Advance Journal of Food Science and Technology 3(4): 308-316, 2011

ISSN: 2042-4876
© Maxwell Scientific Organization, 2011
Received: June 12, 2011 Accepted: July 18, 2011 Published: August 31, 2011

Natural Antioxidants, Lipid Profile, Lipid Peroxidation, Antioxidant Enzymes of

Different Vegetable Oils
1
Eqbal M.A.Dauqan, 2Aminah Abdullah and 1Halimah Abdullah Sani
1
School of Biosciences and Biotechnology,
2
School of Chemical Sciences and Food Technology, Faculty of Science and Technology,
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 Bangi Selangor, Malaysia

Abstract: Antioxidant plays a very important role in the body defense system against Reactive Oxygen Species
(ROS). The free radicals also play an important role in combustion, atmospheric chemistry, biochemistry and
biotechnology including human physiology. Fats and oils are energy sources that are composed mostly of
triacylglycerols. Lipid ptofile are risk indicators of coronary heart disease. Various types of lipoproteins exist,
but the two most abundant are Low-density Lipoprotein (LDL) and High-density Lipoprotein (HDL). Lipid
peroxidation is the introduction of a functional group containing two catenated oxygyen atomsinto unsturated
fatty acids in a free radical reaction. Life in oxygen has led to the evolution of biochemical adaptations that
exploit the reactivity of Active Oxygen Species (AOS). Antioxidant enzymes are an important protective
mechanism ROS. This paper highlight the functions of antioxidants in the blood and selected organs associated
with health.

Key words: Antioxidant enzymes, Beta carotene, free radical, lipid profile, vegetable oils, vitamin E

INTRODUCTION oxygen molecule with paired electrons is stable; however

oxygen with an unpaired electron is reactive (Daniel et
An important field of research today is the control of al., 2005). The radicals are likely to take part in chemical
‘redox’ status with the properties of food and food reactions, taking electrons from vital components and
components. However, natural antioxidants present in the leaving them damaged. Radicals also play an important
diet increase the resistance toward oxidative damages and role in combustion, atmospheric chemistry,
they may have a substantial impact on human health polymerization, biochemistry, and many other chemical
(Boskou, 2006). The concepts of antioxidants, free processes, including human physiology (Daniel et al.,
radicals, and singlet O2 species are terms that have been 2005). Reactive oxygen species can be classified into
topics of research for decades (Azizan, 2006). Antioxidant oxygen-centered radicals and oxygen-centered
compounds play an important role in our body due to nonradicals. Oxygen-centered radicals are superoxide
favorable effects on human health. Consumption of food anion (AO2–), hydroxyl radical (AOH), alkoxyl radical
containing phytochemical with potential antioxidant (ROA), and peroxyl radical (ROOA). Oxygen-centered
properties can reduce the risk of human disease (Temple, nonradicals are hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and singlet
2000). Vegetable oils contain natural antioxidants. Chain oxygen (1O2) (Lee et al., 2004; Ki-Wan and You-Jin,
breaking antioxidants are highly reactive with free 2006; Michalak, 2006).
radicals and form stable compounds that do not contribute
to the oxidation chain reaction (El Diwani et al., 2009). Free radicals damage: Free radicals steal electrons from
Therefore, recent study highlights the functions of cells, DNA, enzymes and cell membranes. Removing
antioxidants in the blood and selected organs associated these electrons changes the composition of the structure
with health. it was stolen from. Cells are damaged and therefore do not
function normally. Enzymes cannot do their jobs as
FREE RADICALS catalysts for cellular reactions. Compromising the
integrity of cellular membranes leaves them vulnerable to
Free radicals are also known as Reactive Oxygen attack by viruses, bacteria and other invaders. Oxygen
Species (ROS) and these compounds are formed when free-radicals as the name implies, contain oxygen, and are
oxygen molecules combine with other molecules. An highly reactive chemical species with the potential to react

Corresponding Author: Eqbal M.A.Dauqan, School of Biosciences and Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology,
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 Bangi Selangor, Malaysia. Tel.: +60172728034
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with almost every type of molecule in living cells. The delicate equilibrium between ROS production and
highly reactive hydroxyl radical is especially toxic scavenging at the proper site and time. . Oxidative stress
because it can react with proteins, polysaccharides, occurs when this critical balance is disrupted due to
nucleic acids, and polyunsaturated fatty acids and cause depletion of antioxidants or excess accumulation of ROS,
alteration of their structure and functions (Natural Holistic or both (Scandalios, 2005).
Health Report, 2010; Daniel et al., 2005).
Function of antioxidant: The most important and well-
ANTIOXIDANTS characterised natural antioxidants in the animal body are
vitamin E and C. In fact in the body, all antioxidants are
Antioxidants are believed to play a very important role in working in concert as a team, the (antioxidant system),
the body defense system against ROS (Boxin et al., 2002; responsible for prevention of the damaging effects of free
Vivek and Surendra, 2006). Antioxidant is a chemical that radicals and toxic products of their metabolism. However,
delays the start or slows the rate of lipid oxidation the antioxidant (team) acts to control levels of free radical
reaction. It inhibits the formation of free radical and hence formation as a coordinated system where deficiencies in
contributes to the stabilization of the lipid sample. Natural one component impact the efficiency of others (Peter,
antioxidants are constituents of many fruits and 2007). Four possible mechanisms have been suggested
vegetables and they have attracted a great deal of public (John, 1989) by which antioxidants function to reduce the
and scientific attention (El Diwani et al., 2009). Boskou, rate of oxidation of fats and oils. These are:
(2006) reported that the dietary antioxidants such as
ascorbates, tocopherols and carotenoids are well known C Hydrogen donation by the antioxidant.
and there is a surplus of publications related to their role C Electron donation by the antioxidant.
in health. Naturally, there is a dynamic balance between C Addition of the lipid to the antioxidant.
the amount of free-radicals generated in the body and C Formation of a complex between the lipid and
antioxidants to quench and/or scavenge them and protect antioxidant.
the body against their deleterious effects.
However, the amounts of these protective antioxidant However, it is thought that the first two mechanisms
principles present under the normal physiological are the most probable modes of action of antioxidants.-
conditions are sufficient only to cope with the CaroteneThe most important carotenoids are
physiological rate of free-radical generation (Ashok and alphacarotene, beta-carotene, and beta-cryptoxanthin,
Sushil, 2005). Vegetable oils contain natural antioxidants lutein, violaxanthin, neoxanthin, and lycopene. Beta-
and the most common are tocopherols, which are hindered carotene is the most widely studied carotenoid (Alam and
phenolic chain breaking antioxidants. Chain breaking Sultan, 2004). Carotenoids are widely distributed natural
antioxidants are highly reactive with free radicals and pigments responsible for the yellow, orange, and red
form stable compounds that do not contribute to the colors of fruits, roots, flowers, fish, invertebrates, and
oxidation chain reaction (El Diwani et al., 2009). birds (Delia, 1997). ", $-Carotene and lycopenes are the
major carotenoids which are mainly composed of carbon
The need for antioxidants defence: Most biologically- and hydrogen atoms. In humans and animals carotenoids
relevant free radicals are derived from oxygen and play an important role in protection against
nitrogen and the so-celled ROS and Reactive Nitrogen photooxidative processes by acting as oxygen and peroxyl
Species (RNS). Both these elements are essential but in radical scavengers (Jacques et al., 2008). $-Carotene is a
certain circumstances are converted into free radicals fat soluble member of the carotenoids which are
which are highly unstable and their reactive capacity considered provitamins because they can be converted to
makes them capable of damaging biologically relevant active vitamin A. Betacarotene is converted to retinol,
molecules such as proteins, lipid or carbohydrates (Peter, which is essential for vision. It is a strong antioxidant and
2007). Antioxidants are molecules that retard or prevent is the best quencher of singlet oxygen (Lien et al., 2008).
the oxidation of other compounds. Not only soluble The best dietary sources of beta-carotene are yellow and
antioxidants but also complex enzymatic systems such as orange fruits and vegetables. Some of them contain more
catalase, superoxide dismutase and some peroxidases may than 80% of their provitamin A in the form of $-
be used by cells to avoid undesired oxidations (Angelo, acarotene. Only some carotenoids found in nature have
2009). Sarvajeet and Narendra, (2010) reported that the provitamin A activity.
ROS affect many cellular functions by damaging nucleic
acids, oxidizing proteins, and causing lipid peroxidation Vitamin E (tocopherols and tocotrienols): Vitamin E is
and it is important to note that whether ROS will act as one of the most important lipid-soluble primary defense
damaging, protective or signaling factors depends on the antioxidants (Handan et al., 2007; Paul and Sumit, 2002;

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Abdalla, 2009). It is a generic term used for several by molecular oxygen and such oxidation proceeds by a
naturally occurring tocopherols and tocotrienols. In its free radical chain mechanism (Heidar et al., 2010). The
function as a chain-breaking antioxidant, vitamin E most common are tocopherols, which are hindered
rapidly transfers its phenolic H-atom to a lipid peroxyl phenolic chain breaking antioxidants. Chain breaking
radical, converting it into a lipid hydroperoxide and a antioxidants are highly reactive with free radicals and
vitamin E radical (Bashir et al., 2004). form stable compounds that do not contribute to the
Palm vitamin E (30% tocopherols, 70% tocotrienols) oxidation chain reaction (Carandang, 2008).
has been extensively researched for its nutritional and
health properties. The tocotrienols have been reported to Palm oil: Palm oil is a lipid extracted from the fleshy
be natural inhibitors of cholesterol synthesis (Aboua et orange-red mesocarp of the fruits of the oil palm tree
al., 2009). Tocopherols (vitamin E) and tocotrienols (Elaeis guineensis) which contain 45 to 55% oil. Palm oil
(provitamin E) are powerful antioxidants that confer is light yellow to orange-red in color depending on the
oxidative stability to red palm olein (RPO) as well as help amount of carotenoids present. Palm oil may be
to keep the carotenoids and other quality parameters of fractionated into two major fractions: a liquid oil (65-
the oil stable (Nesma et al., 2010). Vitamin E scavenges 70%) palm olein and a solid fraction (30-35%) stearin
peroxyl radical intermediates in lipid peroxidation and (Edem, 2002). Palm oil is the second major edible oil used
responsible for protecting Poly Unsaturated Fatty Acid worldwide. Palm olein (PO), a liquid fraction obtained
(PUFA) present in cell membrane and density lipoprotein from the refining of palm oil, is rich in oleic acid (42.7-
(LDL), against lipid peroxidation (Vivek and Surendra, 43.9%), beta-carotene and vitamin E (tocopherols and
2006). Tocopherols, a lipid soluble antioxidant are tocotrienols). Although palm oil and palm olein are
considered as potential scavengers of ROS and lipid produced from the same plant and share many similar
radicals. Tocopherols are considered as a major properties, the main difference between them is their
antioxidant in biomembranes, where they play both chemical state at room temperature. Semi-solid palm oil
antioxidant and non-antioxidant functions. Tocopherols is used more frequently as a fat in bakery products,
are considered general antioxidants for protection of whereas liquid palm olein is considered the "gold
membrane stability, including quenching or scavenging standard" and is the most widely used oil for frying in the
ROS. Out of four isomers of tocopherols ("-, $-, (-, *-) world (Arlene, 2010).
found in plants, a-tocopherol has the highest antioxidative
Palm olein is the preferred oil for cooking and frying
activity due to the presence of three methyl groups in its
because it has good oxidative stability. However, it tends
molecular structure (Sarvajeet and Narendra, 2010).
to crystallize and becomes cloudy in cold weather in
temperate countries (Nor-Aini et al., 2003). According to
FATTY ACIDS
the American Heart Association the monounsaturated fats
have been found to be better for heart health than
Oils are important nutrients and energy sources that
saturated fats. It has virtually no trans fats, which are
are composed mostly of triacylglycerols. Dietary
made by adding hydrogen to many polyunsaturated oils to
triacylglycerols are composed of fatty acids that may vary
in their chain length, degree of unsaturation, isomeric make them semisolid. Trans fats have negative impacts on
orientation of double bonds and position within the heart health. Palm olein can be made more solid by
triacylglycerol molecule (Edem, 2003; Susanna et al., adding palm stearin, the other fraction of palm oil (Lexa,
2004). Dietary oils and fats are composed of different 2010).
types of fatty acids (FA). Fatty acids are saturated (SFA), One of the unique characteristics of palm oil is its
monounsaturated (MUFA) and polyunsaturated (PUFA) high content of carotenoids and tocopherols. Carotenoids,
(Amr et al., 2010). together with tocopherols, contribute to the stability and
nutritional value of palm oil. It is oxidatively stable due to
VEGETABLE OILS a fatty acid composition with low polyunsaturation and
high antioxidant content. While most vegetable oils
Approximately 75% of the world’s production of oils provide mainly "- or (-tocopherol, palm oil is unique
and fats come from plant sources (Okpuzor et al., since it contains relatively high concentrations of
2009).Vegetable oils and fats are principally used for homologue tocotrienols (", (, and *). Moreover, palm oil
human consumption but are also used in animal feed, for is one of the richest sources of "- and $-carotene (400-
medicinal purposes, and for certain technical applications 3500 mg/kg), which constitute more than 80% of the total
(Poonam, 2010). There is a great interest in finding carotenoids in palm oil (Ming et al., 2009). Palm oil is
antioxidants from natural sources for food. Lipids semi-solid at room temperature; a characteristic brought
containing polyunsaturated fatty acids are readily oxidized about by its 50% saturation level.

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Red Palm Oil (RPO): Red palm oil is extracted from the significant risk factor for atherosclerosis (Recep et al.,
oil palm (Elaeis guineenis) fruit (Monica et al., 2006; 2000). Omega-6 and omega-3 fats are polyunsaturated
Edem and Akpanabiatu 2006). It derives its red colour fatty acids that are precursors to a very important class of
from the high content of "- and $-carotenes, which can signaling molecules called eicosanoids, which have a
make up 0.08% (w/w) of the crude oil (Monica et al., hand in virtually every bodily process. Omega-6 and
2006). Red palm oil is the oil obtained before refining and omega-3 fats compete with one another for the enzymes
the characteristic colour of RPO is due to the abundance that convert them into eicosanoid precursors. Omega-6-
of carotenoids (500-700 mg /L) in the crude oil (Edem, derived eicosanoids and omega-3-derived eicosanoids
2009). Red palm oil is unique as compared to other have different functions. Therefore, the balance of omega-
dietary fats in that palm oil contains the highest known 6 to omega-3 fats in the diet influences the function of the
concentrations of natural antioxidants, particularly body on virtually every level. Omega-6 eicosanoids tend
provitamins A carotenes and vitamin E (Paul and Sumit, to be more inflammatory, although the eicosanoid system
2002). is extraordinarily complex and poorly understood.Coconut
Red palm oil contains high levels of carotene but its oil Coconut oil is a colorless to pale, brownish yellow oil
intense red color makes it unacceptable for many (Cecille et al., 2010). It is the major sources of saturated
applications (Jack and Peter, 1998). Several studies have fat apart from palm kernel. They are the only natural
illustrated that RPO is a rich cocktail of lipid-soluble sources of lauric oil available to the world market.
antioxidants such as carotenoids ("- and $-carotene, Coconut oil is the principal cholesterol-raising fat because
lycopenes), vitamin E (in the form of "-, $-, *- it contains large amounts of lauric (C: 12: O) and myristic
tocotrienols and tocopherol) and ubiquinone (mostly (C: 14: 0) acids. Coconut oil consists of more than 90% of
Coenzyme Q10) (Jacques et al., 2008; Edem, 2002). saturated fats with traces of few unsaturated fatty acids.
Feeding experiments using various animal models have Coconut oil as saturated oil is mostly small and medium
highlighted that red palm oil is beneficial to health by chain triglycerides. The amount of tocopherols in coconut
reducing oxidative stress (Oguntibeju et al., 2010). Many oil is low as compared to other vegetable oils (Organic
studies have demonstrated the protective effects of red facts, 2010).
palm oil in an ischemia model of oxidative stress and Raymond (2011) reported that coconut oil is
modulation of the serum lipid profile in rats (Bester et al., unusually rich in short and medium chain fatty acids.
2010; Oguntibeju et al., 2010). Red palm oil is the only Shorter chain length allows fatty acids to be metabolized
vegetable oil with a balanced composition of saturated without use of the carnitine transport system. Coconut oil
and unsaturated fatty acids both in processed and is composed predominantly of medium chain fatty acids
unprocessed forms and it contains carotenoids, that do not participate in the biosynthesis and transport of
phosphatides, sterols, tocopherols and trace metals cholesterol. The medicinal effects of coconut oil are also
(Aboua et al., 2009). due to its medium-chain fatty acids. Lauric acid, the major
Red palm oil is healthy because it contains fatty acid from the fat of the coconut (Cecille et al., 2010).
carotenoids and a special form of vitamin E. Most people
are not aware of the fact that many different kinds of LIPID PROFILE
vitamin E occur in nature and that some forms of vitamin
E are more beneficial than others. Red palm oil contains A standard lipid profile consist of total cholesterol
vitamin E tocotrienols, which acts as a super-antioxidant (TC), HDL-C, triglycerides (TGs). The laboratory also
and the carotenoids in red palm oil also act as antioxidants generally reports a value for LDL-C that may have been
(Azizan, 2006). calculated by the Friedewald formula (Vera, 2007).

Corn oil: Corn oil presents a relatively high concentration LDL (mg/dL) = Total Cholesterol - HDL Cholesterol
of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA).Due to the high - Triglycerides/5
levels of unsaturation, these lipids are highly susceptible
to free radical oxidative reactions, giving rise to the Lipid profiles are risk indicators of coronary heart
formation of lipid peroxides. Many investigations suggest disease (Edem, 2002). Cholesterol is water-insoluble and
that a large number of polyunsaturated fatty acids is transported inside lipoproteins. Various types of
produces more lipid peroxides and may have mutagenic lipoproteins exist, but the two most abundant Are Low-
activity (Valls et al., 2003). Corn oil is the most density Lipoprotein (LDL) and High-density Lipoprotein
unsaturated oil among widely consumed oil. It is rich in (HDL) (Anthony, 2005). The relationship between
oleic, linoleic and linolenic acids. Therefore, it is easily cholesterol and saturated fat with coronary artery disease
affected by free radical reactions, which results in the is identified as early as in 1950 (Limbu et al., 2008).
formation of oxidized LDL. This particle showed another Strong correlations have been shown between increased

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Table 1: Cholesterol and triglyceride guidelines density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C): Cholesterol
Total Cholesterol Level Total Cholesterol Category cannot dissolve in the blood. It has to be transported to
<200 mg/dL Desirable
200-239 mg/dL Borderline high
and from the cells by carriers called lipoproteins. These
$240 mg/dL High blood cholesterol. A person two types of lipids along with triglycerides make up the
with this level has more than twice total cholesterol count which can be determined through
the risk of heart disease as someone a blood test. When too much LDL cholesterol circulates
whose cholesterol is below 200 mg/dl.
in the blood it can slowly build up in the inner walls of the
LDL Cholesterol level LDL Cholesterol Category
<100 mg/dL Optimal
arteries that feed the heart and brain. Together with other
100-129 mg/dL Near optimal substances it can form plaque a thick hard deposit that can
130-1159 mg/dL Borderline high narrow the arteries and make them less flexible. This
160-189 mg/dL High condition is known as atherosclerosis (American Heart
$190 mg/dL Very high
Association, 2007). About one-fourth to one-third of
HDL Cholesterol LevelHDL Cholesterol Category
<40 mg/dL A major risk factor for heart disease blood cholesterol is carried by High-density Lipoprotein
40-59 mg/dL The higher HDL level, the better. (HDL). Medical experts think that HDL tends to carry
$60 mg/dL and above Considered protective against heart cholesterol away from the arteries and back to the liver,
disease where it's passed from the body.
Triglyceride Level Triglyceride Category
<150 mg/dL Optimal
150-199 mg/dL Borderline high Lipid peroxidation: Lipid peroxidation is the
$200 mg/dL High introduction of a functional group containing two
*LDL indicates low-density lipoprotein; HDL, high-density lipoprotein catenated oxygen atoms, O-O, into unsaturated fatty acids
in a free radical reaction (Wang, 2005). Polyunsaturated
plasma total cholesterol, low density lipoprotein fatty acids susceptible to free radical attack are initiated
cholesterol and increased incidence of coronary heart by the formation of a carbon-centered radical by the
disease (Kate, 2010). Table 1 showed the cholesterol level abstraction of a hydrogen atom at one of the double bonds
in relation to heart risk factor. of the lipid. Lipid peroxidation is also one of major causes
Total cholesterol (TC) of quality deterioration during the storage of fats, oils or
Cholesterol is found in virtually all animal cells and other lipid-rich foods (Wang, 2005). Lipid peroxidation is
is primarily a membrane component as well as one of the the most extensively studied manifestation of oxygen
building blocks of stress and sex hormones, and bile acids activation in biology. It is broadly defined as “oxidative
(Maduka et al., 2009). Cholesterol is needed in the body deterioration of PUFA” which are fatty acids that contain
to insulate nerves, make cell membranes and produce more than two carbon carbon double bonds (Maneesh and
certain hormones, and it is an important lipid in some Jayalekshmi, 2006). Lipids when reacted with free
membranes. radicals can undergo the highly damaging chain reaction
Cholesterol plays a major role in human heart health. of lipid peroxidation leading to both direct and indirect
Cholesterol can be both good and Bad. High-density effects (Devasagayam et al., 2004).
Lipoprotein (HDL) is good cholesterol and Low-density Peroxidation of lipids is a binding process connected
Lipoprotein (LDL) is bad cholesterol. The HDL in serum with the formation of aldehydes. Malondialdehyde
is a leading risk factor for human cardiovascular disease (MDA) (Niedworok and Bielaszka, 2007). It is the end
such as coronary heart disease. Excess cholesterol in the product of lipid peroxidation, is a good marker of free
bloodstream can form plaque (a thick, hard deposit) in radical-mediated damage and oxidative stress (Atip et al.,
artery walls (Hongbao, 2004). 2010). It has been utilized as a suitable biomarker for lipid
peroxidation (Adriano et al., 2004). Malonaldehyde, can
Triglyceride (TG): Triglyceride is the most common type react with the free amino group of proteins, phospholipid,
of fat in the body. People with heart disease diabetes have and nucleic acids leading to structural modification, which
high triglyceride levels. Normal triglyceride levels vary induce dysfunction of immune systems (Lee et al., 2004).
with age and sex. A high triglyceride level combined with Vitamin E supplementations lead to a significant decrease
low HDL cholesterol or high LDL cholesterol seems to in MDA concentrations (Ashok and Sushil, 2005).
speed up atherosclerosis, which is the buildup of fatty
deposits in artery walls that increase the risk for heart ANTIOXIDANT ENZYMES
attack and stroke (Hongbao, 2004).
The UPMC (2008) reported that the triglycerides are Life in oxygen has led to the evolution of
a form of stored fat and this is the most common fat found biochemical adaptations that exploit the reactivity of
in foods and in the body. Fats and oils in foods are mainly Active Oxygen Species (AOS). The term AOS is generic,
in the form of triglycerides which are carried in the blood. embracing free radicals such as superoxide (O2) and
High-Density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) and low- hydroxyl radicals H2O2 and singlet oxygen (Graham and

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Christine, 1998). Antioxidant enzymes, including ACKNOWLEDGMENT

superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione
peroxidase/reductase, convert reactive oxygen species This study was supported by the Organization for
into nonreactive oxygen molecules (Lee et al., 2004). Women in Science for the Developing World (OWSDW)
Antioxidant enzymes are an important protective and the research was funded by UKM-GUP-NBT-27-103
mechanism the ROS and, their effectiveness vary with the and UKM-HEJIM-Industri-16-2010. We grateful thank to
stage of development and other physiological aspects of carotene sdn bhd Malaysia for providing red palm olein
the organism. The most important antioxidant enzymes sample.
are superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and
glutathione peroxidase (GPX) (Jinghua et al., 2007). REFERENCES

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