently [the sections] have been brought to-
gether here with the intention of depicting the whole of cultic legis-
lation as having been given to Moses."5
More recently, a monograph by W. Warning used terminological cri-
teria found in the divine speeches to identify a structure to the book.
His work focused on categories such as chiasm and numerology.6
Evangelical commentaries are not much more helpful. It is com-
mon to identify anywhere from two to five or six sections of the book,
and though one finds comments concerning the logical arrangement
or the structural links, there is little attempt to offer a cohesive struc-
tural design of the book. Outlines tend to present simple content
rather than design. Harrison suggests that the book appears hap-
hazard and repetitious,7 and his only rebuttal to this is to identify
literary structure within chapters. Noordtzij, after commenting that
the book "does not in all respects constitute a systematically orga-
nized whole,"8 proceeds to fragment the book and scatter its contents
over centuries.
It is not difficult to understand how this state of affairs came to
be. While the major sections are clearly enough delineated, some of
these sections, such as the story of the blasphemer in chap. 24, seem-
ingly defy any attempt to identify a cohesive logic. Chapter 23 on the
festivals is also often seen as isolated (and is currently the subject of
a Berkeley dissertation9), and chap. 27 is almost unanimously treated
as an add-on appendix. When I teach Pentateuch each year and ask
3. Mary Douglas, "Poetic Structure in Leviticus," in Pomegranates and Golden Bells:
Studies in Biblical, Jewish, and Near Eastern Ritual, Law, and Literature in Honor of Jacob
Milgrom (ed. D. P. Wright, D. N. Freedman, and A. Hurvitz; Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisen-
brauns, 1995) 239-56; See also M. Douglas, Leviticus as Literature (New York: Oxford
University Press, 2000).
4. B. S. Childs, Introduction to the Old Testament as Scripture (Philadelphia: For-
tress, 1979) 182.
5. Rolf Rendtorff, The Old Testament (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1986) 145.
6. W. Warning, Literary Artistry in Leviticus (Leiden: Brill, 1999).
7. R. K. Harrison, Leviticus (Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity, 1980) 15.
8. A. Noordtzij, Leviticus (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan, 1982) 8.
9. By Michael Hildenbrand.
 WALTON: Equilibrium and the Sacred compass 295

my students to produce a one-page paper on the structural design of

each book, it is Leviticus that frustrates and baffles them.
In this paper I am offering a cohesive structural design for the
book (see chart on p. 304). Sometimes our failure to see the logic
stems from the fact that our idea of logic and of what is important in
a book is very different from an Israelite view. One of the elements of
Israelite thinking that is foreign to us has recently been receiving in-
creased attention: sacred space.
The OT establishes the significance of sacred space from its
earliest pages. Students of Genesis over the last couple of decades
have recognized that the creation narratives view the cosmos as a
temple.10 As in temple-building accounts in the ancient Near East,
seven days are set aside to proclaim the functions of the temple and
install the functionaries.11 At the climax, Deity comes to take up his
repose (rest) in the temple. God has brought order and equilibrium to
the cosmos and maintains them in the world he has created. Further
distinctions in sacred space are made as Eden is identified as the
place of God's presence with the garden planted adjoining it. Temples
or palaces with adjoining garden/parks are well-known in the an-
cient Near East.12 Gen 2:10 details how the rivers flowed from Eden
(the equivalent to the Holy of Holies) to water the garden (adjoining
it, equivalent to the antechamber). When Adam and Eve sinned, they
were cast out of the garden, lost their access to sacred space, and up-
set the equilibrium that God had established.
The plan of the tabernacle (and later, the temple) was designed to
reestablish equilibrium in a sacred space—God's presence on earth—
while retaining restricted access.13 The design was reminiscent of
Eden with the cherub decor, the Table of the presence (provision of
food as in Eden), and the menorah, which most agree represents the
10. Jon D. Levenson, "The Temple and the World" JR 64 (1984) 275-98; G. Wen-
ham, "Sanctuary Symbolism in the Garden of Eden Story," in Proceedings of the Ninth
World Congress of Jewish Studies (Jerusalem: World Union of Jewish Studies, 1986).
11. Gudea, Baal, Solomon, Second Temple. M. Weinfeld, "Sabbath, Temple and
the Enthronement of the Lord: The Problem of the Sitz im Leben of Genesis 1:1-2:3,"
in Mélanges bibliques et orientaux en l'honneur de M. Henri Cazelles (ed. A. Caquot and
M. Delcor; AOAT 212; Kevelaer: Butzon & Bercker / Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener
Verlag, 1981) 501-12. See discussion of this and other accounts of temple-building con-
nections with rest in Victor Hurowitz, I Have Built You an Exalted House (JSOTSup 115;
Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1992) appendix 5 (pp. 330-31). For Baal text, see J.
Gibson, Canaanite Myths and Legends (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1977) 6.iii.18-19 (p. 78).
12. Kathryn Gleason, "Gardens in Preclassical Times," Oxford Encyclopedia of Archae-
ology in the Near East (ed. E. Meyers; New York: Oxford University Press, 1997) 2.383.
13. John Lundquist, "What Is a Temple?: A Preliminary Typology," in The Quest
for the Kingdom of God: Studies in Honor of George E. Mendenhall (ed. H. B. Huffmon,
F. A. Spina, and A. R. W. Green; Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1983) 205-19.
296 Bulletin for Biblical Research 11.2

tree of life.14 As Exodus 40 describes the glory of the Lord filling the
temple, the Israelites experience what is, in effect, a return to Eden—
not in the sense of full restoration, but in the sense that God's pres-
ence again takes up its residence among people, and access to God's
presence, however limited, is restored.
Frank Gorman has indicated that ritual, by its nature, seeks to
uphold creation by maintaining equilibrium.15 In this regard, the
three most important aspects that rituals relate to are time, space,
and status.16 Gorman uses these categories to delineate the important
conditions under which rituals must be performed. That is, they
must be performed at specified places at specified times (with speci-
fied sequences) by people of specified status.
These categories can also be used in reference to the larger issue
of maintaining divine equilibrium. Sacred times must be identified,
maintained by the priests, and observed by the people. Sacred space
must be delineated, and its sanctity preserved. Statuses of priests
and people must be regulated by specific guidelines. These guide-
lines enable the priests to determine who has access to sacred time
and sacred space and how particular levels of status can be achieved
or maintained. In this light it is intriguing that the early chapters of
Genesis, in recounting God's establishment of cosmic order and equi-
librium, deal with the same three aspects: Genesis 1 deals with time
(days 1, 4, 7),17 Genesis 2 deals with space (the garden and Eden),18
and Genesis 3 deals with status (lost status as Adam and Eve are cast
out).19
In summary then, when God created the cosmos, he brought
order to it. He established equilibrium and took up his residence in
its midst to maintain this equilibrium. The equilibrium consisted of
organized space, established status, and ordered time. When sin en-
tered the world, this order was jeopardized, and chaos threatened
again. The sanctuary of Israel represented a small, idealized island of
order in a world of threatened chaos. It was a place that preserved
equilibrium for God's presence, which in turn was an anchor against
disorder. Preserving sacred space provided for God's continued pres-
14. C. Meyers, "Lampstand," ABD 4.142; Wenham, "Sanctuary Symbolism in the
Garden of Eden Story," 19-25.
15. Frank Gorman, The Ideology of Ritual (JSOTSup 91; Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1990)
28-29.
16. Ibid., 32-37, 55-59.
17. Walter Vogels, "The Cultic and Civil Calendars of the Fourth Day of Creation
(Gen 1,14b)," SJOT 11/2 (1997) 176.
18. Wenham, "Sanctuary Symbolism in the Garden of Eden Story," 19-25.
19. These are discussed in detail in my Genesis (NIV Application Commentary;
Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2001).
 WALTON: Equilibrium and the Sacred compass 297

ence. God's continued presence served to maintain equilibrium and

uphold creation. The priests, through rituals, therefore were seen as
having a role in upholding creation.
We can therefore conclude that Genesis and Exodus are attuned
to issues of equilibrium and sacred space and that the Israelites
would have seen an understanding and appreciation of sacred space
as a major component of their theology.20 This element figures prom-
inently in the building and dedication of the temple (1 Kings 8) and
was prominent in prophetic thinking (Isaiah 66; Ezekiel). When God's
presence left the temple (Ezekiel 10) and it was destroyed, sacred
space was absent for 70 years until the temple was rebuilt and the
sacred compass reestablished. This situation extended until the first
century CE in the temple that Herod built, and the presence of God
in the midst of his people continued to be a significant theological
issue.
In contrast, it is fair to say that sacred space has not been a cen-
tral plank in the theological platform of Christianity. There is, of
course, good reason for this. A generation before the temple was de-
stroyed by the Romans in 70 CE, a remarkable event took place. At the
moment when Jesus died, the Gospels report that the veil was torn in
two (Matt 27:51; Mark 15:38; Luke 23:45). We do not often enough
recognize the significance of this because we have so little under-
standing of sacred space. The tearing of the veil indicated the end of
restricted access to God. Heb 10:20 clarifies the new situation further
because it uses the imagery of Christ's flesh as the veil that gives us
access. Through the blood of Christ we are able to enter the Holy
Place. Paul works out some of the ramifications of this in Eph 2:11-
22 as he explains that the Gentiles were excluded from God's pres-
ence (that is, outside the camp) but are now brought near. Access that
had been denied was now available, since the barrier or wall was bro-
ken down (v. 14). Through him we all have access (v. 18), and built to-
gether we become a holy temple (v. 21) and a dwelling in which God
lives by his Spirit (v. 22). Paul further develops this issue in 1 Corin-
thians, where he identifies the corporate Church as God's temple
(3:16-17) and each individual Christian as a temple of the Holy Spirit
(6:19). Christ came as our peace (Eph 2:14-16; similar to equilibrium).
Peter proclaims that we are a royal priesthood (1 Pet 2:9). Since
this is true, the Church has taken its place in the long tradition of
upholding creation. Eden is restored in us because God's presence
has taken up his dwelling in his people. We have been given access to
the fruit of the tree of life and have been granted eternal life; the
20. See M. Greenberg's assessment of the purpose of Exodus, Understanding Exo-
dus (New York: Behrman, 1969) 16-17.
298 Bulletin for Biblical Research 11.2

function of the fruit of the knowledge of good and evil has taken root
in us as the indwelling Spirit leads us to make godly choices. We are
the heirs to the Garden of Eden. Our sacred status has been per-
manently set because we are in Christ and Christ is in us. This sig-
nificant change in status has resulted in a situation in which we no
longer understand the dynamics of the Israelite theology concerning
sacred space. The status issue has become, in one sense, the only is-
sue, and it absorbs most of our theological attention.
With these issues on the table, we are now in a position to come
to Leviticus. Given the Christian preoccupation with our status, it is
not unexpected that we have typically come to Leviticus with a status
orientation. We think of the sacrificial system in soteriological terms,
addressing one's status with regard to sin. In recent decades, the
careful studies of Milgrom, Levine, Brichto, Kiuchi, and others have
helped us to understand the sacrificial system, especially the sin and
guilt offerings (preferably, Purification offering and Reparation of-
fering), primarily as means of preserving the sanctity of sacred space
and only secondarily the status of the individual. Since the direct ob-
ject of the verb kipper is typically one of the sancta, it is not the person
who is the focus of the ritual but sacred space. The individuals are
beneficiaries of the ritual in that their status is restored because of
the cleansing that has taken place on their behalf. This has helped us
to understand what the book of Hebrews had told us all along: that
the sacrificial system was not intended as a means of taking away
sins from individuals. Instead, it provided a way to decontaminate a
sanctuary tarnished by individual and corporate sin and, in so doing,
preserve equilibrium in God's presence. Without a sanctuary to pre-
serve, a sacrificial system such as the one presented in Leviticus is
superfluous. In NT theology the Church is construed individually
and corporately as the sanctuary in which Christ dwells, and his
people have thereby become the object of the kipper that his blood
performs. But this concept does not exist in the OT.
Our emphasis on soteriology has unfortunately resulted in a nar-
cissistic twist to our theology. We are so grateful for what God has
done for us that we easily come to believe that our faith is about us.
Thus, David Wells observes:

The biblical interest in righteousness is replaced by a search for hap-

piness, holiness by wholeness, truth by feeling, ethics by feeling good
about one's self. The world shrinks to the range of personal circum-
stances; the community of faith shrinks to a circle of personal friends.
The past recedes. The Church recedes. The world recedes. All that re-
mains is the self.21

21. David Wells, No Place for Truth (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1993) 183.
 WALTON: Equilibrium and the Sacred compass 299

This kind of Christianity is a "me" religion: God loves me; Christ died
for me; Jesus saved me; heaven is prepared for me. These are all true,
of course, but they do not comprise the sum total of our faith. In the
end, our Christianity is all about God. Herein then lies the core of the
problem. We have been confused about Leviticus because we wanted
to think that ritual was all about people dealing with sin, when all
along it was about God and the equilibrium of sacred space. It treats
people somewhat secondarily—they have to be kept pure if the sanc-
tity of God's presence is to be maintained and if they are going to
have access to it. But God's presence is the main thing.
Sacred space can be understood by using a model of concentric
circles. In the center circle is the most holy area, the Holy of Holies,
the place of God's presence. The next concentric circle defines the
area that is limited to priestly access. In Israelite sanctuaries this area
was the antechamber and, at least eventually, the area between the
altar and the portico. Leviticus treats these two areas as one in light
of the fact that they are limited to priestly access. The third circle is
the courtyard where people of determined status (that is, a particular
level of purity) were allowed access for particular purposes (sacri-
fices at the altar). The fourth circle is represented in the Pentateuch
as the "camp of Israel," which is clearly distinguished from the area
"outside the camp." Those who had contracted impurity were driven
out of the camp. Once Israel was in the land, it is possible that the
"camp of Israel" was defined as the area within a settlement of some
sort, while "outside the camp" would have been defined as out in the
desolate, unsettled areas, but the text does not address this specifi-
cally (another indication that Leviticus should be viewed as a prod-
uct of the wilderness period). This series of concentric circles of
holiness has been referred to in recent literature as the "sacred com-
pass" (see diagram, p. 298). If we adopt an emphasis on the equili-
brium of sacred space and the model of the sacred compass for our
analysis of Leviticus, we will discover that the design of the structure
becomes more transparent.
The proposal set forth in this paper suggests that Leviticus deals
with issues of equilibrium zone by zone as it speaks of space, status
and time, and the qualifications and procedures associated with
each. Chapters 1-23 concern equilibrium relative to deity, and chaps.
24-27 concern equilibrium relative to Israel.
The first sequence in the divine equilibrium section covers chaps.
1-17 as it establishes qualifications and procedures pertinent to
maintaining equilibrium in sacred space. Within this sequence, the
first section is, of course, the discussion of sacrifices in chaps. 1-7.
Each sacrifice is treated in terms of the materials and procedures that
will render it acceptable. These sacrifices either constitute gifts to
300 Bulletin for Biblical Research 11.2

Sacred Compass

God (for example, the fellowship offering) or serve to purify the

sancta. As such they pertain to the holiest central zone (from ark to
altar), which they maintain. The sacrifices in the gift category must
meet certain qualifications in order to accomplish their purpose and
be acceptable by the standards of that central zone without upsetting
the equilibrium. The sacrifices in the purification category seek to
obliterate the elements that threaten the sanctity and equilibrium.
Through the middle of chap. 6 the text prescribes the procedures for
the offerings. From the middle of chap. 6 through the end of chap. 8
the text prescribes the proper disposition of the offerings. By discuss-
ing the disposition, the text has already begun its movement away
from the central zone, for the disposition requires either disposal of
what is left or the consumption of whatever is available for the hu-
man parties to eat.
With chaps. 8-10, the installation of the priests provides for the
maintenance of the second zone, the enclosure area (courtyard).
These chapters talk about the qualifications and procedures for the
priests.
Chapters 11-15 concern purity in the camp, the third zone. These
chapters talk about the various ways that Israelites can become un-
clean, and what procedures are necessary to resolve their unclean-
 WALTON: Equilibrium and the Sacred compass 301

ness. These procedures regulate the camp zone so that an appropriate

level of purity is maintained, and they are used to determine who
may be in the camp and who needs to go outside the camp. This is es-
sential to preserve sanctity, which is required to maintain equilib-
rium, which is associated with the camp's proximity to God's presence.
Once each of the concentric zones of the sacred compass has been
addressed, chap. 16 offers a description of the annual ritual that was
designed to reset the equilibrium of the entire sacred compass. The
rituals of the day were intended to disinfect sacred space from what-
ever desecration had occurred that had not been cared for by specific
rituals throughout the year. The ritual prescribed for Yom Kippur
features the high priest's moving into the center of the sacred zone,
bringing the accumulated impurities out, and finally sending them
outside the camp.
Finally, chap. 17 deals with behavior outside the camp. As chap.
16 moved from the center zone to the outside of the camp, chap. 17
moves from outside the camp to the center zone. If an Israelite fails
to bring his offering into the sacred compass, or if a hunted animal is
involved and it is impossible to bring it to the sacred compass, purity
must still be maintained by appropriate treatment of the blood. The
first sequence, chaps. 1-17, then can be seen to move through the sa-
cred compass zone by zone, addressing required procedures and
guidelines for maintenance of sanctity for each zone. In this way
equilibrium can be preserved. The emphasis is more on sacred space
than on personal relationship with God.
The second sequence of the divine equilibrium section of the
book covers chaps. 18-22. This is the first part of the section that is
normally referred to as the "Holiness Code." This sequence discusses
the issues of disqualification, and it moves from the outer zone (the
camp) to the center. This section is concerned with status. The equi-
librium of sacred space is jeopardized when the status of individuals
is compromised by their behavior. What would disqualify someone
from being considered a member in good standing in the camp of Is-
rael? Chapters 18 and 20 deal with "detestable practices" (mostly
sexual offenses) that would cause someone to be cut off from the
people (18:29) or put to death (20:9). Chapter 19 continues to treat un-
acceptable behavior in the camp, though the nature of the disqualifi-
cation is not specified.
From the beginning of chap. 21 to 22:16, the text concerns be-
havior that will disqualify the priest from the courtyard zone. These
regulations include marriage practices, personal hygiene, physical
defects, causes of uncleanness, and disposition of the food from
offerings. The remainder of chap. 22 describes conditions that will
disqualify an animal from being used for sacrifices, and therefore
302 Bulletin for Biblical Research 11.2

returns again to the central zone. The second sequence (chaps. 18-22)
therefore moves through the sacred zones as the first sequence had
done, but in reverse order—from the outside in. Whereas the first se-
quence dealt with behavior and procedures that were enacted to keep
the space holy, this sequence dealt with behavior that would render
a person's status unacceptable for the respective zones of the compass
and thereby jeopardize the desired equilibrium.
Chapter 23 addresses the third category of equilibrium—the
category concerned with time. Maintaining the sacred times of the
calendar contributed just as much to order and equilibrium as main-
taining sacred space. Sacred time is not therefore a subcategory of sa-
cred space but is a component of equilibrium alongside sacred space.
This chapter brings a conclusion to the three elements connected with
equilibrium relative to deity (sacred space, sacred status, and sacred
time).
Most writers on the structure of Leviticus, if they did not strug-
gle with chap. 23, begin to struggle now as they seek to understand
what cohesiveness binds chaps. 24-27 to the rest of the book. It is
clear that this is a distinct section of the book and that it possesses an
inner cohesiveness because, like the preceding sections, it moves
intentionally through the zones. Chapter 24:1-9 starts in the central
zone; 24:10-22 deals with the camp; and 25 takes its starting point
with land outside the camp.
I have identified the distinction between 1-23 and 24-27 as the
difference between God's equilibrium and Israel's equilibrium. In 1-
23 the issue was maintaining the equilibrium so that God's presence
would remain in their midst. The priests maintained sacred space
throughout the zones, they maintained close controls over the status
of individuals in the various zones, and they maintained equilibrium
of God's presence by close observance of the religious calendar. These
all had to do with the equilibrium associated with and necessary for
God's presence.
In 24-27 the book's attention turns to equilibrium in Israelite so-
ciety, though, as noted above, it has not lost its connection to the sa-
cred compass. Lev 24:1-9 speaks of Israel's duties in the central zone.
The people maintain equilibrium by performing their sacred duties
in sacred space. The oil, bread, and incense had nothing to do with
sanctity and purity, but they were important sacred duties. In 24:10-
22 the text moves to the camp zone (v. 10) and moves from the issue
of space to the issue of status. Israel's equilibrium is going to be main-
tained by community laws that show no tolerance to those who dis-
regard God (blasphemers) and by upholding the dignity of human
life (love the Lord your God and your neighbor as yourself), thus the
lex talionis. Chapter 25 deals with the issue of time by delineating the
 WALTON: Equilibrium and the Sacred compass 303

Sabbatical Year law and the Year of Jubilee. Both of these are prem-
ised on preserving equilibrium by being cognizant of the passage of
time and managing activities related to it. Observance serves to
maintain equilibrium in Israelite society in contrast to the festivals,
which maintained the equilibrium of God's sanctuary in chap. 23.
The blessings and curses of chap. 26 delineate God's ability and
willingness either to establish an equilibrium for Israel or to disrupt
its equilibrium. This chapter serves a purpose similar to that of chap.
16—that is, it encompasses all of the zones and issues (cf. vv. 1-2) and
in so doing addresses the total equilibrium picture. Here, focused on
Israel, it does so by means of covenant curses and blessings that co-
incide with a treaty-style relationship.
Finally, chap. 27 can be understood as being parallel to chap. 17.
Chapter 17 addressed the question of which slaughtered animals had
to be brought to the sanctuary and which did not. It specified how the
blood was to be handled to preserve equilibrium. This dealt mostly
with situations that originated outside the camp but at times re-
quired movement through the zones to the sanctuary itself. In chap.
27 the topic is vows. As in 17, the situation concerns movement of ob-
jects through the zones. When something is dedicated to the Lord, its
location shifts from the camp zone, for instance, to the enclosure zone.
Just as the handling of the blood was the significant issue for main-
taining the equilibrium in 17, the setting of valuations (or substitu-
tions of other sorts) is the significant issue in 27. In both, the question
is: what belongs to the Lord? Equilibrium in the sacred compass is
maintained when everything is in the zone in which it belongs.
The test of a design such as the outline in this article (aside from
the logical issue of whether it fits the data) is the question: would the
author have been aware of categories such as "sacred compass" and
the time/space/status triad? In response to this question, I would
first of all contend that Israel was very aware of the idea that there
was a need for increasing levels of holiness and purity each time one
moved closer to the place of God's presence. This awareness is ex-
pressed in a number of ways, the most obvious being the limited ac-
cess to each of the zones. The fact that they may have not spoken
of a sacred compass or have been inclined to distinguish space, time,
and status explicitly as the three most important elements does not
negate the centrality of these issues in their thinking. In our attempts
to systematize their thinking, our task is somewhat similar to a Wy-
cliffe translator who goes into a nonliterate culture in order to write
a grammar of its language. The systemization of its grammar will
not represent the way that the speakers would have described their
language, and verb paradigms would not represent their catego-
ries. At the same time, the grammar would accurately describe their
304 Bulletin for Biblieal Research 11.2

language in grammatical categories characteristic of it, even if the

terms (such as direct object) need to be supplied by the translator. In
the same way, even though our attempts to systematize Israelite
thinking may require us to provide categories that they would not
have thought of, hopefully, the resulting system still represents their
ways of thinking rather than ours. Leviticus, at least, evidences a
higher level of design once we orient ourselves to Israelite ways of
thinking about rituals, sacred space, and equilibrium instead of try-
ing to understand it through soteriological glasses.

THE STRUCTURE OF LEVITICUS

Divine Equilibrium
Equilibrium of Sacred Space: Maintenance Procedures and Qualifications
Chap. 1-7 Sacrifices to maintain the holiest center zone
8-10 Priests set up to maintain enclosure zone
11-15 Purity regulations to maintain the camp zone
16 Yom Kippur, which resets the holiness of the entire
sacred compass annually, features the priest
moving into the center, bringing the accumu-
lated impurities out and, finally, sending them
outside the camp
17 Maintaining holiness from outside the camp

Equilibrium of Sacred Status: Disqualifications from Sacred Space

18-20 Disqualification of people from the camp
21-22a Disqualification of priests from the enclosure
22b Disqualification of animals for use in the center

Equilibrium of Sacred Times

23 Sacred Festivals

Human Equilibrium
24a Human Equilibrium in sacred space (center zone)
24b Human Equilibrium in status (in the camp)
25 Human Equilibrium in setting times (outside the camp)
26 Establishing or disrupting equilibrium across the zones
27 Sacred objects vowed to the Lord (movement through
zones)