CH 10

08-08, 08-11-2014
Solutions for Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing, 6e (published by Wiley) © MPGroover 2015
10 FUNDAMENTALS OF METAL CASTING

Review Questions
10.1 Identify some of the important advantages of shape-casting processes.
Answer. Advantages include (1) complex part geometries are possible; (2) some casting
operations are net shape processes, meaning that no further manufacturing operations are
needed to accomplish the final part geometry; (3) very large parts are possible; (4) casting
is applicable to any metal that can be melted; and (5) some casting processes are suited to
mass production.
10.2 What are some of the disadvantages of casting?
Answer. Disadvantages include (1) limitations on mechanical strength properties; (2)
porosity; (3) poor dimensional accuracy and surface finish for some casting processes; (4)
safety hazards due to handling of hot metals; and (5) environmental problems.
10.3 What is a factory that performs casting operations called?
Answer. A foundry.
10.4 What is the difference between an open mold and a closed mold?
Answer. An open mold is open to the atmosphere at the top; it is an open container in the
desired shape which must be flat at the top. A closed mold has a cavity that is entirely
enclosed by the mold, with a passageway (called the gating system) leading from the
outside into the cavity. Molten metal is poured into this gating system to fill the mold.
10.5 Name the two basic mold types that distinguish casting processes.
Answer. The two mold types are (1) expendable molds and (2) permanent molds.
10.6 Which casting process is the most important commercially?
Answer. Sand casting.
10.7 What is the difference between a pattern and a core in sand molding?
Answer. The pattern determines the external shape of the cast part, while a core determines
its internal geometry if the casting includes a cavity.
10.8 The heat required to raise the temperature of a metal to the required level for casting is the
sum of what three energy components?
Answer. The heat energy required is the sum of (1) the heat to raise the temperature to
the melting point, (2) the heat of fusion to convert it from solid to liquid, and (3) the heat
to raise the molten metal to the desired temperature for pouring..
10.9 What is meant by the term superheat?
Answer. Superheat is the temperature difference above the melting point at which the
molten metal is poured. The term also refers to the amount of heat that is removed from the
molten metal between pouring and solidification.
10.10 Why should turbulent flow of molten metal into the mold be avoided?
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Answer. Turbulence causes the following problems: (1) it accelerates formation of oxides
in the solidified metal, and (2) it causes mold erosion or gradual wearing away of the mold
due to impact of molten metal.
10.11 What is Bernoulli’s theorem?
Answer. Bernoulli’s theorem states that the sum of the energies (head, pressure, kinetic,
and friction) at any two points in a flowing liquid are equal.
10.12 What is the continuity law as it applies to the flow of molten metal in casting?
Answer. The continuity law, or continuity equation, states that the volumetric flow rate
remains constant throughout the liquid.
10.13 What are some of the factors that affect the fluidity of a molten metal during pouring into a
mold cavity?
Answer. The factors include (1) pouring temperature above the melting point, (2) metal
alloy composition, (3) viscosity of the liquid metal, and (4) heat transfer to the
surroundings.
10.14 What does heat of fusion mean in casting?
Answer. Heat of fusion is the amount of heat energy required to transform the metal from
solid state to liquid state.
10.15 How does solidification of alloys differ from solidification of pure metals?
Answer. Pure metals solidify at a single temperature equal to the melting point. Most
alloys (exceptions are eutectic alloys) start to solidify at the liquidus and complete
solidification occurs at the solidus, where the liquidus is a higher temperature than the
solidus.
10.16 What is a eutectic alloy?
Answer. A eutectic alloy is a particular composition in an alloy system for which the
solidus and liquidus temperatures are equal. The temperature is called the eutectic
temperature. Hence, solidification occurs at a single temperature, rather than over a
temperature range.
10.17 What is a meant by the term mushy zone during solidification of a metal alloy?
Answer. The mushy zone is a mixture of solid and liquid metal that occurs while the
temperature of the metal is between the liquidus and solidus for the alloy.
10.18 What is the relationship known as Chvorinov's rule in casting?
Answer. Chvorinov's rule is summarized: TTS = Cm(V/A)2, where TTS = total solidification
time, Cm = mold constant, V = volume of casting, and A = surface area of casting.
10.19 Identify the three sources of contraction in a metal casting after pouring.
Answer. The three contractions occur due to (1) contraction of the molten metal after
pouring, (2) solidification shrinkage during transformation of state from liquid to solid, and
(3) thermal contraction in the solid state.
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Problems
Answers to problems labeled (A) are listed in an Appendix at the back of the book.
Heating and Pouring
10.1 (SI units) A casting made of cast iron weighs 4.7 kg. The riser and gating system add another
2.5 kg to the total metal poured during the operation. The melting temperature of this grade
of cast iron = 1180C, its density = 7.6 g/cm3, specific heat = 0.46 J/gC, and heat of fusion
= 126 J/g. Assume the specific heat has the same value for solid and molten metal. Compute
(a) the unit energy for melting and pouring and (b) the total energy to heat the metal to a
pouring temperature of 1300C from a starting temperature of 25C. (c) What is the volume
of the casting?
Solution: (a) Unit energy Ump = 0.46(1180 − 25) + 126 + 0.46(1300 − 1180)
Ump = 531 + 126 + 55 = 712 J/g
(b) Total heat required Hmp = (4.7 + 2.5)(103)(712) = 5,126,000 J
(c) Volume of casting V = W/ = 4.7(103)/7.6 = 618 cm3
10.2 (A) (SI units) A disk with diameter = 40 cm and thickness = 5 cm is cast of pure aluminum
in an open mold casting operation (no gating system). Aluminum melts at 660C, but the
pouring temperature will be 800C. The heat of fusion of aluminum = 398 J/g. Other
properties can be found -in Tables 4.1 and 4.2. Assume the specific heat has the same value
for solid and molten aluminum. Compute (a) the unit energy for melting and pouring and (b)
the total energy to heat the metal to the pouring temperature starting from a room
temperature of 25C.
Solution: (a) From Table 4.2, specific heat C = 0.21 Cal/gC = 0.879 J/gC
Unit energy Ump = 0.879(660 − 25) + 398 + 0.879(800 − 660)
Ump = 558 + 398 + 123 = 1079 J/g
(b) Volume V = D2h/4= (40)2(5)/4 = 6283 cm3
Volume of metal to be heated V = 1.05(6283) = 6597 cm3
From Table 4.1, density  = 2.70 g/cm3
Total heat required Hmp = 2.7(6597)(1079) = 19,219,477 J
10.3 (USCS units) Pure copper is heated to cast a large rectangular plate in an open mold. The
plate’s length = 20 in, width = 10 in, and thickness = 2 in. The amount of metal heated will
be 10% more than what is needed to fill the mold cavity. Density, melting point, and specific
heat of the solid metal can be found in Tables 4.1 and 4.2. The specific heat of copper in the
molten state = 0.090 Btu/lbm-F, and its heat of fusion = 88 Btu/lbm. Compute (a) the unit
melting and pouring energy and (b) the total energy to heat the metal from ambient
temperature (75F) to a pouring temperature of 2100F.
Solution: (a) Volume of rectangular plate V = (20  10  2) = 400 in3
Volume of copper to be heated = 400(1 + 10%) = 440 in3
To = 75 F and using Equation (10.1),
Ump = 0.092(1981 − 75) + 88 + 0.090(2100 − 1981)
Ump = 175 + 88 + 11 = 274 Btu/lbm
(b) From Table 4.1, density  = 0.324 lb/in3
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Total heat required Hmp = 0.324(440)(274) = 39,061 Btu

10.4 (A) (SI units) The length of the downsprue leading into the runner of a mold = 200 mm. The
cross-sectional area at its base = 400 mm2. Volume of the mold cavity = 0.0012 m3.
Determine (a) velocity of the molten metal flowing through the base of the downsprue, (b)
volume rate of flow, and (c) time required to fill the mold cavity.
Solution: (a) Velocity v = (2  9810  200)0.5 = (3,924,000)0.5 = 1981 mm/s
(b) Volume flow rate Q = vA = 1981  400 = 594,273 mm3/s
(c) Time to fill cavity TMF = V/Q = 1,200,000/594,273 = 2.02 s
10.5 (USCS units) A mold has a downsprue length = 6.0 in. The cross-sectional area at the bottom
of the sprue is 0.5 in2. The sprue leads into a horizontal runner which feeds the mold cavity,
whose volume = 75 in3. Determine (a) velocity of the molten metal flowing through the base
of the downsprue, (b) volume rate of flow, and (c) time required to fill the mold cavity.
Solution: (a) Velocity v = (2  32.2  12  6.0)0.5 = (4636.8)0.5 = 68.1 in/sec
(b) Volume flow rate Q = vA = 68.1  0.5 = 34.05 in3/sec
(c) Time to fill cavity TMF = V/Q = 75.0/34.05 = 2.2 sec
10.6 (SI units) The flow rate of liquid metal into the downsprue of a mold = 1.0 L/sec. The
cross-sectional area at the top of the sprue = 750 mm2, and its length = 200 mm. What area
should be used at the base of the sprue to avoid aspiration of the molten metal?
Solution: Flow rate Q = 1.0 L/s = 106 mm3/s
Velocity v = (2  9810  200)0.5 = 1981 mm/s
Assuming volumetric continuity, area at base A = 1,000,000/1981 = 505 mm2
10.7 (SI units) Molten metal is poured into the pouring cup of a sand mold at a steady rate of 400
cm3/s. The molten metal overflows the pouring cup and flows into the downsprue. The cross
section of the sprue is round, with a diameter at the top = 3.4 cm. If the sprue is 20 cm long,
determine the proper diameter at its base so as to maintain the same volume flow rate.
Solution: Velocity at base v = (2gh)0.5 = (2  981  20)0.5 = 198.1 cm/s
Assuming volumetric continuity, area at base A = (400 cm/s)/(198.1 cm/s) = 2.02 cm2
Area of sprue A = D2/4; rearranging, D2 = 4A/ = 4(2.02)/ = 2.57 cm2
D = 1.60 cm
10.8 (A) (USCS units) The volume flow rate of molten metal into the downsprue from the
pouring cup is 50 in3/sec. At the top where the pouring cup leads into the downsprue, the
cross-sectional area = 1.0 in2. Determine what the area should be at the bottom of the sprue if
its length = 6.0 in. It is desired to maintain a constant flow rate, top and bottom, in order to
avoid aspiration of the liquid metal.
Solution: Velocity at base v = (2gh)0.5 = (2  32.2  12  6)0.5 = 68.1 in/sec
Assuming volumetric continuity, area at base A = (50 in/sec)/(68.1 in/sec) = 0.734 in2
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Shrinkage
10.9 (A) (SI units) Determine the shrink rule to be used by mold makers for die casting of zinc.
Using Table 10.1, express your answer in terms of decimal mm of elongation per 300 mm of
length compared to a standard 300-mm scale.
Solution: For zinc, shrinkage = 1.3% from Table 10.1.
Thus, linear contraction = 1.0 – 0.013 = 0.987
Shrink rule elongation = (0.987)-1 = 1.0132
For a 300-mm rule, L = 1.0132(300) = 303.95 mm
Elongation per 300 mm of length = 3.95 mm
10.10 (USCS units) Determine the shrink rule to be used by pattern makers for yellow brass. Using
Table 10.1, express your answer in terms of decimal fraction inches of elongation per foot of
length compared to a standard one-foot scale.
Solution: For yellow brass, shrinkage = 1.5% from Table 10.1.
Thus, linear contraction = 1.0 – 0.015 = 0.985
Shrink rule elongation = (0.985)-1 = 1.0152
For a 12-inch rule, L = 1.0152(12) = 12.183 in
Elongation per foot of length = 0.183 in
10.11 (SI units) A flat plate is to be cast in an open mold whose bottom has a square shape that is
200 mm by 200 mm. The mold is 40 mm deep. A total of 1,000,000 mm3 of molten
aluminum is poured into the mold. Solidification shrinkage is known to be 6.0%, which is a
volumetric contraction, not a linear contraction. Table 10.1 lists the linear shrinkage due to
thermal contraction after solidification. If the availability of molten metal in the mold allows
the square shape of the cast plate to maintain its 200 mm by 200 mm dimensions until
solidification is completed, determine the final dimensions of the plate.
Solution: The initial volume of liquid metal = 1,000,000 mm3. When poured into the mold it
takes the shape of the open mold, which is 200 mm by 200 mm square, or 40,000 mm2. The
starting height of the molten metal is 1,000,000 / 40,000 = 25 mm. Volumetric solidification
shrinkage is 6%, so when the aluminum solidifies its volume = 1,000,000(0.94) = 940,000
mm3. Because its base still measures 200 mm by 200 mm due to the flow of liquid metal
before solidification, its height has been reduced to 940,000 / 40,000 = 23.5 mm. Thermal
contraction causes a further shrinkage of 1.3%. Thus the final dimensions of the plate are
200(0.987) by 200(0.987) by 23.5(0.987) = 197.40 mm by 197.40 mm by 23.195 mm.
Solidification Time and Riser Design
10.12 (SI units) When casting low carbon steel under certain mold conditions, the mold constant
in Chvorinov's rule = 4.0 min/cm2. Determine how long solidification will take for a
rectangular casting whose length = 30 cm, width = 15 cm, and thickness = 20 mm.
Solution: Volume V = 30  15  2 = 900 cm3
Area A = 2(30  15 + 30  2 + 15  2) = 1080 cm2
Chvorinov’s rule: TTS = Cm (V/A)2 = 4(900/1080)2 = 2.431 min
10.13 (SI units) In the previous problem solve for total solidification time only using an exponent
value of 1.9 in Chvorinov's rule instead of 2.0. What adjustment must be made in the units
of the mold constant?
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Solution: Chvorinov’s rule: TTS = Cm (V/A)1.9 = 4(900/1080)1.9 = 2.475 min

The units for Cm become min/in1.9 - strange units but consistent with Chvorinov’s
empirical rule.
10.14 (A) (SI units) A disk-shaped part is cast out of aluminum. Diameter of the disk = 650 mm
and thickness = 16 mm. If the mold constant = 2.2 sec/mm2 in Chvorinov's rule, how long
will it take the casting to solidify?
Solution: Volume V = D2t/4 = (650)2(16)/4 = 5,309,292 mm3
Area A = 2D2/4 + Dt = (650)2/2 + (650)(16) = 663,661 + 32,673 = 696,334 mm2
Chvorinov’s rule: TTS = Cm (V/A)2 = 2.2(5,309,292/696,334)2 = 127.9 s = 2.13 min
10.15 (SI units) In casting experiments performed using a certain alloy and type of sand mold, it
took 170 sec for a cube-shaped casting to solidify. The cube was 50 mm on a side. (a)
Determine the value of the mold constant in Chvorinov's rule. (b) If the same alloy and
mold type were used, find the total solidification time for a cylindrical casting in which the
diameter = 50 mm and length = 50 mm.
Solution: (a) Volume V = (50)3 = 125,000 mm3
Area A = 6  (50)2 = 15,000 mm2
(V/A) = 125,000/15,000 = 8.333 mm
Cm = TTS /(V/A)2 = 170/(8.333)2 = 2.448 s/mm2
(b) Cylindrical casting with D = 50 mm and L = 50 mm
Volume V = D2L/4 = (50)2(50)/4 = 98,175 mm3
Area A = 2D2/4 + DL = (50)2/2 + (50)(50) = 11,781 mm2
V/A = 98,175 /11,781 = 8.333
TTS = 2.232 (8.333)2 = 170 s = 2.833 min
10.16 (SI units) Total solidification times of three casting geometries are to be compared: (1) a
sphere with diameter = 10 cm, (2) a cylinder with diameter and length both = 10 cm, and (3)
a cube with each side = 10 cm. The same casting alloy is used in all three cases. (a)
Determine the relative solidification times for each geometry. (b) Based on the results of
part (a), which geometric element would make the best riser? (c) If the mold constant = 3.5
min/cm2 in Chvorinov's rule, compute the total solidification time for each casting.
Solution: For ease of computation, make the substitution 10 cm = 1 decimeter (1 dm)
(a) Chvorinov’s rule: TTS = Cm(V/A)2
(1) Sphere volume V = D3/6 = (1)3/6 = /6 dm3
Sphere surface area A = D2 = (1)2 =  dm2
V/A = (/6)/ = 1/6 = 0.1667 dm
Chvorinov’s rule TTS = (0.1667)2Cm = 0.02778Cm
(2) Cylinder volume V = D2H/4 = (1)2(1)/4 = /4 = 0.25 dm3
Cylinder area A = 2D2/4 + DL = 2(1)2/4 + (1)(1) = /2 +  = 1.5 dm2
V/A = 0.25/1.5 = 0.1667 dm
(3) Cube: V = L3 = (1)3 = 1.0 dm3
Cube area = 6L2 = 6(1)2 = 6.0 dm2
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08-08, 08-11-2014
V/A = 1.0/6.0 = 0.1667 dm

(b) All three shapes are equivalent as risers.
(c) If Cm = 3.5 min/cm2 = 350 min/dm2, then TTS = 350(0.02778) = 9.723 min. However,
the volumes of the three geometries are different: (1) sphere V = 0.524 dm3 = 524 cm3,
cylinder V = 0.25 = 0.7854 dm3 = 785.4 cm3, and (3) cube V = 1.0 dm3 = 1000 cm3.
Accordingly, the answer to part (b) might be revised so that the sphere is chosen because
it wastes less metal than the other shapes.
10.17 (USCS units) A steel casting has a cylindrical geometry with diameter = 4.0 in and weight =
20 lb. It takes 6.0 min to solidify when cast. Another cylindrical-shaped casting with the
same diameter-to-length ratio weighs 12 lb. It is made of the same steel, and the same
conditions of mold and pouring are used. Determine (a) the dimensions and (b) total
solidification time of the lighter casting. The density of steel is given in Table 4.1.
Solution: (a) From Table 4.1, the density of steel  = 0.284 lb/in3
Weight W = V, volume of the larger casting V = W/ = 20/0.284 = 70.42 in3
Volume V = D2L/4 = (4)2L/4 = 4L = 70.42 in3
Length of the larger casting L = 70.42/4 = 5.60 in
Now find dimensions of the smaller cylindrical casting with same D/L ratio and W = 12 lb
Weight is proportional to volume. Volume of smaller casting V = (12/20)(70.42) = 42.25
in3
D/L ratio = 4.0/5.60 = 0.714; thus L = (0.714-1)D= 1.40D
Volume V = D2L/4 = (D)2(1.40D)/4 = 1.09956 D3
D3 = (42.25 in3)/1.09956 = 38.42 in3
D = (38.42)0.333 = 3.374 in
L = 1.40(3.374) = 4.724 in
(b) To find the solidification time, first determine the mold constant in Chvorinov’s rule.
Area of larger casting A = 2D2/4 + DL = 2(4)2/4 + (4)(5.60) = 95.50 in2
(V/A) = 70.42/95.50 = 0.7374
Cm = 6.0/(0.7374)2 = 11.035 min/in2
Volume of smaller casting V = D2L/4 = (3.374)2(4.724)/4 = 42.24 in3
A = 2D2/4 + DL = 0.5(3.374)2 + (3.374)(4.724) = 67.95 in2
V/A = 42.24/67.95 = 0.622 in.
TTS = 11.035(0.622)2 = 4.265 min
10.18 A cylindrical riser is to be used for a sand-casting mold. For a given cylinder volume,
determine the diameter-to-length ratio that will maximize the time to solidify.
Solution: To maximize TTS, the V/A ratio must be maximized.
Cylinder volume V = D2L/4. L = 4V/D2
Cylinder area A = 2D2/4 + DL
Substitute the expression for L from the volume equation in the area equation:
A = D2/2 + DL = D2/2 + D(4V/D2) = D2/2 + 4 V/D
Differentiate the area equation with respect to D:
dA/dD = D – 4 V/D2 = 0 Rearranging, D = 4V/D2
D = 4 V/
3
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08-08, 08-11-2014
D = (4 V/)0.333
From the previous expression for L, substituting in the equation for D that we have
developed,
L = 4V/D2 = 4V/(4V/)0.667 = (4V/)0.333
Thus, optimal values are D = L = (4V/)0.333, and therefore the optimal D/L ratio = 1.0
10.19 (A) (SI units) A riser in the shape of a sphere is to be designed for a sand casting mold. The
casting is a rectangular plate, with length = 200 mm, width = 100 mm, and thickness = 18
mm. If the total solidification time of the casting itself is known to be 3.5 min, determine the
diameter of the riser so that it will take 25% longer for the riser to solidify.
Solution: Casting volume V = LWt = 200(100)(18) = 360,000 mm3
Casting area A = 2(200  100 + 200  18 + 100  18) = 50,800 mm2
V/A = 360,000/50,800 = 7.0866
Casting TTS = Cm(7.0866)2 = 3.50 min
Cm = 3.5/(7.0866)2 = 0.0697 min/mm2
Riser volume V = D3/6 = 0.5236D3
Riser area A = D2 = 3.1416D2
V/A = 0.5236D3/3.1416D2 = 0.1667D
TTS = 1.25(3.5) = 4.375 min = 0.0697(0.1667D)2 = 0.001936D2
D2 = 4.375/0.001936 = 2259.7 mm2
D = 47.5 mm
10.20 (USCS units) A cylindrical riser with diameter-to-length ratio = 1.0 is to be designed for a
sand casting mold. The casting is shown in Figure P10.20; the units are inches. If the mold
constant in Chvorinov's rule = 25.3 min/in2, find the dimensions of the riser so that the riser
will take 1.0 min longer to freeze than the casting itself.
Solution: Casting volume V = V(5 in  10 in rectangular plate) + V(5 in half disk) +
V(upright tube) − V(3 in  6 in rectangular cutout).
V(5 in x 10 in rectangular plate) = 5  12.5  1.0 = 62.5 in3
V(5 in. half disk) = 0.5(5)2(1)/4 = 9.817 in3
V(upright tube) = 3.0(2.5)2/4 − 4(1.5)2/4) = 7.657 in3
V(3 in x 6 in rectangular cutout) = 3  6  1 = 18.0 in3
Total V = 62.5 + 9.817 + 7.657 − 18.0 = 61.974 in3
Total A = 1  5 + 1(12.5 + 2.5 + 12.5) + 2(6+3) + 2(5  12.5 − 3 x 6) + 2(.5(5)2/4) −
2(1.5)2/4 + 2.5(3) + 1.5(3+1) = 203.36 in2
V/A = 61.974/203.36 = 0.305 in
Casting TTS = 25.3(0.305)2 = 2.35 min
Riser design: specified TTS = 2.35 + 1.0 = 3.35 min
Riser volume V = D2L/4 = D3/4 = 0.25D3
Riser area A = DL + 2D2/4 = D2 + 0.5D2 = 1.5D2
V/A = 0.25D3/1.5D2 = D/6
TTS = Cm(V/A)2
3.35 = 25.3D/6)2 = 0.703D2
D2 = 3.35/0.703 = 4.77 in2 D = 2.18 in and L = 2.18 in
10-8

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Solutions for Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing, 6e (published by Wiley) © MPGroover 2015

10 FUNDAMENTALS OF METAL CASTING

Total heat required Hmp = 0.324(440)(274) = 39,061 Btu

Solution: Chvorinov’s rule: TTS = Cm (V/A)1.9 = 4(900/1080)1.9 = 2.475 min

V/A = 1.0/6.0 = 0.1667 dm

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